Compiled Annotations

Adams, Sue K., Jennifer F. Daly, and Desire N. Williford. Adolescent Sleep and Cellular
Phone Use: Recent Trends and Implications for Research. Health Services Insights 6
(2013): 99103. PMC. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.
This article highlights recent trends regarding adolescent mobile phone use and sleep. Adolescent
phone use has increased at a rapid pace over the years, but the importance of this is that phones
allow teens to be connected at all times. The use of cell phones after lights out has been
related to increased tiredness and different types of sleep disturbances. Along with decreased
sleep quality, the backlit display in many devices has also been connected to disruption of
circadian physiology and melatonin expression. The short-wavelength light emitted by such
devices when used during evening hours could disrupt sleep rhythms and impact
neurobehavioral operation. Some common implications of sleep deprivation include disruption
to metabolic or immune responses, resulting in inflammation or weight gain, and lapses in
attention and delayed response time. The article is very concise and well organized, concluding
with suggestions for medical practitioners. The terms in this article such as short-wavelength
light and circadian rhythms are crucial components to my research and require further
explanation and research.
Chang, A.-M., Aeschbach, D., Duffy, J. F., & Czeisler, C. A. Evening Use of Light-Emitting
eReaders Negatively Affects Sleep, Circadian Timing, and Next-morning Alertness.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA (2014).
This study analyzes the effects of using a light-emitting device (LE-eBook) versus a printed book
in the hours before bedtime. Artificial light exposure has been shown to produce alerting effects,
suppress melatonin, and phase-shift the biological clock. Participants (young adults) reading the
LE-eBook had later sleep onset and reduced sleepiness in the evening, reduced melatonin
secretion, later timing of their circadian clock, and reduced next-morning alertness. The results
are important to todays society, when convenience and portability has added to the popularity of
using light-emitting technology to read and perform tasks. Implications of the findings include
chronic suppression of melatonin secretion being a possible carcinogen of breast , colorectal, and
advanced prostate cancer. The author suggests an increase in the risk of delayed sleep-phase
disorder and sleep onset insomnia, and continued misalignment of circadian phase is likely to
lead to chronic sleep deficiency. The findings of this article directly support the argument of
technologys impacts on sleep levels in young adults. The abstract and results were concisely
summarized and easy to understand, including the implications of the research in real life.
Cingel, Drew P., and Marina Krcmar. "Understanding the Experience of Imaginary Audience in a
Social Media Environment." Journal of Media Psychology 26.4 (2014): 155-60. Print.
This research report analyzes correlations between social media use and the appearance of
Imaginary Audience. When participants were surveyed on their average Facebook times and
using a Fenigstein Self-Consciousness scale and Imaginary Audience Scale, the study found a

positive correlation between Facebook use and the existence of an imaginary audience.
Additionally, the concept of behavioral rehearsal was proposed to be a mediator between social
media use and imaginary audience perception. This is a process that an individual goes through
when considering change, consisting of comparing behavior with others, thinking about how
they can achieve the desired change, and acting to produce the change. The imaginary audience
concept is fairly unexplored and this study communicates its findings clearly and concisely. The
article points out possibilities of researching further topics on the relationship between media use
and adolescent development, and I hope to link this idea further to the development of the social
brain.
Gamble, Amanda L. et al. Adolescent Sleep Patterns and Night-Time Technology Use: Results
of the Australian Broadcasting Corporations Big Sleep Survey. Ed. Stefano Federici.
PLoS ONE (Public Library of Science) 9.11 (2014): e111700. PMC. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.
This article explained the findings of an Australia-wide survey of adolescents examining sleep
patterns and disorders in relation to the presence of electronic devices in the bedroom and use at
night. The onset of puberty triggers hormonal changes causing a tendency for later sleep and
wake times. Technology has only implicated this situation, and nighttime technology use has
been found to linked with increased sedentary behavior, poor sleep quality, and increased
daytime sleepiness. In the survey, over 70% of participants reported 2 or more devices in their
bedroom at night, composed of mainly mobile phone and computer use. Some results found were
later sleep onset and later waking throughout the week, indicating disruption of normal sleep
rhythms. Computers and mobile phones produced consistent dose-dependent effects on
adolescent sleep patterns. Less frequent technology users were not associated with problems in
their sleep schedules. This article provides important information on the evident connection
between electronic devices in the bedroom and effects on sleep. The data is straightforward and
allows conclusions to be easily drawn.
George, Madeleine J., and Candice L. Odgers. "Seven Fears and the Science of How Mobile
Technologies May Be Influencing Adolescents in the Digital Age." Perspectives on
Psychological Science 10.6 (2015): 832-47. Print.
This research study covers many aspects of how mobile technologies, such as phone use, is
affecting adolescents today. One important correlation, among these seven fears of technology
use, is that of multitasking on mobile devices and impaired cognitive performance. Although
previous research has found relations between multitasking and effects on cognitive performance
and increased error rates, little research has been done on the hypothesized neurological effects
of adolescents. The authors have suggested that digital overload may be a cause of decreased
cognitive performance. However, it is evident that there is a relation between academic
impairment and technology use. Additionally, the topic of sleep impairment/disruption was found
to be connected to phone use before bed (adolescents were twice as likely to report feeling very
tired compared with those who do not use the phone after dark). This further connects to digital
overload, and the adverse affects of technology interfering with daily life. The article covers
several broad topics, providing a viewpoint on many aspects of adolescent technology use. The

