International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015 3 (1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E - ISSN 2347-4971

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1)
P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
DR. B.R. PANDEY
FORMER
DIRECTOR (RESEARCH)
SKY I NSTITUTE, KURSI ROAD, L UCKNOW, U.P, INDIA
FORMER JOINT DIRECTOR, C OUNCIL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, UP, LUCKNOW
(DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UP GOVERNMENT), I NDIA
PROFESSOR, INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HERBAL MEDICINE (IIHM), LUCKNOW , U.P., INDIA
E-MAIL ID : editorijsir02@gmail.com, MOBILE-: 9794849800
COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

Dr. B.C.Tripathi
Dr. Pankaj Verma
Shri Sanjay Pandey
Shri Ashish Tiwari
Shri Sanjay Dixit
Assistant Prof.
Deptt. of Education,
Rama P.G. College,
Chinhat, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh
Senior Research Fellow,
Assistant Prof.
National Institute of
Fashion Technology,
Raebareli,
Uttar Pradesh
Research Scholar,
Sai Nath University,
Ranchi,
Jharkhand
Scientist,
Sky Institute
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial

Surgery,
Faculty of Dental Sciences,
K.G. Medical University,
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
ADVISORY BOARD
Prof.(Dr.)S. P. Ojha
Prof. (Dr.) S.P. Singh
Former Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh
Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology,

G. S. V. M. Medical College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Srivastava
Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Community Medicine
Prof. (Dr.) R. L. Singh
King George Medical University, Lucknow.

Former Director, Integral Institute of Medical Sciences & Research,
Integral University, Lucknow
Former Vice -Chancellor,
Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana, South America
Prof & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology

Program , Dr. R. M. L. University Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Sarita Verma

Head, Deptt. of Home Sci., Mahila P.G. College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) S.K.Agarwal
Prof.(Dr.) M.I. Khan
Pro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University,

Lucknow, U.P.
Prof & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg.,

Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Bharat Sah
Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Avasthi

Former Director, H.B.T.I., Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Director,
National Institute of Fashion Technology, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) Amrika Singh
Prof.(Dr.)N.S. Verma
Prof & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences,

Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof., Deptt. of Physiology,

K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) U.N. Dwivedi
Prof.(Dr.)A.K. Tripathi
Prof & Ex- Head, Deptt of Biochemistry, Former Pro- Vice Chancellor,
Former Dean, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology,

Prof.(Dr.) U.K. Misra
Prof.(Dr.)C.M. Pandey
Head, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics,

Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh
Dr. A.K. Gupta

Former Deputy Director General,
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ansari Nagar, New Delhi
Dr. Rupesh Chaturvedi
Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Chemistry, Ex- Dean Faculty of Science,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Associate Prof., School of Biotechnology,

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, Former Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of
Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Vanderbilt University,
Tennessee, USA
Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari,
Dr. S.Sinha
Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.
Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University,

C. David Giffen School of Medi., University of California, Los Angeles, USA
Prof.(Dr.) V.K.Tondon
Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar Dwivedi
Dr. K.Raman
Former Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of

Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Borokings, South Dakota, USA
Prof.(Dr.) Vimal Kishore
Principal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation,

6480 Dobbin Road, Columbia, MD 21045, USA
Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Xevier College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana, 7325,
Palmetto Street New Orlens, Louisiana USA
Dr. P.K.Agarwal
Editor in Chief, Natural Product Communication,
Natural Product Inc 7963, Anderson Park Lane West Terville, OH, USA
Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,
Dr. R.K.Singh,
Former Director,
R. M. L. Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow and Prof. & Head,
Deptt. of Radiotherapy, K. G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh
Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research

Institute, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
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Dr. Mohd. Tarique

Prof., Deptt of Physical Edu., Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
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EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof.(Dr.) Y.B. Tripathi
Dr. Vinod Singh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences,

Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Assoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal,

Madhya Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Singh
Dr. K.K.Verma
Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Biochemistry, Shri Guru Ram RaiInstitute of Medical &
Health Sciences, Dehradun, Uttarakhand & Former Prof. & Head, Department of
Biochemistry, K. G. Medical University , Lucknow, U.P.
Assoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University ,

Faizabad,Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Diwedi
Senior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants,

Dr. Atul Gupta
Former Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR,

Junagarh, Gujarat & Former Principal Scientist Head, Deptt. of Plant
Physiology, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Saudan Singh,

Senior Principal Scientist,CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants ,
Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat Husain

Prof. & Head , Deptt of Pathology & Acting Director, R. M. L. Institute of
Medical Sciences, Lucknow,Uttar Pradesh
Dr. S.K.Tiwari
Prof. (Dr.) Amita Jain
Senior Principal Scientist ,CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow,

Uttar Pradesh
Prof. Deptt. of Microbiology, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. Shivani Pandey,
Dr. Sudhir Mahrotra
Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry,K.G.Medical University, Lucknow, U.P.
Associate Prof., Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. B.C. Yadav,
Prof. (Dr.) Vibha Singh
Lucknow Associate Prof. & Coordinator, Deptt. of Applied Physics, School for
Physical Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, U.P.
Prof., Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,

Dr. Anchal Srivastava,
Prof. (Dr.) U.S. Pal
Prof., Deptt of Physics, Lucknow University,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Sciences,
Dr. Shalini Bariar
Prof. (Dr. ) K.K. Pant
Dr.A.K.Pandey
Asstt. Professor, Durga Devi Saraf Institute of Management, Mumbai, India
Prof. & Head , Deptt. of Pharmacology & Therapeutics,

Principal Scientist, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,Lucknow, U.P.
Dr.S.K.Pandey
Dr. C.M.K.Tripathi
G.M. LML Factory, Kanpur Uttar Pradesh
Former Deputy Director & Head, Division of Fermentation Technology, CSIRCentral Drug Research Institute , Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Suneet Kumar Awasthi,

Asst. Prof ,Deptt.of PhysicsJ.P. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. R.D. Tripathi
Dr.G. N. Pandey
Chief Scientist & ProfessorPlant Ecology & Environmental Science Division,

Uttar Pradesh CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, U.P.
Asst. Prof, Deptt. of Physics Amity University, Noida ,Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Mukesh Verma
Prof.(Dr.) Ashwani K. Srivastav
Asst. Prof., Deptt. of Physical Education, Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad,
Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biosciences, Integral University,Lucknow,

Former Senior Scientist, Birbal Sbahani Institute Paleobotany, Lucknow, U.P.
Dr. Abhay Singh,
Prof.(Dr.) L. Pandey
Head, Physical Education, Delhi Public School, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Prof. & Head , Postgraduate Deptt . of Physics,Former Dean, Faculty of Science,

Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
Dr. Santosh Gaur

Asst. Prof. Deptt. of Physical Education, Jawahar Lal Nehru P.G. College,
Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh
Prof .(Dr.) Bali Ram

Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Dr.Sanjeev Kumar Jha
Prof.(Dr.) J.P.N.Rai
Senior Scientist, DEOACC Patna
Prof.& Head, Deptt. of Environmental Sciences, G.B. Pant University of Agr. &
Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand
Dr. Shivlok Singh

Scientist, DEOACC, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr. )R. S. Dubey
Dr. Anurag Tripathi,
Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.
Asstt . Prof. , Deptt. of Electrical Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur
Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. (Dr.) Omkar

Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof. V.P.Sharma
Prof.(Dr.) Sudhir Kumar
Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,

Prof., Deptt. of Zoology, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) Naveen Khare
Dr. Krishna Gopal
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Former Deputy Director & Head , Aquatic Toxicology Division, CSIR- Indian
Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.) S. M. Natu
Prof., Deptt. of Pathalogy,K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. S.P. Shukla
Dr. Kusum Lata Mishra,
Prof. , Deptt. of Civil Engg., Institute of Engg. & Technology, Sitapur Road ,
In-charge, Coagulation Laboratory, Deptt. of Pathology,

K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Ajay Mishra
Prof.(Dr.)V.K. Sharma,
Associate Prof. , Deptt. of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow , U. P.
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry, Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Ashutosh Singh
Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Shukla
Prof., Deptt. of Chemistry,Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya,
Prof., Deptt. of Physics, Lucknow University, Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Prof.(Dr.)Anil Gaur
Principal, Gita College of Education , Nimbari, Panipat, Haryana
Prof., Deptt. of Biotechnology & Genetic Engg., G.B. Pant University of Agr. &
Technology, Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand
Shri Sudesh Bhat

Advisor (Education), Sky Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dr. Mahesh Pal
Dr. Krishna Gopal
Principal Scientist ,Phytochemistry Division, CSIR- National Botanical Research

Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
164
Faizabad, U. P.
Dr. S.K. Singh
Asst. Prof., Deptt. of English,Rama University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
ABOUT EDITOR-IN- CHIEF : DR. B. R. PANDEY

Dr. B. R. Pandey is a well known academician and scientist with brilliant academic career and
research accomplishments . He has done M.Sc. ( organic chemistry) from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India in the year 1972. He has done PhD in Medicinal Chemistry under the guidance of world
renowned Biochemist & Medicinal Chemist, Professor S.S. Parmar , Professor of Medicinal Chemistry &
Chemical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K. G. Medical College, Lucknow (
Presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India in the
year 1976. Dr. Pandey has all throughout first class educational qualifications and his research interest
covers medicinal chemistry, biochemical pharmacology, neurochemistry, neuro-toxicology, environmental
chemistry, herbal medicine & natural products. He is having extensive research experience of more than 40
years and published several research papers in peer reviewed journals of international repute. His research
particularly on the studies of central nervous system acting drugs and anti-inflammatory drugs and their
biochemical mode of action using animal models and enzymes such as monoamine oxidase, acetylcholine
esterase, purine catabolizing enzymes , proteolytic enzymes, membrane stabilizing enzymes, respiratory
enzymes, microsomal enzymes etc. has been well recognized as evidenced by his research publications .
Further, his research on developing herbal medicines has been found very useful in prevention and treatment
of chronic diseases and other refractory diseases for which modern system of medicine have no permanent
cure. He has worked on the position of Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow,
Department of Science & Technology, Uttar Pradesh Government, India from the year 1979 to 2011, where
he successfully executed several R & D projects in various disciplines of Science & Technology including
chemical & pharmaceutical sciences, medical sciences, biological sciences, environmental sciences etc.
During his tenure as Joint Director, he has been instrumental in launching and implementing important
schemes: Young Scientists Scheme, Young Scientist Visiting Fellowship Scheme, Establishment of Centre of
Excellence- Encephalitis Research Centre of Excellence in Sanjay Gandhi Post Graduate Institute of Medical
Sciences ( SGPGIMS), Lucknow , U. P. India ; Centre of Excellence in Materials Science ( nano materials)
in Z. H. College of Engg. & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India, Establishment of
Patent Information Centre in the premises of Council of Science & Technology , U.P. He has also worked
on the post of Secretary ( as additional charge ) , Council of Science & Technology, U.P. several times and
functioned as Administrative Head of the Organization. Prior to taking over the position of Joint Director,
Council of Science & Technology, U.P. in the year 1979, he has worked as Junior Research Fellow/ Senior
Research Fellow ( Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi ), Assistant Research Officer (
Jawaharlal Nehru Laboratory of Molecular Biology) at Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, K.
G. Medical College ( presently K. G. Medical University), Faculty of Medicine, University of Lucknow,
Lucknow, India from the year 1972 to 1979 and involved in multidisciplinary biomedical research leading to
drug development . He has worked as Visiting Scientist / Faculty in the Department of Physiology, School
of Medicine, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA and also visited scientific
institutions in Sweden, U.K. and U.S.A. under Training Program on Capacity Building in Environmental
Research Management (World Bank Funding Project). After his superannuation in the year 2011, he has
been associated with International Institute of Herbal Medicine (IIHM), Lucknow, India as Professor and is
presently associated with Sky Institute, Lucknow , India as Director ( Research) and involved in programs
related to higher education and research of scientific & technological fields. He has organized several
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national and international conferences. He has actively participated in national and international conferences,
symposia and workshops and presented research papers and chaired scientific / technical sessions. He is
life member and fellow of many scientific societies such as National Academy of Sciences India , Society
of Toxicology of India, Indian Academy of Neurosciences, Bioved Research Society India, International
Society for Herbal Medicine (ISHM), Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development, India. He has
been member of several scientific expert committees/ advisory committees to evaluate scientific research
proposals. Dr. Pandey has been actively associated with various universities and institutions in India as
examiner for conducting graduate, post graduate and doctoral level examinations in disciplines like chemical
sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, biochemical sciences, biotechnology and allied areas and member of
Board of Studies for the academic development in the department. He has been approved research supervisor
for guiding research in chemistry, biotechnology and related areas from various universities of India leading
to PhD Degree. In view of his vast research and administrative experience and broad R & D vision, Dr.
Pandey has been associated with International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research (IJSIR) as
Editor-in-Chief.
166
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FROM THE DESK OF CHAIRMAN, SKY INSTITUTE

It is my privilege to state that I have great desire to contribute to the
development of our country and to bring about social transformation through
education, higher learning and research. This inner feeling prompted me to establish
Sky Institute in Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), the city known for its rich cultural heritage
and vibrant academic institutions of higher learning. Sky Institute, since its inception
in the year 2006, has been functioning to impart various educational and training
courses with a vision to improving lives through education, research and innovation. The institute provides
a professional learning environment that acts as a catalyst, for the exponential growth of student as well as
extracurricular abilities. It conducts regular courses at the level of graduate and post graduate followed by
research courses leading to M Phil and PhD in all subjects in association with universities .
I feel great pleasure to highlight that Sky Institute has started to publish a bi-annual journal
International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research ( IJSIR ) which encourages to publish research
articles in all branches of science, technology ,engineering, health, agriculture and management. Research
articles in the field of education are also considered in order to improve educational standard in educational
institutions with innovative technologies. First volume of the journal has been successfully published. The
present issue of second volume of the journal contains useful and informative research articles which
may be interesting to readers and educational and research organizations. The association of eminent
faculty and scientists of reputed organizations with our journal is highly appreciable.
I call upon all the students who are willing to join various programs/courses being run at Sky
Institute in association with selected universities, to strive hard to gain knowledge, transform it into skills
with right attitude and inculcate the habit of learning, which will drive them to self directed learning.
My best wishes to all the aspiring students.
Mohit Bajpai
Chairman
Sky Institute
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CONTENTS
PAGE
MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES
AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA, RAM NIWAS, VINEETA SINGH, AMREEN KHAN, C.K.M. TRIPATHI
VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA
12
VIBHA SINGH
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW
17
B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS
27
B. R. PANDEY, SATENDRA SINGH, NIDHI SHARMA, SANJAY DIXIT
SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE EXPOSED CARCASS
46
REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH
PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX
51
S. RAWAT, R.SONKER AND K.SINGH
A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER

FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION
55
SANJAY MATHUR, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI, TALAHA CHISTI, ANURAG TRIPATHI
STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS

FROM NMR RESPONSE OF I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS
61
AHIRWAL P. K, CHAITANYA P., SHUKLA A. AND PANDEY L.
EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
72
NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI
RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE
80
SUNIL KUMAR SINGH, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI, POOJA AWASTHI, OM PRAKASH
A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, 88

SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM BADMINTON PLAYERS
TANUJ KUMAR, SATISH SINGH, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL, ABHAY SINGH
STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE FROM AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK
91
R. SRIVASTAVA, D.C.RUPAINWAR
AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS

AASHISH TIWARI, DIVYA SAHNI, A.H. KHAN
108
IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS

B. R. PANDEY, SUGANDHA SINGH, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA, NIDHI SHARMA
119
A STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG B.ED. STUDENTS OF

DEHRADUN DISTRICT, UTTARAKHAND
125
SHAILJA ASTHANA AND D.K. DIVEDI
LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY
131
IMRAN FAROOQ, JYOTI AGARWAL, KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA
AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW
134
SHUKLA S.P., SACHAN R., DWIVEDI L., SHARMA K. J., YADAV V.P., SINGH N.B.
VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

ANSHU TRIPATHI AND B.C. TRIPATHI
168
152
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1) : 1-11,

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
MICROBIAL CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES

AKANKSHA SRIVASTAVA 1, RAM NIWAS 1, VINEETA SINGH 1, AMREEN KHAN 2, *C.K.M. TRIPATHI 2
1
Microbiology Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
2
Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow, India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. C.K.M. Tripathi, Department of Biotechnology, Shri Ramswaroop
Memorial University, Lucknow - Deva Road, Lucknow-225003, India, Email ID: ckm.tripathi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Cholesterol oxidase, a bi-functional FAD-containing microbial enzyme belongs to the family
oxidoreductases which catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol into 4-cholesten-3-one. In recent
time, cholesterol oxidase has received great attention due to its wider use in clinical
(determination of serum cholesterol) laboratories practice and in the biocatalysis for the
production of a number of steroids. Cholesterol oxidase (COD) has been shown to possess
potent insecticidal activity, besides its use to track cell cholesterol. Moreover, this enzyme is
also implicated in the manifestation of some of the diseases of bacterial (tuberculosis), viral
(HIV) and non-viral prion origin (Alzheimers). These applications and disease mechanisms
have promoted the need of screening, isolation and characterization of newer microbes from
diverse habitats as a source of COD to learn more about its structural and functional aspects.
In this review, we discuss microbial sources of COD, its structure and important biochemical
properties besides its broad range of biological functions and applications.
Keywords: Cholesterol, Steroids, Bio-catalysis, Microorganisms, Biosensors
INTRODUCTION
The enzyme Cholesterol oxidase (COD)
(cholesterol: oxygen oxidoreductase, EC 1.1.3.6)
catalyzes the oxidation of cholesterol to 4cholesten-3-one in the presence of O2[1]. COD
has wide applications in clinical, pharmaceuticals,
food and agricultural industries which has
considerably increased the demand of this
enzyme. Various microorganisms are reported
to produce COD with specific properties.
Cholesterol oxidases are used to determine
cholesterol concentration in food and blood
serum by coupling of the enzyme with peroxidase
[2,3]
in the production of precursors for chemical
synthesis of steroid hormones, degradation of
dietary cholesterol in foods [4] and as biological
control agent [5].
COD is a monomeric bi-functional flavin
adenine dinucleotide (FAD) containing enzyme
which belongs to the oxidoreductases family and
acts on the CH-OH group of donor with oxygen
as an acceptor. COD catalyzes the oxidation of
3 -hydroxoysteroids and the isomerization of
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5-6-ene- 3 -ketosteroid (cholest-5-en-3-one)

to produce 3-4-ene-3 -ketosteroid (cholest4-en-3-one) (Figure 1)
Figure 1: Breakdown of cholesterol with the help of

cholesterol oxidase
SOURCES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE

Cholesterol oxidase has been isolated and
characterized from numerous microorganisms
that are found in different environments (Figure
2). The first COD enzyme was isolated from
Nocardia (later Rhodococcus) erythropolis and
oxidant effect of cholesterol was explored [6].
Mycobacterium sp. and Streptomyces sp. are
reported from soil for COD production. COD
producing microorganisms have also been
isolated from food stuffs like chicken fat, pork
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fat, butter and bacon eg. Rhodococcus strain

[7]
.COD has also been reported in many other
microorganisms such as Arthrobacter sp. [8,9]
Corynebacterium sp. [10] Nocardia erythropolis [11],
Rhodococcus erythropolis [12,13], Mycobacterium
sp. [14] ,
Brevibacterium
sterolicum,
Streptoverticillium sp. [15], Streptomyces violascens
[16]
, Streptomyces sp. [17-19], and Enterobacter sp.
[20]
. COD has also been isolated from some gramnegative bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp. [21],
Chromobacterium sp. [22]. COD from a eukaryotic
microorganism Schizophyllum sp. (identified as
basidiomycetes) has also been reported [23].
Table 2: Milestones of discoveries related to
cholesterol oxidase enzyme
the enzyme. It belongs to the glucose-methanolcholine (GMC) oxidoreductase family and has
been found mostly in actinomycetes such as
Streptomyces sp. The structural and mutational
analysis of Streptomyces sp. (class-I enzyme)
has revealed that His447 and Glu361 residues
are implicated in the activity for the oxidation and
isomerization steps[34] and reported comparison
of amino acid sequences from class-I enzymes
eg. Streptomyces sp., Rhodococcus sp. and
Mycobacterium sp. These sequences contain a
consensus sequence for FAD binding, Gly-XGly-X-X-Gly, in the N-terminal region of the
COD[35].
The class-I enzyme possesses the
characteristic nucleotide-binding fold (Rossmann
-pleated sheet
fold) consisting of a
-helices and the motif
sandwiched between
needed for binding the cofactor. The
diphosphate group of the cofactor is positioned
closely to the N terminus of the first -helix of
the protein where the conserved GXGXG glycine
residues are located [29].
Class-II cholesterol oxidase
STRUCTURE OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE

There are two distinct types of COD that
bind with FAD cofactor in two different ways: noncovalently and covalently. They also differ in
terms of structure, folding, kinetic and
thermodynamic properties. Two types of
cholesterol oxidases are reported.
Class-I cholesterol oxidase
The class-I COD enzyme contains the FAD
redox cofactor which is non-covalently bound to
2
In the class-II enzyme the FAD cofactor

covalently linked to the enzyme [36]. The class-II
enzyme belongs to the (VAO) vanillyl-alcoholoxidase family. This enzyme has been found in
Brevibacterium sterolicum, Rhodococcus
erythropolis and gram-negative bacteria such as
Burkholderia sp., Chromobacterium sp. and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa showing similarity
(43% to 99%) to one another. The structure of
COD (class-II enzyme) from the Brevibacterium
sterolicum has been determined by X-ray
crystallography and refined to high resolution.
The structure suggested that the FAD was
covalently bound to an active-site histidine
(His121) via the C8
group of the flavin
isoalloxazine ring. This covalent bond is
implicated in the redox potential and contributes
to the stability of the enzyme [37].
In addition, Glu475 and Arg477, located at
the active-site cavity, were suggested to
constitute gate functioning in the control of
oxygen access. In the covalent form of the
enzyme, the diphosphate moiety is localized in
the residues found between the third and fourth
-pleated sheet.
b-strands of a four-stranded
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
COD has been known in a number of

microorganisms and these flavoenzymes exhibit
different sequences that suggest structural
differences between the proteins. The
comparison of sequence alignments are
performed using CLUSTALW2 (http://
www.expasy.ch.) for different types of CODs.
Amino acids sequences are obtained using the
protein search algorithm at The National Centre
for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) [38].
MODE OF ACTION OF CHOLESTEROL
OXIDASE
The CODs enzymes are bi functional,
catalyzing the oxidation of D5-ene-3bhydroxysteroids with a trans AB ring junction to
the D5-3- ketosteroid and also isomerization to
the D4-3-ketosteroid [26]. The mode of action
depends on the presence of molecular oxygen
and NAD-dependent dehydrogenases e.g. the
coupled enzyme 3b-hydroxysteroid: NAD (P)
oxidoreductase-3-ketosteroid D4, D5-isomerase
(3b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: D5isomerase) from the mitochondrial fraction of
human placenta. COD catalyzes three chemical
reactions (Figure 2).
In the first catalytic step, the

dehydrogenation of the alcohol function at the
3-position of the steroid ring system occurs,
resulting in two redox equivalents which are
transferred to the (oxidized) flavin cofactor that
becomes reduced in the process. In the second
catalytic step, the reduced flavin reacts with
dioxygen to regenerate the oxidized enzyme and
hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) (oxidative halfreaction). Finally in the third step, the oxidized
steroid undergoes an isomerization of the
double bond in the steroid ring system from D56 to D4-5 and formed the final product cholest4-en-3-one. In general, this isomerization
reaction occurs faster than the release of the
intermediate cholest-5-en-3-one [38].
PROPERTIES OF CHOLESTEROL OXIDASES
Cholesterol oxidases are produced from
several microorganisms and its properties have
been extensively studied. Various properties of
microbial cholesterol oxidases (molecular weight,
pH and temperature optima, effect of metal ions
and detergents) are summarized in Table 2b.
COD molecular weights have been reported to
be in the range of 4761 kDa. Most of the CODs
are produced extracellular into the growth
medium. However some of the intracellular or
membrane-bound CODs have been reported
from Mycobacterium [39], Rhodococcus [40,41]. R.
erythropolis produces both membrane-bound
and extracellular cholesterol oxidases [41].
Effect of pH and temperature on the activity
and stability of cholesterol oxidases
Figure 2: Mechanism of reaction catalyzed by

cholesterol oxidase
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Generally microbial CODs have neutral pH

optima and possess stability over a wide range.
The enzymes have temperature optima in the
range of 3760C. The optimum temperature
(70C) of cholesterol oxidase from Streptomyces
fradiae is the highest among the enzymes
reported so far [42] . COD produced from
Chromobacterium sp. strain DS-1 is highly
thermo-stable [22]. The thermal stability of the DS1 enzyme was compared with commercially
available cholesterol oxidases from various
bacterial sources such as Streptomyces sp.,
Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., Nocardia
erythropolis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and B.
cepacia ST-200 and it was found that all of these
commercial enzymes lost most of their activities
3

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
after incubation at 6080C for 30 min [22] while

enzyme from strain DS-1 had retained 80% of
its original activity even at 85C after 30 min. [43]
and improved the thermal stability of
Streptomyces COD by random mutagenesis.
Effect of metal ions on the activity of
cholesterol oxidases
Generally CODs activity does not require
metal ions but some COD activity was enhanced
in the presence of metal ions. Chelating agents,
including EDTA, o-phenanthroline, and 8hydroxyquinoline, did not show a significant
inhibitory effect on the enzyme activity [44,45,22]. In
many cases, cholesterol oxidase activity is
remarkably inhibited by an SH inhibitor, Hg2+, or
Ag+ represented in Table 2b. Exceptionally, Cu2+
increases COD activity approximately 2-3 fold
in some strains as Streptomyces sp.
Enterobacter sp. and Bordetella sp. [18,9,20]. By
contrast Ag+ scarcely influenced the activity of
the enzyme from strain DS-1 [22] . FeSO 4
remarkably inhibited the activity of the enzyme
from S. violascens and Streptomyces sp. [44.18].
CuSO4 significantly inhibited the COD activity of
Streptoverticillium cholesterolieum. In the
addition of p-chloro-mercuric benzonate partially
reduced the COD activity produced from A.
simplex [8] and B. sterolicum [24]. The activities of
the enzymes from Pseudomonas sp. COX629,
-Proteobacterium and Streptomyces parvus
were partially activated by the addition of Mn2+
[21,45,19]
. SDS and -Mercaptoethanol significantly
inhibited the COD activity produced from
Streptomyces sp. and Streptomyces parvus [19,18].
Effect of detergents and organic solvents
on the activity of cholesterol oxidases
Cholesterol is an insoluble compound so
detergents are often added to the reaction
solution to act as a solubilizer. For diagnosis of
hyperlipidemia or atherosclerotic diseases the
monitoring of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol in serum is important. Therefore,
several methods for the separation of HDL or
LDL cholesterol with various detergents have
been presumed [46,47,48] . Since detergents
influence the COD activity [49,19] and often
inactivate cholesterol oxidases as well as most
enzymes [45,22,19,18] a COD with high activity and
4
stability in the presence of a wide range of

detergents is expected to improve the differential
assay method for HDL and LDL cholesterol in
serum. A detergent-tolerant COD was reported
from -Proteobacterium Y-134 and this enzyme
retained more than 80% of its original activity in
0.5% Triton X-405 and sodium cholate after
incubation for 1 h at 60C. At this experimental
condition commercially available enzymes from
Nocardia, Brevibacterium and Streptomyces lost
most of their activities. Commercially available
CODs were completely inactivated by the
addition of ionic detergents such as sodium
dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or sodium lauryl benzene
sulfonate (LBS) after incubation for 1 h at 30C.
By contrast, the COD produced from
Chromobacterium sp. DS-1 was relatively
tolerant to SDS and LBS. In addition, the
treatment with sodium dodecyl sarcosinate or
Emal 20CM completely inactivated all of the
enzymes except the DS-1 enzyme after 1 h at
60C. The DS-1 enzyme was relatively tolerant
to these detergents even at 60C.
Organic solvents are also employed to
solubilize the steroids. COD has been used for
the optical resolution of non-steroidal
compounds, allylic alcohols [50,5] and the
bioconversion of 3 -hydroxysteroids in the
presence of organic solvents [52]. Therefore, an
organic solvent-tolerant COD would be useful
for several applications. Organic solvents often
influence the cholesterol oxidase activity [49].
Laane et al. [53] has reported that organic solvents
with low log Pow values inactivate most enzymes.
Pollegioni et al. [49] examined the stability of COD
produced from Streptomyces hygroscopicus and
B. sterolicum in the presence of various
concentrations of isopropanol. The activity of the
B. sterolicum COD is rapidly inactivated, whereas
the S. hygroscopicus enzyme retained 70% of
the initial activity after 5 h in the presence of 30%
propan-2-ol at 25C. Commercially available
cholesterol oxidases including Streptomyces sp.,
Cellulomonas sp., Nocardia sp., N. erythropolis,
and P. fluorescens, were inactivated by the
addition of 50% volume of dimethylsulfoxide,
methanol, ethanol, acetone isopropanol, ethyl
acetate, or butanol after incubation at 37C for
24 h. By contrast, Chromobacterium sp. DS-1,
B. cepacia ST-200 and Streptomyces sp.
enzymes were stable in the presence of all
solvents except for acetone.
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY
There seems to be a tendency for sterols with

the short side chain to be oxidized at a low rate.
Although the oxidation rates of pregnenolone by
most enzymes were slow and enzymes from
Chromobacterium sp. DS-1, Streptomyces sp.
SA-COO, and S. violascens oxidized pregnenolone at a high rate. Substrate specificity of CODs
is briefly summarized in Table 2.
The oxidation rate affects length and

structure of the 17-side chain the steroid ring D.
Next to cholesterol most of the CODs oxidized
-cholestanol at a high rate. The double bond
between the positions of the 5 and 6 do not seem
to be very important for this enzyme activity.
Table 2. Characterization COD produced from different microbial sources

Sources
M.Wt.
Optimum
Optimum
(kDa)
pH
Temp (C)
Arthrobacter simplex
57
7.5
50
Arthrobacter sp. IM79
63
7.5-8.5
40-50
Brevibacterium
sterolicum
55
7.5
50
Bordetella sp.
55
7.0
50
Burkholderia cepaca
ST-200
60
6.8-8.0
60
Corynebacterium
cholesterolicum
57
7.0-7.5
40-42
Chromobacterium sp.
DS-1
58
7.0-7.5
65
Enterobacter sp.
58
7.0
Nocardia
rhodochrous
Schizophyllum
commune
Streptomyces fradiae
7.0
Substrate Specificity
Cholesterol, Ergosterol and

-Stigmasterol.
Cholesterol, Ergosterol and
-Stigmasterol.
&KROHVWHURO-Stigmasterol,
Dehydroepiandrosterone,
3UHJQHQRORQH-Sitosterol and
-Cholestanol.
3UHJQHQRORQH-Sitosterol,
-Cholestanol and
Epiandrosterone.
Ergosterol, Pregnenolone and
-Sitosterol.
3UHJQHQRORQH-Sitosterol,
-Cholestanol Epiandrosterone,
Dehydroepiandrosterone and
Ergosterol.
-
5.0
60
7.0
70
Streptomyces sp. SACOO
58
6.5-7.0
45-50
Streptomyces sp.
55
7.0
Streptomyces sp.
62
7.5
37
CholesteroO-Stigmasterol,
Ergosterol, Pregnenolone,
-Sitosterol, and
-Cholestanol.
-Sitosterol, and
-Cholestanol.
55
7.2
Streptoverticillium
cholesterolieum
56
7.0-7.5
-Proteobacterium
58
6.5
Pseudomonas
sp.COX629
56
7.0
&KROHVWHURO-Stigmastero
(UJRVWHURODQG-Cholestanol.
-6LWRVWHURO-Cholestanol and
Epicholesterol.
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HgCl2
[8]
[54]
HgCl2 and
AgNO3
[24]
Hg2+and Ag+
[8]
[22]
HgCl2 and
AgNO3
[55]
[22]
Hg2+andAg+
50
50
60
[20]
[11]
Cholesterol, Dehydr epiandro

sterone and Pregnenolone.
Ergosterol,Pregnenolone,
-Sitosterol and
-Cholestanol.
-
Streptomyces parvus
60
References
30
53
Pseudomonas sp.
strain ST-200
Inhibitors
[23]
[42]
Hg++ and Ag+
[21]
[56]
Ba++, Mn++,
Hg++
[18]
Pb++, Ag++,
Hg++ and Zn++
[19]
Hg2+ and Ag+
[67]
&KROHVWHURO-Stigmasterol and
-6LWRVWHURO-Cholestanol
[45]
Fe2+, Zn2+ and
Hg2+
[21]
[58]

