7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches Tester ‘A. BRODGESELL (1scs) M. F. HORDESKE (1952 4 B. G. LIPTAK (1995, 2003) Flow Sheet Simbol Types: Operating Temperatures: Objects Detected: Detection Ranges: Cost: Partial List of Suppliers: 964 A. Capacitance AL. Switch 'A2. Dimensional or thickness sensor B. BI. Inductive BZ. Magnetic, which includes the Hall effect, the variable reluctance, and the mag- netically actuated reed switch types CC. Linear variable diferental transformer (LVDT) and variable resistor D. Mechanical and electromechanical limit switches E. Optical, photoelectric, or fiberoptic EI. Switch 2, Laserbased dist E.Peumatic and air gauging , dimension, o thickness sensor FL. Air gap sensors F2. Dimension sensors G. Ultrasone GI. Echo-type switch G2. Displacement transducer ‘Typically fom —50 to 150°F (46 to 66°C). The temperature range of high-precision vices can be more restricted, while specialized sensors ean take wider ranges Mechanical limit switches operate from 25 to 250°F (-82 ta 121°C) A.C.D.F,G. Metalic and B. Metalic, ferrous, oF E. Opaque or reflective; fiberoptic version can detect objects under 0.1 mm diameter ferrous A.O.L to 10 in. to 25 mn B.01 to2 in. @t0 50 mm) Wide D. Physical contact E. Upto 200 ft (60 m) E Mieroinches to inches 6.2 in. to 90 (60 mm to 30 m) Preumatic gap sensors can be obtained for about $20. Most proximity switches cost from $50 to $150; LVDT transducers cast from $200 to $1200; ultrasonic point detector switches cost from $300 to $600; noncontact proximity transmitters for ‘dimensional measurement of displacement and thickness cost from under $1000 to $8000 or more; laser types with resolutions of 1 yum cost more. For the cost of linear and angular position detectors, refer to Section 710 ADE Corp. (A2, B2, G2) (wwwaade.com) Allen Bradley (BI, D, El) (www.ab-comisensors/productslimit_switches) AMETEK, US. Gauge Div. (C) (wwwametckusg.com) Aromat Corp. (E1, £2) (yruwaromat.com) Balluff Inc. (B1) (wwe-balluffcom) Baumer Electric, Ltd. (AL, BI, E1, G1) (www.baumerclectriccom) Burgess Saia Inc. (B1) (www-sta-burgess.com)7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 965 Capacitec Inc. (AL) (www-capacitec.com) (Cippard Instrument Laboratory (Fl) (wwv.clippard.com) Contrologie Lid. (E2) (ynrv:contrologic.co.th) Custom Switches Inc. (B2) (ww.custom-switehes.com) Daytronic Corp. (Gl) (wwwdaytronic.com) Dolan-Jenner Ind. (E1, F2) (wwwhorrigan-motion/dolan htm) Eaton Corp. (BI, El, G2) (www.eaton.com) Eldee Corp. (BL) (wnww.eldee-com) Electro Corp. (G1, C2) (sww.electrosensors.com) Euchner-USA Ine. (B1) (www.euchner-usa.com) Fargo Controls Ine. (Al, BI, B2, El) (www.argocontros.com) FSUFork Standards Ine. (AL, B2) (www.fsinet com) George Risk Ind. (B2) (wwwgsk com) Gordon Products Inc. (A1, BI) (x ww.gordonproducts.com) Hewlett-Packard (E2) (wwthe new.hp.com) Hubbell Industrial Controls Ine. (B1) (wwew-hubbell-ind.com) Hyde Park Electronics (G1) (www.hpsensors.com) TEM Efector (B1) (vowwifiefector.com) Kanson Electronics Ine. (B1, E1, G1) (www:isse-kanson.com) Kaman Instrumentation Corp. (B1) (www.motionnet.com) Kay-Ray/Sensall (G1) (vww.measure.org) Keyence Corp. (El) (www:world.keyence.com) Locon Sensor Systems Inc. (BI, El) (wnvw:locon.net) Massa Products (G2) (www.massa.com) Mekontrol (E1) (www-speckve.com) Metrix Instrument Co. (B1) (www.metrixl com) MicroSwiteh Honeywell (Al, B2, D, El, GL, G2) (wwccontent honeywellsensing) Monarch Instrument (B1, El) (ww.monarchinstrument.com) MTI Instruments (A2) (vow-mtinstruments.com) Nameo Controls (E1) (www:namcocontrols. de) O'Keefe Controls (Ft) (wwwokec-com) (Omron Electronics Inc. (A1. BI, EL, G2) (vwwomron.com) ‘Ono Sokki Technology Inc. (A2, F2) (ww wonosokki.net) ‘Optodyne (£2) (vw. optodyne.com) Parsonics (Gl) (www:parsoniscorp.com) Peppert = Fuchs Ine. (Al, BI, D, G1, G2) (ww.am.pepperl-fuchs.com) Pulnix America (E1) (www-pulnix-com) Rechner Electronics Industries (BI) (wwwwsechner.com) Red Lion Controls (B1, El) (wswwredlion-controls.com) Schaevitz (C) (wwwwschaevitz.com) ‘Smar (B2) (wwew:smar.com) Sunx Sensors (BL, EL, G1) (ww:sunsc-rameo.com) “Turck Inc. (AL, Bl, Gl) (swwwturck.com) \eeder-Root (B1, D) (owww.veedercom) ‘Warmer Electric (BI, B2) (wrww.wvarnernet.com) Section 7.10 described the sensors available for the measure ‘ment of linear and angular positions. Section 7.20 is devoted to the measurement of thickness and other dimensions. This section concentrates on limit