vocabulary is easy to understand, however more research would be helpful in terms of

experimental data throughout the article.
Giedd, Jay N. "The Amazing Teen Brain." Scientific American 312.6 (2015): 32-37. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 15 Jan. 2016.
This article discusses the maturation of different parts of the brain and its overall effect on
adolescent behavior. According to this author, developmental differences in the limbic system
and prefrontal cortex leaves teens prone to risk-taking but also enables them to readily adapt to
their environment. The limbic system matures before the prefrontal cortex, which does not
mature until the twenties. Gray matter peaks latest in the prefrontal cortex which is crucial to
executive functioning (includes abilities such as organization, decision making and planning).
Addionally, white matter consists of a fatty substance called myelin that wraps and insulates the
axons that extends from a neurons body. Myelination, the formation of the myelin covering
axons, continues to occur from childhood to adulthood and significantly speeds up the
conduction of nerve impulses among neurons along with speeding up information processing.
This article, while brief, gives a fairly good overview on the developmental factors in an
adolescent brain. Terms are clearly defined and explained in simple vocabulary, and the
conclusion provides insight to the implications of the unique adolescent brain and stresses the
requirement for its better understanding.
Heath, Melanie, et al. "Does One Hour Of Bright Or Short-Wavelength Filtered Tablet
Screenlight Have A Meaningful Effect On Adolescents' Pre-Bedtime Alertness, Sleep,
And Daytime Functioning?." Chronobiology International: The Journal Of Biological &
Medical Rhythm Research 31.4 (2014): 496-505. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10
Jan. 2016.
This study examines the effects of short-wavelength versus long-wavelength light on sleep
quality in adolescents. Short-wavelength light length consists of blue and green light typically
found in technology screens, while long-wavelength light appears orange and red and are able to
be filtered from screens through orange-tinted glasses. While short-wavelength light has been
previously found to suppress melatonin and increase alertness, long-wavelength light has no
discernable effect. The majority of past evidence shows bright evening light to suppress
melatonin secretion, increasing alertness and delaying circadian rhythms. However, the current
study found no significant effects of screen light, which may be due to the short time limit of use
(one hour) or lack of repeated use among the participants. Although this article did not support
the argument that technology use has a significant effect on sleep quality, it provides useful
background information that does support the argument. Explanations of current factors
contributing to poor sleep are useful for the research.
Kolb, Bryan, and Robbin Gibb. "Brain Plasticity And Behaviour In The Developing Brain."
Journal Of The Canadian Academy Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 20.4 (2011): 265276. Academic Search Complete. Web. 2 Jan. 2016.