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
APPLICATIONS
OXIDASES
OF
CHOLESTEROL
COD of microbial origin are the enzymes of

great interest in the present era. COD is widely
used in clinical diagnosis and determining lipid
disorders. It is used as an insecticide also [59] and
plays a role in lysis of macrophages and
leukocytes as well. The important applications
of COD have been discussed below under
separate categories.
Clinical applications
COD is useful for the clinical determination
of cholesterol levels in foods, serum (HDL and
LDL) for the assessment of atherosclerotic
diseases and other lipid disorders as well as the
risk of thrombosis [60] . Analysis of serum
cholesterol is generally accomplished by using
a three enzyme assay [2,25]. Because most of the
cholesterol present in serum samples is
esterified, the incubation of serum with
cholesterol esterase (EC 3.1.1.13) is necessary
to release free cholesterol. After that peroxidase
enzyme (EC 1.11.1.7) subsequently catalyzes the
oxidative coupling reaction with hydrogen
peroxide, 4-aminoantipyrine and phenol to form
a red quinoneimine dye. This red dye is easy to
measure by spectrophotometric determination.
In recent years various electrochemical
biosensors using the immobilized CODs have
been reported for the determination of
cholesterol in serum and food.
Insecticidal activity
Bacterial COD has potent insecticidal
activity against the cotton boll weevil
(Anthonomus grandis). Purcell et al. [31]
discovered a highly efficient protein that killed
boll weevil (Anthonomusgrandis grandis
Boheman) larvae from Streptomyces culture
filtrates and identified the protein as cholesterol
oxidase. The COD is involved in the lysis of the
mid gut epithelial cells of the larvae. Cholesterol
or the related sterol at the membrane of the boll
weevil mid gut epithelium seemed to be
accessible to the enzyme and it is oxidized by
cholesterol oxidase causing lysis of the mid gut
epithelial cells resulting in larval death. Purified
COD was active against boll weevil larvae at a
concentration (LC 50 of 20.9 g/ml), which is
6
comparable to the bioactivity of Bacillus

thuringiensis proteins against other insect pests.
Corbin et al. [5] studied that enzyme also which
exhibits insecticidal activity against lepidopteran
cotton insect pests, tobacco budworm
(Heliothisvirescens),
corn
earworm
(Helicoverpazea) and pink bollworm
(Pectinophora gossypiella). Recently, it was
reported that Chromobacterium subtsugae has
insecticidal properties [61]. Cholesterol oxidase
might be involved in this insecticidal activity
because it was recently found that
Chromobacterium strains produce cholesterol
oxidase [22] and also shows insecticidal activity.
Some insecticide proteins are vital for pest
control strategies employing transgenic crops.
Corbin et al. [5] expressed the Streptomyces COD
gene in tobacco protoplasts and Cho et al. [62]
also have succeeded in the expression of the
COD gene in tobacco cells.
Transformation of sterols and non-steroidal
compounds and production of steroid
hormones precursors
Bioconversion of non-water-soluble
compounds has been hindered because of their
low solubility in an aqueous medium. Sterols
including cholesterol are insoluble compounds
so various reaction systems with COD have
been developed. COD has been used for the
transformation of cholesterol to cholest-4-en-3one in the presence of different organic solvents
in reverse micelles system [63] and in supercritical
carbon dioxide. COD has a broad range of
substrate specificity and can be used for the
bioconversion of a number of 3 -hydroxysteroids which can be used for the synthesis of
steroid hormones and other pharmaceutical
steroids in the presence of organic solvents and
in aqueous medium containing modified
cyclodextrin [64]. Also cholesterol oxidase can be
used for the optical resolution of non-steroidal
compounds allylic alcohols in the presence of
organic solvents [50] . A wide range of
microorganisms can metabolize cholesterol and
use it as a sole carbon and energy source [65].
Cholesterol degradation is achieved through a
complex metabolic pathway involving many
enzymatic steps starting with the oxidation of the
3 -hydroxyl group by COD followed by the
oxidation of the 17- alkyl side chain and the
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
steroid ring system and ultimately degrading the

entire molecule to CO2 and H2O. A number of
Mycobacterium strains treated with mutagens
have been reported to accumulate sterol
biodegradation intermediates such as 4androstene-3, 17-dione and 1,4-androstadiene3,17-dione [66]. These intermediates may be used
as precursors for the production of steroid drugs
and hormones.
A potential target for new antibiotics
Some pathogenic bacteria which possess
cholesterol oxidases are thought to contribute
to their pathogenicity. Navas et al. [34] observed
that the COD is a major membrane damaging
factor of Rhodococcus equi which is a primary
pathogen of horses and an opportunistic
pathogen in humans. The disruption of the COD
gene was associated with a loss of cooperative
(CAMP-like) hemolysis with sphingomyelinase
producing bacteria. However the gene disruption
analysis of the choE gene in R. equi performed
by another group showed no difference between
the mutant and parent strain in cytotoxic activity
for macrophages or in intra macrophage
multiplication. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is also
a principal bacterial pathogen of humans and
has been found to possess cholesterol oxidase.
[67]
. It has been shown that the choD mutant of
M. tuberculosis was attenuated in peritoneal
macrophages. The mice infection experiments
confirmed the significance of choD in the
pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis. Thus, there
seems to be opposite effects of the genes
disruption in R. equi and in M. tuberculosis. S.
natalensis cholesterol oxidase (PimE) has been
described as a key enzyme in the biosynthesis
of the polyene macrolide pimaricin [68]. Pimaricin
is a macrolide antifungal antibiotic widely used
in the food industry. The antifungal activity of
pimaricin is involved in its interaction with
membrane sterols, causing the alternation of
membrane structure and leading to the leakage
of cellular materials. The pimE gene is located
in the center of the pimaricin biosynthetic cluster.
The gene disruption completely blocked the
pimaricin production, whereas gene
complementation recovered the antibiotic
production. The addition of purified PimE or
commercial cholesterol oxidases to the gene
disruptant culture triggered the pimaricin
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production. These results suggested that

cholesterol oxidases could act as signaling
proteins for polyene biosynthesis. These new
findings might be important for improving the
productivity of the polyene from S. natalensis.
Studies on membrane structure
Cholesterol is the main constituent of
eukaryotic cell membrane. Cholesterol is
expected to promote and stabilize the local bilayer bending which is supposed to take place
during membrane fusion, since the curvature
stress is towards the negative side [69]. Many
researchers have studied the role of cholesterol
in membrane organization that has used COD
as probe [68]. COD has been used as a probe to
investigate the interaction of cholesterol with
phospholipids [70] and the eukaryotic cell
membrane structure i.e., lipid rafts. Pollegioni et
al. [49] demonstrated the inaccessibility of COD
for the outer-membrane surface of human
erythrocytes and virus. The lipid rafts are the
domains in which cholesterol and saturated lipids
present in membrane, such as sphingolipids,
promote the formation of a highly ordered
membrane structure [71]. Lipid rafts participate in
numerous cellular processes including signal
transduction, protein and lipid sorting, cellular
entry by toxins and viruses, and viral budding.
Therefore, the investigation of the lipid raft is
important with regard to the study of eukaryotic
membrane function.
Cholesterol oxidases biosensors
Cholesterol detection is important for clinical
investigation and food analysis. For cholesterol
detection different electrochemical biosensors
have been proposed. Cholesterol biosensors
based on immobilized cholesterol esterase and
cholesterol oxidase have been studied to
determine the total cholesterol content in food
stuffs and electrochemical measurements are
performed in the cholesterol analysis of food
samples. Different types of methods to use COD
as biosensors, such as screen printed electrode
[72]
hydrogel membranes, polymeric membrane,
self-assembled mono layers, composite sol-gel
membrane , liquid crystal cubic phase matrices
and films prepared by the layer-by-layer
technique have been developed. Generally in
electrochemical biosensor the detection was
7

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
monitored on the basis consumption of oxygen

and H2O2. Novel amperometric biosensors have
been formed by immobilizing COD in sol-gel layer
on CNT-Pt modified electrodes. This biosensor
was successfully used for serum cholesterol
determination.
A new electrochemical biosensor was
introduced in 2010, for determination of
cholesterol that combined with Fourier
transformation continuous cycle voltmeter
[FFTCCV] technique in a flow injection analysis
[73]
. A surface plasma resonance based biosensor
for simple, label-free, highly selective and
sensitive detection of cholesterol employing the
flavo-enzyme COD as a sensing element has
been proposed by Gehlot et al. [74]. A novel
amperometric cholesterol biosensor immobilized
with COD on electrochemically polymerized polypyrole-polyvinlyulphonate (PPy-PVS) film
entrapped on platinum electrode was developed
by [75].
Commonly cholesterol biosensors have
been used in biochemical analysis owing to their
good selectivity, low cost, small size, fast
response and long term stability. The cited
literature based on cholesterol biosensors have
been mainly focused on diagnosing disorders
[76]
.
Recently a novel COD biosensor has been
fabricated by co-immobilizing three enzymes
COD, cholesterol esterase and HRP on
nanoporous gold network directly grown on
titanium substrate [77]. This biosensor possessed
a wide linear range up to 300 mg/dl in a physical
condition (pH 7.4) for very effective clinical
determination of cholesterol. The microchip
capillary electrophoresis (MCE) was also used
to demonstrate the rapid detection of cholesterol
in serum, using (MCE) fabricated from poly
(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) microchip channel
successfully applied to determine cholesterol
levels. Also this developed method was used to
measure cholesterol in a bovine serum standard
solution. The developed polymer micro- fluid
biochip has more advantages like, compact size,
high sensitivity, and high selectivity, low cost and
fast response that appeared to be beneficial to
perform routine analysis in clinical laboratory.
Investigations pertaining with the isolation of
novel COD producing microbial strains having
8
commercial application will be welcomed in

future.
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VAJRADANTI -TRADITIONAL TO MODERN ERA

*VIBHA SINGH
Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery, K.G.Medical University, Lucknow,India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. Vibha singh, Professor, Department of Oral and Maxillo Facial Surgery,
K.G. Medical University, Lucknow, India. Email ID: vibhasinghraghuvanshi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
There are approximately 500000 plant species occurring worldwide. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people (80% of the Worlds population) use herbal
medicines for some aspect of primary healthcare. These evidences contribute to support and
quantify the importance of screening natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100 species of
plants used as regular source of medicine .In developed countries 25% of the medical drugs
are based on plants and their derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of medicine (Ayurveda)
it is known as sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda, korandaka, shairiya and pitasaireyaka. This is a plant of miraculous nature. It has wide range of medicinal properties
which can be used for welfare of human being without any side effects. It has its traditional use
and well documented to use in modern medicine too.
Keywords: Vajradanti, Anti-inflammatory, Antidontalgic
INTRODUCTION
There are approximately 500000 plant
species occurring worldwide. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion
people (80% of the Worlds population) use
herbal medicines for some aspect of primary
healthcare. These evidences contribute to
support and quantify the importance of screening
natural plants. In India 2500 plants and 100
species of plants used as regular source of
medicine. In developed countries 25% of the
medical drugs are based on plants and their
derivatives. In Indian traditional systems of
medicine (Ayurveda) vajradanti is known as
sahachara, baana, kurantaka, kuranta, koranda,
korandaka, shairiya and pita-saireyaka. In folk
medicine it is known as piyaabaasaa, jhinti and
katsaraiya. Vajradanti is plant of Ramayan Kal .
It was found near Pampa lake . It is known as
Kurant, and pita Saireyaka in Sanskrit and
vajradanti in Hindi and Baleria prointis in
English. It belongs to family Acanthaecae and
occurs in hotter part of India . Barleria prionitis
L. (Family Acanthaceae; commonly known as
Vajradanti) is an annual shrub, 13 feet high,
found throughout Africa, India, Sri Lanka and
tropical Asia.
12
The chemical constituents present in plants

are a part of the physiological functions of living
flora and hence they are believed to have better
compatibility with the human body. They have
stood the test of time for their safety, efficacy,
cultural acceptability and lesser side effects.
Plant derived medicines have been the first line
of defense in maintaining health and combating
diseases.
The herbal products today symbolize safety
in contrast to the synthetics that are regarded
as unsafe to human and environment .These
evidences contribute to support and quantify the
importance of screening natural plants.
The medicinal properties of Vajradanti are
well reported in Ayurveda as anti-inflammatory
and diuretic .Leaves are used for treating
bleeding gums and tooth ache. It has a long
history of healing and curative properties .It is al
so known as Vajradanti which means strong
teeth. Because of its antidontalgic property it is
known as Vajradanti. It is al so known as
Porcupine flower.
Oral diseases are major health problems
with dental caries . Oral health influences the
general quality of life and poor oral health is
linked with systemic diseases. The vast diversity
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of Indian forest provides several plants which

are mentioned in Ayurveda for prevention and
management of dental caries. [1] Numerous
medicinal plants have been reported in ancient
literature for the control of oral diseases. In one
of studies , seven plant extracts of Anantmul,
Lavang, Maiphal, Peelu, Trifala, Vajradanti and
Vedang were found to be effective against
Streptococcus mutans and four extracts viz
.Lavang, Maiphal, Trifala and Vajradanti were
found to be active against Candida albicans. [2]
In traditional health practice bark and leaves
of the plants are used for the management of
various diseases. Vajradanti is an annual shrub
1-3 feet in height and its leaves are chewed to
relieve tooth ache and the parts of the roots are
applied to glandular swellings and disperse boil.
It also has been reported as anti- arthritic, antiinflammatory and antifertility agent. Juice of the
plant is used in cataract and fever. Its leaves
are also used in some tribal communities for the
treatment of piles and to control irritation .It is
used in stiffness of limbs and enlargement of
scrotum and sciatica .The leaves of this plant
are used to provide healing of wound and relieve
joint pain and bleeding gum. [3]
In South India this plant is widely used in
neurological disorder like paraplegia, sciatica
and also in leprosy and other skin disease .The
plant formulation is available for the treatment
of dysurea ,rheumatic infections ,internal
abscess ,nervine disorders and chronic sinusitis
.The crude extract of this plant in oil is used in
arresting graying of hair, arthritis and gout.
The natural occurring enzyme inhibitors play

an important role in drug discovery program. .
Ethanolic extract of B. prionitis yielded a new
compound. Glutathione S- transferase (GSTs)
are family of enzyme that catalyze the tripeptise
.It has also anti- stress and immuno restorative
properties . Because of its antidontalgic
properties, it is known as Vajrdanti. It is also used
in management of asthma , plant ash mixed with
honey is given in bronchial asthma [4,5] .
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
Hydro methanolic extract of B. prionitis
whole plant indicates the presence of glycosides,
saponins, flavonoids, steroids and tannins. The
leaves and flowering tops were reported to rich
in potassium salt. Several phytochemicals like
balarenone, pipataline, lupeol, prioniside. A,
prioniside B and prinoside C have been isolated
from the ethanolic extract of B. prionitis. Number
of glycosides including barlerinoside
,verascoside shanzhiside methyl ester 6-O trans
p-coumaroyl 8-O acetylshanzhiside methyl
ester,
barlerin
,
acetylbarlerin
,7methoxydiderroside lupulinoside have also been
isolated from the aerial parts. Two anthrax
quinones derivatives have been also identified
in the plant and their structures were
characterized as 1,8 dihydroxy- 2,7dimethyl3,6dimethoxy anthraquinone and 1,3,6,8 tetra
methoxy -2, 7-methoxyanthraquinone.The
leaves were reported to contain scutellarein
,melilotic acid ,syringe acid , vanillic acid , phydroxyflavones Beside these phytochemicals
luteolin -7-O beta D-glucoside 14.14
secostigmata -5 ,14-diene -3-a-ol were also
reported in B.prionitis. Methanolic extract of
whole plant indicates presence of glycosides
,saponins . Flowers are rich with potassium salt
and several phytochemicals .The crude extract
of this plant exhibited GST inhibitory activity with
ICS50 value of 160muml and results in isolation
of six natural products balarenone ,pipataline
,lupeol ,prioniside A prioniside B and prionide C
compound.
PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Picture of Vajradanti (Baleria prionitis) Plant

www.ijsir.co.in
Antibacterial Properties : Ethanol extract

of the plant yielded a new compound along with
other compounds known as balarenone, which is
effective against four bacteria and three fungi viz.
13

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Bacillus species, pseudomonas, staphylococcus

aureus, and streptococcus mutans and candida
albicans ,and saccarromyces cerevisiae. It has
been seen that crude extract of B.prrionitis
possessed good activity against dental caries
causing oral pathogens where modern therapy
has failed . The crude extract of the plant also
showed antibacterial activity against staphareus
and pseudomonas aeroginosa in initial
antibacterial screening.The antibacterial potency
of the plants are believed to be due to
tannin,saponins, phenolic compounds ,essential
oils and flavonoids present in them. The
antimicrobial potency of B.prionitis may be due to
presence of five iridoid glucoside esters, acetyl
barlerin 6,8,di-o-acetyl shanzhisisde methyl ester
,shanzhiside methyl ester verbascoide. This study
affirms that extract of B. prionits L can damage
MDR E.coli cell membrane by exerting profound
physiological changes that lead to bacterial death.
Crude methanolic extract of B. prionits L revealed
in vitro anti-oxidant, total phenol and flavonoid
contents, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial
potential. The results are comparable to the
standard compounds such as Ascorbic acid, Gallic
acid, Quercetin and Ibuprofen to clarify the in vivo
potential of this plant in the management of UTI
infections. Thus the multi-therapeutic
characteristics of this plant extract serves as a
source of plant derived natural products that
modify antibiotic resistance of MDR E.coli. Further
investigations are in progress to find active
component of this plant extract and to confirm its
mechanism of action in vivo. Leaf juice is used in
stomach disorder and urinary infection. [6,7,11]
Ant-inflammatory Properties : It is
reported by various authors that methanolic
extract shows anti-inflammatory activities and
antimicrobial activities against staph and
pseudomonas. The plant is having antiinflammatory properties and is used in ulcers
and itching of leprosy ulcers. Leaves juice are
used in stomach disorder, urinary afflictions,
fever and catarrh, this plant is especially well
known for treating bleeding gum and toothache.[8]
Antihypertensive Properties : Methanolic extract of B.prionitis has profound
antihypertensive activity without any side effects.
Diuretic Activity : This plant is rich in
potassium and said to contribute to its diuretic
14
action. Its leaves and young inflorescence are

diuretic. Leaves juice are used in urinary
afflictions. [9,10]
The diuretic property of B. prionitis flower
extract was performed . The oral administration
of aqueous flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was
significantly increased the urination and sodium
elimination but not potassium in rats. The diuretic
effect of flower extract (200 mg kg-1) was found
comparable with the reference drug furosemide
(20 mg kg-1 )
Antioxidant properties : The whole plant
extract was reported to show potent antioxidant
activity. It was observed that leaves showed
higher degree of antioxidant potential and high
phenolic content in comparison to flower and
stem. The methanolic extracts of root ,stem and
leaves show significant antioxidant properties.
Enzyme inhibitory effectThe phytochemiclas are reported to inhibit the clinically
significant enzymes Acetylchlolinesterase
(AChE) and glutathione S- transferase (GST). It
has been reported that the methanolic extract
of leaf and stem of the plant exhibited AChE
inhibitory activities and leaf and stem extract
exhibited higher potency of exhibition in
comparison to the root extract.
All prionside A,B and C also showed GST
inhibitory activity. B and C were more potent
GST inhibitors.
Anti- asthmatic Activity : Ash of the whole
plant mixed with honey is used for asthma in
traditional medicine. It also showed biological
activity against respiratory syncyrial virus.
Antidiabetic Activity: It was found the
alcoholic extract of leaves was effective in
reducing blood sugar in diabetic animals. Oral
administration at the dose of 200mg/kg
significantly reduced blood glucose glycosylated
hemoglobin level and increased serum insulin
and liver glycogen level in diabetic rats. It also
arrested the weight loss due to diabetes.[12]
Anti-arthritic Activity : It is reported that the
methanolic extract of the whole plant showed
dose dependent mast cells and erythrocytes
membrane protection activity in response to the
toxic chemicals. [13] It is also reported as antiwww.ijsir.co.in

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
arthritic, anti-inflammatory and antifertility

agent[14]
Hepatoprotective Activity : Aerial part
of leaves and stem are reported to possess
hepatoprotective activity by various authors.
The aqueous bioactive fractions have been
shown to possess hepatoprotective activity. The
irioid fraction significantly reduced the hepato
toxin induced elevated level of serum alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) aspartate transaminase
(AST) , alkaline phosphatase ALP bilirubin and
triglycerides in dose dependent manner .The
fraction was also found to increase the hepatic
glutathione content and reduce the hepatic lipid
peroxidation in response to the hepatotoxicity in
mice and rats.
Antihelminthic Activity : Chavan et al [15]
reported its anti-helminthic properties which was
compared with albendazole and it was found
that Pheretima posthuma worms were paralyzed
at lower dose and caused death on the higher
dose.
Antifertility Activity: The plant was
reported to possess antifertility activity. The
oral administration of methanolic extract in male
albino rats
was found to reduce
spermatogenesis in the albino rats. This effect
of root extract may be due to presence of iridoid
glycosides barlerin and acetyl barlerin via
affecting the functions of testicular somatic cells.
Verma et al [ 16 ] found methanolic extract of plant
to produce anti- spermatogenic effect without
affecting general body metabolism.
Anti-diarrheal Activity
: The antidiarrheal potential of butanol fraction of
B.prionitis leaves has been reported . In vivo
study showed that butanol fraction dose
dependently inhibited the castor oil induced
diarrhea. This also reduced the gastrointestinal
motility in response to charcoal induced gut
transit changes.
Anti- nociceptive Activity : Jaiswal et al
reported analgesic activity of B.prionitis
flowers. In vivo study showed flower extract dose
dependently provide a significant increase in
analgesio -meter induced force and exhibited
significant resistance against pain in mice. The
flower extract also provided dose dependent
significant reduction in acetic induced abdominal
cramping . [14]
[17]
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Antifungal Activity : Bark of the plant is

reported in controlling candidacies and other
fungal infections, it has both fungicidal and fungi
static activity. Acetone methanol and ethanol
extract of B. prionitis bark showed antifungal
activity against oral pathogenic fungus
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and two strains of
Candida albicans . It has been reported that
the petroleum ether dicloro methane and ethanol
extract of stem and root showed fungi static and
fungicidal activities against C.albicans [7,14]
Antiviral Activity : In India and Thailand
the decoction of the leaves and flowers of B.
Prionitis is used in the treatment of viral fever .
The plant shows biological activity against
respiratory syncytial virus.isolated two iridoid
glycosides that is 6-O trans-p-coumaroyl -8-O
acetylshanzhiside methyl ester and its cis isomer
from B prionitis .In vitro study showed that these
glycosides possess potent antiviral activity
against Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)with
EC50 and IC 50 values of 2.46 and 42.2
microgrammL -1 respectively [3,14]
Toxicity : It was reported that extract of
leaves and roots of the plant did not show any
toxic effect on albino rats. No death was
observed up to the oral administration of extract
dose concentration 2.5 g/ kg body weight during
the 14 days .Singh et al [18] reported that the iridoid
gluco side rich aqueous fraction B. prionitis did
not produce any abnormality or any mortality up
the single oral administration of 3000mg kg -1
dose in mice during the 15days of study period
.However the intraperitoneal LD50 was
determined 25-30mgkg-1 for aqueous fraction in
mice.[14]
Cyto protective Mast cells play an important
role in inflammatory responses and release
histamine upon their degranulation to produce
various allergic reactions and significant
erythrocyte membrane protection against
hypotonocity hemolysis and result was
compared
with
reference
standard
indomethasone .[14]
CONCLUSION
Vajradanti is a plant of miraculous nature.
It has wide range of medicinal properties which
can be used for welfare of human being without
15

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
any side effects. It has its traditional use and

well documented to use in modern medicine too.
A wide range of phytochemical constituents
including balarenone ,pipataline ,prionisides
,barlerinoside ,verbascoside ,shanzhisde,methyl
ester, barlerin, pipataline, acetylbarlerin,
lupulinoside, scutellarein, have been isolated
from different part of the plant. Extracts and
phytochemicals isolated from the plant have been
found to possess wide range of pharmacological
activities without any side effects .It is common
plant which is found in hotter part of India, but it
needs identification and its proper use and
standardization.
8.
Kuldeep Singh, Rupinder Kaur , Sarvjit Singh, B S

Bajwa1 and D N Prasad,Antiinflammatory activity
of Barleria prionotis Journal of Natural Remedies
| ISSN: 2320-3358 www.jnronline.com | Vol 13 (1)
| January 2013
9.
Bhavana B Mourya , S.B.Bothara Investigation of

Antihypertensive activity of leaves of Barleria
Prionitis in Doca salt induced Hypertensive rat Int
J Pharma Sci Res 18(2)Jan Feb 2013 n003-1719.
10.
Ghule B.V.Yeole P.G. in vitro and in vivo

immunomodulatory activities of iridoids fractions
from Barleria prionitis journal of Ethano
Pharmacology Vol 141 ,issue 1 ,424-431.
11.
Manupati Prasanth Antimicrobial efficacy of

different tooth paste and mouth rinse An in vitro
study Dental Research Journal Vol 8 no 2 Spring
2011 85-94.
12.
Dheer Rana, Bhtanagar Prdeep A Study of

antidiabetic activity of Barleria prionitis Indian
Journal of Pharmacology Vol 42, Issue 2 page
70-72 .
13.
Dhaked Umesh Nama Gaurav Singnh Devendra

Mishra Amit Kumar Nitin Pharmacognostical and
pharmacological profile of B areleria prionitis root
Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry 2011,Vol 3,Issue 3. Year : 2011,
Volume : 3, Issue : 3
14.
D.Banerjee A.K.Maji et al Barleria prionitis Linn A

Review of its traditional use ,phytochemistry
pharmacology and Toxicity Research journal of
phytochemistry 6:31-41.
15.
Chavan CB, Hogade MG, Bhinge SD, Kumbhar M

and Tamboli A. In vitro anthelmintic activity of fruit
extract of Barleria prionitis Linn. Against Pheretima
posthuma. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 4950.
16.
Verma PK, Sharma A, Joshi SC, Gupta RS and

Dixit VP. Effect of isolated fractions of Barleria
prionitis root methanolic extract on reproductive
function of male rats: Preliminary study.
Fitoterapia. 2005; 76: 428-432.
17.
Jaiswal SK, Dubey MK, Verma AK, Das S,

Vijaykumar M and Rao CV. Evaluation of iridoid
glycosides from leave of Barleria prionitis as an
anti- diarrhoeal activity: An Ethnopharmacological
study. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. 2010; 2: 680-686.
18.
Singh B, Chandan BK, Prabhakar A, Taneja SC,

Singh J, Qazi GN. Chemistry and hepatoprotective
activity of an active fraction from Barleria prionitis
Linn. In experimental animals. Phytother Res.
2005; 19(5): 391-404.
REFERENCES
1.
Reenu Yadav and Dr S.K.Yadav et al. Dental

diseases and its cure Asian J Pharm Clin Res,
Vol 6, Suppl 2, 2013, 16-20 .
2.
Pachori, R. R.1, N.S. Kulkarni1*, M. G.

Bodhankar2, and S.C. Aithal3. Antimicrobial
Studies of Herbs and Shrubs Against Dental
Pathogens Journal of Empirical Biology Vol 1(1)
10-16.
3.
P.D.Diwan and Y.A. Gadhikar Assessment of

phytochemical composition and antibacterial
activity of different extracts of Barleria prionitis
leaves against oral micro flora to improve dental
hygiene Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and
clinical research Vol 5Suppl2 2012.
4.
Kalhari S,Kosmulalage Zahid et al GlutathioneSTransferase Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory and

antibacterial activity of chemical constituents of
Barleria prionitis. Z. Naturoforsch 2007. 62b-580586.
5.
Athar
Ata,
Stephaine
A
.Van
Den
Bosch,DrewJ.Harwank and Grant E. Pinwinski.
Glutathione
Stransferase
and
acetylcholinesterase inhibiting natural products
from
medicinally
important
plants.
Pure.Appl.Chem.,Vol 79No 12 pp 2269-2276
.2007.
6.
Shukla P, Singh A, Gwari S et al invitro propogation

of Barleria Prionitis and its antibacterial activity.
International journal of Pharma Professional
research Vol 2 Issue 1 Jan2011 .
7.
Kamarai Aneja ,Radhika Joshi ,Chetan Sharma

Potency of Barleria prionitis L bark extract against
oral disease causing strains of bacteria and fungi
of clinical origin New Yark Science journal
2010,3(11).
16
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BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF HELIUM : AN OVERVIEW

1
*B. R. PANDEY 1, SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2, SANJAY DIXIT 1

Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute,

Lucknow, U. P., India,
E mail ID : drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Helium has varied applications in biomedicine. The research studies with hyperpolarized
helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) have been found
useful in developing non-radiation based and sensitive approaches for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease ( COPD ). The applications of atmospheric pressure plasmas ( APPs ) in
biomedicine are becoming better treatment protocols for various chronic diseases as the
research studies have shown their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation and
wound healing, dermatology and cancer treatment. It is interesting to emphasize that the
atmospheric pressure helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been utilized to treat
human lung cancer cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as a valuable tool for reactive
oxygen species (ROS) promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer patients. Helium based
low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma has been found to break Amyloidfibrils into
smaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases
such as Alzheimer and Parkinsons. Attempts have been made to present the biomedical
applications of helium and its utility in health and diseases. However, multidisciplinary scientific
studies on the interaction of helium based low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma on
the sub cellular and molecular levels in disease conditions could be useful in strengthening
its application in biomedicine to address the health challenges for ailing humanity.
Keywords : Helium, Hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and Xenon-129 (129Xe ) Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI), Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas (AAPs), Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD), Cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinsons
INTRODUCTION
The unexpected prolonged exposure of
human beings to large number toxic chemicals
and xenobiotics present in the environment and
unhealthy life styles have become the major
cause of the complex diseases crippling the
human subjects in the world. This has also
resulted in multi -drug resistance problems in
the society .In the present situation, clinicians
and biomedical scientists throughout the world
are in search of developing suitable diagnostic
tool for the diseases .Radio- diagnosis has
emerged as more accurate diagnostic technique
for disease diagnosis at early stage and
measuring the clinical conditions of the diseased
people during treatment. X-ray and CT scan
commonly employed by clinicians in diagnosing
the diseases have been found to produce
harmful effects on the patients as they produce
radiations harming the body thereby making the
www.ijsir.co.in
human system immunologically deficient. In this

scenario, scientists are exploring the use of
noble gases in developing non-radiation based
sensitive approaches for the diagnosis and
treatment of complex diseases.
Naturally occurring noble gases are Helium
( He ), Neon (Ne ), Argon( Ar ), Krypton( Kr ),
Xenon ( Xe) and radioactive Randon ( Rn) which
are also known as rare gases. They were once
also called as inert gases as they were said to
be incapable in producing chemical reactions
with other elements. They are a group of
chemical elements with very similar properties.
They are all colourless, odourless, monoatomic
gases and have very low chemical reactivity.
The very low boiling and melting points of these
gases make them useful as cryogenic
refrigerants. Among these noble gases, helium
has been found varied applications in health
care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (17

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
268.95C;-452.11F) has been found useful for

superconducting magnets which are needed in
Nuclear Resonance Imaging and Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance. The use of liquid helium
in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is
continuously increasing in medical field because
of the utility of MRI in diagnosis of complex
diseases by medical profession. Helium is used
as the carrier medium in gas chromatography,
as a filler gas for thermometers and in devices
for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger
counter and the bubble chamber. Helium is
sometimes used to improve the ease of
breathing of asthma sufferers. The recent
studies with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and
xenon-129 (129Xe ) magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) have been found useful in developing nonradiation based and sensitive approaches for
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD). [1] Atmospheric pressure plasmas
(APPs) based on helium have also been
developed as new tools in the biomedicine and
have proved their effectiveness in biomedical
applications such as treatment of living cells,
sterilization, blood coagulation, wound healing
and air purification.[2] Attempts have been made
to present the biomedical applications of helium
and its utility in health and diseases.
SOURCES
Scientists have observed that helium is the
most abundant element found in the universe
and is extracted from natural gases. All natural
gases
have trace quantities of helium.
Scientists have been able to detect the helium
in abundance by spectroscopic method in hotter
stars. Helium has been found to be an important
component in proton-proton reaction and carbon
cycle accounting for the energy of the sun and
stars. It has been found that the helium content
of the atmosphere is about 1 part in 200,000.
Helium has been found to be present in
radioactive minerals. The free world supply of
this noble gas in bulk quantity is obtained from
USA especially from wells in Texas, Oklahoma
and Kansas while outside the United States,
the only known helium extraction plants in 1984
were in Eastern Europe ( Poland ), the USSR,
and a few in India
18
CHEMISTRY OF HELIUM
It has been found that helium is the second
lightest and second most abundant gas in the
universe (hydrogen being one). Since no
helium compounds are known, this family of
gases was once thought to be inert. In the year
1962, scientists could be able to prepare first
noble gas compound with xenon. Helium occurs
in un-combined form. It is believed that it must
be extracted from the atmosphere by
liquefaction of air or separated from deposits
of natural gas. Research studies have predicted
that some of the terrestrial helium is the product
of the alpha decay of radioactive isotopes
beneath the crust. Helium is said to be the only
element which cannot be converted to a solid
by cooling.
Chemists have found that helium possess
lowest melting point of any element. It is widely
used in cryogenic research because its boiling
point is close to absolute zero. Helium has been
found to be a vital element in the study of super
conductivity. Research studies have revealed
that liquid helium can be used in obtaining
temperatures of a few micro kelvins by the
adiabatic demagnetization of copper nuclei.[ 3]
Helium is known to be only liquid which could
not be solidified by lowering the temperature
and remains in liquid down to absolute zero at
ordinary pressure. It has ability to solidify by
increasing the pressure while solid 3He and
4
He can be changed in volume in volume (more
than 30 percent) by applying pressure. The
specific heat of helium gas is high sand the
density of helium vapor at normal boiling point
is also very high with vapour expanding greatly
when heated at room temperature. Although
helium has weak chemical reactivity to combine
with other elements, scientific studies have been
carried towards
preparation of helium
difluoride. [4] Further, scientists have also
investigated on molecular ions of helium like
He+ and He++. Seven isotopes of helium are
known: Liquid helium (He-4) exists in two forms:
He-4I and He-4II, with sharp transition point at
2.174K. He-4I (above this temperature) is a
normal liquid, but He-4II (below it) is unlike any
other known substance. It expands on cooling,
its conductivity for heat is enormous, and neither
its heat conduction nor viscosity obeys normal
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
rules.[5,6]
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
The very low boiling and melting points of
noble gases make them useful as cryogenic
care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (268.95C; -452.11F) has been found useful for
supercond-ucting magnets which are needed in
diseases by medical profession. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic
resonance imaging (NMRI) or magnetic
resonance tomography (MRT), is a medical
imaging technique used in radiology to
investigate the anatomy and physiology of the
body in both health and disease . MRI scanners
use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to
form images of the body. The technique is used
in hospitals for medical diagnosis, staging of
disease and for follow- up without exposure to
ionizing radiation.
Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs)
based on helium have been developed as new
tools in the biomedicine and have proved their
effectiveness in biomedical applications such as
treatment of living cells, sterilization, blood
coagulation, wound healing and air purification[2].
Low temperature plasmas have potential to
produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
reactive nitrogen species (RNS) having diverse
biological implications such as ROS effects on
cell membrane : per oxidation of lipids, oxidation
of proteins, DNA strands and RNS effects on
biological cells : cell signalling. The applications
of helium based MRI and low temperature
atmospheric pressure plasmas in chronic
complex diseases such as chronic obstructive
disease (COPD), cancer, neurodegenerative
diseases etc. are discussed in this review article.
Pulmonary Diseases
Complex respiratory disorders like chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
characterized by persistent airflow limitation that
www.ijsir.co.in
is usually progressive and associated with an

enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the
airways and lung to noxious particles or gases
present in the environment. [7] COPD has
emerged as the 4 th leading cause of death
worldwide.[8,9] Several research studies have
shown the efficacy of nuclear medicine ,
computed tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) in evaluating chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease and developing
imaging biomarkers for assessment of disease
progression and treatment response.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) inhaled
hyperpolarized noble gases helium-3 (3He)[10-23]
and xenon-129 (129Xe)[24, 25] have been shown to
provide structural and functional measurements
in healthy volunteers as well as subjects with a
range of respiratory conditions. These strategies
are based on the research studies conducted
by Albert and colleagues [24] showing the
effectiveness of inhaled hyperpolarized or
magnetized noble gas for pulmonary magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI). It is interesting to
emphasize that hyperpolarized gas MR imaging
helps the clinicians in quantifying important
structural and functional components of the lung
such as Ventilation Defect Measurements and
Apparent Diffusion Coefficient as biomarkers[2630 ]
which play vital role in diagnosis and treatment
of complex respiratory disorders like chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
The need for sensitive regional and
surrogate measurements of lung structure and
function in COPD continues to motivate the
development of non-radiation based and
sensitive imaging approaches, such as
hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon-129
(129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). 3He
ventilation defect measurements in COPD have
been found to correlate with spirometric
measurements of airflow limitation. [27, 31] Studies
on 3He MRI in COPD cases revealed
heterogeneous signal intensity and ventilation
abnormalities or defects, representing local
hypoventilation of the lung. [10] Hyperpolarized 3He
MRI with xenon-133 scintigraphy has been found
to produce encouraging response in evaluating
ventilation abnormalities in COPD cases. [32]
Studies have shown that 3He ADC can serve as
a good imaging biomarker to measure lung
19

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
tissue destruction in early disease.[31,33-38] Further,

hyperpolarized gas MR diffusion-weighted
imaging has been found useful in COPD.[39-44]
Extensive studies have been conducted to
evaluate the potential of hyperpolarized 3He MRI
in diagnosis and treatment of COPD using
various imaging biomarkers and significant
results have been achieved thereby suggesting
that hyperpolarized gas MRI can be used in
assessing the lung structural and functional
changes in chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD ). [45-53] In addition to above
mentioned studies, the experimental and clinical
applications of functional MR imaging of
pulmonary ventilation using hyperpolarized
noble gases have been studied and it has been
found that 3- helium (3 He) and 129- xenon (129
Xe) can be hyperpolarized by optical techniques
such as spin exchange or metastability exchange
in sufficient amounts and can be used for
assessment of ventilation- distribution , structural
changes of lung parenchyma, such as
emphysema and fibrosis.[54]
Cancer
Atmospheric pressure plasmas (APPs) have
been found to be of great potential in diverse
biomedical applications. Their applications in
bacterial sterilization, blood coagulation, and
wound healing, dermatology and cancer
treatment have been explored.[55-61] Atmospheric
pressure plasmas have also been found to
produce effects on living cells. [62-66] The
interactions of plasma with cancer cells have
been demonstrated to induce cell death in
different cancer cell types which might be due
to production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
such as super oxide (O2-2 ), hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), oxygen atom (O), and hydroxyl radical
(OH) .[61, 67-75] Plasma-induced ROS in the gas
phase could result in intracellular ROS
generation and apoptotic cell death. Atmospheric
pressure plasmas based on helium with only
small fractions of oxygen (less than 5%) have
been
studied
in order to increase
concentrations of ROS and prevent plasma
instability simultaneously [76] thereby indicating
the potential of He/O2 plasmas as a good source
of reactive oxygen species. Admixture of helium
and oxygen has been used to produce more
20
radicals in atmospheric pressure plasma jets.[7779]