switches and on the measure: ‘ment of proximity. Sensors for the measurement of position, displacement, and proximity may use resistive, capacitive, inductive, or photo: electric methods. Displacement sensors can mechanically sense the position of an object relative to a fixed reference point. Proximity sensors can also measure linear or angular ‘motion but without making physical contact with the detected object. ‘Typical applications include the inspection or detection and control ofthe position of machine tools, manufacturing systems, ‘of moving components of valves and dampers. They ate used as safety sensors or operational limit controls in packaging, printing, molding, and chemical and food processing industries. CAPACITIVE SENSORS In these sensors, a high frequency oscillator creates a field in the surroundings of the sensing surface. The presence of any capacitive object in these surroundings causes a change966 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors {in the oscillation amplitude, and a threshold circuit detects that change and generates the output. The triggering distance depends on the size, shape, and material of the object. Ifthe sensitivity {0 metals is taken as 1.0, the sensitivity to water {s also 1.0, plastic or glass is 0.5, and wood Is 0.4. Usually fa screw is placed on the capacitive sensor, which allows regulation of the operating distance. Capacitive sensors are mote often used for linear than angular proximity measurements. Either the dielectric or one of the capacitor plates is movable for displacement measure. ‘ment. Capacitive proximity sensors use the measured object as one plate, and the sensor contains the other plate. The capacitance changes according to the question, C=kid 7140) 4 constant, depending on the area of the plates and the dielectric constant d = the distance between the plates Capacitive transducers are available with packaged signal: conversion circuitry for DC output operation, Capacitive sensors are widely used for dimensional inspections in large-volume manufacturing operations, such 2 the filing of containers or the monitoring of the wearing of moving surfaces. In nonconductive materials (glas, plas tics, wood), the switch detects the change in dielectric con stant: In conductive materials. an additional signal is pro duced by terminal conductivity. The proximity switches Iustrated in Figure 7.14a can detect liquids, glas, plastic, ‘wood, of metalic objects. For the proximity switches shown, the sensing distance can be fixed or adjustable between 0.1 and 1.0 in. (8 t0 25 mm) Proximity switches provided with sensing plates can operate over a range of 0.2 t 5 in. (510 127 mm). can detect capacitance changes down to 0,02 pF, and can detect more Frontal Distance Switching Distance 78 68 59 49 39 29 7s 2 Switching Point Sensing Envelope 9 0 0 lo 7848.23 0 23 48 75 10 12 15 FG. 7.148 Capactive proximity switches. (Courtesy of Omron Electronics la.) than 100 operations/s. The switch is operated when the capac: lance caused by the approaching abject exceeds the refer tence level set to tigger the switch, In tis type of proximity switch, similar to the capacitive one, an electromagnetic field is generated by a high frequency (adio frequency) oscillator circuit in front of a coll. If a ‘metallic object moves inside the field generated by the sensor, an eddy current is generated in the metallic object, which loads the oscillator and causes a voltage drop in it Figure 7.14b shows the sensing envelope of the switch for a particular target size. The envelope increases with target size and decreases with nonferrous metals. The target can enter this envelope axially or laterally and is detected when they first touch the envelope. This switch is also called a self-contained proximity switch or an eddy-current killed oscillator design, ‘The outside appearance is similar to the capacitance units shown in Figure 7.14a, The sensing face of the probe contains the coll. The switch has no moving parts and therefore its ‘mean time between failure is long, about 200,000 hours. It {s also immune to shock and vibration and can be connected directly to programmable logic controllers. Detection ranges ccan vary from 0.1 to 2 in, (2 0 50 mm). Typical applications Ress Pint 19 29 39 49 59 68 78 in, 1720 mm Distance font Sie iG. 7.146 The sensing envelope of an induction-type proximity switch fora steel tanget sizeof 1.6x 1.6% 003 in. (41 x 41x 1.5 mm)Include machine