Thermodynamics

MTX 220 Formules

Chapter 2 Concepts & Definitions
Formule
Pressure

Units

P=

Units
Pa

F
A

1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa
1 atm = 101325 Pa

Specific Volume

v=

V
m

Density

m3 / kg

m
=
V

kg / m3

1
=
v

Static Pressure Variation

Pa

P = gh
Absolute Temperature

= , = +

T ( K ) = T (C ) + 273.15

Chapter 3 Properties of a Pure Substance

Formule

Units

Quality

(vapour mass fraction)

x=

mvapor
mtot
(Liquid mass fraction)

1 x =

mliquid
mtot

Specific Volume

m3 / kg

v = v f + xv fg
Average Specific Volume

(only two phase

v = (1 x )v f + xvg

m3 / kg

mixture)

Ideal gas law

P << Pc

Z =1

T << Tc

Equations

Pv = RT

Universal Gas Constant

Gas Constant

PV = mRT = nRT
kJ / kmol K

R = 8.3145
= molekulre mass

R
R=
M
Compressibility Factor

kJ / kg K

Pv = ZRT

Reduced Properties

Pr =

P
Pc

Tr =

T
Tc

Chapter 4 Work & Heat

Formule

Units

Displacement Work

Integration

W = Fdx = PdV
1

W = PdV = P( V2 V1 )
1

Specific Work

(work per unit mass)

W
w=
m
Power (rate of work)

Velocity

Torque

J / kg

W&= FV = PV&= T

V = r

rad / s

T = Fr

Nm

Polytropic Process

( n 1)

n
n
PV n = Const = PV
1 1 = PV
2 2

Pv n = C

Polytropic Exponent

n=1

Polytropic Process Work

P
ln 2
P1
n=
V
ln 1
V2

PV = Const = PV
1 1 =P
2 V2
W2 =

n=1

W2 = PV
2 2 ln

Adiabatic Process

1
(PV
2 2 PV
1 1)
1 n

Q=0

V2

V1

n 1

Conduction Heat Transfer

Q&= hAT
Radiation Heat Transfer

=convection coefficient

dT
Q&= kA
dx
Convection Heat Transfer

=conductivity

4
Q&= A(Ts4 Tamb
)

Terminology
= heat

Q
= heat transferred during the process between state 1 and state 2
1

Q2
= rate of heat transfer

Q&
= work

W
= work done during the change from state 1 to state 2

W2

= rate of work = Power. 1 W=1 J/s

W&

Chapter 5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Formule

Units

Total Energy

E = U + KE + PE dE = dU+ d (KE +) d (PE )

Energy

dE = Q W E2 E1 =1 Q2 1 W2

KE = 0.5mV

Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy

Internal Energy

Specific Internal Energy

of
Saturated Steam
(two-phase mass
average)
Total Energy

PE = mgZ PE2 PE1 = mg( Z2 Z1)

u = (1 x)u f + xu g

kJ / kg

u = u f + xu fg

m(V22 V12 )
+ mg( Z2 Z1) = 1 Q2 1W2
2

e = u + 0.5V 2 + gZ

Enthalpy

H = U + PV

Specific Enthalpy

h = u + Pv

For Ideal Gasses

Pv = RT and u = f( T)

Enthalpy

h = u + Pv = u + RT

R Constant

u = f ( t) h = f ( T )

Specific Enthalpy for

Saturation State
(two-phase mass
average)

U = U liq + U vap mu = mliq u f + mvap ug

U 2 U1 +
Specific Energy

h = (1 x )h f + xhg
h = h f + xh fg

kJ / kg

kJ / kg

Specific Heat at
Constant Volume

Cv =

1 Q
1 U u

=
=

m T v m T v T v

(ue ui ) = Cv (Te Ti )
Specific Heat at
Constant Pressure

Cp =

1 Q
1 H h

=
=

m T p m T p T p

(he hi ) =C p (Te Ti )
Solids & Liquids

Incompressible, so v=constant
(Tables A.3 & A.4)

C = Cc = Cp

u2 u1 = C (T2 T1)
h2 h1 = u2 u1 + v( P2 P1)
Ideal Gas

h = u + Pv = u + RT
u2 u1 Cv ( T2 T1)
h2 h1 C p (T2 T1 )

Energy Rate

E&= Q& W& ( rate = +in out)

E2 E1 = 1 Q2 1W2 ( change = +in out)