Recently the atmospheric pressure helium
plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage has been
utilized to treat human lung cancer cells in vitro.
The studies have shown effects of additive
oxygen on the plasma state including helium and
oxygen related radicals and considerable
correlation between the concentration of
intracellular and extracellular reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and also increase in expression
levels of p 53 and the phospho-53 in the
presence of additive oxygen flow compared with
those from pure helium plasma treatment
thereby representing this plasma device a
valuable tool for ROS-promoting cancer therapy.
[80]
In another study, air, argon (Ar) and helium

(He) plasma sources driven by AC or micro wave
power has been found useful in the treatment of
cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening and
blood coagulation. Various types of non-thermal
APPs operated in low frequency (20kHz) and
microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz)
power feeding argon, helium, and even in the
ambient air have been shown to possess
biomedicine applications such as treatment of
cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and
blood coagulation. It has been demonstrated that
the antibody conjugated GNPs have ability to
enhance to kill cancer cells exposed to
plasmas.[81]
Non-thermal atmospheric plasma jets using
helium have been extensively studied in various
kinds of cancer and antitumor effect has been
observed in vitro on carcinogenic cell lines
related to cancer of skin (melanoma), brain
( glioblastoma), colon, liver, lungs, breast, cervix,
bladder and in oral and ovarian carcinoma or
in leukemia.[82, 83, 84, 85] It is important to mention
that PG helium NTP used in this research study
[87]
has capability to produce reactive species and
to generate transient electric field. The results
of the study provide a novel NTP- based
adjuvant therapy for cancer treatment. [86]
Besides these studies, several studies on the
role of low temperature atmospheric air plasma
on various types cancer on animal models and
human subjects have also been conducted and
encouraging response have been achieved.[8892]
The study has been carried out to find out the
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
effect of low-level helium-neon (He-Ne) laser in

the prevention and treatment of radiation induced
mucositis in head and neck cancer patients and
beneficial results have been obtained. [93]
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Studies have been conducted to evaluate
the potential of helium based low temperature
atmospheric pressure plasma in treatment of
neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer
and Parkinsons which are associated with
Amyloidfibrils. It has been found that low
temperature atmospheric pressure plasma can
break Amyloidfibrils into smaller units in vitro.
The study has been able to provide the
plasma based therapy of these progressive and
debilitating diseases. [94]
Application of Helium- Oxygen Mixtures in
Cough, Asthma, Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Diseases (COPD), Anaesthesia
Helium-oxygen mixtures have been found
very effective in various disease conditions. It
is very interesting to mention that Heliox (a
mixture of 21% O2 and 79% He) has been used
medically since the early 1930s and
it was
used in the treatment in acute asthma before the
advent of bronchodialators. [95-99] Heliox has been
found effective in conditions of large airway
narrowing such as upper airway obstruction
from tumors or foreign bodies and vocal cord
dysfunction. Heliox is also used in conditions
of the medium airways like croup, asthma
and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Patients with these conditions suffer a range of
symptoms like dyspnea, hypoxemia and
weakening of respiratory muscles due to
exhaustion leading to respiratory failure. Heliox
has been found very effective in reducing
these effects thereby making the patients
capable to breathe easily. [100] It is also useful in
weaning of patients off mechanical ventilation
and in the mobilization of inhalable drugs,
particularly for elderly. [101] Helium- oxygen
mixtures have also been found useful in delivery
of anaesthesia. [102]
DISCUSSION
At early stage scientists thought that noble
gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and
radon also called as inert gases or rare gases
www.ijsir.co.in
could not have any application in daily life as

these gases are incapable to produce chemical
reactions with other elements because of their
stable electronic configurations with no unpaired
electrons to share. Later chemists found that
krypton, xenon and radon with outer electrons
held less firmly, can form compounds mainly with
fluorine. Rare though they are, these gases are
now a part of everyday life, as evidenced by
the helium in balloons, the neon in signs and
the harmful radon in some American homes.
Noble gases have very low boiling and melting
points which make them useful as cryogenic
care. Liquid helium, which boils at 4.2K (268.95C; -452.11F) has been found useful for
superconducting magnets which are needed in
diseases by medical profession. Medical
professionals are using medical imaging
technique such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging
(NMRI) or magnetic resonance tomography
(MRT) to investigate the anatomy and physiology
of the body in both health and disease. MRI
scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio
waves to form images of the body. This
technique is widely used in hospitals and clinics
for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and
for follow- up without exposure to ionizing
radiation and has become very successful in
diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex
diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) which has emerged as the 4th
leading cause of death worldwide and is
characterized by persistent airflow limitation that
is usually progressive and associated with an
enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the
airways and lung to noxious particles or gases
present in the environment . The recent studies
with hyperpolarized helium-3 (3He) and xenon129 (129Xe) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
have been found successful in developing nonradiation based and sensitive approaches for
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
The applications of atmospheric pressure
21

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
plasmas (APPs) in biomedicine are becoming

better treatment protocols for various chronic
diseases as the research studies have shown
their potential in bacterial sterilization, blood
coagulation, and wound healing, dermatology
and cancer treatment. It is interesting to
emphasize that the atmospheric pressure
helium plasma jet driven by pulsed dc voltage
has been utilized to treat human lung cancer
cells in vitro. This plasma device may serve as
a valuable tool for reactive oxygen species (ROS)
promoting cancer therapy, a boon for cancer
patients. Various types of non-thermal APPs
operated in low frequency (20kHz) and
microwave frequency (900MHz and 2.45GHz)
power feeding argon, helium, and even in the
ambient air have shown potential in treatment
of cancer cells, sterilization, tooth whitening, and
blood coagulation. The antibody conjugated
GNPs have ability to enhance to kill cancer
cells exposed to plasmas. Furthermore ,
helium based non-thermal atmospheric plasma
jets have been found useful in different kinds of
cancer such as skin cancer ( melanoma ), brain
cancer ( glioblastoma) ,colon, liver, lungs, breast
, cervix, bladder and in oral and ovarian
carcinoma or in leukemia and may be an
effective NTP- based adjuvant therapy for
cancer treatment. Low-level helium-neon (HeNe) laser has been found useful in the prevention
and treatment of radiation induced mucositis in
head and neck cancer patients. Helium based
low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma
has been found to break Amyloidfibrils into
smaller units in vitro and can be used as plasma
based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases
such as Alzheimer and Parkinson which are
progressive and debilitating
diseases .
Additionally, the applications of simple helium
oxygen mixtures in various chronic conditions
like cough, asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease etc. have enhanced the
potential of helium in biomedicine.
Although helium in various modes has been
found useful in disease conditions ranging from
simple cough to dreadful diseases like cancer,
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
Alzheimer and Parkinsons , multidisciplinary
scientific studies on the interaction of helium
based low temperature atmospheric pressure
22
plasma on the sub cellular and molecular levels

in disease conditions may enhance its
application in biomedicine to address the
health challenges for ailing humanity.
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Owrangi, ,Andrew Wheatley,Adam Farag, Alexei
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BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF EXIMER LASERS

*B. R. PANDEY 1 , SATENDRA SINGH 2, NIDHI SHARMA 2 , SANJAY DIXIT 1
1
Sky Institute,Lucknow,India ,2 Research Scholar,Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. B.R. Pandey, Director (Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, U.P., India,
E mail ID: drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The use of lasers in medicine and biology has demonstrated its interest through innovative
advanced technologies such as laser microdissection and /or photoablation which at different
levels of expression enable understanding of the physiological mechanisms in the evolution of
a disease. Lasers have achieved a prominent position in medical application and offer unique
advantages for medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in most
medical disciplines including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer surgery,
urology, gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to deliver high precision treatments,
whilst remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic methods
represent an area of huge future potential.Research efforts andcontinuous improvements over
recent years have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the tool of choice for many applications
in medical sciences.Excimer lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating with a special
mixture of noble gases and halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at
discrete wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm, have shown promise in dermatology,
angioplasty, bilary laser lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics. The principal advantage
of excimer lasers is that they are capable of producing a very small, precise spot at a very low
(UV) wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for removing excess material through laser ablation
due to the fact that they are able to precisely destroy material with little to no thermal buildup.In
the present review, applications of excimer lasers in biomedical sciences particularly in
dermatology,ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics, lithotripsy,dentistry, medical implants
have been presented and recent studies carried out have been reviewed.Laser-associated
micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method of isolating and removing targeted cells or
groups of cells from complex biological tissues which may be helpful in understanding
physiological mechanisms on the level of a specific cell population and even on the level of
the single cell in disease conditions. Multidisciplinary research studies on the interaction of
laser with biological tissue at molecular level using biotechnological tools will enhace the
therapeutic potential of laser technology in diagnosis and treatment of chronic complex
diseases especially cancer , genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders ,
multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune diseases , HIV etc. and it may also be useful
in designing new and innovative strategies in drug delivery and image-guided surgery.
Keywords: Excimer Lasers, Laser-tissue Interaction, Bio-medical Applications: Dermatology,
Ophthamology, Angioplasty, Lithotripsy, Orthopaedics, Dentistry, Biomedical Implants/ Materials/
Devices
INTRODUCTION
Laser : Light Amplified Stimulated Emission
Radiation, unlike a standard light beam, is a
source of monochromatic, coherent and
unidirectional light. Over the past 50 years,
scientific research and innovations made
revolution in laser and led to the development
www.ijsir.co.in
of many new varieties of laser becoming an

integral part of human life with multiple
numerous applications from medicine to
manufacturing, from communication to
measurement and from research and analysis
to entertainment. The first working laser was
demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore
Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratory. Since
27

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
then the laser was being applied in medical

procedure. In December1961, a ruby laser was
used to destroy an eye tumour at Columbia
Presbyterian Hospital. Today lasers have
achieved a prominent position in medical
application and offer unique advantages for
medical diagnosis, therapeutic treatments and
internal surgeries in most medical disciplines
including dermatology, dentistry, neurosurgery,
eye surgery, cancer surgery , urology,
gastroenterology etc. because of their ability to
deliver high precision treatments, whilst
remaining minimally invasive. Thus Laser- based
therapies and diagnostic methods represent an
area of huge future potential. Different types of
laser like Nd:YAG laser,CO2 laser, KTP laser, Ho:
YAG laser , diode lasers, excimer lasers etc. are
currently being used for various medical
applications. In the present review, different
applications of excimer lasers in various
disciplines of medical sciences have been
addressed.The main medical application is the
use of excimer lasers at 193 nm in ophthalmology
for vision-correction systems. A total of about
10,000 lasers are currently operating worldwide.
The theoretical basis for the laser was
established in 1917, when Einstein postulated
the theoretical concept of stimulated emission.[1]
The first excimer laser was built in 1971 by
Basow, 54 years later.[2]
Excimer lasers are pulsed gas lasers
operating with a special mixture of noble gases
and Halogens. They emit laser radiation in the
UV and VUV spectra, at discrete wavelengths
between 351 nm and 157 nm.The most
commonly used excimer lasers are krypton
fluoride ( KrF , 248 nm), argon fluoride ( ArF,
193 nm), xenon chloride (XeCl, 308 nm), xenon
fluoride (XeF, 351 nm). Research efforts
andcontinuous improvements over recent years
have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the
tool of choice for many applications in medical
sciences. Excimer lasers have shown promise
in angioplasty, bilary laser
lithotripsy,
ophthalmology and orthopedics. It is heartening
to emphasize that the first laser eye surgery
using an excimer laser was performed in 1987,
by ophthalmologist Steven Trokel. Today
millions undergo eye surgery every year which
is a path breaking achievement in eye surgery.
Another medical application where excimer
28
lasers are being used is dermatology for treating

a variety of dermatological conditions including
psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, alopecia
areata and leukoderma.
EXCIMER LASER AND LASER TISSUE
INTERACTION
The term excimer is a shortened form of
excited dimer, which describes a molecule
formed from two identical noble gas atoms.These
atoms will only bond with each other in an excited
state. The term excimer was later expanded
to include all combinations of rare gases and
halides. Therefore, in laser physics, all raregas halides and similar molecules are excimers,
which are not really dimers. Nowadays excimer
lasers are the dominant UV source in many
applications. Using an excimer laser is the easiest
way to generate photons in the deep ultraviolet.
Although it is possible to generate radiation below
350 nm with solid-state lasers using non-linear
optical effects, tremendous effort is involved in
this process. A frequency-tripled Nd-YAG laser,
for example, emits at 355 nm, but to generate
photons in the deeper UV the processes become
more and more inefficient. If output power is
needed, solid-state lasers are definitely no
match for excimer lasers.Due to their complex
technology, the first excimer lasers were very
sensitive devices. However, this has changed
dramatically. As a result of effective improvement
over the last 15 years, excimer lasers have now
become fully competitive with other commercially
used laser systems. Excimer lasers are pulsed
gas lasers operating with a special mixture of
noble gases and halogens. They emit laser
radiation in the UV and VUV spectra, at discrete
wavelengths between 351 nm and 157 nm.
Continuous improvements over recent years
have resulted in excimer lasers becoming the
tool of choice for many applications. The
excimer
lasers produce ultraviolet light
which due to its short wavelength allows for highprecision imaging. Different excimer laser
transitions have been used to generate light
pulses at various wavelengths between 126 nm
and about 660 nm. The most commonly used
excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF , 248
nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon
chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF,
351 nm ). Laser action in an excimer molecule
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
occurs because it has a bound excited state, but

a repulsive ground state which is due to the fact
that noble gases like xenon (Xe) and krypton (Kr)
do not usually form compound. These noble
gases in excited state can form temporarily
bound molecules with themselves or with
halogens like fluorine and chlorine. This bound
state is the upper laser level in the case of
excimer laser level. The excited compound can
give up its excess energy by undergoing
spontaneous or stimulated emission, resulting
in a strongly repulsive ground state molecule
which very quickly dissociates back into two
unbound atoms.Since the excimer molecule
returns to the unexcited ground state and
separates into atoms, the population inversion
condition is achieved the moment excited state
is created, since the population of ground level
is nil.
Excimer lasers are powerful ultraviolet
lasers which use a mixture of noble gases and
halogens as a gain medium.All lasers consist of
three components: a pump (energy source), a
gain (or laser) medium, and an optical resonator.
The pump provides energy which is amplified by
the gain medium. This energy is eventually
converted into light and is reflected through the
optical resonator which then emits the final output
beam.
Like most gas lasers, excimer laser power
is provided by an electrical current source. The
laser medium is a tube filled with three different
types of gases:
-
A noble gas (argon, krypton, or xenon)
A halogen gas (fluorine, chlorine, or

bromine)
A buffer gas (typically neon or helium)
Excimer lasers rely on the interaction

between the noble gas and the halogen gas to
produce a high-powered beam. The current
source pumps the gas medium using very short,
high voltage pulses transmitted through metal
electrodes; the pulse excites the gas atoms and
causes them to fuse together into atomic pairs
called dimers. For example, pumping an argon
fluoride (ArF) laser causes asymmetric molecules
of ArF to form. Excimers only remain bound in
an excited state, so that following the pulsed
electrical discharge the atoms separate once
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again. While active, though, the excimers emit a

burst of electromagnetic radiation before quickly
dissociating into separate gases. This rapid
dissociation prevents molecular reabsorption of
the emitted radiation, making it possible to
achieve high gain using a relatively small
concentration of excimers. The radiation is then
reflected by mirrors placed at both ends of the
gas tube (representing the optical
resonator) until the beam is emitted via the front
mirror.
Laser actions are governed according to the
discovery of Einstein that light does not consist
of continuous waves or small particles but it exists
as bundles of wave energy called photons.[3]
The type of interaction of laser with tissue
that occurs depends on various factors such as
the properties of laser system (wavelength,
energy pulsed / continuous mode of emission),
local blood circulation, the optical properties of
the tissues, and the immune response of the
patient. [4,5] Further such type of interaction
involves different effects like photo thermal
effect, mechanical effect, photo chemical effect
, tissue-welding effect. The understanding of
interaction of laser with tissue involving different
components viz protein, water, fat, melanin,
hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical
applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves
scattering, absorption, heat generation and such
properties could be harnessed for different
applications. Time of interaction of the laser
beam and intensity of the beam play critical role
in defining the application of laser in humans
subjects. These parameters need to be
selected accordingly for a given purpose. The
scattering properties of tissue could themselves
be of diagnostic interest. Many spectrometric
techniques like Laser Dopler Perfusion , Optical
Coherence Tomography, Raman Scattering
Spectroscopy etc. are based on scattering and
haves played significant role in designing the
laser of diagnostic purpose. In excimer laser
ablation, which involves ultraviolet laser action
based on a medium of noble gas halides,the
mechanism of tissue cutting by the 193 nm
eximer laser is non-thermal and involves direct
breakage of covalent bonds.Another
characteristics of ultraviolet radiation is its high
tissue absorption coefficient leading to shallow
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penetration independent of water content. The

combination of pulsed delivery, limited tissue
penetration and non-thermal mechanism of
tissue interaction seems to be ideally suited to
extremely precise layer by layer ablation and
make eximer lasers with diverse medical
applications.
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
The effective utilization of lasers in
medical sciences arises in many situations due
to the unique aspects of laser light. The
advantageous characteristic of lasers is due the
ability to deliver high energy at precise
wavelengths to minimize invasive damage. The
technology of optical fibers facilitates precise
delivery of very high energy to small regions of
the tissues. Absorption of light by the target
tissue and the depth of penetration
are both
wavelength dependant and thus several kinds
of lasers have been developed for medical and
therapeutic applications. The various kinds of
lasers commonly used in many medical
applications are CO2 lasers, Argon ion lasers, Nd:
YAG lasers, KTP-532 lasers, Pulse-dye lasers,
Alexanderite lasers,
Ho: YAG lasers, Er. YAG lasers, Diode
lasers, Excimer lasers.The largest application of
Excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive
laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool
,excimer laser has been widely used for
photoablation process. The precision of excimer
laser and, more important, the lack of damage
to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for
correction of refractive errors or optical problems
of the eye, including nearsightedness,
farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser
light is typically absorbed in less than a
nanometer of tissue. By means of intense
excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea
is reshaped to change its refractive power and
thus to correct for short or long sightedness.
areata and leukoderma. The biomedical
applications of excimer lasers in various disease
conditions are discussed below.
30
Dermatology
The use of eximer laser in dermatology has
been considered more effective as compared
to
conventional
phototherapy
and
photochemotherapy because of the lower
cumulative UV-dose involved, the shorter time
frame required for treatment and the option of
targeting individual lesions without affecting the
surrounding healthy skin.Grema and Raulin
have reviewed the application of eximer laser in
various skin diseases such as psoriasis vulgaris,
vitiligo and atopic eczema and it has been found
very useful in these skin diseases. The eximer
laser has also been found effective in case
studies ranging from post-operative
hypopigmentation to acne vulgaris and from
alopecia areata to parapsoriasis en plaque.[6]UVB
phototherapy has been found effective for the
treatment of psoriasis. It has been observed that
for patients with localized plaque-type lesions,
308-nm excimer laser phototherapy offers rapidly
delivered, targeted, high UVB doses, while
sparing adjacent healthy skin.Studies have been
conducted to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of the 308-nm xenon chloride
(XeCI)UVB excimer laser with non targeted
broadband UVB (BB-UVB), narrowband UVB (NBUVB), and psoralen plus UVA (PUVA)
phototherapies and it has been proposed that
excimer laser exclusively treats diseased skin
with better response rates, split-body trials
revealed no differences.[7] Narrowband UVB (311
nm) phototherapy is a well-established, widely
used and highly efficient treatment for psoriasis
which is a chronic, genetically determined
inflammatory disease, characterized by an
immunomediated pathogenesis, but a big
disadvantage of this therapy is that large areas
of unaffected skin are also irradiated along with
the psoriatic lesions. Keeping in view of this
disadvantage studies have been conducted to
evaluate a 308-nm excimer laser and a 308-nm
excimer lamp in comparison with 311-nm
narrowband UVB in the treatment of patch
psoriasis by using two different dose-increase
schemes and the results of the study revealed
that both 308-nm light sources can clear patch
psoriasis in a similar manner to standard
phototherapy, with the advantage of the ability
to treat exclusively the affected skin and with a
reduced cumulative dose, thus perhaps
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reducing the long-term risk of carcinogenicity.[8]

Recently Mehraban and Feily have
reviewed the efficacy of 308nm xenon-chloride
excimer laser in treatment of dermatological
disorders and found that 308-nm excimer laser
has currently a verified efficacy in treating skin
conditions such as vitiligo, psoriasis, atopic
dermatitis, alopecia areata, allergic rhinitis,
folliculitis, granuloma annulare, lichen planus,
mycosis fungoides, palmoplantar pustulosis,
pityriasis alba, CD30+ lympho proliferative
disorder, leukoderma, prurigo nodularis,
localized scleroderma and genital lichen
sclerosus.[9]
Park et al has reviewed the application of
monochromatic excimer light (MEL) in
dermatology which has been found effective for
the treatment of vitiligo. The specific 308-nm
radiation wavelength is delivered in a targeted
form by the xenon-chloride excimer laser and is
also available in an incoherent form that is
commonly referred to as the excimer lamp. MEL
administered by both laser and lamp has shown
efficacy superior to NB-UVB for the treatment of
vitiligo and induces more changes at the cellular
level than conventional UVB modalities. The
excimer laser has been found effective in adults
and children with vitiligo in all skin types as
monotherapy or in combination with other
established vitiligo therapeutics.[10]Studies have
been conducted to analyze the efficacy of the
308 nm excimer light in psoriasis, palmoplantar
pustulosis, vitiligo, mycosis fungoides and
alopecia areata and to examine potential new
indications in patients and the results of the
study confirm the use of monochromatic excimer
light as a valid choice for the treatment of
psoriasis, vitiligo, and mycosis fungoides and it
has also been observed that monochromatic
excimer light produces a therapeutic response
in prurigo nodularis, localized scleroderma,
genital lichen sclerosus, and granuloma
annulare on the assessment of clinical response
using photos, biopsies and specific clinical
scores.[11]John et al studied the response of
308nm Excimer Laser to facial Vitiligo and the
results of the study revealed encouraging
response in the treatment of male patients with
Fitzpatrick skin types IV to VI undergoing
combination treatment utilizing excimer laser with
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calcipotriene.[12] It is interesting to note that the

308nm excimer laser is a newer treatment option
that can yield impressive results in an
abbreviated time frame. [10] Nicolaidou et
al [10] reviewed the use of excimer laser and
demonstrated that 15 to 50 percent of patients
achieved greater than 75-percent repigmentation. Notably, excimer laser treatment periods
were 15 weeks or less in the overwhelming
majority of the studies analyzed.[10] Additionally,
there has been some evidence that excimer laser
treatment causes faster, more complete
repigmentation in patients with higher Fitzpatrick
skin types. [13,14,15] Passeron et al has conducted
the studies to compare the efficacy of combined
tacrolimus and 308-nm excimer laser therapy vs
308-nm excimer laser monotherapy in treating
vitiligo and the studies revealed that the
combination treatment of 0.1% tacrolimus
ointment plus the 308-nm excimer laser is
superior to 308-nm excimer laser monotherapy
for the treatment of UV-resistant vitiliginous
lesions. Further the results of the study also
confirm the efficacy and the good tolerance of
the 308-nm excimer laser in monotherapy for
treating localized vitiligo but this treatment
regimen should be proposed only for UVsensitive areas.[16] A prospective clinical study has
been conducted in patients with vitiliginous
patches to investigate the clinical efficacy, safety,
and psychosocial impact after treating vitiligo with
the 308-nm excimer laser and the results of the
study indicate that the treatment of vitiligo using
the 308-nm excimer laser is effective and safe
and improves psychosocial quality of life. It has
also been observed that lesion location, duration
of disease, and treatment duration are factors
affecting the clinical and psychological
outcome.[17] Hofer et al has conducted the
study to determine the optimal frequency of 308nm excimer laser therapy for vitiligo and
observed that 308-nm excimer laser therapy is
effective
against
vitiligo.
Although
repigmentation occurs fastest with 3x weekly
treatment, the ultimate repigmentation initiation
seems to depend entirely on the total number of
treatments, not their frequency. On the basis of
the results of the study it has also been argued
that treatment periods of more than 12 weeks
may be necessary to obtain a satisfactory clinical
repigmentation, particularly when vitiligo lesions
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are treated only 1x or 2x compared with 3x

weekly. [18] Alhowaish et al has reviewed the
effectiveness of 380-nm excimer laser in the
treatment of vitiligo based on the available
studies and case series and found that the
excimer laser most likely constitutes the
treatment of choice for localized vitiligo as
compared to other treatment modalities and its
efficacy can be further improved in combination
with other therapies such as corticosteroids,
pimecrolimus, or tacrolimus.[19]Bronfenbrener et
al has studied the efficacy of 308nm excimer
laser in treatment of Granuloma Annulare
Granuloma annulare (GA) which is a relatively
common disorder with a female predominance
that usually presents as 1 to 5cm skin-colored
or erythematous annular plaques with peripheral
papules and a 73-year-old woman with a longstanding history of GA presented to the
dermatology clinic complaining of gradual
worsening of her condition was treated with the
excimer lesser and this case of generalized GA
treated with the excimer laser resulted in
resolution of lesions that had been refractory to
other therapies.[20]
Goldinger et al in their study indicated that
monochromatic phototherapies such as 311-nm
narrowband ultraviolet B therapy and 308-nm
xenon chloride excimer laser have been found
an effective and safe therapeutic option in
children and adult patients with vitiligo and the
addition of topically applied calcipotriol to
phototherapy may increase its effectiveness.
The results of the study showed that the addition
of calcipotriol ointment to 308-nm xenon chloride
excimer laser phototherapy does not significantly
enhance its efficacy and small additive effects
must be investigated in a larger trial.[21]Low dose
excimer 308 nm laser has been studied for its
effectiveness
in treatment of lichen
planopilaris (LPP) which is a difficult to treat,
chronic, inflammatory autoimmune disease
targeting the hair follicle that eventually leads to
permanent irreversible scarring alopecia and
commonly affects adult women on the central
scalp with multifocal patches, perifollicular
erythema, hyperkeratosis, and subjective
complaints like pruritus or pain. The results of
the study have shown that for chronic
inflammation UV-B excimer laser treatment might
also be effective in LPP, since it has proven
32
beneficial for certain inflammatory skin disorders

that are mediated by lymphocytes and are
responsive to psoralen plus UV-A
therapy.[22]Tejaswi et al reviewed the studies
describing excimer laser treatment protocol with
particular attention to dosage determination,
dose adjustment, dose fluency, number of
treatments, and maintenance with an aim to
characterize treatment parameters for 308 nm
excimer laser phototherapy and found that the
308 nm excimer laser is an effective therapy for
psoriasis regardless of the method used to
determine initial dosage, dose fluency, or
number of treatments. As its usage as a targeted
monotherapy increases, future trials should
consider evaluating and modifying these
parameters to determine the most optimal
management of localized psoriasis. They have
observed that there is no consensus for a single
excimer laser therapy protocol and as a result,
patient preferences should continue to be an
important consideration for phototherapy
regimen planning.[23] Besides above studies,
several other studies have been conducted to
evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of 308 nm
excimer laser in treatment of alopecia areata
(AA ) and psoriasis and it has been effective in
the treatment of these skin disorders .[24-32]It has
been shown that 193 nm excimer laser irradiation
has potential to cleanly and effectively ablate a
vascular tissue with minimal thermal damage to
surrounding adjacent structures and the 193 nm
excimer laser has been used to remove guinea
pig epidermis in vivo. The results of the study
indicate that the epidermis can be totally ablated
with thermal damage extending only superficially
into the dermis and this technique may be
applicable to the removal of benign epidermal
lesions.[33,97]Gattu et al has reviewed the studies
of the 308-nm excimer laser in the treatment of
psoriasis vulgaris, palmoplantar psoriasis, and
psoriasis of the scalp. The XeCl excimer emits a
308-nm wavelength beam of light that is
monochromatic and coherent which allow
selectivity when used as phototherapy against
a psoriatic lesion while sparing healthy
surrounding tissue.[34]Clinical studies have been
conducted to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy
and safety of a 308-nm excimer laser for the
treatment of scalp and palmoplantar psoriasis
and the results of the study revealed that the
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308-nm excimer laser is an effective, safe, easy,

and relatively quicker method for the treatment
of psoriasis at difficult to treat sites, with good
results in a somewhat short time.[35] An open level
pilot study has been conducted to assess the
efficacy of combination therapy using 308-nm
excimer laser, clobetasol propionate spray and
calcitriol ointment for the treatment of moderate
to severe generalized psoriasis and the results
of the study revealed that excimer laser therapy
combined with an optimized topical regimen that
includes clobetasol spray followed by calictriol
ointment appears to be an effective treatment
for moderate to severe generalized psoriasis that
avoids the risk of serious internal side effects
associated with many systemic agents.[36]Han et
al conducted studies to evaluate the efficacy and
safety of 308-nm monochromatic excimer light
(MEL) in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris and
palmoplantar psoriasis and found that the MEL
therapy is well tolerated with a low incidence of
side effects, which included pruritus, erythema
and blister formation. The results of the study
revealed that the 308-nm MEL can be utilized
as an effective and safe treatment modality for
patients with mild-to-moderate psoriasis vulgaris
and palmoplantar psoriasis. [37]Kawada has
reviewed the efficacy of light sources targeted
phototherapy which include broad-band UVB,
narrow-band UVB, 308-nm excimer laser and
light, 307-nm excimer light and 312-nm flat-type
fluorescent lamp
for the treatment of
psosriasis.[38]308 nm excimer laser has been
found effective for the treatment of Atopic
dermatitis (AD) which is a chronic, inflammatory
skin disease affecting 3% of adults and 20% of
children .[39]
Ophthalmology
Argon fluoride excimer lasers operating at
a wavelength of 193 nm are being used
extensively throughout the world for both
photorefractive (PRK) and phototherapeutic
(PTK) keratectomies.Study
has been
conducted to assess the visual outcome of
excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy ( LPK
) and laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for the
correction of moderate and high myopiain where
the LASIK technique included a nasally based,
150 microns thick, 8.0 x 9.0 mm diameter,
truncated, disc-shaped corneal flap created with
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a microkeratome and the ablation of the stroma

with a 193-nanometer ArF excimer laser and the
photorefractive keratectomy technique included
mechanical removal of the epithelium and
ablation of the stroma with a 193-nanometer ArF
excimer laser. The results of the study revealed
that LASIK was more effective than
photorefractive keratectomy in higher myopes.It
was also observed that LASIK created less
corneal haze and the refraction was more stable
with LASIK in the correction of high myopia and
its predictability was found three times that
of PRK.[40] The argon fluoride excimer laser emits
radiation in the far ultraviolet part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (193 nm). Each
photon has high individual energy. Research
studies have shown that exposure of tissues
with peak absorption around 193 nm results in
removal of surface layers (photoablation) with
extremely high precision and minimal damage
to non-irradiated areas and this precision is
confirmed in a series of experiments on cadaver
eyes and the treatment of eyes with anterior
corneal disease and found that multiple zone
excimer laser superficial keratectomy is
considered the treatment of choice for rough,
painful corneal surfaces. Where good visual
potential exists, ablation of a single axial zone is
recommended and results in improved visual
acuity and reduction of glare. [41] In addition to
above studies, several studies have been
conducted to assess the effectiveness of
excimer laser in surgery of cornia and
correction of astigmatism and excimer laser has
been found useful. [42-51]Studies have been
conducted to evaluate epithelial wound healing
and visual outcome of excimer laser
photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) performed on
high myopic eyes with contact lens intolerance
due to dry eye and the results of the study have
revealed that PRK is effective for patients with
high myopia and contact lense intolerance due
to dry eye.[52] Taylor et al conducted the studies
to assess the safety and efficacy of excimer laser
treatment of myopic astigmatism and to compare
this with the excimer laser treatment of myopia
where A VISX Twenty/Twenty excimer laser was
used to perform either photo astigmatic
refractive keratectomy or photorefractive
keratectomy and the results of the study
revealed that excimer laser surgery offers an
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
effective option in the treatment of myopic

astigmatism.[53]In an another study a series of 122
eyes with band keratopathy was treated by
excimer laser phototherapeutic keratectomy
(PTK), with a mean follow up of over 12.3 months
(range 3 to 60 months) which revealed that
excimer laser PTK is a safe and effective
outpatient
treatment
for
band
keratopathy.[54]Laser intrastromal keratomileusis
(LASIK) has been found an evolving technique
enabling high degrees of myopia and myopic
astigmatism to be corrected. Clinical studies
have shown that for the correction of high myopia
and myopic astigmatism, LASIK results in less
postoperative pain and relatively little
subepithelial haze compared with high myopic
photorefractive keratectomy. Furthermore, a
stable refraction and reasonably predictable
outcome occurs much earlier and high myopia
up to -37.0 D can also be corrected. [55] In a
comparative study of excimer laser ablation of
the cornea and crystalline lens using 193 nm
and 248 nm radiation, it has been found that
threshold fluence for corneal and lens ablation
was higher at 248 nm than at 193 nm. conforming
that the excimer laser is effective in producing
well controlled ablation of the crystalline lens in
vitro, with effects parallel to those seen in the
cornea. [56] The 193 nm excimer laser has
generated much interest as a rapidly developing
new technology for the correction of refractive
errors.Previously published reports have
demonstrated the efficacy of excimer laser
photorefractive
and
phototherapeutic
keratectomy in the treatment of low myopia, high
myopia, and comeal scars.Photorefractive
keratectomy using the 193-nm excimer laser
appears to be a safe, effective treatment for the
reduction of low, moderate, and high myopia.
The results are more predictable in low and
moderate myopia, than in higher degrees of
myopia. [57-64]
Angioplasty
Excimer Laser Angioplasty has become now
a days a powerful tool for treating heart disease.
It has been found that other laser types are too
hot for delicate coronary surgery and could
damage tissue, cause blood vessel spasms, or
create blood clots. The excimer is a cool laser
that uses ultraviolet light energy to operate at
34
65 C, a temperature human tissue can

tolerate.Laser angioplasty is a procedure where
a thin fiber-optic catheter is inserted into an
artery in the leg and threaded to a blockage in a
coronary artery. A tiny optical assembly diffuses
the laser strand into a small cone-shaped laser
beam as it is emitted from the catheter. The nonthermal laser vaporizes blockages in the artery
without damaging delicate tissue. The procedure
can be performed in a non-surgical setting using
a local anesthetic. The hospital stay is minimal,
and there is less post-operative pain, discomfort,
and risk to the patient. Developed by Advanced
Interventional Systems, Inc., the Dymer 200+
excimer laser angioplasty system vaporizes the
buildup of fatty deposits - called plaque - in the
arteries. It is safer than coronary bypass
operations and offers wider utility than balloon
angioplasty. In clinical trials the success rate in
opening blocked coronary arteries was shown
to be 85 percent, with fewer complications than
in balloon angioplasty. In January 1992, the
system received Food and Drug Administration
approval for treatment of coronary disease.
Excimer laserfacilitated coronary angioplasty
has been found clinically beficial in treating
heart disease as reported by many research
workers. This technology has great use in tubular,
diffuse, calcified, total, subtotal, and ostial
lesions. In addition to these advantages , the
photoablative properties of excimer lasers result
in precise atheroablation, including calcium,
without harmful thermal injury. [65-71]The studies
conducted on the feasibility and safety of
excimer laser angioplasty in selective patients
with complicated acute myocardial infarction
have revealed that application of excimer laser
coronary angioplasty is feasible and safe in
patients with acute myocardial infarction who
either fail to respond to thrombolytics or have
contraindications to these agents and
intracoronary thrombus at the target lesion can
be successfully dissolved with this wavelength
laser energy without adverse effect on the
procedure results.[72]In a clinical multicentric trial
study conducted to evaluate safety and
efficacy of excimer laser angioplasty in patients
with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with
thrombus-laden
lesions,95%
device
success,97% angiographic success, and 91%
overall procedural success rate were
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recorded.[73]Mintz et al studied the mechanisms