tools, material handling, packaging. and conveyors. ‘Magnetic sensors are actuated by the presence of permanent ‘magnets. The magnetically actuated teed switch consists of two low reluctance ferromagnetic reeds enclosed in glass bulbs filled with inert gas. The reciprocal attraction of both reeds in the presence of a magnetic field, caused by magnetic Induction, closes an electric contact. For this design to function, the object to be detected must contain a magnet. When the actuating magnet reaches the actuating distance from the reed switch, the contact Is closed, These switches can operate the loads directly (without relays) because their contact ratings are around 15 VA. Their natural applications are in the area of counting the rotation or recip. rocation of objects. Their speed of closure can approach 100/5, and their life expectancy is in the tens of millions of operations. A proximity switch that is used less often is the variable reluctance sensor, which alters the voltage generated at its coll terminals as an object distorts its magnetic flux. This principle is more often applied in connection with rotating ‘machinery, such as tachometers for speed measurement, Hall-Effect Sensors One of the most successful magnetic proximity switches is actuated by the field of magnets due to the Hall effect. Their ‘most common actuator Is a moving permanent magnet. AS shown in Figure 7.14c, the magnet movement can be head. ‘on ot slide-by. The curves are based on a microswitch stan. dard magnet, which Is 1.25 in, (31.8 mm) long and 0.25 in, (64 mm) in diameter. Induction ‘Gauss : () on ae e ones ig oo Fie «UG my Ye 20 | | Disses om | aw 200 aon to “mae BB ah ath ath SS bein Hn Made a. 7146 7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 967 The induction (gauss) of the Halleffect sensor varies ‘with the distance to the magnet. This switch eliminates the ontact-bounce problem of mechanical limit switches and provides a directly computer-compatible output. Speed of operation is about 25 kHz. The Hall-effect switch is not recommended for use In areas where high magnetic fields are present, and its connecting wires should not be run in the same condult with high-power lines Linear Variable Differential Transformer Sensors Another magnetic effect position sensor is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), which produces an AC volt age that is proportional to the displacement of a movable ferromagnetic core. These units are more often used as pos: tion or force transducers than as proximity switches, but it 4s possible to use them in that mode. Inductive sensors consist of single-coll units, which use f change in self-inductance of the coil, and multiple-coil units, which rely on the change in magnetic coupling or reluctance between colls. Single-coil displacement sensors use a movable core to change the self inductance. Single-coil proximity sensors use the magnetic properties of the object ltself to modify the self inductance. The change in inductance 4s usually sensed with a bridge circu or oscillator “Muldiple-col inductive sensors consist of the differential transformer and its variations. The LVDT uses three windings and a movable core to sense linear displacement. A ypical LVDT configuration is shown in Figure 7.144. ‘The transformer’s secondary windings are wound to produce ‘opposing voltages and connected in series. With the core in the neutral orer0 position, voltages induced inthe secondary windings are equal and opposite and the net output is a ‘minimum. Displacement of the core increases the magnetic coupling between the primary coll and one of the secondary Induction ‘Gauss Distance om) The operation ofa particular Hall-efect proximity switch in the head-on and the slde-by modes. (Courtesy of MicraSwitch/Hloneywell)968 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors AC Input AC Output iG. 7.140 An LVDT configuration colls and decreases the coupling between the primary coil and the other secondary coll. The net voltage increases as the core Is moved away from the center position, and the phase angle increases or decreases as a function of the direction in Which the core is moved. A demodulator circuit can be used to produce a DC output from this winding configuration, Differential trans formers are also available for angular measurement in which the core rotates about a fixed axis, Varlations in winding configurations are used in syn: chtos, resolvers, and microsyns. Inductance