Chapter 6 First-Law Analysis for A Control Volume

Formule
Volume Flow Rate

Units

(using average velocity)

V&= V dA = AV
Mass Flow Rate

(using average values)

kg / s

V
m&= VdA = AV = A
v
Power

& p VT
W&= mC

& v VT
W&= mC

Flow Work Rate

&
W&flow = PV&= mPv

Flow Direction

From higher P to lower P unless significant KE or PE

Total
Enthalpy

Instantaneous
Process
Continuity
Equation

Energy
Equation

&
m&= V
v

htot = h + 1 V 2 + gZ
2

m&C .V . = m&i m&e

First Law

E&C .V . = Q&C .V . W&C .V . + &

mi htot i &
me htot e

dE
Q&+ m&i (hi + 1 V 2+ gZ i )=
+ m&e he+ 1 V 2+ gZe W &
2
2
dt
Steady State
Process

No Storage

Continuity
Equation

A steady-state has no storage effects, with all properties

constant with time

m&C .V . = 0, E&C .V . = 0
(in = out)

m& = m&
i

Energy
Equation

(in = out) First Law

& +m
&i htot i = W
&e htot e
Q&C .V . + m
C .V .

Q&+ m&i (hi + 1 V 2 + gZ i ) = W&+ m&e h e+ 1 V 2+ gZ e

2
2

Specific
Heat
Transfer
Specific
Work

SS Single
Flow Eq.

Transient Process

kJ / kg

Q&
q = C .V .
m&

w=

W&C .V .
m&

kJ / kg

(in = out)

q + htot i = w + htot e
Change in mass (storage) such as filling or emptying of a
container.

Continuity
Equation

m2 m1 = mi me

Energy
Equation

E2 E1 = QC V. WC V. . + mi htot i me htot e

E2 E1 = m2 u2 + 1 V22 + gZ2 m1 u1 +1 V12 +gZ1

2
2

QC .V + mi htot i = me htot e + m2 u2 + 1 V2 2 + gZ2 m1 u1 + 1 V2 2 + gZ1 W

2
2

C .V . C .V .

Chapter 7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Formule
All

Units

can also be rates

W, Q

W&, Q&

Heat Engine

WHE = QH QL

Thermal
efficiency

Carnot Cycle

HE =

WHE
Q
= 1 L
QH
QH

Thermal = 1

Real Heat
Engine

HE =

QL
T
= 1 L
QH
TH

WHE
T
Carnot HE = 1 L
QH
TH

Heat Pump

WHP = QH QL

Coefficient
of
Performance

Carnot Cycle

Real Heat
Pump

Refrigerator

Coefficient
of
Performance

Carnot Cycle

=
HP

QH
QH
=
WHP QH QL

=
HP

QH
TH
=
QH QL TH TL

HP =

QH
TH
Carnot HP =
WHP
TH TL

WREF = QH QL

REF =

QL
QL
=
WREF QH QL

QL
TL
=
QH QL TH TL

Real
Refrigerator

Absolute Temp.

REF =

QL
TL
Carnot REF =
WREF
TH TL

TL QL
=
TH QH

Chapter 8 Entropy
Formule
Inequality of Clausis

Entropy

Change of Entropy

Specific Entropy

Q
dS

T rev

kJ / kgK

Q
S 2 S1 =

T rev
1

kJ / kgK

s = (1 x ) s f + xsg

kJ / kgK

s = s f + xs fg
Entropy Change

Units

Carnot Cycle

Isothermal Heat Transfer:

2

S 2 S1 =

1
Q
Q = 1 2

TH 1
TH

Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process):

Q
dS =

T rev
Reversible Isothermal Process:

Q
3 Q4
S 4 S3 =
=
T rev TL
3
4

Reversible Adiabatic (Isentropic Process): Entropy

decrease in
process 3-4 = the entropy increase
in process 1-2.

Reversible
Heat-Transfer
Process

Gibbs Equations

s2 s1 = s fg =

2
2
h
1 Q
1
q
=
Q = 1 2 = fg

m 1 T rev mT 1
T
T

Tds = du + Pdv
Tds = dh vdP

Entropy Generation

dS =

Q
+ Sgen
T

Wirr = PdV T Sgen

2

Q
+ 1 S2 gen
T
1
2

S 2 S1 = dS =
1

Entropy Balance Eq.