of excimer laser coronary angioplasty (ELCA) in
human coronary arteries in vivo selecting to treat
202 lesions in 190 patients and it was found that
ELCA increased lumen CSA by both
atheroablation and vessel expansion without
calcium ablation and superficial fibrocalcific
deposits developed a characteristic fragmented
appearance which support both photoablation
and forced vessel expansion as mechanisms of
lumen enlargement and plaque dissection after
ELCA.[74]In a clinical study conducted to evaluate
the efficacy and safety of percutaneous coronary
excimer laser angioplasty in patients with
coronary artery disease it has been observed
that coronary excimer laser angioplasty for
ablation of obstructive lesions is feasible and safe
in patients with stable angina.[75]
Lithotripsy
Weiqiang et al studied the use ofa XeCl
(308 nm) excimer laser in fragmentation of biliary
stones and found that sixty biliary calculipigment
(n=40) and cholesterol (n=20) were fragmented
in vitro. The results of the study indicate that the
308 nm excimer laser may be effective as a laser
lithotriptor with low threshold and good efficiency
for biliary stone fragmentation.[76] A study has
been conducted where a long pulse XeCl excimer
laser (200 ns) has been used to induce
fragmentation of human urinary stone and
artificial model during in vitro experiments and it
has been found that total fragmentation was
always successfully achieved, requiring a
variable number of pulses (10-100) depending
on the pulse energy and the hardness of the
sample.[77] Gundlach et al. conducted an in vitro
study to evaluate the application of a laser beam
for the fragmentation of salivary stones where
optimal fragmentation was achieved using a
pulsed excimer laser with a pulse width of 60 ns
and a wave-length of 308 or 351 nm and a new
sialoendoscope technique was developed.
Laser lithotripsy of salivary stones with
endoscopic monitoring represents a novel
method that permits treatment on an outpatient
basis under local anaesthesia.[78]
Orthopaedics
Landsman etal
has
reviewed the
applications of various kinds of lasers including
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excimer lasers in podiatric and orthopedic

csurgery. [79] The excimer lasers have been
found very useful in orthopaedic surgery. It has
been shown useful to provide forth edenudingof
cartilage from bone due to its having an
irradiation range approximately the same as
cartilages absorption pattern.This would allow
fortheablation of cartilage with minute amounts
of peripheral necrosis or structural change of
the adjacent bone. The excimer laser has been
found to be of great benefit compared with with
the CO2 and Nd-YAG lasers for fibrocartilageablation.[80-84] Glossop et al has reviewed clinical and
laboratory experience with the 308 nm XeCl
excimer laser in arthroscopy and found that this
ultra violet laser is extremely proficient for
debridement of degenerate articular cartilage
and meniscus. Preliminary in vitro and in vivo
studies were performed to investigate the
character of laser-irradiated articular cartilage
and to search for evidence of regeneration and
the results of autoradiographic and histologic
studies showed no evidence of cartilage
regeneration.[85]Beke et al has conducted studies
to demonstrate high-resolution photocrosslinking of biodegradable poly(propylene
fumarate) (PPF) and diethyl fumarate (DEF)
using UV excimer laser photocuring at 308 nm
in a human osteosarcoma (HOS) cell line where
cell adhesion and viability have been
demonstrated showing that the produced
scaffolds are suitable for assisting bone cell
attachment and proliferation.Preliminary cell
tests have proved that PPF : DEF scaffolds
produced by excimer laser photocuring are
biocompatible and are promising candidates to
be applied in tissue engineering and
regenerative medicine.[86]An in vivo study has
been conducted to see the effect of excimer
laser (xenon chloride ultraviolet, 308-nm)
irradiation on degenerate rabbit articular
cartilage where adult rabbits with mechanically
induced degenerative arthritis of one knee were
used as experimental model and the results of
the study revealed that in the laser-irradiated
group initially there was macroscopic and
microscopic smoothing of the fibrillated surface
while in the control group there was no
improvement in the macroscopic or microscopic
appearance of the articular surface and by 6
weeks the surface had begun to show the
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reappearance of fibrillation. [87] Andreas has

studied the application of various lasers
including excimer lasers in orthopaedic surgery
and found them clinically useful for meniscal
cutting and ablation, lateral retinacular release,
release of posttraumatic fibrosis, chondroplasty,
synovectomy, debridement, labral tear ablation
in a shoulder, subacromial decompression,
rotator cuff debridement, tissue tightening
(collagen shrinking), ankle impingement
decompression and debridement, and
percutaneous nucleotomy. The results of the
study with laser tissue-photoagglutination and
tissue welding may make it possible to repair torn
meniscus by tissue welding with laser energy. [88]
Dentistry
One of the milestones in technological
advancements in dentistry is the use of lasers
which have been found to provide more
efficient, more comfortable and more predictable
outcomes for the patient.Cutting in soft tissue,
hard dental material ablation, caries removal and
root canal therapy are only a few examples of
dental laser uses.Excimer Lasers in dentistry are
normally used for hard tissue ablation/ dental
caries removal. Argon fluoride / Xenon fluoride
lasers are used. They have a wave length
from193nm to308nm.It has been shown that all
the excimer lasers and especially the argon
fluoride excimer laser at 193 nm are
characterized by its nonthermal photoablation
interaction with polymers[89,90].Pini et al studied
the application of excimer lasers in dentistry for
the treatment of dental root canals and the results
of the study revealed that high-energy ultraviolet
(UV) radiation emitted by an XeCl excimer laser
(308 nm) and delivered through suitable optical
fibers can be used to remove residual organic
tissue from the canals. [91]A study has been
conducted to see the effect of ArF excimer laser
on human enamel where human enamel surface
was irradiated with ArF excimer laser and
examined under light microscopy and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and the influence
of the laser irradiation was confined to the
irradiated area only with no visible heat damage
to the surroundings. The results of the study
revealed that excimer laser may be applied in
a controlled and defined manner for tooth
enamel treatments in dentistry. [92]Joseph et al
36
has studied the use of short pulse ArF excimer

laser to ablation of dentin and enamel with
emphasis on the effect of laser pulse repetition
rates (PRR) and fluence levels on the efficiency
of the ablation process and on the average
thermal response of ablated surfaces. The
results of the study showed that ablation of
dentin was found to be considerably more
efficient than the ablation of enamel and
depends exponentially on the laser fluence and
also tissue ablation rates were found to be
comparable to or better than other nanosecond
lasers and left smooth surfaces, free of thermal
damage. With the application of short pulse
ArF excimer laser the ablated surfaces appear
to be very smooth, highly polished and glossy
looking as if they were subjected to thermal
melting.[93]
Biomedical Implants/Materials / Devices
Laser surface texturing can be used to
produce well defined micro-grooves on
biomedical materials such asTi-6Al-4V. Such
micro-grooves can be optimized to improve the
integration with surrounding tissue. Research
studies have demonstrated that excimer lasers
or large area masking techniques, grooves
produced with Nd:YVO4 has potential to exhibit
improved roughness parameters and to reduce
heat-affected zones. Further, processing
parameters have also been established for the
fabrication of micro-groove geometries on flat
geometries having relavence to biomedical
implants and devices. [94]Studies conducted by
Waugh and Lawrence to see the wettability and
osteoblast cell response modulation through UV
laser processing of nylon 6,6 have revealed
that the laser-induced modifications have given
rise to modulated osteoblast cell response in
terms of cell proliferation and differentiation and
laser surface treatment holds a large potential
to be widely employed within regenerative
medicine as laser surface treatment offers a
unique means of varying biomimetic properties
to determine generic parameters to predict cell
responses.[95] Segmented polyurethane (SPU)
films with round micropores have been prepared
and a quantitative assay method of endothelial
cell (EC) migration through micropores of and
growth on microprocessed SPU films as an in
vitro model of transmural endothelialization in
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
open-cell-structured small-diameter vascular

grafts has been developed using excimer laser
which have great relevance in medicine and
biology. [96] A micropatterned microporous
segmented polyurethane film (2012 mm in size,
30 m thick) with four regions was prepared by
excimer laser microprocessing to provide an in
vivo model of transmural tissue ingrowth in an
open cellstructured scaffold specially designed
for cardiovascular tissue engineering which has
great clinical relevance in medicine.[98]
Pyrenedecanoic acid and pyrene lecithin are
optical probes well suited to investigate lipid
bilayer membranes. The method is based on the
determination of the formation of excited dimers
or excimers. Applications of the excimer-forming
probes have been reviewed and they have great
relevance in biomedical research particularly in
understanding phase separation phenomena
and lipid-protein interactions in biological
system.[99]
A microprocessing method has been
developed to prepare microporous polymer films
by an excimer laser ablation technique, which
may enable the fabrication of functional
biomedical devices such as advanced artificial
organs having relavence in medicine.[100]The
sheltered transfer and immobilization of rabbit
anti-human antiserum immunoglobulin G (IgG)
by matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation
(MAPLE) have been studied and it has been
found that IgG transfer and immobilization
onto substrates are improved by addition of lipid
to MAPLE solutions.[101]Simulated body fluid (SBF)
has been used as a screening method in
determining the bioactivity of numerous
biomaterials. Owed to insufficient surface
properties of polymers it has been seen to be of
great advantage to modify the surfaces of these
materials to allow the polymer to become more
biomimetic.Waugh and Lawrence has conducted
the studies on the enhancement of biomimetic
apatite coatings by means of KrF excimer laser
surface treatment of nylon 6,6 and the results
of the study suggest that through excimer laser
surface treatment osteoblast cell adhesion and
proliferation can be enhanced.[102]
DISCUSSION
Lasers are concentrated beams of
www.ijsir.co.in
electromagnetic radiation (light) travelling in a

particular direction. The defining properties of
laser light are that the light waves are coherent
(all travelling in harmony with one another) and
that they are usually of one wavelength, or
colour.By harnessing these properties in a
device that reflects light back and forth through
a special material, it is possible to generate an
amplified light source, or laser.Such light can be
concentrated in time and space to create truly
extreme conditions, or be used to provide
exquisite imaging and analysis capability across
a wide range of applications.The type of
interaction of laser with tissue that occurs
depends on various factors such as the
properties of laser system (wavelength, energy
pulsed / continuous mode of emission), local
blood circulation, the optical properties of the
tissues, and the immune response of the patient.
[4,5]
Further such type of interaction involves
different effects like photo thermal effect,
mechanical effect, photo chemical effect, tissuewelding effect . The understanding of interaction
of laser with tissue involving different
components viz protein, water, fat, melanin,
hemoglobin etc. has led to numerous medical
applications. Laser-tissue interaction involves
scattering, absorption, heat generation and such
properties could be harnessed for different
applications. Time of interaction of the laser
beam and intensity of the beam play critical role
in defining the application of laser in biomedical
field. In the medical field, lasers are diagnostic
and therapeutic instruments that offer a whole
range of solutions. The laser which enables for
greater surgical precision is less invasive and
promotes healing time or cure. This technique
is generally much less traumatic than traditional
surgical techniques. The first use of lasers in
medicine was to damage the retina to
understand ocular injury due to accidental
exposure. [103] Since the first ruby laser, several
devices have been improved placing
ophthalmology at the forefront of medical
specialties using this technology. The laser has
also many applications in the field of biology.
Researchers take the technology to its limits by
playing on two main parameters, the short laser
pulses-to the femtosecond, and energy beams.
Since then, pulsed lasers have become
increasingly popular for their ability to ablate
37

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
biological tissue. For patient diagnosis and

experimental studies, biological tissue can be
either analyzed under a microscope after
immuno-histostaining or crushed for further
molecular analysis. Laser-Assisted microdissection (LAM) provides a valuable link between
these two approaches. It gives new insights into
cellular mechanisms, genetic disorders, tumor
biomarker identification patient-tailored therapy.
The development of light-absorbing
nanoparticles that are nontoxic to biological
tissue has provided further potential for a more
targeted delivery of heat with minimal damage
to healthy tissue. At an appropriate wavelength,
exposure of a nanoparticle to a laser can trigger
a photothermal effect in the particle whereby
electronic oscillations at the particle surface are
converted to heat.[104] The applications of laser
technology in biology and medicine have been
found great therapeutic potential in treatment
of variety of disease conditions such as
angiomas in children and infants; spider naevi,
treatment of rosacea, psoriasis,aesthetic
treatment of superficial veins of the skin, acne,
rosacea, warts, birthmarks; ablation of hard
dental tissues without the risk of micro- and
macro-fractures , ablation of the epithelium on
the non-pigmented skin of the eyelid in
preparation for melanocyte transplantation in the
treatment of segmental eyelid vitiligo, in the
treatment of superficial pigmented lesions,
pregnancy mask (melasma), dermatitis ocher,
some pigmentation related to drugs, certain
types of scarring or ulcers etc.[105]The advantages
of laser in ophthalmology have been well
demonstrated particularly in the treatment of
myopia and cataract where they enable patients
with visual impairment to regain a clear vision
and forget the stress of wearing glasses or
contact lenses.[106]In the field of dermatology, it
has great potential in treatment of vascular
lesions such as angiomas, telangiectasias,
spider naevi, treatment of pigmented lesions
(brown spots, naevus of ota, freckles) and tattoo
or hair removal targeting the melanin stored in
the hair follicles in order to destroy the hair matrix
to enable permanent hair removal
.[107]Furthure,laser surgery has the advantage of
reducing the risk of infection and it promotes
healing. It is used in cosmetic surgery to erase
cellulite and superficial wrinkles. Often less
38
invasive than conventional surgery, laser surgery

is however not without risks. [108] Lasers can also
be used in dentistry (gum care and treatment of
tooth decay) and phlebology (treatment of
Varicose veins)). [109,110] Lasers have achieved a
prominent position in medical application and
offer unique advantages for medical diagnosis,
therapeutic treatments and internal surgeries in
most medical disciplines including dermatology,
dentistry, neurosurgery, eye surgery, cancer
surgery, urology, gastroenterology etc. because
of their ability to deliver high precision
treatments, whilst remaining minimally invasive.
Thus Laser- based therapies and diagnostic
methods represent an area of huge future
potential. Different types of laser like Nd : YAG
laser,CO2 laser, KTP laser, Ho : YAG laser, diode
lasers, excimer lasers etc. are currently being
used for various medical applications. Excimer
lasers, which are pulsed gas lasers operating
with a special mixture of noble gases and
halogens, emit laser radiation in the UV and VUV
spectra, at discrete wavelengths between 351
nm and 157 nm. The most commonly used
excimer lasers are krypton fluoride ( KrF, 248
nm), argon fluoride ( ArF, 193 nm), xenon
chloride ( XeCl, 308 nm ), xenon fluoride ( XeF,
351 nm ). The principal advantage of excimer
lasers is that they are capable of producing a
very small, precise spot at a very low (UV)
wavelength. Excimer lasers are excellent for
removing excess material through laser ablation
due to the fact that they are able to precisely
destroy material with little to no thermal buildup.
This contrasts with carbon dioxide lasers, which
rely heavily on thermal buildup to boil off
material during ablation. Research efforts over
recent years have resulted in excimer lasers
becoming the tool of choice for many
applications in medical sciences. Excimer lasers
have shown promise in angioplasty, bilary laser
lithotripsy, ophthalmology and orthopedics.
areata and leukoderma.In the present review,
applications of excimer lasers in biomedical
sciences particularly in dermatology,
ophthalmology, angioplasty, orthopaedics,
lithotripsy, dentistry, medical implants have been
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
presented and recent studies carried out have

been reviewed.The largest application of
excimer lasers for medical use is in refractive
laser surgery. As an ophthalmological tool,
excimer laser has been widely used for
photoablation process. The precision of excimer
laser and, more important, the lack of damage
to surrounding tissue, are instrumental for
correction of refractive errors or optical problems
of the eye, including nearsightedness,
farsightedness, and astigmatism. Excimer laser
light is typically absorbed in less than a
nanometer of tissue. By means of intense
excimer pulses, the surface of the human cornea
is reshaped to change its refractive power and
thus to correct for short or long
sightedness.Another medical application where
excimer lasers are being used is dermatology
for treating a variety of dermatological conditions
including psoriasis, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis,
alopecia areata and leukoderma.Excimer lasers
are very powerful UV sources. [111 ]and they can
also emit nanosecond pulses, with average
output powers between a few watts and hundreds
of watts. Typical wavelengths of excimer lasers
are between 157 and 351 nm. The 308-nm
excimer laser and a related 308-nm excimer
lamp have been approved to treat psoriasis and
vitiligo. [112]Recently Gupta et al has reviewed
the effects of UV radiation on wound healing
which is a very complex process involving
multiple tissue types influenced by local as well
as systemic components [113] where the effects of
UV irradiation on skin cells in vitro, UV-induced
damage and its repair, potential effects of UV
irradiation for treatment of microbial infected
wounds, especially those caused by antibioticresistant pathogens, effects of UV irradiation on
wound healing, UV phototherapy for
dermatological and other disorders, novel UV
light sources to improve selective penetration
and reduce the side effects have been
discussed with an aim to provide nontoxic,
minimally invasive and economically feasible
technology for improving wound healing.[114] Laser
interaction with biological system is a very
complexphenomena involving various factors
having multiple therapeutic potencial in disease
conditions. These are photochemical ,
biostimulation - stimulatory effects of laser on
biochemical and molecular processes that
www.ijsir.co.in
normally occur in tissues such as healing and

repair, photodynamic therapy inducing reactions
in tissues for the treatment of pathologic
conditions, tissue fluorescence useful as a
diagnostic method to detect light reactive
substance in tissue, photo thermal interactions
useful for photoablation to remove tissue by
vaporization and super heating of tissue fluids ,
coagulation, and hemostasis ; photopyrolysis
;photo disruption - breaking apart of structures
by laser light; photoaccoustic interactioninvolving removal of tissue with shock wave
generation, photoelectrical interaction including
photoplasmolysis which describes how tissue is
removed through the formation of electrically
charged ions and particles that exist in a semi
gaseous high energy state; photocoagulation :
laser heats the tissues to 600 C for a limited time
leading to coagulation of the tissues with minimal
alteration in the appearance of tissue structure.
As a result of these proteins enzymes cytokines
and other bioactive molecules get denatured. It
has been demonstrated that high power
lasersare used for surgical purposes and low
power lasers are used to promote tissue
regeneration. UV irradiation may cause both
beneficial and damaging effects, which depend
on wavelength, radiant exposure, and UV
sources.Laser is a device producing a very
intense and very narrow (collimated) beam of
electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength
range 180 nm to 1 mm and its important
properties are monochromaticity (narrow
wavelength range), directionality(high
collimation) and coherence (propagation in
same phase) and laser light isnot an ionizing
type of radiation.Interaction of laser with the
body is generally at the surface.The eye and
the skin are critical organs for laser radiation
exposure, and the resultant effects vary
depending on the type of laser (frequency or
wavelength of the radiation) and beam energy
output. Laser radiation of the proper wavelength
and energy may be focused by the lens of the
eye onto the retina causing severe damage. If
laser radiation is of high enough energy, skin
burns may also result if extremities or other body
parts are placed in the laser beam.
Thereforejudicious application of laser
technology may be beneficial in disease
conditions.It should be used in a manner such
39

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
that the side effects would be minimized.

Althoughlaser technology including excimer
laser has made great progress in diagnosis
and treatment of variety of complex diseases
and its usehas now been well-demonstrated in
ophthalmologic and dermatologic treatments,
and surgery, this technology has enormous
scope in medicine and biology and could be
explored towards the development of targeted
therapy for complex chronic diseases.In the field
of medicine, the energy delivered by the laser,
whose intensity can be modulated, can cut,
destroy or alter the cellular or extracellular
structure of biological tissue. This unique
property of laser opens a vast scope in the field
of
medicine. Further the ability of laser
applications in reducing the risk of infection and
promoting healing may delever better
therapeutic protocol in treatment of chronic
diseases such aslocalized infectious diseases,
especially those caused by antibiotic-resistant
pathogens. Recent research studies have
shown the potential of laser in destroying cancer
cells which opens apath breaking approach in
the treatment of dreadful disease cancer.
However, high power lasers have been found to
act indiscriminately and thus destroy cancer cells
but also the surrounding tissue.Laser-associated
micro dissection offers a rapid, precise method
of isolating and removing targeted cells or
groups of cells from complex biological tissues
which may be helpful in understanding
physiological mechanisms on the level of a
specific cell population and even on the level of
the
single
cell
in
disease
conditions.Multidisciplinary research studies on
the interaction of laser with biological tissue at
molecular level using biotechnological tools
will enhace the therapeutic potential of laser
technology in diagnosis and treatment of
chronic complex diseases especially cancer ,
genetic disorders, neurogegenerative disorders
, multidrugresistence tuberculosis , autoimmune
diseases , HIV etc.and it may also be useful in
designing new and innovative strategies in drug
delivery and image-guided surgery.
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45

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SUCCESSION AND LIFE CYCLE OF BEETLES ON THE

EXPOSED CARCASS
*REEMA SONKER, SUNITA RAWAT AND KALPANA SINGH
Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
*Address for correspondence: Reema Sonker , Department of Zoology,

University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India, Email ID: reemasonker15@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Various species of insects attract on the dead and decomposing body in a sequential manner,
thisprocess is termed as succession. Necrophagous insects mainly Coleopterans are attracted
to carcasses at specific stages of decomposition. Many types of beetles arrive on carcasses
mainly belong to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae. Dermestid beetles feed on
various things like animals decomposing remains and skin etc. Dermestid beetles are elongate
broadly oval, covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed antennae fitted in grooves and
of black or brownish colour. Beetle specimens were collected from exposed animal carcasses
in Kanpur city and prepared for farther taxonomic study. The investigation started from
February2012 to January2013. Most of the specimens collected were found in abundance
during spring and summer season. In this investigation, succession and life history of the
species Dermestes maculates (family: Dermestidae) is elaborated. As the PMI is based on the
lifecycle and behaviour of necrophagous insects, this study may help as an important tool for
estimation of the post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic science.
Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Carcass, Succession, Decomposition,
Dermestidae, Dermestes maculates
INTRODUCTION
Forensic entomology is a branch of forensic
science in which insects occurring over and
around a corpse can be used for the
determination of post mortem interval both on in
land and in water [1, 2]. Forensic entomology is
not a new concept, in 13th century a case of
murder was solved with the help of forensic
entomology [3]. Arthropods are the largest and
most important group of animals found
everywhere [4] and some species actively
participate in decomposition of dead animals [5]
.These are primary colonizers over a dead body
[6]
.The different species of insects invade on the
different stages of decomposition and present
on the carcass from the very beginning till the
last stage of decomposition. On the basis of
physical appearance of carcass internal
temperature and characteristic insects
population the process of decomposition can be
divided into different sub stages as fresh,
bloated, active decay, advance decay and dry
46
remain stage [7]. These arthropod species invade

the corpse for breeding, feeding and shelter
purposes. Their arrival preference on carcass
depends upon the particular stage of
decomposition [8. The entomofaunal succession
of carrion insects is key factor for the process of
decomposition [9]. The two most important factors
which regulate the process of decomposition and
invasion of insects on carcass are temperature
and relative humidity [10].Rainfall also reduces the
abundance and richness of insects on carrion
[11]
.The insects are attracted over different
stages of decomposition [12, 13] and are categorised
on the basis of their ecological role during
decomposition [14] .This succession pattern of
insects is usually a source of valuable
information in suspicious death cases [15]. Carrion
entomofauna also provide very useful
information in drugs treated death [16] . The
succession pattern of insects on dead body, their
life cycle and development period provide useful
information regarding manner and cause of
death, place of death, transfer of dead body from
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1 ) 46-50,

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one place to another and in determination of

postmortem interval [17,16,18].Out of all the insects
invading a dead body members of Diptera and
Coleoptera constitute the major portion of
carrion entomofauna [19].The primary colonizers
on carrion are adults and larvae of flesh flies
and blowflies[ 20] .These larvae consume most of
the soft tissues of carrion [21] ,so a huge mass of
larvae can be observed on the carcass. The
presence of larvae and adults of flies represent
the fresh stage of decomposition .Beetles are
next to arriving on scene. Larvae of blow flies
and flesh flies are stimulating factor for the arrival
of large number of predatory beetles. Many types
of beetles arriving on carcasses mainly belong
to family Histeridae, Dermestidae, and Cleridae
of order Coleoptera. Beetles belonging to the
family Dermestidae feed on various things like
animalsdecomposing remains and skin etc.
Dermestid beetles are elongated broadly oval,
covered with hairs or scales, with short, clubbed
antennae fitted in grooves and of black or
brownish colour. The post bloated stage of
decomposition is preferred stage of theses
beetles [22]. Arrival of beetles on cadaver depends
upon speed of decomposition which in turn is
influenced by environmental conditions [23, 24]. Both
adults and larvae of Dermestes species occur
on carrion. The hairy segmented larvae of
Dermestes species are indication of dry stage
of decomposition. The objective of this study is
to determine the succession and life cycle of
beetles on pig carrion. This entomological
information may be useful for the forensic
investigation in this region.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The studies were carried out in forest area
of Forest Research Institute, Kanpur (260280S,
800250E).The investigation started from February
2012 to January 2013. The flora of investigation
area mainly consists of xerophytic herbs and big
trees of various plant species. Two piglet of
approximately 10 kg weight were used in
experiment. An iron cage of 82cmx79cmx64cm
dimension was used in the experiment to avoid
scavenging activity of vertebrate predators. The
pigs were killed by a veterinary expert employed
at Municipal Corporation. Study site was visited
daily three times to observe the activity of insects
and condition of carcass. The adults and larvae
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of insects were collected daily with forceps. Some

larvae were killed by dipping in boiling water and
preserved in 70 percent alcohol and some were
taken to laboratory for rearing and identification
purposes.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Dermestes maculates is dominating insect
species associated with later stages of
decomposition [25]. Adult beetles of Dermestes
species are observed on the carrion when large
maggot masses of flies are present, but the
highest infestation of Dermestes species
resulted in reducing the population of flies
maggots. These insects are attracted toward the
carrion by the specific odour of decomposing
remains. This odour of specific volatile compound
is characteristic of particular stage of
decomposition [26]. The combined odour of post
bloated cadaver and male pheromones of
Dermestes species act as attractant for virgin
females [26]. The arrival of males on cadaver
before the females is supported by the fact that
males of Dermestes maculates were seen on the
cadaver after 9-10 days of pig sacrifice but larvae
infestation occurred after15 to 21 days, as
reported by Early and Goff [25].The adult males
and females copulated multiple times and
females lay eggs after 24 hours of first mating in
conformation with an earlier study [27]. The female
laid eggs in batches and segmented worm like
larvae of Dermestes were seen below the carrion
after one day. Initially the larvae were creamy
white in colour but after few hours they got
darken to light grey colour. The cannibalism of
eggs by larvae has been observed in the
experiment. Similar cannibalism was also
reported by other workers. [28] During the larval
development, 5 to 11 instars had been observed
but the number of instars can be different in
unfavourable conditions[29].
During the development of larvae, no
physical and morphological changes has been
observed except the change in size. The full
grown larvae can pupate either in feeding site
or on some other substrate. Delay in pupation
due to non-availability of pupation site was also
observed. The pre -pupation stage of the
species was C- shaped, thickened and reduced
in length as also seen in earlier studies [30,31],
47

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pupa were oval in shape but smaller than larvae.

It did not have hair like projections as also
reported in other studies [32], after elusion the
adult beetles migrated to other food sources as
also observed in earlier studies [29]. The life cycle
of Dermestes maculates takes approximately five
to seven weeks under optimal conditions in and
around Kanpur area.
The dry stage of decomposition was
characteristic of presence of Dermestes species
[33]
. Normally the duration period of their life cycle
is 21 to 51 days but the rate of development
was influenced by the temperature of habitat.
The short duration larval stages were recorded
in high lipid content diet [30]. The fully grown
larvae migrated to pupation site to avoid
cannibalism. A delay in pupation up to 20 days
was also observed if they were unable to find a
suitable place for pupation [34] .These beetles
were able to tolerate a range of temperature and
relative humidity [32]. The duration period of life
cycle increased with lower temperature [35]. Under
laboratory conditions at 250C-300C the duration
period of average life cycle of Dermestes beetle
recorded is 35.1-43.9 days [36], while it has been
reported that at 180C the life cycle is completed
in 96 days. [37] At 300C the life cycle period is 38
day [38]. The adult beetles have shown negative
response towards high temperature. In morning
they had been observed above the surface of
carcass but at afternoon they migrated towards
the inner side of carcass [39]. Duration of larval
period were also affected by the population size
of beetles on carcass.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are highly grateful to the Head,
Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow,
Lucknow , India and officials of Forest Research
Institute, Kanpur for providing necessary space
for experiment.
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PUPAL DIAPAUSE IN THE FLESH FLY, SARCOPHAGA DUX

*S. RAWAT, R.SONKER and K.SINGH
Biocontrol and Forensic Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
*Address for correspondence: S. Rawat , Department of Zoology,University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India,
Email ID: sunitamahi4@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Blow flies (family-Calliphoridae) and flesh flies (family-Sarcophagidae) are amongst the first
wave of insects which arrive on a corpse for feeding and breeding purposes. Development
rates of these flies are frequently used to determine post-mortem interval (PMI) in forensic
entomological investigations. The rate of larval growth is directly affected by environmental
conditions such as photoperiod and ambient temperature. In the flesh fly, Sarcophaga dux,
short-day photoperiods and low temperature induce pupal diapause. Diapause is a form of
dormancy in insects which confer survival during unfavourable environmental conditions. Distinct
genetic traits and endocrinological factors are found responsible for the induction and regulation
of diapauses in different insect species. The life stage at which the insect exhibits diapause is
also species specific. Present study investigates the incidence of diapause in the laboratory
reared populations of S. dux and define further the factors responsible for induction and
termination of pupal diapause in flesh flies.
Keywords: Forensic entomology, Post-mortem interval, Flesh fly, S. dux, Diapause
INTRODUCTION
Adverse winter conditions in the temperate
regions have channelled the evolution of a pupal
diapause in flesh flies of the genus Sarcophaga.
Diapause in Sarcophaga is generally found in
the young phanerocephalic pupa, it is the pupal
stage in which adult development has not been
initiated [1]. Various studies have been conducted
on the incidence of diapause in the genus
Sarcophaga [1-8]. Effect of cold temperature and
short photoperiod on pupal diapause induction
in S. argyrostoma was studied by many workers
[3,7]
, whereas in S. bullata larval photoperiod was
not shown to influence diapause. Denlinger
revealed the importance of photoperiod received
by developing embryos within the uterus of the
ovoviviparous females in the S.crassipalpis. [5, 6]
If the larvae are exposed to a short photophase
at 250 C, the pupae will not enter diapauses [5,6].
In various groups of S.crassipalpis males enter
diapause at a higher rate than females,
experiments revealed a similar pattern in the
other species of Sarcophaga [1]. In the Pieris napi,
Pararge aegeria and P. c-album a higher
tendency of males to enter diapause is also
found[9].
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Quality and quantity of the food provided

may also be a factor in diapause influence in
some insects. The role of water in diapause
termination has been well studied.[10]Addition of
10% water to larval medium increases diapause
incidence10% [5], however opposite effect of
moisture content in Lucilia sericata has been
observed, incidence of larval diapause was
increased when the larvae were fed dry meat.[11,12]
Mature third instar larvae are inhibited to become
pupae by contact with a little water.[13] The adults
of S. argyrostoma are capable of producing
viable eggs without an adult protein diet, the
incidence of diapause in this species is not
affected due to presence or absence of protein
diet.[14] Ecdysone is found to act as an accelerator
for diapause termination in Sarcophaga.[4]
If the flesh flies S. bullata having history of
pupal diapause are mated and their larvae
reared in a strongly diapause-inducing
environment, the offspring do not enter pupal
diapauses. It is due to maternal effect transmitted
by the female parent prior to ovulation and
therefore directly affects the germ line.[15] In S.
bullata probably gamma amminobutyric acid
(GABA) and octopamine are involved in the
51

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transfer of information from mother to next

generation. Other experiments on flesh flies, S.
crassipalpis and S. bullata also confirm the
influence of maternal effect in the induction of
diapauses. [5, 16] The progeny of silkmoth B. mori
will enter embryonic diapause or not is
determined by the photoperiod received by the
female silkmoth during her embryonic and larval
development. [17, 18] A neurohormone from the
suboesophageal ganglion of the female silkmoth
mediates the maternal effect. [19]
At the hormonal level pupal diapause is
characterized by failure of the brain to stimulate
the prothoracic gland to secrete ecdysone [2023]
.Juvenile hormone (JH) profile is also
associated with the incidence of pupal diapause
in flesh flies. Flies destined for direct
development lack JH activity while flies
programmed for pupal diapause show major
pulses of JH activity [23].
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Stocks were maintained in an insectary at
room temperature in normal day night conditions.
Environmental cabinets were used to maintain
a temperature of 200.5C, 170.5C, 150.5C.
Groups of about 100 adult flesh flies were kept
in cages. Sugar and water were provided ad
libitum throughout adult life and chicken liver was
provided as a source of protein. The species S.
dux are ovoviviparous, embryonic development
occurs within a sac-like uterus. Larvae were
reared on fresh chicken liver, when the third
instar larvae cease feeding they crawl out and
pupariate in the vermiculite. Pupae were
examined every day to record the time required
for diapause termination.
RESULT S AND DISCUSSION
Table 1: Influence of Larval Photoperiod and
Temperature on Incidence of Pupal
Diapause in S. Dux.
Photoperiod Temp.
No. of pupae % Diapause
12 : 12
25C
540
12 : 12
20C
240
16 : 8
17C
225
100
16 : 8
15C
192
100
52
Under an LD 12:12 h photoperiod, no pupae

enters diapause when the temperature is above
20C, whereas all the pupae enter diapause
below 20C. The duration of diapause is longer
than 90 days. Under experimental conditions the
incidence of diapause increases with a decrease
in temperature. Thus, the combination of short
days and low temperature (17 0C and 15 0C)
caused maximum diapause response. The
temperature influences the effect of photoperiod.
These results indicate that S. dux is sensitive to
the direction of change in photoperiod. Different
diapause characteristics were observed among
different species of Sarcophaga, S.
argyrostoma, S. crassipalpis, and three strains
of S. bullata [1]. A comparatively high incidence
of pupal diapause was observed in S.
argyrostoma at 17C and 12 hour photoperiod.
Significant differences were observed among wild
strains
and
lab
strain
of
S. bullata [1].
Pupariation is observed to be delayed in the
larvae destined to diapause and occurs over a
period of many days, this was also supported
by Denlinger and Beck [1,10]. Post feeding or
wandering stage is found prolonged. Delay of
pupariation is strongly correlated with induction
of pupal diapause, as this delay may provide the
larvae some more time to find a suitable place
to pupariate. This may be a preparative phase
and involves in the deposition of additional fat
reserves, extra hydrocarbons for water proofing
the cuticle and some storage proteins present
in the hemolymph may also be synthesized
during this phase[24-26]. These reserves may help
in survival during dormancy and in the metamorphosis at the termination of diapauses [27]. Larval
injections of juvenile hormone [28] and exposure
to the moisture can cause the delay in
pupariation in Sarcophaga [29-31]. By reducing the
rearing temperature pupariation is delayed, and
incidence of diapause increases [7].
Termination of diapause is temperature
dependent. The duration of diapause decreases
with an increase in temperature and is terminated
at the temperature around 25 C. Since the
pupae of Sarcophaga are buried under the soil
surface, soil temperature rather than
photoperiod could provide appropriate
information of the favourable season. Ecdysone
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can terminate pupal diapause in H. cecropia [32]

and Sarcophaga [4]. Immediate termination of
diapause can be brought by giving topical
treatment of hexane [33].
The phenomenon of diapause can be
regulated by many factors; these may be
environmental regulators, hormonal regulators
as well as molecular regulators. At the molecular
level, expression of some genes is silenced, and
some others are expressed during diapause.
Some upregulated genes are expressed
throughout diapause, and others are expressed
in early diapause, some in late diapause whereas
some genes expressed intermittently. The
termination of diapause is brought about by
expression of many down regulated genes, while
decline in expression of the diapauseupregulated genes is observed during diapause
termination [27].
Moribayashi et al have studied the
physiology of flesh flies, Boettcherisca peregrina
and Parasarcophaga similis, and of blow flies,
Aldrichina grahami and Calliphora nigribarbis [13].
At 20C larvae of the flesh fly enter pupal
diapause on exposure to short photoperiod but
do not enter diapause in long photoperiod, at
this temperature larvae destined non-diapause
develop adults in 4 weeks [13]. Future diapause
research may be helpful to have a better
understanding of seasonality in insects and
applicable in the field of medical and forensic
entomology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Head, Department
of Zoology, University of Lucknow India for
providing necessary laboratory facilities.
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A REVIEW OF CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SHUNT ACTIVE POWER