bridge sensors utilize two colls with a maving core to change the inductance ‘of the coils that form one half of an AC bridge. These sensors are available in linear and angular configurations. ‘The mechanical limit switches are the oldest position detec: tors. They were developed before solid-state electronic devices became available, They are installed so that the object ‘Terminal AiG. 7.140 Poe Hse that is being detected moves the lever, plunger, or wobble stick of the switch, and when the object has passed, either a spring or gravity acts to return the switch to its original state, The roller lever design of this switch is illustrated in Figure 7.14e. These units are well sulted for detecting mil: lions of repetitive operations in relatively dirty industeial environments where water- and oi-tight designs are required, ‘These sensors consist of a light source (emitter) and light receiver and depend on light-sensitive elements to detect the presence of objects. Three types are available: 1, Direct Reflection—The emitter and recelver are housed together and use the reflected light directly from the detected object. 2, Reflector with Reflector—The emitter and receiver are hhoused together and require a reflector, In this design, the object is detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and the reflector. 3, Thru Beam—The emitter and receiver are housed sep. arately and they detect the object when it interrupts the light beam between them, Photoelectric and laser devices are capable of measuring position, thickness, flainess, length, and other dimension related properties. The available proximity switch designs can be grouped according to the: 1, Light source (incandescent, light emitting diodes [LED] infrared, laset) 2. Detector used (photocells, photo-transducers) Stationary Tungsten Tipped Amature een Th ‘Terminal “Tungsten Tipped Contact Spring Stember Mechanical limit switch provided with a fixed lever actuator, with a 15 in. (38 mm) diameter roller and sealed switch (Courtesy of Allen Bradley)miter (E) op | nese) « « Fe > C)Ronectve iG. 7.148 A) Thnw-Beam 7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 969 » 0» BO Receiver R) L/ B) Reflective (Diss) =A oi rep sic] » ” (Background Suppesion) Thru-beam and reflective installation of photoelectric sensors. (Courtesy of Baumer Electric Ltd) 3. Light path (thru-beam or the reflective mode, which can be implemented in the diffuse; specular, retro reflective, or fiber-optic configurations) Photoelectric sensors can detect the presence or absence fof opaque oF translucent objects at distances from a few rmillimeters to several hundred feet or meters. They do not require physical contact; are relatively inexpensive; and are ‘well suited for counting, matl and package handling, security surveillance, and many other applications. Light Sources ‘What distinguishes the different light sources is their immu: nity to interference from sunshine and their loss of intensity as distances increase. For example, laser sources tend to allow for longer ranges, while immunity from natural light is obtained by using pulsed infrared (IR) light. ‘The IR light can be obtained from infrared emitters (such as gallium arsenic), from incandescent light sources filtered by mechanical choppers, or from LEDs. The LEDs respond only a narrow IR frequency band and therefore are unaffected by visible light. They are superior in their life expectancy, about 100,000 hours, which is ten times that of incandescent lights, and in their suitability for direct modulation, Incandescent sources, due to thelr wide spectrum from ultraviolet to TR, have the advantage of being able to distin gulsh and detect colored targets. Light Detectors The two main types of light detectors are photocells and phototransistors. Both are photoconductive devices that Increase thelr electric conductivity as they absorb light or radiation at other wavelengths. Photocells are made from cadmium sulfide and cadmium selenide. Their speeds of response change with the amount of light absorbed, and they have a greater response at longer wavelengths (red and IR) than in the blue-violet area Phototransistors and photodiodes are ideal matches for Infrated LED sources because they are most sensitive in the IR region. Their response is faster than that ofthe photocell, but they are less sensitive and their response Is affected by temperature Optical Detector installations ‘The photoelectric sensors can be