VEntropy = + in out + gen

Principle of the
Increase of Entropy

dSnet = dSc. m. + dSsurr = S gen 0

Entropy Change

Solids &
Liquids

s2 s1 = c ln

T2
T1

Reversible Process:

dsgen = 0
Adiabatic Process:

dq = 0

Ideal Gas

Constant Volume:
2

s2 s1 = Cv0
1

dT
v
+ R ln 2
v1
T

Constant Pressure:
2

s2 s1 = Cp0
1

dT
P
R ln 2
P1
T

Constant Specific Heat:

s2 s1 = Cv0 ln

s2 s1 = Cp0 ln
Standard Entropy

s =
0
T

T0

Change in Standard
Entropy

C p0
T

T2

T1

R ln

P2

T1

+ R ln

v2

v1

P1
kJ / kgK

dT

s2 s1 = ( sT02 sT01 ) R ln P2

T2

kJ / kgK

P1

Ideal Gas Undergoing

an Isentropic Process

s2 s1 = 0 = Cp0 ln T2

T1

R ln P2

but

T P
2 = 2
T1 P1

P1

C Cv 0 k 1
R
= p0
=
C p0
C p0
k

= ratio of

k=

C p0
Cv 0

specific heats

T v
2 = 1
T1 v 2

k 1

P2 v 1
=
P1 v 2

Special case of polytropic process where k = n:

Pv k = const
Reversible Polytropic
Process for Ideal Gas

n
n
PV n = const = PV
1 1 = PV
2 2

P V
2 = 1 ,
P1 V2

Work

T2 P2
=
T1 P1

1W2 = PdV = const

Values for n

V
= 1
V2

n1

dV PV
PV mR (T2 T1 )
= 2 2 1 1=
n
V
1 n
1 n

Isobaric process:

Isothermal Process:

Isentropic Process:

n 1

Cp 0

Isochronic Process:

n = ,

v = const

Chapter 9 Second-Law Analysis for a Control Volume

Formule
2nd Law Expressed as a
Change of Entropy

dSc.m.
Q&
= + S&gen
dt
T

Entropy Balance Eq.

rate of change = + in out + generation

Unit
s

&
dSC .V .
Q
= m&i si m&e se + C .V . +S&gen
dt
T

where

SC .V . = sdV = mc.v.s = m As A + m Bs B + ...

and

S&gen = s&gen dV = S&gen .A + S&

gen .B + ...
Steady State Process

dSC .V .
=0
dt

m&e se

Q&C .V . &
+ Sgen
C .V . T

m&i si =

Continuity eq.

m&i = m&e = m&

Q&C .V . &
+ Sgen
C .V . T

m&( se si ) =

Adiabatic
process

Transient Process

se = si + sgen si

Q&
d
( ms ) C .V . = m&i si m&e se + C.V . + S&gen
dt
T

( m2 s2 m1 s1 ) C .V . =
Reversible Steady State
Process
If Process
Reversible &
Adiabatic

mi si me se +

Q&C .V .
dt + 1 S&
2 gen
T
0
t

se = si
e

he hi = vdP
i

Vi 2 Ve 2
+ g ( Zi Ze )
2
e
Vi 2 Ve 2
= vdP +
+ g ( Zi Ze )
2
i

w = ( hi he ) +

If Process is
Reversible and
Isothermal

m&( se si ) =

Q
1
Q&C .V . = C .V .

T C .V .
T

or

T ( se si ) =

Incompressible
Fluid

e
Q&C .V .
= q T ( se si ) = ( he hi ) vdP
m&
i

Bernoulli Eq.

v ( Pe Pi ) +

V Vi
+ g ( Ze Z i) = 0
2
2
e

Reversible
Polytropic
Process
for Ideal Gas

w = vdP and
i

w = vdP = C
=

Isothermal
Process (n=1)

Principle of the
Increase of Entropy

Pv n = const = C n

dP
P

n
nR
( Pe ve Pv
( Te Ti )
i i) =
n 1
n 1
e

w = vdP = C

Pe
dP
= Pv
i i ln
P
Pi

dSnet dS C.V . dS surr

=
+
= S&gen 0
dt
dt
dt

Efficiency

Turbine

Turbine work is out

Compressor
(Pump)

Cooled
Compressor

wa hi he
=
ws hi hes
Compressor work is in

ws hi hes
=
wa hi he

wT
w

Nozzle

Kinetic energy is out

1 V2
e
= 2 2
1 V
2 es