FILTER FOR HARMONICS COMPENSATION
1
SANJAY MATHUR1, NIYAZ HASAN KAZMI1, TALAHA CHISTI1, *ANURAG TRIPATHI2

Research Scholar Sai Nath University, Ranchi, 2 Department of Electrical Engineering Institute of Engineering. &
Technology, Lucknow, India.
*Address for correspondence: Dr .Anurag Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of
Electrical Engineering, Institute of Engineering. & Technology, Lucknow, India,
Email ID: Anurag.tripathi.aparna@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper proposes two different current control based controllers for a shunt active power
filter system. A shunt active power filter system has been designed, built to work under balanced;
unbalanced and distorted supply conditions to meet IEEE 519 recommended harmonic
standards. The shunt active filter is mainly controlled by two different control schemes i.e.
constant instantaneous power and sinusoidal current control based controller to act as a
harmonic isolator between the supply and load. This paper discusses about both the current
controllers.
Keywords: Active power filter (APF), Constant instantaneous power control strategy, Sinusoidal
current control strategy, Harmonic compensation, IEEE 519.
INTRODUCTION
Nonlinear loads produce the harmonics into
the power system and these harmonics create a
lot of disadvantages in the system. Supply gets
distorted and unbalanced when application of
unbalanced and nonlinear loads increases.
These currents pollute the supply point of the
utility. Therefore, it is very important to
compensate unbalance, harmonic and reactive
component of the load currents. Whereas when
supply is unbalanced and distorted, these
problems worsen the system. [13] By the
application of shunt active power filters can
eliminate harmonic, reactive and unbalanced
currents, improve the power supply performance
and the stability of system. Today, the soft
computing techniques are used broadly for
optimization of the system applied or in control
system. Some of them are such as adaptive tabu
search[48] used for finding the optimized values
of the controllers variables,[412] optimization of
active power filter using GA, [912] power loss
minimization using particle swarm optimization,[13]
neural network control [1418] applied in both
machinery and filter devices.
In this paper, two different control
techniques i.e. constant instantaneous power
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control strategy (CIPC) and Sinusoidal current

control strategy (SCC) have been discussed
which are used for reduction of harmonics and
others problem created into the supply system
due to the nonlinear loads.[1] The paper has been
organized in the following manner. The APF
configuration is discussed in Section I. Section II
presents constant instantaneous power control
strategy and the Section III discusses about
Sinusoidal current control strategy. Section IV
concludes the paper.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The supply system is a threephase system
with source frequency of 50 Hz. Figure 1 shows
the APF applied for improvement of the power
quality under all supply conditions. Shunt APF
compensates the harmonic currents in the
system [22,24,25,27,28,30] and thus improves the power
quality. The shunt APF is realized by using one
voltage source inverters (VSIs) connected at
point of common coupling (PCC) with a common
DC link voltage [2023].The loads generally used are
three types of nonlinear loads i.e. 6pulse current
source Converter Bridge, three phase diode
bridge rectifier with inductance of 300mH and
three phase diode bridge rectifier with
capacitance of 1000uF.
55

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Figure 1: Shunt Active Power filter
Constant Instantaneous Power Control

Strategy
Figure 2 presents the control diagram of the
shunt active filter using constant instantaneous
power control strategy. We can observed that
four low pass filters have been shown in the

control block; in which, three with cut off of 800
Hz has been applied to filter the voltages and
one for the power p0. Direct application of the
phase voltages cannot be used in the control
due to instability problem. There may be
resonance between source impedance and the
small passive filter. Low pass filters have been
applied to the system to attenuate the voltage
harmonics at the resonance frequency which are
higher than 800 Hz. p, q ,p0 ,va and vb are obtained
after the calculation from ab0 transformation and
send to the ab current reference block, which
calculates i ca and i cb . Finally, ab0 inverse
transformation block calculates the current
references and applied to the PWM current
control i.e. hysteresis band controller.
Figure 2: Control block diagram of the shunt active filter using constant instantaneous power
control strategy
In a real realization, these lowpass filers may

be removed, depending on system parameters
such as a switching frequency of the PWM
converter and a frequency response of the
electronic circuit for voltage measurement.
With this approach, the active filter supplies
the whole i0 to the load. If no zerosequence
voltage is present, the zerosequence power p0
is zero. In this case, the zerosequence current i0
of the load is completely compensated without
the need for energy balance inside the active
filter, since p0 = 0. This operation takes place
only under the supposition that the threephase
system is balanced and that the voltage
56
waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If, on the other

hand, this technique is applied to contaminated
supplies, the resulting performance is proven to
be poor.
The above compensa-tion principle that
provides constant source instantaneous power
is an extended version of the original control
strategy. The control technique does not use any
RMS value calculation, even though it uses a
low and a highpass filer to separate the powers
p0 and , which in-fluence the dynamic response
of the active filer. Figure 3 presents the MATLAB/
Simulink Model of Constant Instantaneous Power
control strategy.
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Figure 3: Shunt active filter model using constant instantaneous power control strategy
SINUSOIDAL CURRENT CONTROL STRATEGY

With some modification in constant
instantaneous power control strategy, the new
strategy can be used under unbalanced
conditions too. The new strategy has been
named as Sinusoidal current control strategy.
Figure 4 shows the control diagram of shunt
active filter using sinusoidal current control
strategy which is modified version of constant
instantaneous power control strategy and able
to compensate load currents under unbalanced
conditions too. The modification includes a
positive sequence detector which replaced the
800 Hz cutoff frequency lowpass filters and
correctly finds the phase angle and frequency
of the fundamental positive sequence voltage
component and thus shunt active power filter
compensates the reactive power of the load.
While designing this detector, utmost care
should be taken so that shunt active filter
produces ac currents orthogonal to the voltage
component, otherwise it will produce active power.
i ,i , p and q are obtained after the calculation
from
0 transformation block and send
to the
voltage reference block, which
calculates v and v . Finally,
0 inverse
transformation block calculates the ,
, and
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. In place of the filtered voltages used

previously, and, are considered as input to the
main control circuit of figure 4 Now fundamental
negative sequence power, harmonic power, and
the fundamental reactive power, are also
included in the compensating powers. It should
be noted that the controller for supply systems
can be treated as a simplification, just
considering v0 =i0 =p0 = 0 and the elimination of
signal.
The sinusoidal current control strategy
makes the active filer to compensate the current
of a nonlinear load to guarantee balanced,
sinusoidal current drawn from the network, even
under an unbalanced and/or distorted system
voltage. We know that neural current is a big
problem for aircraft system and this strategy
compensates also the neutral current of the load.
At this point, it is important to remark that
the voltage regulator of Fig.5 that generates the
signal p loss has received an additional task
besides those listed in the last sections: to
correct errors in power compensation. This
occurs because the feed forward control circuit
is now unable to supervise the zerosequence
power. Since the active filer compensates the
whole neural current of the load in the presence
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Figure 4: Control diagram of the shunt active filter controller using sinusoidal current control strategy
of zerosequence voltages, the shunt active filter

eventually supplies. p is replaced simply by
ploss . Therefore, if the active filer supplies p0 to
the load, this causes dc voltage variations, which
are sensed by the PI controller of the dc voltage
regulator. Hence, an additional amount of
average real power, numerically equal p0 , is

automatically added to the signal plot that is
mainly used to provide energy to cover for losses
in the power circuit of the shunt active filter.
Figure 5 presents the MATLAB/Simulink model
of Sinusoidal current control strategy.
Figure 5: Shunt active filter model using Sinusoidal current control strategy
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
This paper presented an innovative

technology management by criticaly analyzing
about power quality improvement using different
control strategies applied in supply system. CIPC
and SCC control techniques are discussed in
detail, which can be remedy for power quality
problems generated in different equipment. This
paper will help research workers, users and
suppliers of electrical power to gain a guideline
about the power quality.
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Genetic Algorithm Application in Controlling
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Miguel, Control Strategies for Series and Shunt
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Application in SAF & Its Comparative Study with
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S.Khalid, Bharti Dwivedi, Power Quality Issues,

Problems, Standards & Their Effects in Industry
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Technique for Active Power Filters Using a
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Approach to Harmonic Compensation in Power
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Adaptive tabu Search Algorithm in Sinusoidal Fryze
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Filter, International Journal of Energy Optimization
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pp. 6075, OctDec 2014.
Saifullah Khalid, Niraj Kumar, V.M.Mishra,
Performance Evaluation of Adaptive Tabu Search
Algorithm Optimized Sinusoidal Fryze Voltage
control based Hybrid Series Active Power Filter,
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KN.Areerak, S.V.Bozhko, G.M.Asher, and D.W.
P.Thomas, DQTransformation Approach for
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and Series Active Filters, IEEE Trans. on Industry
Applications, Vol. 6, No. 26,pp. 983990, 1990.
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Instantaneous Power Theory and Applications to
Power Conditioning, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
Jersey, 2007.
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STUDY OF DOMAIN SIZE IN ORDER- DISORDER

NANO-FERROELECTRIC POWDERS FROM NMR RESPONSE OF
I=3/2 QUADRUPOLAR SPIN SYSTEMS
AHIRWAL P. K.1, CHAITANYA P.2, SHUKLA A.3 AND *PANDEY L.1
Department of Physics & Electronics, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India
2
Department of Physics, St. Aloysius College (Autonomous with Potential for Excellence), Jabalpur-482001, India
3
Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Mizoram, Aizawl-796012, India
1
*Address for correspondence: Dr .L .Pandey, Professor, Department of Physics & Electronics,

Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001, India,
Email ID: pandeyl@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The effect of domain walls on the NMR response of center line transition in I=3/2 quadrupolar
spin system has been studied and a method is proposed for the measurement of domain width
in order-disorder nano-ferroelectrics. A ferroelectric domain is represented by a one dimensional
chain of equidistant nuclear spins having dipolar coupling. Spin populations as function of
position, time and ratio of quadrupolar to dipolar transition probabilities are obtained by forming
rate equations and solving them for a sample subjected to selective rf pulses by using Laplace
Transform. Based on the fact that the electric polarization in an order-disorder ferroelectric
undergoes a spiral orientation as one moves from one domain to the adjacent one making the
flipping motion of electric dipoles near the domain walls easier due to low activation barrier, it is
assumed that at low temperatures the spins near domain walls still undergo relaxation while
such a relaxation in the main body of the domain would have almost ceased. The spins present
inside the domain undergo relaxation through transfer of magnetization to the domain walls
through a spin diffusion process by nearest neighbor interaction. The change produced in
central line population by such a process is studied. This is further used to calculate the
magnitude of the NMR signal from a powdered sample by summing the contributions from
crystallites oriented in all the directions. It is found that the domain width can be estimated by
noting the relative amplitude of the pulsed NMR signal at low temperatures provided that relative
amplitude of such a signal from a sample of same material with known domain width is also
known. The method illustrated by making calculations for ferroelectric NaNO2,is quite general
and can be applied to any order disorder ferroelectric with nano sized domains and having
spin I=3/2 quadrupolar nuclei.
Keywords: Spin-lattice relaxation, Spin diffusion, Order-disorder ferroelectrics, Domain width,
Nano-ferroelectrics, Spin I=3/2 quadrupolar system.
INTRODUCTION
Ferroelectrics are a very important class of
materials having wide variety of applications in
various technological devices such as electro
optic materials, infrared sensors, ultrasonic
systems, actuators, electric field and strain
sensors, nonvolatile memory devices etc. [10, 25, 28,
29, 35, 36, 38,46]
. A material is said to be ferroelectric
when it has two or more orientational states of
electric polarization and can be reoriented from
one state to another by an electric field. If the
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spontaneous polarization arises due to the

ordering of ions or some group of ions, then the
ferroelectric is said to be orderdisorder
ferroelectric. [10, 25, 29]. The thermal motions tend
to destroy the ferroelectric order and
ferroelectricity usually disappears beyond a
certain temperature T c, called the transition
temperature. Below Tc, a ferroelectric material
comprises regions of uniform polarization, called
domains. Within each domain, the polarization
is in the same direction, but in the adjacent
61

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
domain it is in different direction. The region

joining two adjacent domains is called domain
wall. If the spontaneous polarizations in the
adjacent domains are in opposite directions, the
o
domains are called 180 domains and the region
o
o
joining two 180 domains are called 180 domainwalls. The technological applications of a
ferroelectric greatly depend upon its domain
structure and behavior and shape of hysteresis
loop (polarization vs electric field plot) that in turn
is governed by how fast the domains can be
switched from one direction to the other. The
switching process involves building up of the
favorable domains at the expense of the
unfavorable ones starting from nucleation and
growth at the domain-walls.[29] Also the properties
of a ferroelectric tend to change over period of
time due to gradual buildup of inhibiting structure
at domain walls reducing their mobility.[25,29]
Due to miniaturization trend in device size,
many recent research efforts have been focused
on the size dependent evolution of
ferroelectricity in nano crystalline and thin films
samples. [6,11,26,31,38,40, 48,52,53] Single crystalline
ferroelectric nano wires and nano tubes having
retention time for the induced polarization
exceeding several days have been produced.[52]
Nano sized nonvolatile polarization domains can
be induced on these nanowires indicating that
ferroelectric nano wires may be used to fabricate
nonvolatile memory devices with an integration
density approaching 1 terrabit/cm2. The potential
for application as nonvolatile random access
memory has stimulated great interest in the
integration of ferroelectric thin films and nano
structures .[13,27,39,51] For ultra-high density
integration of ferroelectric memories the
investigation of size effect and the estimation of
domain width has become extremely important.[27]
The ferroelectric properties of thin films
samples are studied by using ultra high vacuum
Scanned Probe Microscope (SPM). The written
polarization is read by using electrostatic force
microscopy (EFM) [52] by measuring the shift in
the resonance frequency of a SPM cantilever
while scanning it with a small tip voltage. The
shift is directly proportional to the electrostatic
force experienced by the tip and thus to the
magnitude of the electric polarization of the nano
wire. A plot of the shift as a function of tip position
62
provides a spatial map of electric polarization

direction on the nano wire. It has been shown
that measured domain size as observed through
the EFM is limited by the tip-sample distance (~
few tens of nm) due to long ranged nature of
electrostatic interaction. Similarly it has been
demonstrated that induced ferroelectric domains
as applied through the AFM tip formed
information bits with size of 60 nm diameter in
PZT. The formed bits were recorded back with
high spatial resolution of ~10 nm. Also the
polarization retention time is dependent on size
of domains.[41] Thus the determination of the size
of domains is very crucial for a strategy to
achieve maximum integration density.
Study of ferroelectric domains and domain
walls including the local dynamics has been
drawing considerable attention of research
workers in the past as well as in recent years.
[12,15,16,17,32,37,38,42,46,50,54]
For this various techniques[25]
such as optical birefringence, second harmonic
generation, electron microscopy, chemical
etching, X-ray topography, U.V. photoemission,
electrostatic force microscopy, atomic force
microscopy etc. have been used for different
materials. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
has been a very powerful tool for studying the
local environment. [1,8,25,45]
Nuclei with spin I > 1 possess magnetic
dipole moment as well as electric quadrupole
moment. Such nuclei respond to the local
environment through the interaction of the dipole
moments with the local magnetic fields and of
the electric quadrupole moments with the electric
field gradients. As a result these nuclei can sense
subtle changes taking place in the local
environment and these changes are recorded
through the NMR amplitudes, line widths and
relaxation times. The NMR studies of nuclei with
I > 1 have therefore proved to be a very
powerful tool for the study of local structure and
dynamics including phase transitions. A large
number of reports are available on successful
use of NMR for such investigations in
ferroelectrics; a few illustrative ones are given
in the reference. [5, 7, 8, 14, 18, 33] Not much work on
the study of effect of domain walls on the spin
relaxation is available in literature except those
by Kotecha and Pandey [19] and few others [3, 34, 43]
for spin I=3/2 systems. In their study the
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
contribution of the domain walls to the spin lattice

relaxation time related to satellite lines and the
central line transitions in the NMR spectrum in
an order-disorder ferroelectric crystal has been
theoretically studied and a method has been
proposed for the determination of domain size
in nano ferroelectrics. In this paper we present
an extension of the work cited above. The NMR
signal arising due to population differences in
the central line transitions is calculated keeping
in mind the nuclear spin relaxation of spin I=3/2
quadrupolar system due to domain walls in order
disorder ferroelectrics. The possible application
for the determination of domain size in nano
ferroelectrics powders possessing spin I=3/2
nuclei is discussed. Wherever necessary the
equations and their solutions are reproduced

from our earlier paper [43] for completeness. The
necessary rate equations for the change of
population of various levels in I=3/2 spin system
are written as earlier [3, 20, 43] and solved in the next
section followed by results and discussions.
CALCULATION OF POPULATION DIFFERENCES FOR SPIN I=3/2 SYSTEM IN AN ORDERDISORDER NANO FERROEELCTRIC
Let us consider a ferroelectric material of
order disorder type having 180 0 domains
possessing I=3/2 nuclei. The 180 0 domain
domain wall structure is schematically shown in
Fig 1.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of 180 domain (d) domain-wall (dw) structure. The arrows indicate the electric
polarization. The electric polarization has a spiral orientation as one move from one domain to the adjacent
domain.
In order to make the calculations tractable

we assume that a 180 0 domain can be
represented by a one-dimensional array of
equidistant nuclei situated at x-2a, x-a, x, x+a,

x+2a ... as shown in Fig 2. The I=3/2 spins would
have four Zeeman levels [1,45] with populations
-1
Figure 2: Schematic energy level diagrams of spins (I= 3/2) in a one - dimensional chain. W0 , W0 , W0 are the
,
-, -
-3/2 levels respectively for the case where one spin
transition probabilities of 3/2
undergoing an upward transition while the other spin undergoes downward transition (usually called flip-flop
1
0
-1
1
0
-1
term). W2 , W2 , W2 represent simultaneous upward (or down ward) flip of the pair of spins. W1 , W1 , W1
represent the single spin transition probability for the spin pairs and counted twice for each pair of spins.
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63

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
n 3/2, n 1/2, n -1/2 and n -3/2 corresponding to the

quantum numbers m=3/2, 1/2, -1/2, -3/2 in an
external magnetic field. We further assume that
each nucleus interacts with its nearest
neighbours only.
The rate of change of deviations of
populations from thermal equilibrium values can
be written as [1, 4, 19, 23, 24, 43,44]
n3/ 2 ( x , t )
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
= 2n3/ 2 ( x , t )W11 + 2n1/ 2 ( x, t ) W11
t
N 3/ 2
1
N
1
+
N
1
+
N
1
+
N
n1/ 2 ( x , t )
=
t
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01

n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
Defining the polulation differences as
n1/ 2 ( x, t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
2n3/2 ( x , t )W11 2n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W11 2n1/ 2 ( x , t )W10 + 2n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W10
+
+
+
+
+
n1/ 2 ( x , t )
=
t
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
n3/ 2 ( x a , t ) n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W01
n3/2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
n 1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00
n 1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W00
n3/ 2 ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
n3/ 2 ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
n1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20 +

n1/ 2 ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20 +
1
n ( x , t ) n3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
2n1/ 2 ( x , t )W10 2n 1/ 2 ( x , t ) W10 2n1/ 2 ( x , t )W11 + 2n 3/ 2 ( x , t ) W11
+
+
+
+
+
+
n 3/ 2 ( x , t )
=
t
+
+
+
+
1
n ( x a , t ) n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t )n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N 1/ 2
+
+
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W00
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W20
N 1/ 2
1
n ( x , t ) n 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x, t ) n 3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
2n1/ 2 ( x , t ) W11 2n 3/ 2 ( x , t ) W11

1
N
1
N
1
N
1
N
1
n ( x , t )n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t )n 1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t )n 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
1
n ( x , t )n 3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N 3/ 2
n1/ 2 ( x , t )n 3/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W01
n 1/ 2 ( x , t )n 3/ 2 ( x a , t ) W01
n 1/ 2 ( x , t )n1/ 2 ( x + a , t ) W21
n 1/ 2 ( x , t )n1/ 2 ( x a , t ) W21
N+1 =
n3/2- n1/2
N0 =
n+1/2 n-1/2
N-1 =
n-1/2 n-3/2
And assuming that

i
a)
W 0
W 0 (x, x+a)
(for i = 1, 0, -1)
i
W 2
W 2 (x, x+a)
W 0(x , x-
W 2 (x, x-
a)
As adjacent neighbors have identical
interactions, we can rewrite Eq. (1) as
N +1
( x, t ) =
t
2 N +1 ( x , t ) 2 N +1 ( x + a , t ) 2 N +1 ( x a , t )
+ ' N 0 ( x, t ) + ' N 0 ( x + a, t )
+ ' N 0 (x a, t )
N 0
( x, t ) = N +1 ( x , t ) + N +1 ( x + a , t ) + N +1 ( x a , t )
t
2 ' N 0 ( x, t ) 2 ' N 0 ( x + a , t ) 2 ' N 0 ( x a , t )
+ " N 1 ( x , t ) + " N 1 ( x + a , t ) + " N 1 ( x a , t )
N 1
( x , t ) = ' N 0 ( x , t ) + ' N 0 ( x + a , t ) + ' N 0 ( x a , t )
t
- 2 " N 1 ( x , t ) 2 " N 1 ( x + a , t ) - 2 " N 1 ( x a , t )
Eq. (2)
where
Eq. (1)
64
Where N = n3/2 + n1/2 + n-1/2 + n-3/2, and W10, W00,

W-10 are the transition probabilities of 3/2
1/2, 1/2 -1/2, -1/2 -3/2 levels respectively
for the case where one spin is undergoing an
upward transitions while the other spin
undergoes downward transition (usually called
flip-flop term).[1,45] The probabilities W12, W 02,
W-12 represent simultaneous upward (or down
ward) flip of the pair of spins. Similarly W11, W01,
W -1 1 represent the single spin transition
probability for the spin-pairs and counted twice
for each pair of spins. Here we have used the
same symbols and notations as used earlier in
Ref. [20, 43]
W1 W1
= 2W11 + 0 + 2 ,
2
2
W0 W0
' = 2W10 + 0 + 2 ,
2
2
W 1 W 1
" = 2W1 1 + 0 + 2 ,
2
2
W21 W01
4
W 0 W00
'= 2
4
W 1 W0 1
"= 2
4
After Taylor series expansion of the terms N+1

(x+a, t), N-1 (x+a, t), N0 (x+a, t), N0 (x-a,t), N-1 (x-a,
t), N+1 (x-a, t) about x and retaining the terms up
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
to the second order the set of Eq. (2) reduces

to
For the given I = 3/2 system, the value of

the probabilities can be written as [43, 45]
Eq. (3)
Where
a1 = + 2
a2 = '+2 '
a3 = ' '+2 ' '
D1 = a 2
D2 = ' a 2
D3 = ' ' a 2
Now these coupled simultaneous partial

differential equations representing spin diffusion
are solved by using Laplace Transform. [22, 2, 21, 43]
Taking the Laplace Transform of Eq. (3) over
the variable t and denoting the transforms as
Z+1 = { N+1(x, t)}, Z0 =
{ N0(x, t)}, Z-1 =
{ N-1(x, t)},
Eq. (3) yields
Eq. (4)
With
k1 = 3 N+1(x, 0) + N-1(x, 0) +2N0(x, 0)
k2 = N+1(x, 0) + N-1(x, 0) +2 N0(x, 0)
k3 = N+1(x, 0) + 3N-1(x, 0) +2N0(x, 0)
where
, q is the polar angle
of the radius vector joining two nuclei with respect

is the
to the external magnetic field and
correlation time. The internuclear spacing is
denoted by r and
is the gyromagnetic ratio.
The Eq. (4) are coupled partial differential
equations and were difficult to solve analytically
for the general case. So we made a simplifying
assumption that only those transitions where
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65

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
one spin is undergoing an upward transitions

while the other spin undergoes downward
transition (the so-called flip-flop terms) [1, 43, 45] are
important. We therefore set C1, C3 and C5 in Eq.
(4) equal to zero. The Eq. (4) can then be written
as
The Eq. (4) can then be written as
"
Z +1
=-
1
9b
[k
Z 0" = -
1
8b
[k
3s Z +1 2 sZ 0 sZ 1
s Z +1 2 sZ 0 sZ 1
2 A02
a 2W00
0
, W00 = W0 = 2 (1 3 cos2 )
b=
16
h
Z -1" = -
1
9b
[k
s Z +1 2 sZ 0 3sZ 1
Eq. (5)
Where
2 A02
a 2W00
0
, W00 = W0 = 2 (1 3 cos2 )
b=
16
h
s being the Laplace variable.
The set of Eq. (5) can be solved for different
initial and boundary conditions. For an easy
comparison of the results with the generally
performed pulsed NMR relaxation measurements
or devising new experiments and also to study
the domain-wall effects, we consider the following
situations.
An intense radio frequency pulse is applied
to the sample at a frequency that would be equal
to the central line frequency in a crystal of same
material. We make a crude assumption to begin
with that it causes a fraction a of spins flip from
the lower state I = 1/2 to the higher state I = -1/2
and the population differences become
N0(x, 0) = -2 ,
N-1 (x, 0) = ,
N+1 (x, 0) =
Eq. (6)
The time t = 0 corresponds to the end of

the pulse. To demonstrate the procedure of
is chosen to be 0.5
calculations the value of
which corresponds to a /2 pulse for crystals.
A single 180o domain with the domain-wall at its
end is considered. The origin of the coordinates,
66
x = 0, is taken at the domain-wall and the wall is

taken to be thin.
Quadrupolar nuclei such as 23Na in NaNO2
possess both magnetic moment and electric field
gradient. It is known that spin lattice relaxation
of quadrupolar nuclei in ferroelectrics usually
occurs predominantly through interaction of
quadrupole moment with the fluctuating electric
field gradients that are created by local motions
of ions or group of ions. For example, it has been
shown that 23Na nuclei in NaNO2, which is an
order-disorder ferroelectric, undergo spin-lattice
relaxation due to flipping motions of NO2 [33]. Also
it was shown by Hughes and Pandey[14,33] that in
order-disorder ferroelectrics the electric
polarization undergoes a spiral orientation as
one move from one domain to the other. If we
visualize the whole sample to be made up of thin
slices, then it means that the polarization in
adjacent slices in the larger body of the domains
are almost parallel to each other, whereas the
polarization in the slices close to the domain wall
have progressive relative tilts so that it gets
completely reversed in the adjacent domain. As
a result, the activation barrier Ea for the flipping
motion of group of ions in the regions close to
the domain-wall would most likely be lower as
compared to that for the regions deep inside the
domain. As the flip probability at any temperature
T would vary as exp(-Ea/kT),it is implied that at
lower temperatures, when the flips in the interior
body of domain would have almost ceased the
groups near or inside the wall may still be
executing some flipping motions. This in turn,
implies that nuclei near the walls would be still
experiencing relaxation whereas those deep
inside the domain would not be relaxing. Further,
it has been recently found by Blinc and
coworkers [49] that 23Na spin-lattice relaxation rate
in micro confined NaNO2 in the ferroelectric is
similar to that in the bulk. Therefore, we liberally
assume that the nature of quadrupolar relaxation
for nuclei at the domain-wall is similar to that for
those deep inside the domain for order-disorder
ferroelectrics in general. Therefore we further
assume that the populations at the domain-wall
follow the time dependence [4, 30, 43]
N1(0, t)=
e-2W1t
N0(0, t) =
[e-2W1t + e-2W2t]
Eq. (7)
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Where W 1 and W 2 are the quadrupolar

relaxation probabilities corresponding to the
1/2 and m = 3/2
transition m = 3/2
+1/2 respectively. It should be noted in deciding
the location of the origin, i.e. x = 0, that the NMR
of nuclei lying inside the wall would not be usually
observable due to structural disorders. So, x =
0 would correspond to the region near the wall.
At present we are assuming that the wall
thickness is negligible.
Using the above boundary conditions, Eq.
(5) were solved to yield
Eq. (8) the values of N1(x, t) and N0(x, t) can be

written as
N+1(x, t)
= C11 1(x, t) + C122(x, t) + C133(x, t) + C144(x, t) +

C155(x, t) + C166(x, t) + C177(x, t) + C18
N-1(x, t)
= C21 1(x, t) + C222(x, t) + C233(x, t) + C244(x, t) +

C255(x, t) + C266(x, t) + C277(x, t) + C28
N0(x, t)
= C311(x, t) + C322(x, t) + C333(x, t) + C344(x, t) +

C355(x, t) + C366(x, t) + C38
Eq. (9)
Where
2
C11 = C21 = 1 1 C31
18
18
4 ( k1 2 k 2 + k 3 )
12
18
1
+

22 12
22 12 18

= 1
18
( k1 4 k 2 + k 3 ) + ( k 1 4 k 2 + k 3 )
4
4
2
1
2
2 2
C12 = C22 = 1 1 C32 = 1 1 2 2 2
18
18 2 1
12
C =
C13 = C23 = 1
18 33
2 2
18
1 1 1 1 2
+ 1
18 18
2 12
22
C
C14 = C24 = 1
18 34
Eq. (8)
Where
22
= 1
18
18
(k 2k2 + k3 )
18
4 1
2
2
2
2
2 1
2 1
2
1
( k1 4 k 2 + k 3 )
4
18
22
2 2
C35 = 1 2 2 1 2
C15 = C25 = 1
18
18 2 1
2
2 2 18
C16 = C26 = 1 2 C36 = 1 2 1 1 2
18
18 18 2 22
k1 k 3
k k3
k k2
k k2
, C27 = 1
, C18 = 1
, C28 = 3
,
4
4
4
4
k 4k 2 + k 3
C38 = 1
4
C17 =
k1 2k 2 + k 3 12

1

s
4
18
18
a3 =
2
2
22 12
1
+ 18 s + 2W + 18 1
1
k 4k2 + k 3
+ 1
s + 2W1 s + 2W2
4s
a4 =
18
22 12
k1 4 k 2 + k 3

4s
s + 2W2
k1 4 k 2 + k 3
k 1 2 k 2 + k 3 12

1

4s
4s
18
2
2
1
1
+
+
18 s + 2W1 18 s + 2W2
By taking the inverse Laplace Transform [2] of

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And f1(x, t), f2(x, t) etc. are complicated

functions involving error functions as given below
x1
72 b 2 t
1 ( x , t ) = erfc
2 ( x , t ) =
e 2W1t
- -2W1 x1
x1 1
72 b
e
erfc 2W1t +
72 b 2 t
x 1
-2W1
x1 1
72 b
erfc 2W1t +
+ e
72 b 2 t
67

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
- -2W2 x1
72 b
e
erfc 2W2 t +
3 ( x, t ) = e 2W2t
x1
2
-2W2
72 b
2W2 t +
+
e
erfc
x 2
1
4 ( x , t ) = erfc
72 b 2 t
5 ( x , t ) =
6 ( x , t ) =
x1 1

72 b 2 t
x1 1

72 b 2 t
- -2W1 x 2
x 2 1
72 b

e
erfc 2W1t +
72 b 2 t
x 2
-2W1
x 2 1
72 b
erfc 2W1t +
+ e

72 b 2 t
e 2W1t
e 2W2t
- -2W2 x 2
x 2 1
72 b
e
erfc 2W2 t +
72 b 2 t
x 2
-2W2
x 2 1
72 b
erfc 2W2 t +
+e
72 b 2 t
7 ( x , t ) = erfc x
2 1
9b 2 t
Eq. (11)
The functions 2(x, t), 3(x, t), 5(x, t) and

(x,
t) can be simplified using the numerical
6
expansion of complex error function.
The average values of the population
differences for the entire domain would then be
given by
Eq. (10)
Where i =1, 0 or 1 and L is the thickness
of the domain. In our treatment domain-wall
thickness has been ignored. For clarity and ready
reference the symbols and useful expressions
have been kept same as taken in the Ref.[19, 43]
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The time dependence of the population
differences N+1(t), N-1(t) and N0(t) as given by
Eq.(9) and (10) were evaluated numerically
using 32 point Gaussian quadrature [Abramowitz
1972] for different values of the ratios W1/W00
taking W2/W1 = 1 and various values of L/a by
Shukla et al. [43] and Pandey et al. [34] .The
necessary computer programs were developed
68
in BASIC language. Wherever needed relevant

data for ferroelectric NaNO2 were used just to
see the behavior. It was found that N1(t) and N0(t)
are in general non exponential. Treating the
quantity (W00a2)1/2 as the diffusion coefficient D,
the function (W00a2t)1/2 becomes the diffusion
length and provides an estimate of the distance
up to which the magnetization would have
diffused from the domain-walls (x = 0) into the
domain in time t. The quantity ( W00a2t)/L then
gives an estimate of the portion of the domain
of length L getting affected in time t due to
relaxation occurring in the domain wall. Values
of the population differences N1(t) and N0 (t) were
calculated for various values of L/a and were
plotted (L ranging approximately from 1 nm to
20 nm, a = 3.56 A0 for NaNO2). These plots can
be found in references [34, 43]. It was further
found that N1,0(t) follow a power law dependence
on t given by
The values of C1 and p would depend upon

the ratios W2/W1 and W1/W00. Relaxation time was
chosen to be equal to the duration in which N1,
(t) has decayed to e-1 of some initial value [43].
0
Based on the theoretical studies it was
proposed that, if the spin lattice relaxation time
for a ferroelectric of usual domain size is known,
then the domain width of an unknown sample of
the same ferroelectric having nano-sized
domains can be estimated by measuring the
value of relaxation time for that sample at low
temperatures. This was further proposed that
these results were quite general and can be
o
applied to any ferroelectric system having 180
domains. For applying these results to powders
an averaging over various orientations has to
be carried out.
A crystalline powder is an assembly of single
crystals randomly oriented in different directions.
The satellite signals would not be clearly visible
in the spectrum. However a calculation can be
done to get an approximate behavior of the time
dependence of the NMR signal arising due to
domain wall effects after radiating the sample
by a radio frequency pulse applied close to the
centre line frequency of spin I=3/2 system and
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
calculating N 0 (t). The calculations can be

simplified by treating the powder as made up
of single crystals possessing domains of length
L having one dimensional array of spin I=3/2
nuclei as shown in Fig 2. And obtaining the sum
over all orientations
(0 to 1800) and
(0 to
0
360 ). The signal is approximated by the
population difference N0(t) as given by Eq (9).
However, Eq (10) is modified to
Eq. (12)
The numerical calculations were performed
by utilizing trapezoidal rule for integration over
the angles
( 0 to 1800 ) and
(0 to 3600 )
and using the 32 - point Gaussian Quadrature
program employed for single crystal calculations
described in the previous section as a
subroutine. The computer program was
developed in house in BASIC.
It was observed that the time dependence
of N0(t) is non-exponential. An attempt was made
to get an empirical relation representing this time
dependence. Since, now we are treating the

powder as an assembly of one dimensional
arrays oriented in various directions, the quantity
(4
/3)( W00a2t)/L)3,which is nothing but the
volume fraction, would then give an estimate of
the portion getting affected in time t due to
relaxation occurring in the domain wall.The
variation of N0(t) as function of(4 /3)( W00a2t)/
L)3, is shown in Fig. 3 in logarithmic plots for
various values of the ratio of domain width to
internuclear spacing a denoted by L/a . For
plotting value of W00 is chosen as 0.005[47] and
the values of N0 at various times (denoted by N0
(T) (II) where T= W00 (t) have been normalized
by dividing by the value, N0 (T) (1), just after the
pulse.
It is noted that the plots in Fig 3 are almost
linear and N0 (t) can be empirically represented
as
Eq. (13)
Figure 3. Variation of Log( Abs (N0(T)(II)/N0(T)(1)) as function of (4