installed in thru-beam or reflective configurations (Figure 7.14f). In the theu-beam configuration, the light emitter and receiver are positioned ‘opposite to each other and the detected object passes between them, The thru-beam configuration offers the longest scan: ring distances, exceeding 100 ft (30 m). In the standard design, the detected object must have a diameter which is 450% of that of the lens. When converging lenses or laser sources are used, this limitation no longer applies. Reflective In a seflective installation, the emitter and receiver are located on the same side of the detected object. Figure 7.14 ilustrates two reflective installations: diffuse and background suppression (seculat) In diffuse sensing, the light beam (usually IR and pulsed) directly hits the target and is diffused (reflected) in all directions. In this configuration, only a small percentage ofthe light is returned to the receiver and the measurement distance is limited. The design is suited for detecting objects with dull surfaces and for distinguishing between black and white targets910 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors Rea tenner nner} lee» Olrerecorrrer Resor objet eit \ Ee » Oger A) Retefstve Fie, 7.14 By Fiberoptic Retroreflectve and fiber-optic sensors. (Courtesy of Baumer Electric Led) Figure 7.14f aso illustrates a method of background sup. pression, There the light is precisely focused within a pre cisely defined scan range. This technique is sulted for the detection of small objects or for detecting the contents within transparent packaging. In specular reflective sensors, the ight {s directed at a reflective surface at an angle and the receiver {s positioned to detect the reflected light at the same angle This technique is used on shiny plastic, polished metal, and similar applications. Retroreflective In retsoreflective sensors (Figure 7.14g) the emitter and receiver are in the same housing and the light beam is directed at a target that is retroreflective, meaning that it returns the light along the same path aver which it was sent. The receiver recognizes the detected object by the retumed light beam belng interrupted. The detected objects ‘must be opaque and should not be very shiny. The scan ranges available from these units (up to 30 ft, or 10 m) are greater than with diffuse sensing. Optical Fibers The addition of optical fibers can enhance the performance of both thru-beam and reflective sensors, particularly in terms of their ability to accurately detect objects as small as 0,002 in. (0.05 mm). The triple-beam version of the fiber-optic design can detect objects as small as 0.0002 in. (0.005 mm) at speeds of 0.5 mis ‘The precision of fiber-optic sensors is surpassed only by tiple-beam laser detectors, which are capable of detecting dimensions to a resolution of mictons. Pneumatic gauging is widely used in manufacturing to check the diameters of holes, the dimensions of manufactured prod. ucts, oF the contour of devices. In proximity switch applica tions, an orifice-regulated constant air supply is used. When the airflow Is obstructed by the object being detected, the bback-pressure builds up, and this rise in pressure is detected orice Sensor rf Supply — prise Switch Back Press Outpur ZZ La SB SUZZZZZZZA OF STAAL Nowa Proxiniy rte i, 7.140 Paeumatic proximity switches can detect only smal lr gaps. (Cour- tesy of O'Keefe Controls) by a switch (Figure 7.14h). This technique can be used to check dimensions by setting the back- pressure switch to actu ate at the desired value. Another pneumatic proximity probe configuration (also shown in Figure 7.14h) detects the presence or absence of an ‘output signal. This miniature proximity probe generates ‘an output signal only when there Is an object in its sensing range, causing a reflection of the al jet. These devices are capable of detecting distances up to 0.125 in. (3.2 mm) ULTRASONIC SENSORS Ultrasonic sensors are used both as thickness gauges (see ‘Section 7.20) and as proximity switches. Only the proximity sensors will be discussed here. The proximity design detectsnite Receiver ‘Thu-Beam Proxy iG, 7.141 Uheasanic proximity switches of thru-beam and proximity designs. (Courtesy of Baumer Electric Ld) the distance between the wansducer and the measured object by tansmitting an ultrasonic (1 to § ME) burst of energy and sensing the time of arrival of the echo. In the thru-beam type design, the emitter sends out a continuous sound signal