This article described general principles of brain development and examined factors influencing
brain development and plasticity, including stress, diet, relationship, and sensory stimuli. Brain
development is broadly divided into two stages, the first being a genetically determined
sequence of events, and the second being sensitive to environmental and experience-based
factors. This relates to the fact that gene expression is able to be altered by experiences other
than the DNA itself. Brain formation begins with mitosis and ends late into the twenties with
myelin formation. Dendrites and spines on the brain are able to form synapses very quickly in
response to experience, sometimes in a matter of hours. The plasticity of the brain is emphasized
in understanding both normal and abnormal development. The article provides solid support for
the various factors that impact brain development. However, there is little information on the
development of the brain through ages.
Lenhart, A. Teen, Social Media and Technology Overview 2015. The Pew Research Center
Internet & American Life Project (2015): 1-47. Web. 22 Dec. 2015.
This data summary provides valuable information and evidence for the research regarding
adolescents and technology. As reported by the Pew Research Center, 92% of teens go online
daily, with 24% reporting that they go online almost constantly. These findings are extremely
concerning in relation to the mass amounts of information that adolescents process in daily life.
Additionally, one in seven adolescents uses more than one form of social media. The constantly
increasing amounts of teens able to have access to a technologies is predictable, but has serious
implications to whether or not they can safely use it. This article is informative and provides a
credible source to the statistics stated in the research. The data is current and reliable through an
updated study done by the Pew Research Center.
Shenk, David. "Information Overload, Concept of." Encyclopedia of International Media and
Communications. Vol. 2. N.p.: Elsevier Science, 2003. 395-405. Print.
This article explains the concept of information overload as it has developed through the ages.
The effects of increasing amounts of information appear in the form of distraction, as technology
today develops faster than humans processing capability. Addiction to the large amounts of
information is leaving people stressed and incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong .
The concept of data smog is described as being harmful and serving as one of societys
greatest stressors. Although this article does not directly mention adolescents, it clearly connects
technology usage and information to cognitive processing ability, which applies to all
generations. The relation between technology and its large-scale impact on our society is
thoroughly analyzed in this article.
Siddiqui, Shazia Veqar, et al. "Neuropsychology Of Prefrontal Cortex." Indian Journal Of
Psychiatry 50.3 (2008): 202-208. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.
This article gives a thorough overview on the functions of different parts of the prefrontal cortex
(PFC). Often classified as a multimodal association cortex, this area of the brain occupies onethird of the cerebral cortex and is involved with memory and cognitive processes. The PFC is

located at the anterior most portion of the frontal lobe and is one of the last regions in the brain to
finish myelination (forming a myelin sheath around a nerve to speed up nerve impulses). The
lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) is responsible for the temporal ordering of events and certain
forms of memory. The dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has also been associated with
maintaining information in working memory and changing behavior in response to tasks.
Additionally, the medial frontal region appears to be involved in bimanual coordination and
attention to cognitive tasks. Overall, the regions of the PFC have generally overlapping roles that
link to thought processing. The article is well organized and touches on the variety of roles each
part of the PFC potentially takes a part of. While some terminology may be difficult, the
information is clear, concise and easy for the average reader to digest.
Lara, Antonio H, and Jonathan D Wallis. "Executive Control Processes Underlying Multi-Item
Working Memory." Nature Neuroscience 17.6 (2014): 876-883. Academic Search
Complete. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.
This study challenges the widely-accepted theory that prefrontal cortex (PFC) stores taskrelevant information in working memory. Instead, the authors proposed the alternate theory that
the PFC contributes in controlling the allocation of resources (i.e. spatial control) when working
memorys limits are pushed. Working memory is limited to four items in the average person, and
is fairly limited compared to long-term memory. When subjects in the experiment were trained to
perform a color-change detection task and their brains were tested for activity in the PFC, the
study found that PFC neurons tended to encode the spatial location of items correlating with their
positions on the screen. PFC neurons do not appear capable of maintaining exact sensory
representations, but rather a coarse representation that suffices for task performance. This article
is fairly recent, proposing an alternate theory to PFC function. The background research included
provides a general overview of the PFC in working memory, but whether or not the proposed
theory is correct does not contribute to the research.
Mills, Kathryn. Skype Interview. 9 Dec. 2015.
This interview was very informative as I gained insight into the role of the prefrontal and parietal
cortices in multitasking and analyzing information. These areas of the brain are very involved in
keeping track of information in working memory. Ms. Mills explained that adolescents and
adults utilize different parts of the brain when dealing with a task, and this corresponds to the
changing levels of gray matter in the brain. Gray matter decreases throughout adolescence and
into adulthood. Overall this interview was fairly informative and provided a solid background to
the topic of the teen brain and how it functions in response to outside signals. Terms were
explained and contributed to the understanding of the article as a whole.
Mills, Kathryn. "Effects of Internet use on the adolescent brain: despite popular claims,
experimental evidence remains scarce." Trends in Cognitive Sciences (2014): 1-3. Web.
12 Dec. 2015.