/3)[ (W00t)/(L/a)]3 for various
values of the ratio of domain width to inter nuclear spacing , L/a (ie L= 1.068 nm to 20.648 nm )
using a= 3.56 A0 for NaNO2. T=0.005 t.
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69

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Where C is a constant and m is the slope

that depend upon the domain width. N0(1) is the
value of N0(t) just after the pulse and has been
used to normalize the values for easy
comparison. It is clear from Eq. (13) that it can
be used to compare the domain widths in
samples of same material since values of W00
and the interatomic spacing a would be the
same. Also, using this equation domain width in
a sample of unknown domain width can be
estimated by noting the signal amplitude after
the NMR pulse provided that corresponding
signal amplitude in a sample of known domain
width is available.
It may be mentioned that these results are
quite general and can be applied to any
o
ferroelectric system having 180 domains. It is
worth mentioning here that spin lattice relaxation
for I=3/2 system in a ferroelectric would get
contributions from various mechanisms. However
as mentioned earlier, in most of the ferroelectrics
the relaxation is usually quadrupolar and
proceeds through the interaction between
nuclear electric quadrupole moment and the
fluctuating electric field gradient which generally
arises due to flipping/tumbling motions of ionic
groups (for example NO2 group in NaNO2 ). As
these flipping/tumbling motions almost cease at
low temperatures the relaxation rate becomes
very small at low temperatures in a quadrupolar
system. Thus the method that we propose here
involves two steps: first the pulsed NMR signal
amplitude of I=3/2 nuclei in the ferroelectric
material of known domain width should be
measured at low temperatures, second the
corresponding value is measured again at same
temperature for the same nuclei but in the
sample with unknown nano sized domains. Then
the width of the nano domains is obtained from
the Fig. 3 just by comparison and Eq. (13). The
values of constants appearing in eq. (13) would
be constant for a given material and would in
general be different for different materials.
Therefore we would have specific graph such
as fig.3 for different materials. These results are
general and are expected to prompt
experimentalists to verify them.
CONCLUSIONS
The pulsed NMR signal of I=3/2 quadrupolar
spin system due to domain-walls in order70
disorder ferroelectric was theoretically studied

by representing the 1800 domain by a chain of
equidistant I=3/2 spins. The electric polarization
undergoes spiral orientation as one moves from
one domain to the adjacent one. This implies
that if we treat the domain to be made up of thin
slices, then the polarization in the slices deep
inside the domain would be almost parallel to
each other whereas the polarization in slices near
the domain-wall would undergo larger relative
tilts. Therefore owing to the lower activation
barrier near the walls the probability of activated
reorientational flipping motions of group of ions
near the wall would be more. As a result at a
given temperature, the nuclei near the walls
would be experiencing quadrupolar relaxation
whereas those inside the domain would not do
so. This would lead to spin diffusion from the
domain-walls. Rate equations are formed for the
population difference for I=3/2 quadrupolar
nuclei and are solved analytically using Laplace
Transform. Expression for signal amplitude
taking into account relaxation due to domainwalls is derived in terms of domain width. A
general method is proposed for estimation of
domain width of a nano-ferroelectric powder by
measuring the NMR signal at low temperatures
and using the corresponding value for the same
ferroelectric having domains of known width. This
may also be used for estimating the extent of
poling of a powder sample of order-disorder
nano-ferroelectrics.
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EVOLUTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

*NIAZ AHMED SIDDIQUI
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India
*Address for communication: Niaz Ahmed Siddiqui, Research Scholar,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,
email ID:niazsiddiqui@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Water distribution system is an integral part of present society. It includes the features like
Collection and Storage, Transportation, Treatment, Distribution .Water distribution systems
can be classified according to the source of water that they use, like Surface Water Distribution
Systems, Groundwater Distribution Systems, Regional Rural Water Distribution Systems, and
Purchased Water Distribution Systems. There are many piping systems through which water
is distributed. Few main piping systems are listed as Transmission Lines, In-plant Piping Systems,
Distribution Mains, and Service Lines. There are various types of layouts for water distribution
network, suiting to different types of populations, communities and terrains. They can be
classified as Serial Network, Branched Network, and Looped Network. The design aspect of
water distribution system is an important area to tackle with. The designer decides about a
particular type of design depending upon the various controlling factors, the various options
are listed as System-Wide Master Planning, Transmission Main Design, Sub-division Design,
Rehabilitation and Strengthening .There are many methods for optimization of water distribution
networks. All methods of optimization are not fully successful but have some drawbacks too.
The designer must take into notice the various limitations/drawbacks before deciding a particular
type of optimization method. There are certain myths about the optimization methods which
are listed as Optimization models do not provide solutions to practical problems, Solutions
obtained by optimization approaches do not give better solution that those obtained using
traditional approaches, Optimization approaches are too difficult to use in practice, Practicing
engineers are not comfortable with optimization approaches Optimization methods are not
well suited for strengthening and expansion of existing looped water distribution network .Even
though mankind has known transportation of water through rivers, canals, streams etc. for
many centuries, the transportation of water through pipelines and its distribution through
networks is of recent origin. Even though developed nations have piped water supply, developing
nations also have started providing water through pipe networks. Even consumers in remote
villages have started getting water, if not in their residences, at least near to it. Thus, water
distribution networks have been a part of modern living.
Keywords: Water, Distribution, Network, Optimization, Loop, Method, Solution, Pipe, Series,
Link, Rural, Urban, Flow, Reliability, Design, Flexibility, Cost, Performance.
INTRODUCTION
Water distribution system is an integral part
of present society and civilization. The system
supplies water for different uses such as
domestic, public, commercial, industrial and fire
fighting purposes. Presently,water distribution
system includes the following features
1. Collection and Storage:Collection and
storage include construction of dams, ponds,
lakes, reservoirs, wells, bawlis etc.
72
2. Transportation: Transportation means

transporting of water from source to consumer
centre by some means, like - canals, aqueducts,
pumping mains etc.
3. Pumping:Pumping includes pumps and other
ancillary units for pumping water.
4.Treatment:
Treatment
includes
screening,filtration,sedimentation,disinfection,
softening and aeration.
5. Distribution: Distribution means distribution
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pipes, valves, fire hydrants, equalizing reservoirs

and other accessories.
HISTORY
The systems for collection, transportation
and distribution of water existed in ancient
civilization also. Modern distribution systems
supplying water to consumers for domestic and
other uses are of recent developments. British
Parliament passed an act in 1544 . . . . . to
provide for clear water for residents and started
issuing directives to public and private water
works companies. In USA, the earliest water
supply dates back to 1652 for the cities, like
Boston and Massachusetts. In 1746, the first
piped supply for an entire population was built
in Schaeffer city of Pennsylvania, USA.
In both these systems of Britain and USA,
water moved from higher elevation by gravity and
was stored in wooden tanks from where people
filled buckets. Steam operated pumps were first
used in 1764 to raise water in the city of
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA. Winston-Salem
of North Carolina, USA, had the first complete
water distribution system by 1776. However, the
earlier systems were originally built for fire
protection and dust suppression with little
consideration for domestic services.
Provision of water distribution system for
urban population started in India in the
nineteenth century i.e. 1800 onwards. However,
it was the latter half of the twentieth century, i.e.
1950 onwards, that water distribution systems
became a necessity in urban areas and was also
being provided for semi-urban and selected rural
areas.
The International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade, 1981-1990, gave thrust to
water distribution systems in the developing
countries like India and many more. About 250
crores of people in the developing countries were
provided piped water during this decade and an
additional 200 crores were provided piped water
in the last decade of the twentieth century i.e.
1990-2000.
The water distribution networks in USA used
wooden mains even up to 1940s. Even though
a cast iron main was laid in Versailles, France in
1664. The first cast iron main was laid in USA in
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Philadelphia in 1817. Modern water distribution

networks throughout the world now use pipes of
iron, steel, asbestos, cement, concrete and
plastics.
Of the total expenditure incurred on
different facilities of a water distribution system,
the expenditure incurred on transportation and
distribution of water is quite large and may even
exceed 70% of the cost of total water distribution
system. It is, therefore, necessary to design new
systems as well as expand and strengthen old
ones to cut the cost drastically, as far as possible.
TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Water distribution systems can be classified
according to the source of water that they use,
like1. Surface Water Distribution Systems
When water is available in sufficient quantity
from a natural stream, river, canal or a reservoir,
like pond, lake, dam etc, the system has surface
water as source of distribution (Fig. 1) [1].
Fig. 1
SW: Surface Water

T: Treatment plant
P: Pump
R: Reservoir
D: Distribution network
The quality of water is average, hence it
requires conventional treatment to remove mud
and other impurities. The treatment plant is
usually located on one end of the distribution
network and large transmission mains and
several service reservoirs are required if the
population is large and spread in wide area.Since,
the water tariff is reasonable, the consumers tend
to use large quantities of water if the usage is
not controlled. Therefore, in almost all areas the
timings of water distribution is restricted. It is not
a 24 hours supply any more. The surface water
distribution system can also meet the needs of
industries that require large quantities of
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processed water.
2. Ground Water Distribution Systems
Water distribution systems for small
population can use ground water as source, if
sufficient quantity of ground water of good quality
is available (Fig.2). [1]
R: Reservoir
If the system is large and the terrain is
uneven, the services of booster pumps are,
generally, availed to tackle the problem.
Although, the consumers within a community are
close to one another, the communities
themselves are spread wide apart and the
source is also far away. It is usually not possible
to provide mains of enough capacity to provide
fire requirements.
3.Purchased Water Distribution Systems
Fig. 2
W: Well
WF: Well Field
However, as the population grows and water
consumption exceeds, additional source of water
becomes a necessity. Sometimes, water can be
used directly without any treatment but treatment
is necessary to remove hardness and other
impurities. If the ground water is available at
several locations, wells can be spaced around
to avoid the need of large transmission mains.
However, if large quantity of water is available in
one area, water from all wells in this area, termed
as well field, is collected and treated at one
location. This reduces operating costs and
allows a better control on water quality but
requires large transmission mains.
2. Regional Rural Water Distribution
Systems
When ground water is scarce or of poor
quality, several rural communities in a region are
grouped together and are served through a
system that is termed a Regional Rural Water
Distribution System (Fig. 3). [1]
Sometimes, when a water system finds that

its distribution has become inadequate or has
become contaminated, it purchases water from
another system (Fig. 4). [1]
Fig. 4
PW: Purchased Water

M: Meter
For such a purchased water distribution
system, little or no treatment is required.
However, disinfection and re-pumping to boost
the pressure up is necessary. Since all water
leakages and wastages have to be paid for, strict
water accountability is necessary.
TYPES OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Piping systems used in water distribution
systems can be classified in four categories1. Transmission Lines:
Transmission lines are pipes that carry raw
water from source to treatment plants and
treated water from treatment plants to pumping
stations, service reservoirs and distribution
networks as shown in Fig.5. [1]
Fig. 3
SW: Surface Water

T: Treatment plant
P: Pump
74
Fig. 5
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
S: Source
T: Treatment plant
P: Pump
R: Reservoir
RW: Raw Water
TW: Treated Water
They are usually long, large in diameter
(>400 mm) and carry large quantities of water.
They carry water from one point to another; have
few side connections except when they supply
water to bulk consumers or service reservoirs.
node and the last link ends on a sink. All

intermediate nodes are connected by two links,
a supply link on the upstream and a distribution
link on the downstream. The direction of flow in
all links is fixed and is along the direction from
the source node to the sink.
2.Branched Networks
A branched or a dead-end network is a tree
like network and has no loops (Fig. 7) [1].
2. In-plant Piping Systems

In-plant piping systems usually consists of
pipes in treatment plants and pumping stations.
They are larger in diameter but small in length
and contain several outlets, valves, meters and
bends.
3. Distributions Mains
Distributions mains are pipes that carry
water from transmission mains or service
reservoirs and distribute it to the consumers.
They are laid along the roads, have several side
connections for consumer services. They are
100 or 150 mm and larger in diameter.
4. Service Lines
Service Lines are small diameter pipes and
carry water from distribution mains to consumer
premises.
TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
Fig. 7
It consists of several serial networks.

Usually it has one source node, one or more
intermediate nodes, and has more than one
sink. Each intermediate node is connected on
the upstream by one supply link and on the
downstream by one more distribution links. The
direction of flow in all links is fixed and is along
the direction from the source node to the sink.
Since serial and branched networks are
similar from design purposes. The term
branched networks is often used to denote both
serial and branched networks.
3. Looped Networks
A looped network contains loops (Fig. 8) [1].
Water distribution networks are classified

according to their layout, like1. Serial Networks
A serial network has no branches and loops
(Fig. 6) [1].
Fig. 8
Fig. 6
It is the simplest of all types of water

distribution networks. Generally, it has one
source node, one sink and one or more
intermediate nodes. First link starts at a source
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S: Source
A, B, C, E, F: Nodes
D: Sink
G: Node/Sink
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It has one source node in a single source

network, but has several source nodes in a
multiple source network. A looped network must
have at least one sink. The node that behaves
as a sink depends on the nodal demands. For
example, node D in Fig. 8 behaves as sink.
However, if demand at node G increases, the
flow direction in link DG is reversed and node G
behaves as a sink.
For a particular demand pattern, the
direction of flow in a link is fixed, however, it may
change for another demand pattern. Thus, for
a node, a link that behaves as a supply link for
one demand pattern may behave as a
distribution link for another demand pattern.
Similarly, when the direction of flow changes in
a link, the upstream node becomes a
downstream node and vice versa.
Looped water distribution network in
practice seldom consist of loops only. In addition
to loops, they contain branched and serial
networks.
NETWORK COMPONENTS
Water distribution networks contain several
components. Each network is unique in source,
layout, topography, pipe material, valves, meters
and consumer connections.
A small water distribution network[3] may have
a single source node, such as an elevated
service reservoir or a pumping arrangement
directly supplying water from the treatment plant
to the network. A large network, however, may
have several nodes, service and balancing
reservoirs and pumping stations.
Layout of a distribution network depends on
the existing pattern of streets and highways,
existing and planned sub-division of the service
area, possible sites for ground and elevated
service reservoirs and locations and density of
demand centers.
Topography of the service area may be
even or uneven. In an uneven terrain, booster
pumps are necessary for pumping water to high
level areas. Similarly, it may be necessary to
provide pressure reducing valves for areas with
lower elevation to reduce pressure. Check valves
may also be necessary to maintain flow in the
76
selected direction.
Pipes in distribution networks may be of cast
iron, steel, concrete, asbestos, cement or PVC.
Pipes may be un-lined or lined with cement
mortar.
Valves are provided in water distribution
networks to
(a) Control flow.
(b) Shut off pipelines during repairs or
replacements.
(c) Drain
pipelines during cleaning.
(d) Reduce
(e) Maintain
(f)
pressure for low lying areas.

flow
in
selected direction.
Suppress water hammer effects.
(g) Allow air to enter pipelines while emptying.

(h) Release
points.
(i)
air
from
pipelines
at higher
During filling.
Meters are provided to measure flow of

water from a source, transfer of water between
different zones and the supply of water to
consumers.
Water distribution to the tapping points of
the consumers may be direct or indirect. For
direct supply, sufficient pressure is required in
the network so that the tapping points at different
elevations get water. For highrise buildings,
however, the supply is indirect. The distribution
system supplies water to sumps at the ground
level, while lifting of water from these sumps to
the individual tapping points and overhead tanks
is left to the consumers.
NETWORK MODEL
A factual water distribution network is
extremely complex involving a large number of
different components. It is extremely difficult to
consider all such Components in the optimal
design of a water distribution network. Therefore,
a designer prepares a mathematical model of
the network and designs it.
The mathematical model of a water
distribution network is a network consisting of
nodes and links. The network include all services,
reservoirs, pumping stations, links in the main
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
direction of flow and loop forming links. Bulk

consumptions are considered individually while
small demands such as domestic consumption
are put together and are assumed to occur at
demand nodes. Depending on the topography,
booster pumps and pressure reducing valves
are included in the model. Check valves, if
necessary, are also included.
While preparing a mathematical model of a
water distribution network, it must be seen that
the model is neither too elaborate to pose
problems working on it, nor too sketchy to distort
the behavior to unacceptable limits. The model
should rather include important elements so that
the results obtained from it can describe the
behavior of the real-life water distribution
network.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The design of a water distribution system
for a small community is rather simple since this
primarily involves deciding sizes of different pipes
in the system. The design of water distribution
system [2, 3] for a large community is rather
complex. In addition to the usual pipe sizing, the
design involves decision regarding
(a) Location of sources of water.
(b) Division
of
community in different
zones.
(c) Location and capacity of distribution
reservoirs.
(d) Locations, types, capacity and operating
schedule of pumps.
(e) Locations, types and settings of different
valves.
There are many requirements for properly
designing a complete water distribution
network. The network should be able to:
(a) Determine optimal pipe layout and sizes.
(b) Design both new networks and extension
of existing ones.
(c) Select existing pipes for cleaning and
relining as part of an optimal solution.
(d) Analyse the network under several demand
patterns, including fire-flow requirements.
(e) Handle all types of networks and network
complexities.
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(f)
Determine the location, size and heights of

reservoirs and their operations.
(g) Assist in the selection of pumps and pump

stations.
(h) Determine the optimal settings of all types
of valves in the operation of the network.
(i)
Determine optimal designs and operations

of networks containing a large number of
pipes, pumps, valves and reservoirs.
DESIGN PROBLEMS
The design of water distribution system is
classified into four types of design problems
1. System Wide Master Planning
Master planning of system to determine the
general layout of water distribution system, like
locations, sizing and construction schedule of
major elements over a period that may be as
long as 10 years. The pipe diameters are large
(>400 mm) and are mainly controlled by future
demand of domestic and industrial nature. Since
the construction will be in stages, modification
in pipe sizes is permitted at the time of installation,
taking into consideration the latest data
regarding water demands.
2. Transmission Main Design
Using the master plan as a guideline, the
design of transmission mains is finalized.
The design has better idea of the temporary
demands, routes along which the pipes will be
laid, and the field data regarding different lengths
and levels. Since the pipe sizes are large, fire
flows are usually satisfied. However, the behavior
of an element during peak flows must be
considered.
3. Sub - division Design
Considering different sub-divisions, such as
residential, industrial and commercial and the
corresponding demands, the sizes of pipes within
the sub-division are decided. The transmission
main network should be studied deeply and the
pressure obtained at junction points, connecting
a sub-division to the transmission main system,
should be used in the design of pipes in the subdivision. Pipe sizes are controlled by
simultaneous peak flow without any interruption
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of an element. Minimum pipe diameter is 100 or

150 mm.
3. Optimization approaches are too difficult

to use in practice
4. Rehabilitation and Strengthening
This is true. Optimization approaches are

mainly confined to research work, the algorithms
are developed and used for research purposes.
Computers programs are not easily available for
practical applications.
Loss of carrying capacity because of pipes

may need rehabilitation and strengthening of an
existing network. Such pipes may be completely
replaced by new pipes, cleaned, lined or
strengthened by parallel piping. In such a
design, calibration of existing network is
essential. The design is governed by
simultaneous peak and fire flows.
OPTIMIZATION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK AND ITS LIMITATIONS
Several methods have been developed,
since 1960s, for the optimal design of water
distribution networks. However, optimization
approaches have not been widely used in
practice. Some genuine reasons for not
supporting the optimization approaches has
already been elaborated. [5]
The details are discussed below:
1. Optimization models do not provide
solutions to practical problems It is true that no optimization model neither
presently exist nor would be available in near
future that would give optimal solution to all the
types of design problems discussed in [2] and also
for all the design requirements proposed in.[4]
However, as observed in [5] optimization models
can give reasonably good solutions to practical
problems, if the solution is not desired for the
water supply system as a whole but for a single
type of design problems.
2. Solutions obtained by optimization
approaches do not give better solution than
those
obtained
using
traditional
approaches
This is not quite true. An experienced
designer may obtain by traditional method, a
design that maybe cheaper in cost to that
obtained through optimization techniques.
However, as has been observed in practice,
Lauria 1993, designs through optimization
approaches can result in savings, sometimes as
high as 20 to 30%, over traditional designs, for
the desired level of performance.
78
4. Practicing engineers are not comfortable

with optimization approaches
This is true. Unless system analysis,
operations research and optimization processes
applicable to water distribution networks are
introduced in engineering studies, practicing
engineers would not be comfortable with
optimization approaches and would be reluctant
to use them.
5. Optimization methods are not well suited
for strengthening and expansion of existing
looped water distribution net work
As stated in earlier study [2], this is to be
one of the main reasons for not adopting
optimization processes by practicing engineers.
This is not wholly true, optimization methods can
be successful when used for strengthening and
expansion of existing water distribution networks.
[6]
6. Clients do not insist on competitive

designsThis is partly true. In developing countries
wherein cost is of primary concern, the planning
agencies, mostly the state water supply and
sewerage boards have started insisting on
competitive designs obtained through
optimization approaches.
CONCLUSION
Even though mankind has known
transportation of water through rivers, canals,
streams etc. for many centuries, the
transportation of water through pipelines and its
distribution through networks is of recent origin.
Even though developed nations have piped
water supply, developing nations also have
started providing water through pipe networks.
Even consumers in remote villages have started
getting water, if not in their residences, at least
near to it. Thus, water distribution networks have
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
been a part of modern living.
REFERENCES
It is seen that it is matter of time before

optimal design of water distribution networks
becomes common in practice. It is, therefore,
preferable if engineers concerned with water
distribution networks, in general, and those
concerned with their design, in particular, have
good knowledge of optimization approaches and
their application to water distribution networks.
Several publications as detailed in References
are available on this topic, which may help and
guide the practicing engineers to
design
successfully the optimization approach of water
distribution network.
1.
Bhave, PR, Optimal Design of Water Distribution,

Published by Narosa Publishing House, India,
ISBN 81-7319-505-6, (2003), 1-15.
2.
Chase, D. V., and Ormsbee, L. E. 1993. Computer

generated pumping schedules for satisfying
operation objectives. Journal American Water
Works Association,857, 5461.
3.
Jowitt, P. W., and Germanopoulos, G. 1992.

Optimal pump scheduling in water supply
networks. Journal Water Resource Planning
Management,1184, 406422.
4.
Lansey, K. E., and Awumah, K. 1994. Optimal

pump operations considering pump switches.
Journal Water Resource Planning Management,
1201, 1735.
5.
Lpez-Ibez, M., Prasad, T. D., and Paechter, B.

2005. Optimal pump scheduling: Representation
and multiple objectives. Proc., 8th Int. Conf. on
Computing and Control for the Water Industry, D.
A. Savic,
6.
Walters, G.A., King, R. and Khu,S.T. ,eds.,

University of Exeter Press, Exeter, U.K., 117122.
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RIGHT TO INFORMATION- A TOOL OF GOOD GOVERNACE

*SUNIL KUMAR SINGH1, RUPINDER KAUR GULATI2, POOJA AWASTHI3, OM PRAKASH4
1
Geeta College of Education, Panipat ,Haryana, India, 2Research Scholar, F.M. University, 3
Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India 4
Research Scholar, Dakashin Bharat Hindi Pracharini Sabha University,Chennai, India
*Address for Correspondence : Prof. Sunil Kumar Singh, Principal, Geeta College of Education,
Panipat, Haryana, India,
E mail ID: sksingh.ms@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Corruption today is the greatest enemy of good governance and causing harm to democracy
and development. People in India must bow their heads in shame as they are living in a country
where every organ, activity and functions are conducted with corrupt practices. Whatever the
number of institutions we create, they themselves become other dens of corruption. It seems
that good governance and corruption cannot co-exist. If it cannot which is that element
supporting such corrupt practices? The Answer is SECRECY. Secrecy in Government is the
most important cause of corruption, inefficiency and irresponsiveness and an enemy to good
governance. The purpose of this study to create the awareness in people about RTI. RTI has
enabled people to participate in the process of development which has resulted in education
of corruption and established an open and participatory governance system. Hence, in effect,
RTI Reflects and promotes the social income interest of every citizen, particularly the poor,
who are receiving the benefits of development as per their entitlements. RTI is potential tool
which indicated with a view to expediting the process of human development.
Keywords: Right to information, Good governance
INTRODUCTION
Right to information (RTI) is harnessed as
a tool for promoting participatory development,
strengthening democratic governance and
facilitating effective delivery of socio-economic
services. In the knowledge society, in which we
live today, acquisition of information and new
knowledge and its application have intense and
pervasive impact on processes of taking
informed decisions, resulting in overall
productivity gains. The Constitution of India has
guaranteed (u/s 19) the freedom of expression
and speech. Even then, a citizen had no legal
right to know about the details of public policies
and expenditures. And, therefore, it was not
possible for a common man to observe and
scrutinize the public actions with a view to
developing an understanding about the outcome
of public activities and/or providing feedback for
rectifying the deficiencies in policy planning and
the execution of programs.Despite planned
efforts of six decades, over one-third of the total
population is illiterate, poor and un-healthy. In
order to rectify the deficiencies in the
80
mechanisms for ensuring the reach of

entitlements, particularly the basic human needs,
the people in general and NGOs, in particular,
demanded for a greater access to the
information held by the public bodies, which was
acceded to by the Government in 2005.
In this backdrop, the Right to Information
Act 2005, the RTI hereinafter, was passed by
the National Parliament to dismantle the culture
of secrecy and to change the mindset of the
bureaucrats and political leaders and to create
conditions for taking informed decisions.The
major concern of the Act is to allow for greater
probity in the functioning of the government
departments so as to promote transparency and
accountability in the working of the public bodies
and contain the scourge of corruption, which are
critical for ensuring good governance and
development. In view of the foregoing, the major
objective of this paper is two folds: one is to
assess the impact of RTI on the elements of good
governance; and the other is to examine the
extent to which RTI induced governance has
strengthened the indicators of developments.
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Finally, measures for utilizing the potential tool

of right to know are indicated with a view to
expediting the process of human development.
In inaugural address to the newly constituted
Parliament on June 4, 2009, the Honble
President of India, Smt Pratibha Patil,
underscored the commitment of the new
government to governance reforms as one of
the top ten priorities of the new government in
Delhi.
the RTI on good governance and

development is indeed a daunting task,
since data are lacking to permit
methodological rigor of analysis. However,
reliance is made on
n
The Eleventh Plan presents six benchmarks

of such democratic governance:
n
n
Free and fair and timely elections of all

spheres of political authority.
Efficient and effective delivery of socioeconomic public services.

Effective devolution of authority, resources
and capabilities to PRIs and municipalities.
Rule of law, where legal rights are clear and
understood, and legal compliance and
enforcements of those rights is time-bound
and swift needs and interests of hitherto
excluded sections of society are privileged
and included, with dignity.
It is clear that the Government of India is

following a set of standards for reforming
governance in the country, which are essentially
citizen-centrictransparency, accountability and
efficiency of all institutions, agencies and actors
of the government, with particular attention to
those citizens who have been largely excluded
so far.
RTI AND
GOVERNANCE
ELEMENTS
OF
GOOD
The RTI Act was implemented in October

2005. Though a period of three years is too a
short period to assess the success of this Act, it
may be worthwhile to analyze some evidences
for developing an understanding on how it works
and what it does or does not do. We, therefore,
propose to find an answer to the question:
whether the objectives of the Act are being
realized?
n
Transparency and accountability of all

institutions of the state to citizens.
It must be admitted that the assessment of
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The responses of the RTI requesters and

the activists, particularly during the course
of hearings conducted by the Author in the
cases listed before the commission to
resolve the disputes between information
seekers and providers;
Media reports on the issues pertaining to
RTI matters; and
Preliminary research studies and
publications of results, mainly those relating
to corruption and accountability of public
bodies. the major objectives of the Act are:
Greater Transparency in functioning of
public authorities; Informed citizenry for
promotion of partnership between citizens
and the Government in decision making
process; Improvement in accountability and
performance of the Government; and
Reduction in corruption in the Government
departments. All these parameters are
critical elements of good governance.
LINKS BETWEEN RTI AND THE ELEMENTS OF

GOOD GOVERNANCE
RTI Promotes Accountability: With
empowered citizens and free flow of information,
there is significant quantitative and qualitative
improvement in the delivery of services.
For instance, disclosure of information
relating to:
n
attendance of staff in schools has helped

in checking teachers absenteeism and
students drop out;
attendance of doctors and nurses at
primary health centers has led to
improvement in health care facilities in rural
areas;
the details of supplies and distribution of
food grains through ration shops has
assured the reach of entitlements to the
beneficiaries;
the supply and demand for petroleum
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products, such as, domestic gas has

reduced black marketing;
muster rolls and beneficiary of employment
guarantee schemes has exposed
corruption and ensured effective delivery
of services to the poor who are entitled for
wage employment on demand for at least
100 days in a year @ Rs.60 80 per day,
which means additional income of Rs.6000
8000 per year; and
Allotment of retail outlets (petrol pumps)

and agencies for distribution of LPG gas,
including the registered beneficiaries has
ensured fair play and objective decisions,
as reflected from substantial reduction in
litigation cases in the matter.
As a result of increased Governments

accountability in delivery of services, rural to
urban migration has, of late, decelerated, as
widely reported in the media. This is also
corroborated by the findings of a national level
survey conducted by the Transparency
International and the Centre for Media Studies.
The survey has revealed that in the opinions of
40 per cent of respondent (all below the poverty
line), corruption and mal-practices in
implementation of poverty alleviation programs
have declined due to RTI induced accountability
of the Government and its functionaries at
various levels.
RTI Promotes Transparency: Due to
perceived benefits of transparency and
accountability, RTI applications have annually
increased by 8 to 10 times. There is thus
massive use of the right to know. Of the millions
of applications for information, less than 5
percent have been denied information under
various exemption categories, u/s 8(1) of the Act,
on the grounds of national interest, personal or
third party information or those pertaining to
commercial confidence, the disclosure of which
would affect competitiveness of public
authorities.
recruitment, selection and promotion of staff,

documents pertaining to tender processes and
procurement procedure, the lists of beneficiaries
of the Governments subsidized schemes, such
as, food grains supplied through ration shops,
water and electricity, domestic gas, educational
and health facilities, shelter for poor, muster rolls
under employment guarantee schemes, health
insurance scheme for poor, old age pension,
food security for destitute, etc. The disclosure
of vital information, such as above, has thus
resulted in checking corrupt practices in delivery
of services and ensuring the reach of
entitlements to the poor.
RTI V/S CORRUPTION: Under the RTI regime,
there is unprecedented transparency in the
working of public departments. There is thus
better understanding of the decision making
process and greater accountability of
government. This has led to reduction in
corruption in the country as evident from the
following:
The Transparency International (TI) has
reported that perceived corruption in India has
declined, due mainly to the implementation of
the RTI Act. This is evident from corruption
reduction score of 3.4 (out of 10) in 2008, after
an initial rise of 3.5 in 2007, compared to 2.99 in
2006, which indicate a decline in corruption to
the extent of 15%.
n
The TI-CMS has recently accomplished an

all India survey study of the poor below the
poverty line. The views of the poor have
been elicited in respect of all the flagship
programs that have been implemented for
alleviation of poverty. At least 40 per cent
of the respondents have reported that
corruption has declined.
It has also been observed that wherever
NGOs are actively involved in the
development activities, the perceived
corruption is abysmally low.
In effect, thus, there is greater transparency

than ever before in the working of the public
bodies. In a large number of cases, the
Commission has ordered for providing the details
of the decision-making processes, which include
file noting, cabinet papers, records of
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flow of information and good governance, the

RTI Act exempts the poor from payment of fees
of Rs.10/- for seeking information. And, the
information is to be furnished within the
stipulated period of thirty days, failing which
penalty may be imposed. An estimate reveals
that at least 20 per cent of the information
seekers are those who belong to BPL category.
In rural areas, this share is as high as 37% of
the total applicants. They have, in general,
sought to know the details of services assured
to them and the reasons as to why the services
meant for them are not reaching them. In the
RTI regime, the poor persons armed with
information through the exercise of right to know,
are getting increasingly involved in designing and
implementation of poverty alleviation
programmes, as discussed below.
(a)Guarantee of Income and Food Security
(Conceptual Diagram of Good Governance)