and the presence of a detected object is noted by its breaking that sonic beam. Both ofthese designs are shown in Figure 7.141. The high frequency used protects from the interference of most extra neous noise sources. The preferred surface of the detected object is smooth and flat; hot or sound-absorbing surfaces or surfaces in the presence of strong alr streams are not suitable for this type of detection. The detectable abject size varies with distance and surface quality and, in general, is much larger than with optical sensors. DIGITAL OUTPUTS AND ENCODERS Proximity sensors can generate elther digital outputs or pulses. They detect the changes that are occurring in either electrical conduction, induction, or photoelectric conduction, Conducting encoders use brushes or wipers to detect the position ofa coded disk or plate. Ifa single track is employed number of pulses ate produced as the disk or plate is moved Direction is detected by adding another track, which is offset to produce sequence logic. Electronic counting circuitry is used to count the numberof pulses and perform the conversion 7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 9TL Light Eniters AG. 7.14) Digital displacement sensor to angular or linear measurement. Multiple-track encoders provide a digital or binary coded output, which is a function Of the absolute angular or linear position, Magnetic proximity sensors can be employed with gears of ferromagnetic material to produce pulses from a change In linear or angular position. Direction sensing can be ‘obtained by shaping the gear teeth in a symmetrical pattern In order to modify the output waveform. Photoelectric encoders use alight source and the detector with disks or plates of transparent and opaque windows, Operation is similar to conducting encoders except that switching is accomplished by breaking the path of the light beam between the source and detector. Multiple-tracked encoders may use arrays of sources, such as LEDs, and detectors as shown in Figure 7.14), The laser interferometer uses a laser beam that is directed as a reflector on the measured object. Changes in the linear displacement of the object produce interference fringes, which are counted by electronic circuitry. Proximity sensors are selected the same way as most mea suring instruments, namely, by first considering the technical and then economic requirements. In DC systems, potentiomet fic tansducers are often used because of their simplicity. strong outputs (50 V or highes), and displacements (up to 24 In, or 0.61 m)972 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors Reluctive transducers with DC-to-DC conversion ci. cultry offer displacements between 0,01 and 120 in, (0.25 sm and 3 m). Capacitive and inductive proximity sensors as well as photoelectric sensors can be used to detect displace sent changes as small as 1 yn. In AC systems, mutiplecoil Inductive sensors are used more than all others. Maximum accuracy can be obtained with incremental and absolute dig ital displacement sensors along with photoelectric units such a interferometers. Bibliography alley S.J. “Opsical Sensors Clcl to Fut Productivi ering June 1982 Breaza, RM. “Digital Tack Contols Mot Rotor Positions” Cantal Engncerng anuary 1982 Callum, W-and Kratzer H.. "Measuring Shaft Psion by Applying Synchro & Resolver Transducers” Con! Engineering, Jamaty 1982 Conta Engh 200 bap Dyer, SA. Suey of Instrumentation and Measurement, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2001 ls, F,“Using Eddy Curens for Proximity Measurement” Jasruments and Con! ystems. Api 1ST. Fauque, J. "Ale Caglg” Measurements and Control Apll 1991 Gaines. DJ. “When AVe Solid State Postion Sensars the Best Choice?” Tstruents and Contos Stes, March 1978 Gartewsky,P and Dolson, R., “A Guide to Inductive Prxioiky Switches, Jstuments and Canto! Stems, October 1981 Gat, RE, Measuring Cieuls, Oxford, Buterworh-Helnemana, 1997 Hornung, MLR, Uluasound Based Provauy Sensors. Dordt: Kluwer ‘Academic Pulser, 1099 Hoedeskt, ME. "Digal Sensors Simplify Digital Measurement Systems ‘Measurements and Dat, May-fune 1976. Keabbauch, TF}. "Programmable Postion Conol Uses Standard Induction Moto as Servo.” Como! Engioering, January’ 1984 ‘Moris, HIM. “Robie Servio Systems Need Accurate Positional Feedback Inputs” Coma Enginsering, January 1984 Poppe. EW. "Phowelecie Sensing,” Measurements and Canto October 1991 WohisieinS. "Laser Gaping” Measurements an Cano, June 1991