This brief article summarizes some of the possible effects of Internet use on adolescents in
response to some of the most pressing questions posed today. Almost nine in ten teachers agree
to the opinion that increased use of the Internet is creating a generation with limited attention
spans and it affects their cognitive development. The human brain undergoes profound changes
in structure and function throughout adolescence, and experience is a factor in determining the
connections made. This leads to the natural questions of whether or not Internet use heavily
impacts how teen brains work. An interesting aspect of research to how adolescents process
information is that when expected to have future access to information, students were more
likely to remember where to find it rather than remembering specific details. This article was
brief and informative on the current state of research connecting adolescent brain function and
the Internet. There is little definitive evidence of support thus far, but this article helps to broaden
the scope of ideas for the research.
Mills, Kathryn L., Iroise Dumontheil, Maarten Speekenbrink, and Sarah-Jayne Blakemore.
"Multitasking during Social Interactions in Adolescence and Early Adulthood." R. Soc.
Open Sci. Royal Society Open Science 2.11 (2015): 150117. Web.
This journal article describes a study in which both adolescent and adult participants were
instructed to carry out a social and non-social task to evaluate performance ability while
multitasking. The availability of cognitive resources was manipulated by increasing working
memory capacity (cognitive load). Participants in both age groups were less proficient and
performing both tasks under high cognitive load (when they were required to remember three
two-digit numbers instead of one). The authors attributed this to the hypothesis that adolescents
have increased sensitivity to cognitive load requirements than adults due to a former study
linking increased adult use of frontal-parietal regions of the brain than adolescents. The study is
similar to having a conversation with someone while performing non-related work, and shows
impairment to both the situation and later recall of information. This article showed a very
thorough experiment and was described in good detail. The background relating to former
research on the brain helped place the findings in scientific context.
National Institute of Mental Health. The Teen Brain: Still Under Construction. Bethesda:
National Institute of Mental Health, 2011. Print.
This article gives a basic summary of the still-developing features of the adolescent brain. Gray
matter, the cell bodies of neurons, cell fibers, and other support cells, has been found to peak at
adolescence and decline throughout adulthood, pointing to the suggestion that the brain does not
begin to fully develop till the early 20s. Myelination, the wrapping of myelin around fibers
connecting nerve cells in order to speed up nerve impulses, is related to growth in intellectual
abilities and memory. Myelination provides the brain with an increase in connectivity which
shapes how well different brain regions work together to perform tasks. Research also suggests
that adults and adolescents may use different regions of the brain to perform cognitive tasks. On
the topic of sleep, this article also stresses the adverse effects of sleep disruption besides fatigue,
including irritability and depression. Changes in the brain during adolescence also impacts sleep
regulation, a factor that may cause adolescents to sleep later at night. This article connects
existing research to pressing questions still being analyzed today. For example, the fact that the