RTI AND ITS IMPACT ON MAJOR INDICATORS
OF DEVELOPMENT
The challenge of development is to improve
the quality of life, which calls for increasing
peoples options for higher earnings, better
education and health care, a cleaner
environment and a richer cultural life. The record
of long-term performance show that while there
has been steady progress in improvement of the
major indicators of development, the
achievements fall far short of our expectations.
The feedback obtained from the appellants,
PIOs and the activists has been of immense
value in providing desirable inputs and
perspectives on RTI and its linkages with the
factors that affect the welfare of people.
POVERTY ALLEVIATION
RTI is used as a tool for facilitating effective
delivery of socio-economic services. RTI
empowers people to seek details about their
entitlements and, accordingly, to take informed
decisions in all matters affecting them so as to
secure equity and justice. Recognizing the
significance of right to know for ensuring free
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The Governments the Centre and States

have launched from time to time a number of
schemes for providing wage employment to the
poor, the benefits of which have hardly reached
them due to ineffective implementation of
programmes, including rampant corruption. In
the absence of right to information, it was not
possible to create conditions for accountability
of public servants or authorities, which resulted
in both perpetuation of poverty and unproductive
use of resources that were allocated for
eradication of poverty. In this backdrop, the
adoption of rights-based approach is significant
to weed out corruption and to guarantee the
reach of entitlements of poor persons.
Accordingly, almost all the poverty alleviation
programmes are designed such that a citizen can
observe and scrutinize the public activities with
a view to providing critical feedback for shaping
the policies and programmes that would assure
optimum gains to society, particularly the poor.
In this context, a mention may be made of the
following schemes:
(b)Implementation of NREGA:
With a view to providing work opportunity
on demand for at least 100 days in a year and
to secure livelihood of people in rural areas,
NREGA has been implemented. The right to work
has thus been legally guaranteed and the
manner in which entitlement for employment is
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to be claimed has been clearly articulated. Rural

poor have been effectively participating in the
programme for not only just to secure income
security but also to build rural infrastructure,
which is critical for raising productivity in the
future. In effect, annual income of a rural job
card holder has thus risen by Rs.6,000 - 8000
(100 days x Rs.60 80 per day wages), which is
in addition to other incomes. The development
of rural infrastructure under the scheme would
surely enhance productivity of various activities
and augment further opportunities for
employment and income. In view of the above
gains, the rural community in cooperation with
the Panchayats (Village Councils) has been
effectively participating in changing the
landscape of poverty scenario in the country.
The outcome is encouraging as the affected
persons are able to get their grievances
redressed under the provisions of the RTI Act.
Taking advantage of the transparency norms,
which are duly built in both the NREGA, and the
right to information, people have sought to know
the details of schemes and its relevance to the
rural community, utilization of funds, payment of
wages to the target beneficiaries, etc. The
disclosure of relevant details, such as muster
rolls, has helped in containing corruption,
ensuring the reach of benefits to the target
groups and identification of officials responsible
for creating obstruction in effective
implementation of programs. The RTI has thus
proved very effective in providing grounds for
initiating remedial actions with a view to realizing
the objectives of public policies. For urban poor,
Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) has been launched to provide basic
services, namely, water supply and sanitation,
transport, education, health care, etc. Through
RTI, citizens ensure effective delivery of services
in a time bound manner, which has desirable
impact on poverty reduction and quality of life in
urban areas.
Mid-Day Meals to School Children:
As a measure of food security, all the school
children are provided with mid-day meals in
schools, which not only helps in reducing
nutritional deficiency among the poverty stricken
children but also enhances their learning
attainments due to adequate intake of balanced
84
diets. All the stakeholders, mainly the students,

teachers and parents, are able to observe and
monitor the service delivery system. Since there
has to be almost total openness in
operationalization of the scheme, people have
access to relevant information, which they utilize
for improving effectiveness of the scheme. This,
in turn, assists in reducing both food poverty as
well as dropouts, which have been rampant
among the children from poor families. In effect,
the scheme improves physical health and
learning abilities of children.
Integrated Child Development Scheme
(ICDS):
One of the components of this scheme is
to provide nutritional support to children from
poor families. The use of RTI by the target group,
including the NGOs, has ensured effective
implementation of the scheme to the advantage
of the poor children.
Grant of Food Security and Pension for the
Poor Senior Citizens:
With a view to providing income and human
security to the poor and destitute, financial
assistance to families with low means of
subsistence is provided to all poor persons,
above 60 years. The grant of pension of Rs.500/
- per month has been universalized. Moreover,
the destitute are entitled for 10 Kgs of food grains
per month free of cost. Those who could not claim
for their entitlements of pensions or free food
grains, for different reasons, are able to do so
through the use of RTI. There are umpteen
numbers of instances which demonstrate that the
people are accessing the above benefits that
have been assured by the Government. The
issue of livelihood being important as it affects
life and liberty of people, information is furnished
within 48 hrs as per the provisions of the Act.
Since these schemes, namely, ICDS, MidDay Meals, NREGS and old age pension cover
the entire target population, and the Government
is committed to implement these schemes and
is actually doing so, there is no reason why the
food poverty cannot be annihilated over night.
The RTI encourages everyone to ask the
Government to explain as to why assured
benefits are not reaching them. And, by asking
this, grievances are redressed under the
auspices of the Information Commission.
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a) Delivery of Services under Subsidized

Schemes
The Governments have launched a number
of schemes which make essential services
available to the poor at low rates. Under the
schemes, such items as food grains, kerosene,
sugar, etc, are provided to the poor in order to
alleviate costs burden on them. Besides, subsidy
is provided for housing, education and health
services.
b) Public Distribution System (PDS):
The implementation of schemes like Public
Distribution System (PDS) has, till recently, been
adversely affected by unacceptably poor quality
of governance at all levels of execution of the
scheme, resulting, the services meant for the
poor are reaching them since the beneficiaries
are using RTI to seek such details as the stock
of supplies and distribution, rate lists, list of
beneficiaries - the disclosure of which ensures
weeding out of fictitious names. It has thus been
possible to curb corruption and plug loopholes
in the PDS, which, in effect, has improved the
delivery of services and, thus, reduced incidence
of poverty al
c) Shelter for the Poor:
Housing is recognized as one of the human
rights since a shelter is essential asset that
improves physical and mental well-being of
people. Accordingly, under Indira Awaas Yojna
(IAY), financial support is provided to the rural
poor for construction of houses as per their
choice of design and requirement. The scheme
is fully participatory between the Government
and beneficiaries as per the guidelines which are
in public domain. The identified beneficiaries,
having known of their entitlements, are able to
create effective demand for release of funds, for
construction of houses. The instrument of RTI
has helped in maintaining total transparency in
operationalization of the scheme, which, in effect,
minimize corruption and improve satisfaction level
of target groups.
HUMAN CAPITAL: EDUCATION AND HEALTH
CARE
Education and health care are critical
services for empowerment of people, in general,
and the poor, in particular. In the knowledge
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economy, which is driven by new ideas and

technologies, it is not possible to function and
expedite the process of national development
without enhancing the technical and professional
competence of the entire manpower. The share
of educated and vocationally trained labor force
in the total manpower is one of the lowest, below
5% for the country, as compared to other
countries, having a corresponding share of 60
to 80%, with which India has to compete in the
global market.
i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Under this
scheme, the Governments have committed to
provide minimum school infrastructure for
universalization of elementary education. In the
absence of any question asked by the major
stakeholders, mainly students or parents, quality
of education was compromised and there was
no check on drop-out or teachers absenteeism.
But under the provisions of the RTI, the citizens
have raised issues pertaining to management
of the schools, mainly the availability of
infrastructure support, teachers attendance,
students enrolment and performance,
implementation of mid-day schemes, utilization
of funds and process of recruitment of teachers.
The Government has been providing financial
assistance, including scholarships to the
students from deprived groups, mainly women,
SC/ST, minorities and physically challenged
persons. Through the use of RTI, the target
groups are able to claim for their entitlements,
which was, however, not possible before the
implementation of the Act. The participation of
deprived groups in the educational processes
has thus been encouraged. In effect, thus, there
are signs of improvement in the schools
performance since the parents and the civil
society have asked the school authorities to
provide explanations in respect of all those
activities, which are contrary to the accepted
policies, norms and guidelines and peoples
expectations. In the areas of technical and
vocational education, including higher education,
the governments have articulated plans for
expansion of facilities and improvement of quality
of teaching and research. Through the use of
RTI, the progresses made are monitored by the
information seekers, who have raised issues and
sought for details relating to the expenditures
on various educational activities, namely,
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admissions and recruitment processes, conduct

of examinations including disclosure of answer
sheets. The involvement of students and
teachers have thus exposed the extent to which
relevant policies, norms and guidelines are
followed, which, in effect, have been helpful in
improving both internal and external efficiency
of education system.
ii) National Rural Health Mission:
Healthcare services have largely remained on
paper due to lack of accountability of staff. Using
the tool of RTI, the citizens have sought for details
of primary health services. The disclosure of
such details as stock of medicines and its
distribution, procedure for procurement of
medicines, attendance of medical staff and
number of patients treated, etc., has resulted in
better management of primary health centers.
Thus, in pursuance of the goal of the Mission,
access to primary health care has significantly
improved, which is due to the use of RTI by the
poor, who are ultimate beneficiaries of the rural
health policy. The RTI has thus created effective
demand for improvement in quality of services
provided by the hospitals.
iii) Aam Admi Insurance Scheme: Under
the insurance scheme and family benefit scheme,
the Government provides financial support to the
specified groups of the poor families. Whenever
there is perceived laxity or delay in extending
the benefits to the beneficiaries, the
implementation agencies have been called upon
to explain the reason for delay or denial of
assistance to the poor, failing which penal action
are initiated against the responsible persons.
BASIC ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
It is expected that the partnership between
citizen and the Government would help create
solid infrastructure, which, in turn, would create
conducive conditions for improving quality of life.
An informed and enlightened citizenry has been
able to create conditions for good governance
through openness in functioning of public
enterprises. In this regard, the following specific
nature of cases may be mentioned:
86
Manipulations in tendering processes or

outsourcing of various services have been
major source of corruption or diversion of
funds for private purposes. Scrutiny of the
decision making processes have

discouraged the Government companies
from their indulgence in corrupt practices;
The process of selection and award of

retail outlets and domestic gas agencies,
having been, of late, in public domain has
not only checked malpractices in the
selection process but also controlled blackmarketing of subsidized services, namely,
petrol, kerosene and cooking gas; and
People have sought to know the

adherence of environmental norms by the
manufacturing companies for checking
water and air pollutions, maintenance of
ecological balance, etc., resulting in
desirable impact on sustainability of
environment.
A large number of public enterprises under

the States sector have similarly been called upon
to improve their performance and show results
in terms of their accepted corporate social
responsibilities.
EMPOWERMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS
The development initiatives have duly laid
emphasis on protection of vulnerable sections
of the society, mainly women, SC/ST, minorities
and disabled persons. In almost every policy and
scheme for promotion of welfare and
empowerment of deprived groups, there are
relevant components that assure the reach of
specified benefits through the policy of
preferential treatments and positive
discrimination. Having known the entitlements for
reservations in employment and admissions in
educational institutions, scholarships, old age
pensions, health insurance, etc., the citizens
have begun to effectively realize the entitlements
through the use of RTI. The deficiencies in
implementation of policies, if any, have also been
raised, which provide necessary feedback for
formulating sound policies for empowerment of
weaker sections. There are umpteen numbers
of cases pertaining to human rights issues that
have been raised by the affected persons and
groups, who seek accountability of service
providers and the concerned departments.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
A clean environment is closely associated
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with issues of human rights. In carrying out their

obligations, all the public and private enterprises
are required to adhere to specific norms and
standards so as to ensure sustainability of
environment. The citizens, armed with
information, have questioned the polluting units,
particularly the regulatory bodies, and sought
to know whether the prescribed standards for
protection of environment are adhered to. RTI
induced peoples pressure on the public
authorities has led to: (a) closure of certain
polluting units; (b) stoppage of projects having
adverse impact on environment; (c) adherence
to the norms and standards prescribed by the
regulatory bodies; and (d) exposure and
identification of officials who are responsible of
violation of environmental norms. The NGOs and
affected persons have made use of RTI as a
tool to monitor the standards for environmental
protection. In effect, thus, RTI has empowered
people to take charge of development of the
areas where they live in. And, thus, effectively
realize their entitlements through the exercise
of their legal rights for access to essential
services including protection of human rights that
are critical for maintaining a decent standard of
life.
for setting up information regime, therefore,

augurs well for strengthening the knowledge
society as well as for increasing the
accountability of public bodies. The trend in
improvement in delivery of services, due to the
perceived good governance, provides sufficient
indication for alleviation of poverty, good health
and liquidation of illiteracy in a much shorter
duration than envisaged for the realization of
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). RTI has
enabled people to participate in the process of
development, which has resulted in reduction of
corruption and establishing an open and
participatory governance system. In effect, RTI
protects and promotes the socio-economic
interests of every citizen, particularly the poor,
who are receiving the benefits of development
as per their entitlements and its also proves that,
RTI- as a tool of good governance.
REFERENCES
1.
CARC. (2008). Refurbishing of Personnel

Administration: Scaling New Heights. Tenth
Report of ARC. New Delhi. Govt. of India.
2.
ARC. (2009). Citizen Centric Governance: The

Heart of Governance. Twelfth Report of ARC. New
Delhi. Govt. of India.
3.
ARC. (2008). Promoting E-governance: Smart Way

Forward. Eleventh Report of ARC. New Delhi. Govt.
of India.
4.
Debroy, B. (ed.) (2004). Agenda for Improving

Governance. New Delhi Academic Foundation.
5.
Levy, Brian. (2007) Governance Reform: Bridging

Monitoring and Action. Washington DC. The World
Bank.
6.
Planning Commission (Government of India)

(2008). Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012, Vol. I
Inclusive Growth. New Delhi, Oxford University
Press. pp. 223-224
7.
PRIA (2008), Implementation of RTI Act in 12 States
8.
Saini.P.K., Gupta R.K. Right to Information Act

2005: Implementation and challenges, New Delhi,
mayor Interprises, Print, 2009.
9.
Tandon, Rajesh and Ranjita Mohanti (2002). Civil

Society and Governance. New Delhi. Samskriti.
10.
UNDP (2007). Governance Indicators: A Users

Guide. UNDP.
11.
Yashda. Right to Information Act 2005: A Primer,

Tata Mcgraw, Hill Publishing Co., 2008.
12.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right to Information Act
13.
http://www.iitbbs.ac.in/pdf/RTI-ACT.pdf
CONCLUSION
Right to know, as a tool to access public
held information, has significant bearing on good
governance,
development
and
the
implementation of flagship programs for
alleviation of poverty. Indias economy in the last
three years has grown at unprecedented high
rate of about 8 per cent per annum, which also
coincides with RTI induced good governance.
This is unprecedented in Indias history of
development. A common man, like an elected
Member of Parliament (MP), is empowered to
seek accountability of the Government in terms
accepted policies and approved budgetary
expenditures. The Central and the State
Information Commissions have played a critical
role in enforcing the provisions of the Act as well
as educating the information seekers and
providers. Without their statutory interventions,
including use of penal provisions against the
public authorities, the benefits of RTI could not
have been reaped by the citizens and the society.
The implementation of the law on right to know
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A COMPARISON OF SPORTS STRESS AND PERSONALITY TRAITS

AMONG SPORTS COLLEGE, SPORTS HOSTEL AND STADIUM
BADMINTON PLAYERS
TANUJ KUMAR,1 SATISH SINGH1, MANJEET SINGH BHANDARI1, RAKESH PRASAD SEMWAL1,
*ABHAY SINGH2
1
Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2Department of Physical Education,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India
*Address For correspondence: Dr. Abhay Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education,
University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India,
Email ID: abhay_coach@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Badminton is still an amateur game, but the level of commitment shows in terms in number of
hours of training by the subjects. The study suggests a professional attitude to the game at
this level. The information obtained from this study provides a platform for further research.
The pressure and personality rate in the term of competitive exposure time and training time
should be determined. Despite the limitations of this study the results provide a useful insight
into the nature, site and variables. It was an intensive attempt to excessively examine such
variables.
Keywords: Stress, Personality, Traits, Sports
INTRODUCTION
In modern era, games and sports hold a
prominent place in life. Millions of people
participate in sporting activities and spend billions
of rupees or dollars annually on sports related
activities and equipment. The impact of sports
on modem society has made it clear that sports
are a very legitimate field of academic study.
Modem thinkers in education now a days
emphasize that the best individual is one, who is
physically fit, mentally sound and sharp,
emotionally balanced and socially well adjusted.
In modern time, competition in sports needs
psychological preparation of term or individual
players. It is important as teaching the different
skills of a game on scientific lines. It is said that
modern warfare is not fought and won with
psychological strategies, similar is the case with
modern sports. Sports psychology suggests that
teams prepared not to play the game but also to
win the game. Most of the coaches agree that
physical characteristics, skills and training of the
players are extremely important but they also
indicate that good mental preparation for
competition is a necessary component for
success.
88
Sport is one of the avenues of mans never

ceasing strive for excellence. Its uniqueness lies
in the intimacy between the physical happenings
of human bodies and their repercussions on their
minds; as well as in the general reconcilability of
the social and aesthetic values which sport
engenders. Sport evokes experiences that are
exclusively human and independent of the
changing forms, patterns and customs of a
civilization which involves profoundly modifying
concepts of our environment. Sports involve
extremely complex behavioral issues. As a
consequence of intense competition
sportsmans behavior may also undergo
important changes. So physical education
scientists and coaches have not to be expert
only in the matter of skill training but also to be
engineers who understand the mechanism of
human behavior on the playfields, under
extremely diverse situations.
Although badminton is one of the most
played sports in the world, in India it has also
been taken as one of the important individual
sport. India has produced high level of skilled
players. In this problem we want to see that
among the various players who can handle the
problems easily and they can become good
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players.
Psychological variables are the most
important contributing factors for better
performance in all sports and games, including
Badminton. The game of Badminton requires
considerable amount of mental alertness and
mastery of skill.
Badminton is one of the most sports in the
world. It is an enjoyable, social sport that can be
played from childhood to old age, either at a
recreational level or as a competitive sport.
Badminton is an individual non contact sport
requiring jump, lunges quick changes in direction
and rapid movements from wide variety of
postural position. At high level its demands quick
reactions speed coordination and a relative good
physical condition. While basic techniques are
easy to learn, a lot of skill and training is
demanded to reach high level of play. In
tournament there is typically more than one game
a day-often, a player may participate in singles,
doubles and mixed doubles competitions, which
can result in many hours of badminton
concentrated on only a few days. Extended play
sometimes results in mental tiredness, which are
relatively common in badminton.
Badminton is one of the fastest and most
strenuous games that can be played. Singles is
particularly exhausting not only because of the
amount of court space that has to be covered in
a split second but shots have to be taken low
and high at full stretch. It is this never-ending
use of stomach muscle. The running directly
backwards twice is as hard as running forward
and the constantly needed change in direction
of movement that causes the body to serge for
a rest.
The aim of present study was to compare
stress and personality traits between boys of
sports college, sports hostel and stadium
trainees Badminton players. The Badminton
player must be stress free. The team which is
persistent usually comes out on top. There is
no substitute for practice. It takes all players
working together to become successful.
Personality of a player in other words how a
player reacts to a given situation is very
important in a competitive situation.
Development of good personality helps the
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players in their regard. In general we can say

that sports college players are being selected
at the age of 16 years and they have to stay in
the college for four years. They have to practice
for their game twice a day and have to study in
the afternoon. They play various types of
matches in huge number which makes them
more mentally fit or mature than other players.
Sports hostel players stay in hostel provided by
the government and can practice for the game
whole day but the get less number of matches
than sports college players. Less exposure to
the tournaments makes them little weak in their
mental ability. General players or stadium going
players get very less time for the practice and
few matches to play, so they are very less
mentally fit.
The data was collected by researcher
personally and through the assistants met to the
entire subject. The total of two questionnaires
was administered to the Sport College, sports
hostel and stadium going players and
questionnaire was returned.
To determine the significant difference of
sports stress and personality characteristics
among the Sport College, sports hostel and
stadium going players, the level of significance
chosen was 0.05.It was seen that all the three
groups were having differences among them in
both the variables.
AIM OF THE STUDY
The aim of the present study was to
compare stress and personality traits between
boys of Sports College, sports hostel and
stadium trainees Badminton players.
DELEMETATION
The study was delimited to the selected
psychological variables that are Sports Stress
and Personality.
The study was again delimited to the 50
sports college Badminton Players, 50 sports
hostel Badminton Players and 50 stadium going
Badminton Players, making total of 150 players
all from the state of Gujarat.
The study was again delimited to the boy
Badminton players of 14-18 years of age group
who were playing from 2012 onwards.
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LIMITATIONS
Questionnaire research has its limitations.
As such bias if any pertaining to the subject be
considered as a limitation of the study.
The tests were administered at different
points considering the availability of the subjects,
their mood states which might have had
influenced their response pattern on a particular
scale/instrument. This was another limitation
imposed on the investigation inadvertently.
Certain factors like diet, rest, sleep etc. were
beyond the control of the investigation and were
considered as limitations of the study.
As the subjects come from different socioeconomic groups, their dietary habits, life style,
routine of study and play were different which
were considered as limitations of the study.
No special motivation technique was used
during the test, therefore the difference that may
have occurred in performance due to lack of
motivation was recorded as the limitation of the
study.
Badminton players at different level. The study

may also help to assess the differences in the
selected psychological parameters among
sportspersons of the sport discipline chosen in
the study. The results of the study may provide
useful information and guidance to coaches,
physical education teachers and athletes
regarding the behavioral characteristics of
sportspersons and may thus be instrumental in
effective psychological parameters of athletes.
The study is useful information in the field of
sports psychology and may help trace the
psychological profiles of different level
sportspersons. The study may throw new light
on the field of sports psychology highlighting
need and direction of further research. The study
may motivate other athletic lovers and scholars
to take-up similar studies so that the sports may
become more scientific in India too.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Graves M James, The effect of boys club program

of the self-concept and selected physical attributes
of 12 and 13 years old Boy.s Micro card Doctoral
Dissertation, University of Oregon.
3.
Sandhu, S. Gurbakhsh(2002) Psychology in

Sports A Contemporary Approach Friends
Publications [India] Delhi
4.
Hartwig TB, Naughton G and Seral J (2009 Aug.)

Load, stress, and recovery in adolescent rugby
union players during a competitive season. School
of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University,
Sydney, NSW, Australia. J Sports Sci. 2009
Aug;27(10):1087-94.
5.
Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles

E (2009 Feb.) Acute sport-related stressors,
coping, and emotion among professional rugby
union players during training and matches.
Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull,
UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1):11320. Epub 2008 Feb 16
6.
Nicholls AR, Jones CR, Polman RC and Borkoles

E (2009 Feb.) Stressors and affective states
among professional rugby union players..
Department of Psychology, University of Hull, Hull,
UK. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 Feb;19(1): 1218. Epub 2008 Feb 1.
7.
Singh Ajit A comperative study of intelligence

extraversion and Neuroticism differences
between and within Hockey and Volleyball
players. (Unpublished Masters Thesis, , Punjabi
University, Patiala).
HYPOTHESIS
It was hypothesized that there will be
significant difference between college and
university men and women cricket players on all
the seven selected psychological variables using
total sample.
FINDINGS
The ultimate goal of research in physical
education will help coaches and physical
educators to train their athletes and player based
on new concept to improve their performance in
competitions. A unique aspect of the work is that
it includes recommendations for the practical use
of research findings. Sports psychology is one
of the very important factors to improve
performance in competitions. The present study
will provide the following significant contribution
on the above concept to the field of physical
education and sports:The study may determine the effect of
personality and stress on performance of
Badminton Players. The results of the study may
reveal the Psychological status of Sports
College, sports hostel and stadium trainees
90
Crisfield, P., and Cotti, L.J. (1976) Physical

Education. 4:6.
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STUDIES ON THE BATCH ADSORPTION OF METHYLENE BLUE

FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ONTO RICE HUSK
1
*R. SRIVASTAVA1, D.C.RUPAINWAR2

Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, India, 2 Department of Applied Chemistry,
Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University , Varanasi, India
*Address
for
Correspondence : Dr. R. Srivastava, MS-124, Sector- D, Aligang, Lucknow, India,

E-mail ID: abhiruchi124@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this study, adsorption of methylene blue (MB) dye onto clean rice husks (CRH) and acidmodified CRH was investigated with respect to the contact time, MB concentrations, acid
concentrations and acid types used in the acid modification processes. The results indicate that
the acid modification process reduces the MB sorption efficiency from 98% for CRH to 67% for
NRH (nitric acid treated rice husk), 59% for HRH (hydrochloric acid treated rice husk) and 55%
for SRH (sulfuric acid treated rice husk). In order to investigate the adsorption mechanisms,
four kinetic models, i.e., pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, Elovich and intra-particle
diffusion models were fit to the experimental results. The characteristic parameters and correlation
coefficients for each kinetic model were determined. The fits of the kinetic results from the
kinetic equations were compared with the experimental data. The results indicate that the acid
modification process changes the MB adsorption mechanism. Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin,
Redlich-Peterson (RP), and Langmuir-Freundlich (LF) isotherm models were also employed to
analyze the equilibrium data, and the correlations of the experimental data to the isotherms was
examined. The LF isotherm was found to best represent the data for MB adsorption onto CRH.
The separation factor revealed the favorable nature of the isotherm to the MB-CRH system.
Keywords: Methylene Blue , Rice Husks, Waste Water, Isotherm Models, Kinetics
INTRODUCTION
Many industries, such as the cosmetics,
leather, carpet, dye manufacturing and textile
finishing industries, use dyes to color their
products. They also consume a lot of clean
water, which becomes colored wastewater,
poured into the environment where trade
wastewater measures are not in place [1,2] . The
effluents of these industries can cause local
environmental problems by significantly affecting
photosynthetic activity in aquatic life because of
the reduced light penetration. The effluents may
also be toxic to some forms of aquatic life
because of the presence of metals, chlorides,
etc., in them [3,4] In addition, introducing dye
compounds into the aquatic environment is
aesthetically displeasing. Because of these
negative impacts, there is a need to develop decolorization methods that are effective and
suitable for industrial use. Currently, the major
methods for dye and color removal involve
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microbial, physical and/or chemical processes,

such as microbial degradation, chemical
oxidation, and membrane separation process
have been proposed from time to time [510] .
However, all of the current methods suffer from
one limitation or another, and none have been
successful in removing color from wastewater
completely. Adsorption is probably the simplest
process for dye removal. Currently, activated
carbon is believed to be the most effective
adsorbent and is the most popular.
Physicochemical treatment for the removal
of dissolved dyes from wastewaters [4]; however,
its manufacturing and regeneration costs are
high [11] .In order to reduce the cost of an
adsorption system, some attempts have been
made to find low cost alternative adsorbents. A
wide variety of materials such as Aspergillus
niger, biomass, algal biomass, Spirogyra
rhizopus biomass, rice husk, bark, wheat shell,
citric acid esterifying wheat straw, dehydrated
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wheat bran, carbonized press mud, tree fern,

apple pomace and wheat straw, coir pith, cotton,
mango seed kernel, shell of bittim, banana stalk
waste, dolomitic sorbents, chitosan, wood
sawdust, palm kernel fiber, jute fiber, waste of
sugarcane, perlite, raw kaolin, pure kaolin, NaOH
treated raw kaolin, palygorskite, zeolite, and
surfactant-modified activated carbon have been
investigated with varying degrees of success
[1,2,4,12-34]
.
In the present study, rice husks (an agroresidue) have been investigated as an adsorbent
for the removal of methylene blue from aqueous
solutions. Rice husks, a by-product of the rice
milling industry, account for about 20% of rice
as a whole [35]. With an estimated annual rice
production of 500 million metric tons in
developing countries, approximately 100 million
tons of rice husks are available annually for
utilization in these countries alone. In fact, the
amount of rice husks available is far in excess
of any local uses and, thus, has posed disposal
problems. Rice husks were chosen for
investigation as a precursor material due to their
granular structure, insolubility in water, chemical
stability, high mechanical strength and local
availability at almost no cost [35] . The advantage
in the use of these adsorbents is that there is
no need to regenerate them because of their
low production costs. In the present study, the
effects of the contact time,the acid concentration
in the acid modification process, the type of acid
used in the acid modification process, and the
initial methylene blue (MB) concentration on the
amount of color removed have been investigated.
In order to investigate the mechanism of
adsorption, experimental data was modeled
using the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-secondorder, Elovich and intra-particle diffusion models.
Equilibrium isotherms were analyzed according
to the Langmuir isotherm; the Freundlich,
Temkin, RedlichPeterson and Langmuir
Freundlich isotherms were only analyzed for the
adsorbent exhibiting the highest MB removal
efficiency. The characteristic parameters for
each model were determined.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
1. Preparation of adsorbent
investigation was obtained from local rice mills.

The whole rice husk was used; the integrity and
the size of rice husk were not modified. The
collected materials were washed with water
several times to remove dust and fines, the
washing process continued until the wash water
contained no color. It was subsequently rinsed
several times with reverse osmosis (RO) water
and dried overnight in an oven at 85C. The
sorbent thus obtained was termed clean rice
husk (CRH). The CRH was then stored in plastic
bottles and used for bio-sorption studies, the
individual husks still in their original sizes.
Preliminary studies using CRH treated with
various types of acid were carried out in order
to evaluate the possibility of optimizing the
sorption of dyes. The CRH was soaked in 0.75
M nitric acid at a ratio of 1:10 (CRH: nitric acid,
w/v) for four hours at room temperature. The
nitric acid-treated CRH (termed NRH) was
washed thoroughly with water to remove residual
acid and then dried overnight in an oven at 85C.
Similar acid treatments were also performed with
hydrochloric acid (making HRH) and sulfuric acid
(making SRH). The yields of the three pretreated
rice husks were essentially the same (9798%
w/w of the original dry material).
Different sulfuric acid concentrations (0 M,
0.75 M, and 3 M) were used in the acid
modification process to evaluate the effect of the
acid concentration on the amount of color
removal. The yields of the pretreated rice husks
were approximately equal (9497% w/w of the
original dry material) under the three sulfuric acid
concentrations.
2. Dye solution preparation
The cationic dye methylene blue was
chosen in this study as a model molecule for
basic dyes. Stock solutions of MB were prepared
by dissolving accurately weighed samples of dye
in distilled water to give a concentration of 1000
mg/l. The experimental solutions were prepared
by diluting, where necessary, the dye stock
solution (1000 ppm) with RO water to the
required concentrations. All the experiments were
conducted at a natural pH (6.87.1) without any
pH adjustment.
The rice husk used in the present

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3. Batch adsorption experiments

Sorption tests on the acid-modified and
natural rice husks were performed in order to
determine the time needed to reach equilibrium
and the pattern of the kinetics. For this purpose,
samples of 2 g of natural or acid-modified rice
husks were transferred into bottles containing
100 ml of 50 mg/l MB solution. The bottles were
placed at 25C using a temperature controlled
shaker operating at 125 rpm. The samples were
taken from the shaker at predetermined time
intervals.
The residual concentration of MB at any
time, t, was determined from absorbency as
measured with a UV-Vis spectrophotometer
(Hitachi, U1800) at a 660 nm wavelength, at
which the maximum absorbency occurred. The
effect of the initial dye concentrations on the
amount of MB adsorbed was examined by
contacting 2 g samples of CRH with 100 ml
quantities of MB solution of different initial dye
concentrations, varying from 10 to 100 mg/l. All
experiments were conducted at 25C using a
temperature controlled shaker operating at 125
rpm. The samples were taken from the shaker
at predetermined time intervals. The amount of
dye adsorbed at time t and the amount of dye
adsorbed at equilibrium time, are calculated by
Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) [36]:
Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at time
t (qt)
(Ci,- Ct) V/ M
(1)
Amount of methylene blue adsorbed at

equilibrium
(Ci,- Ce) V/ M
(2)
where Ci, Ct and Ce (mg/l) are the liquid
phase concentrations of dyes initially, at time t
and at equilibrium time, respectively, V is the
volume of dye solution (l), and M is the weight of
adsorbent used (g).
4. Kinetics of adsorption
The kinetics of adsorption is one of the most
important characteristics in defining the
efficiency of adsorption, hence the examination
of the kinetics of MB adsorption in this study.
Four kinds of kinetic models, the pseudo firstorder kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,
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Elovich and intraparticle diffusion models have

been tested to analyze the experimental data.
All the model parameters were evaluated by
nonlinear regression.
4.1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic model
The pseudo-first-order equation is the most
popular kinetic equation. The form is expressed
as follows [37]:
d qt/dt= k1(qe-qt)
(3)
After definite integration by applying the

boundary conditions t = 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt
= qt, the integrated form of Eq. (3) becomes the
following [38] :
qt=qe(1-exp (-k1 t)
(4)
where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption

time t (min); K1, the rate constant of the pseudofirst-order equation (min1) and qe is the amount
of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g).
4.2. The pseudo- second-order kinetic
model
The second order is based on the
adsorption capacity: it can predict the adsorption
behavior only
over a certain range determined by prior
study, but is in agreement with previous studies
which suggest chemisorption controls the
adsorption rate [39,40]. The pseudo-second-order
adsorption kinetic rate equation of Ho and McKay
is expressed as [41,42] :
d qt/dt = K (qe - qt )2
(5)
where qt (mg/g) is the amount of adsorption

time t (min); K2, the rate constant of the pseudosecond-order equation (min 1 ) and q e is the
amount of adsorption equilibrium (mg/g).
Integrating Eq. (5) for the boundary conditions t
= 0 to t = t and qt = 0 to qt = qt gives [43]:
1/qe-qt= 1/qe + k2t
(6)
which is the integrated rate law for a

pseudo-second order reaction. For non-linear,
the equation can be written as [38]:
qt= k2qe2t/1+ k2qet
(7)
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4.3. The Elovich model

In reactions involving chemisorption of
adsorbate onto a solid surface without
desorption of products, the adsorption rate
decreases with time due to an increased surface
coverage. One of the most useful models for
describing such activated chemisorption is the
Elovich equation [38] . The Elovich equation
assumes that the active sites of the biosorbent
are heterogeneous and therefore exhibit
different activation energies for chemisorption.
The Elovich model equation is generally
expressed as [44,45] :
Dq/dt=
exp (-
qt)
(8)
where qt is the sorption capacity at time t

(mg/g); is the initial adsorption rate (mg/g min)
because dqt/dt approaches
when qt
approaches zero; and
is the desorption
constant (g/mg) during any one experiment
Given that qt = 0 at t = 0, the integrated form of
Eq. (8) becomes:
qt=1/
ln( t + to) 1/
(ln to)
(9)
. If t is much larger than t0,

where t0 =1/
Eq. (9) can be simplified to:
qt=1/
ln (
)+1/
ln t
(10)
4.4. The intra-particle diffusion model

In a solidliquid adsorption process, the
adsorption dynamics generally consist of three
main consecutive transport steps: (i) transport
of dye molecules from the bulk solution to the
external surface of the adsorbent by diffusion
through the liquid boundary layer (film diffusion);
(ii) diffusion of the dye from the external surface
and into the pores of the adsorbent (intra-particle
diffusion); and (iii) adsorption of the dye
onto the active sites of the internal surface of
the pores (pore diffusion) [46] . Among the three
steps, the last step is considered to have a
negligible effect on kinetics, as it is assumed to
be rapid. The rate of absorption is controlled by
either film diffusion or pore diffusion, depending
on which step is slower [47] . Accordingly, the
overall rate of adsorption is controlled by either
film or intra-particle diffusion, or a combination
of both. Many studies have shown that boundary
layer diffusion is dominant during the initial
94
adsorbate uptake, after which the adsorption rate

gradually becomes controlled by intra-particle
diffusion as the adsorbents external surface is
loaded with the adsorbate [46,47] . The intra-particle
diffusion model is expressed as [48,49]
qt= Kidt +C
(11)
where qt is the sorption capacity at time t

(mg/g); C is the intercept; and Kid is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant (mg/g min1/2).
Thus, the intra-particle diffusion constant Kid,
can be obtained from the slope of the plot of qt
versus the square root of time. If the regression
of qt versus t0.5 is linear and passes through
the origin, then intra-particle diffusion is the sole
rate-limiting step; if not, the boundary layer
diffusion controls the adsorption to some degree
and this indicated that the intra-particle diffusion
is not the only rate controlling step, but also
other processes may control the rate of
adsorption.
5. Adsorption isotherms
An adsorption isotherm shows the
equilibrium relationship between concentration
in the solution and the quantity of adsorbate
adsorbed at constant temperature. They provide
fundamental physiochemical data about the
sorption process, and may be used for scalingup batch type processes with moderate success.
The shape of the equilibrium adsorption isotherm
provides information about the homogeneity and
heterogeneity of the adsorbent surface [50,51] . In
the present investigation, the equilibrium data
were analyzed using five equilibrium models, the
Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, the Redlich
Peterson (RP), and the LangmuirFreundlich
(LF) isotherms for describing solidliquid
sorption systems. In this study, the equilibrium
adsorption isotherms were only applied to the
adsorbent which had the highest MB removal
efficiency. All the model parameters were
evaluated by nonlinear regression.
5.1. Langmuir isotherm
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm model
assumes that adsorption occurs on a
homogenous adsorbent surface of identical sites
that are equally available and energetically
equivalent, with each site carrying an equal
number of adsorbed molecules, and no
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interaction between adsorbate molecules [5153] .