PFC is late in finishing myelination poses questions to adolescent cognitive ability versus adults.
Overall his article lacked concrete sources and should be used as a background reference to the
research.
National Sleep Foundation (2011). 2011 Bedroom Sleep Poll. Retrieved from
https://sleepfoundation.org/sites/default/files/bedroompoll/NSF_Bedroom_Poll_Report.p
df
This survey provided questions regarding sleep duration and quality, which is a major focus of
the research.
Princeton Survey Research Associates International (2009). Parent/Teen Cell Phone Survey
2009. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/files/oldmedia/Files/Questionnaire/2010/Sept09-TeenParent%20Cell%20Phone-Topline-All.pdf
This survey provided questions for the survey regarding teen cell phone use. Questions assessing
teens usage of mobile phones, the internet, and their behavior were used.
Rosen, Larry. E-mail interview. 12 Dec. 2015.
This interview gave several important points regarding the research. The prefrontal cortex,
described as the seat of attention in the brain, is a specialized area for multitasking itself.
Research shows that simply the presence of technology promotes the need to task switch in the
brain. Myelination, when myelin cells wrap around axons and dendrites to promote transmissions
between neurons, is a process that finishes in a persons mid-20s or even early 30s. Some
transmissions may not be achieved in adolescence, limiting cognition. The final area to be
myelinated in the brain is the PFC, which may possibly inhibit decision-making and other
processes. Additionally, Dr. Rosen affirms the importance of sleep, during which synaptic
rejuvenation strengthens certain connections and remove unimportant ones. Spinal fluid is used
to flush out toxins as a result of the days processing. This point. is extremely important because
without proper sleep, these processes cannot function effectively and leave neuronal
transmissions at risk. The interview was brief but easy to digest and understand, with
explanations of terms such as myelination for the research.
Strayer, David L., and Jason M. Watson. "Supertaskers And The Multitasking Brain." Scientific
American Mind 23.1 (2012): 22-29. Academic Search Complete. Web. 19 Jan. 2016.
This article reviews studies done on the effectiveness of multitasking. The human mind has a
limited capacity for attention, as demonstrated during World War II, during which the task of
piloting increased in complexity. More accidents were observed as a result of those higher
cognitive demands. The concept of attention involves facilitation and inhibition, involving
amplifying and suppressing certain signals in response to relevant stimuli and extraneous
sensations. Certain psychological disorders stem from the failure to tune attention appropriately;

according to the author, excessive multitasking may exacerbate attention-related psychological

disorders. In a former study, drivers talking on their phones while approaching an intersection
were twice as likely to fail to stop than those driving without distractions. While the driver is on
the phone, the brain cannot prioritize information by importance. Furthermore, heavy
multitaskers are actually worse at switching between tasks. This article included many relevant
details on the big picture of the effects of multitasking and how effective it truly is. The author
summarized results from several studies in a concise manner, giving the article credibility.
Thomee, Sara, et al. "Perceived connections between information and communication
technology use and mental symptoms among young adults - a qualitative study." BMC
Public Health 10 (2010): 66. Academic OneFile. Web. 8 Nov. 2015.
This research study examines connections between information and communication technology
(ICT) and stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms among young adults. A group of males and
females aged 21-28 were asked survey questions relating to their computer/cell phone exposure
and mental symptoms or problems. The influx in information from ICT caused difficulty in
filtering, leading to communication overload. Stress from not being connected to the outside
world resulted in dependency to ICT. Additionally, the social isolation that came with computer
and phone use also furthered their avoidance of real-life interaction, therefore leading to a
continued cycle of avoidance. ICT provides easily accessible, temporary relief when faced with
feelings of panic or sadness. High pressure in achievement seems to be a major proponent of
high ICT exposure, directly relating to the stress that results. The article, although containing
minimal numerical data, gives a web of associations between ICT and mental health. These
connections will help draw conclusions in the research.
Van Volkom, Michele, Janice C. Stapley, and Vanessa Amaturo. "Revisiting the digital divide:
generational differences in technology use in everyday life." North American Journal of
Psychology 16.3 (2014): 557. Academic OneFile. Web. 13 Nov. 2015.
This research study examines technology usage and technology perception between sexes and
generations. Previous research found little difference between male and female usage, but
significant difference in levels of comfort with anxiety, with adults reporting the least comfort. In
the current study, participants were given a questionnaire on their usage of technology and
variety of factors involving the influence technology on themselves. Sex differences found
included males being less likely to report using technology to avoid work and less likely to report
using technology to help forget about personal problems than females. A general decreasing
trend from young adults to middle aged adults and older adults was present: young adults were
more likely to report using technology to avoid work, forget about personal problems, avoid
talking to someone face-to-face, and reported feeling more addicted to technology and more
anxious without access to their cell phones. Previous research has shown older adults reporting
lower levels of depression; this data suggests a deterioration of life satisfaction and control
among a younger generation. The research is current and well-supported, with data collected
from 262 participants. The study has important implications regarding differences in adolescents
and younger adults ability to handle technology, which is useful towards the research.