The saturated monolayer isotherm can be
represented as:
qe= qmax KLCe/1+ KLCe
(12)
where qe is the amount of MB adsorbed on

adsorbent at equilibrium (mg/g), Ce is the
equilibrium concentration in the solution (mg/l),
qmax is the qe for a complete monolayer (mg/g), a
constant related to the sorption capacity, and KL
is the adsorption equilibrium constant related to
the affinity of the binding sites and the energy
of adsorption (l/mg). For Langmuir type
adsorption processes, the influence of the
isotherm shape on whether adsorption is
favorable or unfavorable can be classified by
a term RL a dimensionless constant separation
factor [54].
RL= 1/1+KLCi
(13)
where Ci (mg/l) is the liquid phase initial

concentration of the dye. The RL parameter is
considered a reliable indicator of the adsorption.
There are four probabilities for the RL value: (i)
for favorable adsorption, 0 < R L < 1, (ii) for
unfavorable adsorption, RL>1, (iii) for linear
adsorption, RL = 1, and (iv) for irreversible
adsorption, RL = 0 [52] .
5.2. Freundlich isotherm
The Freundlich isotherm assumes that the
adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous surface
at non-identical sites with different energies of
adsorption that are not always available. This
fairly satisfactory empirical isotherm can be used
for non-ideal sorption and is expressed by the
following equation [50, 55,56] :
qe= KF Ce 1/n
(14)
where K F is an indicator of the relative

adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (mg1"(1/
n) l1/n/g); and n is that of the adsorption intensity
respectively. In order to determine the maximum
adsorption capacity, it is necessary to operate
with a constant initial concentration C i and
variable amounts of adsorbent; ln qmax is then the
extrapolated value of ln q for C = Ci [57].
KF = qmax/ Ci 1/n
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(15)
where C i (mg/l) is the liquid phase

concentrations of dyes initially and qmax is the
Freundlich maximum adsorption capacity (mg/
g).
5.3. Temkin isotherm
The derivation of the Temkin isotherm
assumes that the fall in the heat of sorption is
linear rather than logarithmic, as implied in the
Freundlich equation. The heat of sorption of all
the molecules in the layer is assumed to
decrease linearly with coverage due to sorbate/
sorbent interactions [58]. The Temkin isotherm has
generally been applied in the following form:
qe= RT/BT .ln (AT Ce)
(16)
where BT is the Temkin constant, related to

the heat of sorption (J/mol); AT is the Temkin
isotherm constant (l/g); R is the gas constant
(8.314 J/mol K); and T is the absolute
temperature in K.
5.4. RedlichPeterson isotherm
The RedlichPeterson isotherm contains
three parameters and incorporates the features
of the L angmuir and Freundlich isotherms. It can
be represented by the following formula [51] :
qe= KR Ce/ 1+A Ceb
(17)
where C e (mg/l) is the equilibrium

concentration in the solution; KR (l/g) and A {(l/
mg)b} are the Redlich-Peterson constants; and
b is the Redlich-Peterson isotherm exponent. In
this study all the model parameters were
calculated by nonlinear regression.
5.5. LangmuirFreundlich (LF) isotherm
The LangmuirFreundlich (LF) isotherm,
derived from the Langmuir and Freundlich
models, is a three parameter empirical model
represented by the following equation [59] where
KLF is the equilibrium constant {(l/mg)1/n}, qLF is
the maximum amount of dye per unit weight of
biosorbent(mg/g), and n is an empirical
dimensionless parameter. If n = 1, Eq. (18)
becomes the Langmuir equation. This model is
valid when l/n>1. In this study the isotherm
parameters of L-F equation were evaluated
using nonlinear regression.
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Fig.1- FTIR spectra for CRH, SRH, HRH, NRH.

1. FTIR spectroscopy studies
The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR)
spectroscopy technique is an important tool for
identifying characteristic functional groups which
are capable of adsorbing metal ions and dye
ions. The raw material and acid-modified
adsorbent were characterized using a FT-IR

spectrophoto-meter (PerkinElmer, Spectrum
RX1) at room temperature (Fig. 1). As seen in
Fig. 1, the presence of OH groups on the surface
of the rice husks is confirmed by a broad band
between 3300 and 3450 cm1 [60] . This stretching
of OH groups is associated to silanol groups (Si
OH) and to adsorbed water on the rice husks
surfaces. Other OH groups bound to methyl
radicals exhibited a signal between 2920 and
2940 cm1[6] .These groups are common in lignin
structures. The peaks located at 1640 to 1670
cm1 are characteristic of carbonyl stretching
from aldehydes and ketones [61] .The peaks
associated with the stretching of aromatic rings
were verified at 1511 cm 1 [60] . The bands
between 11301050 and 810800 cm1 were
attributed to OSiO and typical structures of
SiO2, which was an indication of silica [62]. Finally,
the presence of a band around 466 cm 1 is
generally attributable to the bending vibration
of OSiO [62].
2. Effect of acid concentration on
sorption and sorption kinetics verified
Fig. 2- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kinetic
models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRHs modified by various acid concentrations.
96
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Fig. 2 shows the effect of the acid

concentration and the contact time on the
amount of MB adsorbed onto H2SO4 modified rice
husks. It was observed that the chemical
modification resulted in a decrease of the
sorption capacities of the CRH. In order to
analyze the MB biosorption kinetics, the pseudofirst-order kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,
Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion kinetic
models were applied to the data. The fittings of
the pseudo-first-order kinetic model to the
experimental results are shown in Fig. 2a, and
the values of the estimated parameters are
presented in Table 1. The resulting curves and
data obtained by the pseudo-first-order kinetic
equation did not describe the biosorption of the
dye on the CRH well. It was noticed, also, that
curves of fit for the H2SO4 modified CRH were
closer to the experimental values than the curve
of fit for the CRH. These results indicated that
the modification of CRH could destroy the
structure of the adsorption surface and affect
the mechanisms of adsorption. The comparisons
of the calculated results for the pseudo-secondorder kinetic model and the measured results
for the CRH and acid-modified CRHs are shown
in Fig. 2b. As observed in Fig. 2b, the pseudosecond order expression better predicted the
sorption kinetics than the pseudo-first-order
model for the entire sorption period, especially
for CRH. This suggested that pseudo secondorder kinetic model could be used to predict the
dye uptake amount at different contact time
intervals and at equilibrium for CRH and H2SO4
modified CRH.
The experimental data and the simulations
using the Elovich equation for modeling the
adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are
shown in Fig. 2c. The fits are not as good as the
pseudo-second-order models. As for the
pseudo-first-order model, the curves of fit for
H 2 SO 4 modified CRH were closer to the
experimental values than the curves of fit for
CRH. The constants for the Elovich equation for
the same experimental data were obtained from
the slope and intercept of the plot of qt against
ln t (plot not shown), listed in Table 1. When
using the Elovich equation, the constant
represents the initial adsorption rate, while
is
related to the extent of the surface coverage and
the activation energy involved in chemisorption
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[63]
and
decreased
. It was observed that
as the acid concentration increased (Table
1).This suggests that the adsorption surface of
the absorbents was affected such that the
available adsorption sites lessened as the acid
concentration increased. The simulations using
the intra-particle diffusion
equation for the adsorption of MB onto the

different absorbents are shown in Fig. 2d. The
intra-particle diffusion model expression did not
fit well with the experimental data for the CRH.
This suggested the intra-particle diffusion model
could not be used to predict the amount of dye
uptake at different contact time intervals and at
equilibrium for CRH. However, a good fit was
produced for the experimental data for H2SO4
modified CRH, almost as good as the pseudosecond-order model. These results again
indicated that the acid modification of CRH could
destroy the structure of the adsorption surface
and affect the mechanisms of adsorption.
The adsorption process for MB onto CRH
is mainly controlled by diffusion from the solidliquid interface towards the solid particles. This
mechanism may be tested by plotting qt versus
t0.5 (Fig. 3). As shown, the adsorption process
for CRH was not linear over the whole time range
and tended to be in two phases. The initial curved
portion is attributable to the boundary layer
Fig 3- Intraparticle diffusion plot for the dsorption

of MB onto CRHs modified by various acid
concentrations.
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
diffusion effects and the final linear portion may

be due to the intra-particle diffusion effects. Also,
the linear plot for the non-modified CRH does
not pass through the origin, which indicates that
intra-particle diffusion was not the only rate
controlling step. However, the linear plots for
each acid-modified absorbent pass through very
close to the origin, indicating that intra-particle
diffusion plays a major role in the adsorption for
acid-modified absorbents.
3. Effect of chemical treatment on
sorption and sorption kinetics
The chemical treatment of CRH was shown
to result in certain changes in its surface
properties. Accordingly, the MB adsorption
behavior for each of the acid-modified CRHs was
more closely examined. Fig. 4 shows the effect
of the chemical treatment and the contact time
on the amount of MB adsorbed onto H 2SO 4
modified rice husks. It can be observed that the
sorption capacities of CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH
increased with an increase in the contact time. It
can also be observed that acid modification

decreased the MB sorption capacities of CRH
from 2.43 to 1.65, 1.47 and 1.36 for NRH, HRH
and SRH, respectively. The results showed that
HRH and SRH had the lowest sorption capacity
for MB among the modified rice husks. These
results indicated that the chemical treatment did
not improve the adsorption performance of the
rice husks. In fact, modification of CRH could
damage the structure of the adsorption surface
and affect the mechanisms of adsorption. In order
to design a fast and effective model, further
investigations into the adsorption rate were
made. A suitable model was sought to
understand the mechanisms of adsorption,
including the mass transfer chemical reaction [29].
The experimental data for the uptake of dye
versus time, qt, were fitted to the pseudo-firstorder kinetic, pseudo-second-order kinetic,
Elovich, and intraparticle diffusion kinetic models
using nonlinear regression.
The regression results are presented in Fig.
4 and Table 2. Fig. 4a shows a non-linearized
Fig 4- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profiles and comparison of kinetic
models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto various pretreated rice husks.
98
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
plot of the pseudo first-order model at 50 mg/l

initial MB concentration for the first 240 min. It
can still be seen from the plots of qt versus t that
the theoretically generated curves do not agree
well with the experimental data. This suggests
that the sorption of MB onto CRH and acidmodified rice husks does not follow the pseudofirst-order sorption rate expression of Lagergren.
The experimental data and the simulations using
the pseudo-second-order equation for
adsorption of MB onto different absorbents are
shown in Fig. 4b. It shows good agreement with
the pseudo-second-order equation, reflected in
the extremely high correlation coefficients listed
in Table 2, which are greater than 0.96.These
findings suggest that the pseudo-second-order
kinetic model could be used to predict the
amounts of dye taken up at different contact time
intervals and at equilibrium. The simulations
using the Elovich equation are plotted in Fig. 4c
together with the experimental data points. Table
2 lists the kinetic constants obtained. As can be
seen, the constant
was observed to decrease
sharply when the CRH was modified by acids,
and the constant
also decreased. Therefore,
when the CRH is acid-modified within the range
studied, the rate of chemisorptions and the
available adsorption sites on the surface
decrease. Although the Elovich equation does
not provide any mechanistic evidence, it has
proved suitable for highly heterogeneous
systems, of which the adsorption of MB onto
CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH is undoubtedly such a
case. Moreover, when using the Elovich
equation, the correlation coefficients were lower
than those of the pseudo-second-order
equation, but the Elovich equation might still be
used to describe the kinetics of adsorption of
MB onto NRH, HRH, and SRH.
The simulations using the intra-particle
diffusion equation for the adsorption of MB onto
different absorbents are shown in Fig. 4d. As
observed, the intra-particle diffusion model
expression does not give a good fit to the
experimental data for the adsorption of CRH.
This suggests that intra-particle diffusion
model cannot be used to predict the amounts of
dye taken up at different contact time intervals
and at equilibrium for the CRH. However, the
intra-particle diffusion equation gives a good fit
www.ijsir.co.in
Fig. 5- Intraparticle-diffusion plot for the

adsorption of MB onto various pretreated rice
husks.
to the experimental data for the acid-modified

rice husks, almost as good as the pseudosecond-order model. Intra-particle diffusion rate
constants for CRH, NRH, HRH and SRH were
obtained from the plots of the amount of dye
adsorbed versus t0.5 (Fig. 5). The figure
indicates that the adsorption processes for CRH
were not linear over the whole time range, and
tended to occur in two stages. At a certain time
limit for the intra-particle diffusion for the acidmodified absorbents, the curves reveal linear
characteristics (as illustrated in Fig. 5). It has
been suggested that if the plot of qt versus t0.5
is a straight line, intra-particle diffusion controls
the sorption process. If the line does not pass
through the origin, the intra-particle diffusion is
not the only rate limiting step, suggesting the
process is complex, with more than one
mechanism limiting the rate of sorption.
Though the plots of qt versus t0.5 give
straight lines in acid-modified absorbents, they
fail to pass through the origin. This might also
indicate a combined mass transport triggered by
the initial film [39] .
4. Effect of MB initial concentration and
sorption kinetics
Fig. 6 shows the effect of the initial MB
concentration and the contact time on the
amount of MB adsorbed onto the CRH. It can be
observed that the amount adsorbed increased
with contact time, and at a certain point in time
reached an almost constant value, with the
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
amount of dye being removed from the aqueous

solution onto the CRH in a state of dynamic
equilibrium with the amount of dye being
desorbed from the CRH into the aqueous
solution. As seen in Fig. 6, the initial dye
concentration influence the contact time
necessary to reach the maximum sorption
capacities. For the range of contact times under
which the experiments were conducted, the
adsorption rate for the lower initial MB
concentrations was faster than for the higher
initial MB concentrations. The adsorption of MB
onto CRH was also investigated in terms of the
kinetics of the adsorption mechanism by using
the pseudo-first-order kinetic, pseudo-secondorder kinetic, Elovich, and intra-particle diffusion
models. The fittings of the experimental kinetic
results to the pseudo-first-order kinetic models
are shown in Fig. 6a, and the values of the
estimated parameters are p resented in Table
3. It is clear that the theoretically generated
curves do not agree well with the experimental
data at initial dye concentrations higher than 25
mg/l.
This finding suggests that the sorption of
MB onto CRH did not follow the pseudo-firstorder sorption rate expression of Lagergren at
high initial MB concentrations.
The pseudo-second-order kinetic constants
for adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in
Table 3. The correlation coefficients for the
pseudo-second-order kinetic model were close
to 1.0 for all cases. In addition, the experimental
data and the simulations using the pseudosecond-order kinetic equation for the adsorption
of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig. 6b. By
comparing
Figs. 6a and 6b, it is obvious that for the
entire adsorption period the pseudo-secondorder model fits the experimental data better than
the pseudo-first-order model. This indicates that
the sorption mechanism for CRH is
chemisorption, involving covalent forces through
sharing or exchange of electrons between
sorbent and sorbate [64] .Fig. 6b also shows that
the calculated q values increased with increasing
concentration of MB, presumably due to the
enhanced mass transfer of MB molecules to the
surface of CRH. This observation suggests that
Fig.6- Comparison between the measured and modeled time profi les and comparison of kinetic
models in predicting qt for the adsorption of MB onto CRH at different initial MB concentrations.
100
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
the boundary layer resistance was not the rate

limiting step [65] .The experimental data and the
simulations using the Elovich equation for the
adsorption of MB onto CRH are shown in Fig.
6c. It is clear that the theoretically generated
curves agree well with the experimental data at
concentrations lower than 25 mg/l, but deviation
is observed at later periods of the sorption
process at concentration higher than 25 mg/l.
Table 3 lists the kinetic constants obtained from
the Elovich equation. When using the Elovich
equation, the correlation coefficients were lower
than those of the pseudo-second-order
equation, but it might still be used to describe
the kinetics of adsorption of lower initial MB
concentrations onto CRH. As can be seen from
Table 3, the constants
and
decreased
sharply when the initial dye concentrations
increased. The fittings of the experimental kinetic
results to the simulations using the intra-particle
diffusion kinetic model are shown in Fig. 6d. The
intra-particle diffusion model does not fit well to
the experimental data for the adsorption of MB.
This suggests the intra-particle diffusion model
cannot be used to predict the amounts of dye
taken up at different contact time intervals and
at equilibrium for the CRH.
The intra-particle diffusion plots of the
experimental results of qt versus t for the various
absorbents are shown in Fig. 7. Within these,
the first, sharper region is the instantaneous
adsorption or external surface adsorption. The
second region is the gradual adsorption stage
where intra-particle diffusion is rate limiting. In
some cases, a third region exists, the final
equilibrium stage where intra-particle diffusion
starts to slow down due to the extremely low
adsorbate concentrations left in the solutions
Fig.7- Intraparticle diffusion plot for the

adsorption of MB onto CRH at different initial
MB concentrations.
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[66]
.The plots in Fig. 7 are not linear over the whole

time range, implying that more than one process
affected the adsorption. This indicates that the
rate of adsorption for the initial MB
concentrations of 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mg/l
was initially controlled by film diffusion, then
changed to intra-particle-diffusion control after
5060 min. The intercepts (C) and the intraparticle rate constant (Kid) values calculated from
the slopes of the linear portions of the plots of
Fig. 7 are presented in Table 3. The intercept C
provides information about the thickness of the
boundary layer; the resistance to the external
mass transfer increases as the intercept
increases. The constant C was found to increase
from 0.4393 to 2.171 with an increase in the dye
concentration from 10 to 75 mg/l, indicating an
increase in the thickness of the boundary layer
and a decrease in the chance of external mass
transfer, and hence an increase in the chance
of internal mass transfer [67].However, beyond 75
mg/l, the intercept decreased, suggesting that
at higher concentrations, the sorption process
is controlled by intra-particle diffusion, with only
a minor effect from the external film. Ponnusami
et al. reported a similar observation for the
adsorption of MB onto guava (Psidium guajava)
leaf powder [68]. The value of Kid was found to
increase with an increasing initial concentration
of dye solution. Another similar observation was
reported by Mane et al. for the adsorption of
brilliant green onto bagasse fly ash [69].
5. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
The capacity of CRH for adsorption of MB
can be determined by measuring equilibrium
isotherms, which describe how adsorbates
interact with adsorbents. The correlation of
equilibrium data to either theoretical or empirical
equations is essential for the subsequent
practical application of the isotherms [50].Several
mathematical models can be used to describe
experimental data for adsorption isotherms. The
experimental data were analyzed according to
the nonlinear forms of the Langmuir, Freundlich,
Temkin, Redlich Peterson, and Langmuir
Freundlich empirical models. Table 4 gives the
calculated isotherm constants for the different
initial MB concentrations. In order to assess the
different isotherms and their ability to correlate
the experimental results, the theoretical plots for
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Tables
Table 1- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY THE
CRHS MODIFIED BY VARIOUS ACID CONCENTRATIONS
Acidconc. Pseuodo firstorder
K1 qe
Pseuodo second order
k2
qe
Elovich equation
Intraparticle diffusion
kid
r2
Table 2- KINETIC PARAMETERS OF THE REMOVAL OF MB FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTION BY VARIOUS

PRETREATED RICE HUSKS.
Adsorbents . Pseuodo firstorder
K1 qe
r2
Pseuodo second order

k2
qe
r2
Elovich equation
r2
Intraparticle diffusion
kid
r2
Table 3- KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR THE EFFECTS OF INITIAL DYE CONCENTRATIONS ON SORPTION
OF MB ONTO CRH
102
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Fig. 8- Experimental points and comparison of

the fitted curves from various adsorption
isotherms for the adsorption of MB onto CRH.
each isotherm have been shown along with the

experimental data for the adsorption of MB onto
CRH (Fig. 8). The isotherm curves show the
superposition of the experimental results (points)
and the theoretical calculated results (lines). The
Langmuir sorption model serves to estimate the
maximum uptake or the total capacity of the
adsorbent for the dye (q max) where it could not
be reached in the experiments. KL is the
adsorption equilibrium constant representing the
affinity between the sorbent and sorbate. The
values of q max and KL calculated from the L
angmuir model are tabulated in Table 4. The
Fig. 9-. Plot of the separation factor for MB

onto CRH versus the initial dye concentration.
calculated R L values versus the initial MB

concentrations are shown in Fig. 9, in which it
can be observed that sorption was more
favorable at higher concentration.
The fact that RL is in the range of 01 at all
initial dye concentrations confirms the favorable
uptake of the malachite green process [70] .Table
5 presents a comparison of the adsorption
capacity of the CRH obtained in this study with
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those obtained in the literature for the adsorption

of MB. It shows that CRH can be considered as
a promising material for removing basic dyes,
even compared to some other low cost
adsorbents and activated carbons previously
suggested for the uptake of MB from a queous
solutions [13, 37, 71-77].The Freundlich isotherm was
originally empirical in nature but was later
interpreted for sorption to heterogeneous
surfaces or surfaces supporting sites of varied
affinities and has been used widely to fit
experimental data [78] .The value of n, the
Freundlich constant, is an empirical parameter
that varies with the degree of heterogeneity and
indicates the degree of non-linearity between dye
uptake capacity and unadsorbed dye in the
solution, and is related to the distribution of
bonded ions on the sorbent surface [79].In general,
an n > 1 suggests that the adsorbate is favorably
adsorbed onto an adsorbent. The results in
Table 4 indicate that MB was favorably adsorbed
by CRH, as the n value was greater than one.
Compared to the Langmuir isotherm, the
Freundlich isotherm had a poorer fit to the
present data. The Temkin constants AT and BT
are listed in Table 4 and the theoretical plot of
this isotherm is shown in Fig. 8. The correlation
coefficient is also given in Table 4 and is lower
than the Langmuir and Freundlich values.
Therefore, the Langmuir and Freundlich
isotherms fit better to the experimental data than
the Temkin isotherm. Fig. 8 shows the same. The
experimental data were further fitted to the
three-parameter Redlich-Peterson isotherm and
LangmuirFreundlich isotherm models. The
three-parameter empirical Redlich-Peterson
isotherm equation combines elements from both
the Langmuir and Freundlich equations,
modeling a hybrid mechanism of adsorption : a
hybrid, not following ideal monolayer adsorption.
Therefore, the RedlichPeterson isotherm
equation is widely used as a compromise between
the Langmuir and Freundlich systems. The
adsorption parameters calculated according to
the RedlichPeterson isotherm model are listed
in Table 4. The r2 was higher than 0.998, while
b was smaller than one, obeying the theory
behind the RedlichPeterson isotherm. In fact, any value of b
out of the range 01 fails to agree with the theory
behind the Redliche-Peterson isotherm. Fig. 8
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illustrates that the RedlichPeterson isotherm

model is a better fit to the experimental data than
the Freundlich and Temkin isotherms.The
LangmuirFreundlich model is another three
parameter empirical model for representing
equilibrium biosorption data. It is also a
combination of the Langmuir and Freundlich
isotherm type models. The corresponding
LangmuirFreundlich parameters of A, B and m
are given in Table 4 and the theoretical plot is
shown in Fig. 8. As seen from Table 4 and Fig.
8, the LangmuirFreundlich isotherm provides
the best correlation to the experimental data,
whereas Langmuir and RedlichPeterson
isotherms also fitted the experimental data.
CONCLUSIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
The experimental results indicated that both

untreated and acid-modified rice husks
show promise as adsorbents for the
removal of MB from aqueous solutions.
The chemical modification of rice husks to
produce NRH, HRH and SRH reduced the
sorption efficiency of CRH for MB from 98%
to 67%, 59% and 55%, respectively.
The sorption capacity increased with higher
initial dye concentrations. It is speculated
that the initial concentration of dye provides
the driving force to overcome the
resistances to the mass transfer of MB
between the aqueous and the solid phases.
In addition, an increase in the initial dye
concentration enhances the interactions
between MB and the CRH. An increase in
the initial MB dye concentration enhances
the adsorption of MB.
The analysis indicates that the adsorption

of CRH does not occur on a heterogeneous
surface with sites of equivalent energy of
adsorption that are always available, since
the Freundlich isotherm had a poor fit to
the experimental data.
7.
The experimental adsorption data fitted

better to the LangmuirFreundlich model
than the other models.
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three-parameter isothermal modeling forn liquidphase sorption of Procion Blue HB by inactive
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AIRBORN BACTERIA AND FUNGI LEVEL IN

INDOOR AND OUTDOOR AREAS
1
*AASHISH TIWARI,1 DIVYA SAHNI,2 A.H. KHAN3

Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi.India ,2ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Regional
Research Station, Lucknow, India.3CSIR-Indian Institue of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India.
*Address for Correspondence: Aashish Tiwari, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi .India
Email ID: aashishtiwaribu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In this study, we investigated the relationship between indoor and outdoor concentrations of airborne actinomycetes, fungal spores, and Bacterial Species. Different types of indoor environments
(Two different Canteen area, Institutes auditorium, laboratory, Shopping Mall) and their outdoor
environments (Institutes Outer Building area) were investigated in terms of bio-aerosol contamination. A total of 120 Sample were investigated in Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow.
The single-stage / Bio-stage sampler was used for viable bio-aerosol sampling. During the sampling,
indoor and outdoor temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 concentration were measured. Total
bacteria counts (TBC) and fungi concentrations varied on a large scale within and between the
sampling site groups (10103 CFU/m3). The highest TBC levels were measured in Humid less Indoor
area, while the highest mold levels were measured in Canteen, Auditorium. Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus auricularis, and Bacillus spp. were predominant bacteria species and Penicillium spp.,
Aspergillus spp., and Cladosporium spp. were the most observed mould genera detected in the
samples. Indoor-to-outdoor ratios of the observed fungi counts were calculated as approximately
around one, and for bacteria counts these ratios were higher than one. There was no statistical
difference between indoor and outdoor mould levels, while a significant difference was found between indoor and outdoor bacteria levels (p < 0.001). A significant correlation between indoor CO2
and bio-aerosols indicates insufficient ventilation.
Keywords: Contamination, Indoor Air; Bacteria, Outdoor; Aspergillum; Bio-aerosols; Conventional
methods; Microorganisms
INTRODUCTION
A variety of contaminants responsible for
adverse health effects may be found in indoor
air. Since the beginning of the areas, airborne
biological agents have attracted increased attention due to their diverse immunological activity and widespread occurrence indoors. Fungi
are commonly present in indoor environments
and cause of many diseases. Fungi and bacteria isolated from Canteen with moisture problems
have shown both cytotoxic and immunotoxic
characteristics . Many fungal species of Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria and Cladosporium
have been shown to trigger rhinitis, asthma and
dermatitis. The major pathway of acquisition is
inhalation of airborne fungal spores small
enough in diameter to reach the deeper airways.
108
The sources from which fungi and bacteria derive may have importance in their health effects.
It has been established that most people spend
over 90% of their lives indoors, offices, canteen
for lunch / break-fast where they are exposed to
some indoor environmental factors such as bioaerosols which could influence their health and
physical condition. This has contributed to the
growing interest in indoor microbial studies in
recent years [1-5]. The ubiquitous nature of microorganisms in the atmosphere has contributed
to the biological contamination of indoor environments, which is mostly caused by bacteria,
moulds and yeast. They can be dangerous as
pathogenic living cells but they can also secrete
some substances harmful to health. These are
different kinds of toxic airborne metabolism prodwww.ijsir.co.in

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
ucts, for example mycotoxins. The aerial spatial

distribution of microorganisms varies according
to environmental conditions, type of organism
and location. Generally, a higher microbial concentration is found in the outdoor air of urban
areas than surrounding rural areas [7,8] . Many
activities like traffic, constructions and people
gathering in urban areas contribute largely to
outdoor microbial load [ 1,2]. Recent epidemiological studies have illustrated that extremely high
concentration of microorganisms in the air can
be allergenic, however sometimes even very low
concentrations of some particular microorganisms can cause serious diseases. Moulds have
been shown to react with humans causing 30%
of health problems relevant to the indoor air
quality [3], particularly in rooms with heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems [11 ,6 ] and can
breed allergies[4], SBS symptoms (sick building
syndrome) causing irritation of mucous membranes, bad physical condition, tiredness, headaches, vertigo, decrease of concentration,
memory and intellectual work ability [5,6],dermatosis, respiratory diseases (including asthma) [7,8]
.
The proportion of pathogenic microorganisms is higher in indoor than outdoor air [9] . Environmental conditions such as relative humidity (RH), temperature and wind velocity exert significant effect on the type of population and
amount of microorganisms in the air [10,11] . Generally, microbes enter into atmosphere from natural (vegetation and soil) and anthropogenic
sources but their survival and distribution depend on the cell structure of microbes and meteorological conditions [ 12,13,14 ]. Many airborne microorganisms are either pathogenic or can
cause sensitivities due to prolonged exposure.[15]
Airborne microbes attach to dust particles, condense and enter human body directly via inhalation or indirectly via ingestion of contaminated
foods and water [22 ] resulting in the development
of disease [22 ]. Airborne bacteria can also affect
visibility, climate and the quality of life [16, 18 , 20 ] . It
is important to know the distribution pattern of
live bio-aerosols at different sites in the urban
environment. The aim of this work is long-term
observation of microbiological quality of indoor
air in selected shops in two business locations
in Ibadan metropolis, where thousands of people
www.ijsir.co.in
spend several hours working in enclosed spaces

every day and where microbiological quality of
indoor air can influence their health and physical condition. The study embraced a measurement of the concentration of bacteria and fungi
in the air of selected shops and meteorological
conditions such as temperature and relative humidity.
Exposure to bio-aerosols, containing airborne microorganisms and their by-products,
can result in respiratory disorders and other
adverse health effects such as infections, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and toxic reactions.
Fungi are common in indoor and outdoor environments and nearly 10 % of people worldwide
have fungal allergy. In many environments including hospitals, animal sheds, clean-rooms,
pharmaceutical facilities and spacecraft environments, the presence of bio-aerosols can compromise normal activities, making efficient monitoring crucial. Microbial damage in indoor/outdoor areas, is caused most frequently by molds
and bacteria. These micro-organisms have a
very important role in the biogeochemical cycle,
as their task consists of disintegrating organic
mass to reusable metabolites. In the environment spores of molds and bacteria may become
airborne and are therefore ubiquitous. They can
enter indoor areas either by means of passive
ventilation or by means of ventilation systems.
Many genera are also emitted by indoor sources
like animals, flowerpots and wastebaskets.
In most cases [21] normal flora is not harmful. However, growth conditions like excessive
humidity and/or a high water content of building
materials are encountered on a more frequent
basis, which in most cases can be described as
the limiting factor for microbial growth. This is
caused by shortcomings of the buildings such
as the lack of thermal insulation, as well as the
incorrect behavior of users of rooms. The relative humidity and or the moisture content of the
materials determines that to what extent different micro-organisms are able to grow on indoor
or outdoor materials. These may cause destruction, adverse health effects and unpleasant
odors. Therefore, the task of microbial examinations is to differentiate between normal indoor
micro-organisms, airborne or adherent to walls
and floors and fast growing species, attaching
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itself to building materials and producing microbial products and ultimately causing adverse
health effects. Air sampling of microorganisms
is a popular method of conducting microbial examinations, as it allows a direct toxicological
evaluation. These results can be related to a
concentration expressed in colony forming units
per cubic meter. Sometimes information might
even be available on a particle which allows for
an estimation of how deep those particles may
penetrate into the lungs of a human being.
Micro-organisms are generally not equally
distributed in indoor air. They mostly occur in
clouds and are often overlooked in air measurements, especially if the microbial damage is hidden by paneling, walls, etc. Another reason for
false-negative results obtained by air measurements is that fungal spores are not released during all the stages of its growth. In this case, other
techniques are helpful, for example, the sampling of household dust, the sedimentation
method or direct sampling from surfaces. The
differentiation of bacteria is performed by a biochemical method as a rule, whereas in most
cases the differentiation of molds is done microscopically, especially when the forms of spores
need to be detected.
On many occasions, the growth behavior
and patterns on different nutrient agars also
have to be evaluated. Non-sporulation species
have to be triggered to produce spores, otherwise sterile mycelium will result, which means
they cannot be named by genera or even species. Methods of genetic fingerprinting are still
in their early stages and only available for some
genera or species. In the meantime enzymatic
tests have become available to decide between
mold growth and normal quantities on building
surfaces. Searching for hidden mold growth can
be a very difficult task. An example of this is if
adverse health effects like the fungal syndrome
is observed. The fungal syndrome is characterized by the occurrence of unspecific symptoms.
The analysis of microbial volatile organic compounds or even the use of specially trained
sniffer dogs are some of the methods used to
detect hidden mold growth. However, these methods have not been scientifically evaluated [22] .
The extermination of microorganisms is of110
ten carried out, but this procedure is not sufficient because non-viable spores for example,
keep their allergenic potential. The acuteness
of the rehabilitation procedures is normally considered according to the extent of the microbial
damage. Adverse health effects are supposed
to be linked with microbial growth in indoor areas and are mostly related with mold growth.
Allergies is a predominant condition which has
to be mentioned, followed by toxic alveolitis and
reactions like (allergic) bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as well as the aggravation of asthma. Infections by molds and
bacteria are very rare, but persons with immunodeficiency are especially susceptible to fungal infections. It has been found that spores of
fungi contain fungal toxins (mycotoxins), which
are well known from food contaminations. It has
however not been confirmed whether these mycotoxins show toxic effects if fungal spores are
inhaled.
On the whole, the dose relationship between the concentration of microbial particles
already mentioned and the adverse health effects described, is not very well established.
When sanitary effects are observed, the susceptibility of the individual is very often crucial.
The result of this is that guidelines concerning
microbial products in indoor areas are sparse
and mostly not scientifically sound. In non-industrial indoor environments, the most important
source of airborne bacteria is the presence of
human. Specific activities like talking, sneezing,
coughing, walking, washing and toilet flushing
can generate airborne biological particulate
matter. In addition food stuffs, house plants and
flower pots, house dust, pets and their bedding,
textiles, carpets, wood material and furniture
stuffing, occasionally release spores of Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Scopulariopsis into the air. Although indoor
environments are considered to be protected,
they can become contaminated with particles that
present different and sometimes more serious
risks when their concentrations exceed recommended maximum limits than those related to
outdoor exposures. Human beings build the
home to be protected in the environment.
Indoor air pollution can be as much more
worse than that of outdoor air, it can cause a
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
wide range of health problems. Mold, mildew,

fungi, bacteria, viruses, microorganisms, chemical fumes, organic odors, dust pollen and other
floating particles are potential threats in many
households. Most people assume that this particular problem is addressed if they filter the air.
The truth is that filters will not remove all the
particles from the air.
Even if a high-efficiency particulate air filter
(HEPA) is used, the problem will not be effectively addressed. HEPA filters will only remove
particles the size of 3 microns or larger. Consequently, dust particles smaller than 3 microns
will pass through unhindered. Unfortunately, filters can also become breeding grounds for mold
and bacteria. A filter only collects and does not
kill toxic particles. For a filter to work effectively,
air has to pass through it. If a person inhales air
prior to it passing through a filter, the particles
would have already entered the persons lungs.
In addition, if a filter collects only mold spores, it
does not solve the problem. Effectively, the mold
that created the spores is still alive and continues to generate mold spores. A filter is not designed to eliminate the source itself. Ultraviolet
lights (UV) are claimed to kill 99.9 % of all organisms. Even though UV has the potential to
kill 99.9 % of all organisms, it will only kill that
which passes through the light. In addition not
all UV rays have the same potential to kill organisms.
Airborne bacterial concentrations were
usually higher than fungi. Bacteria and fungi had
similar diurnal variation patterns. The objective
of this study was to investigate the airborne fungi
and bacteria collected in indoor and outdoor environment. The study was carried out in four areas, using conventional enumeration of airborne
micro-organisms and relied on a culture-based
method for bio-aerosol sampling, aimed at generating an exposure database and examines the
relationship between the in- and outdoor
culturability of fungi and bacteria. The primary
goal of the bio-aerosol sampling was the quantitative evaluation of the viable airborne bacteria and fungi. Besides the standard enumeration of culturable microbes as CFU/m3, this study
attempted to identify and evaluate the colonies
through their specific color, turbidity or other
characteristics that appear when grown on selective media.
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Air Sampler Performances
(a)Air Sampling
Total fifty air samples were collected from
indoor areas as canteen, auditorium, office and
from outdoor area as outdoor near building
I.I.T.R. (Indian Institute of Toxicology Research)
area of Institute building. These all samples were
taken at various time throughout eight working
hours. Airborne concentration of microorganisms
can be studied by counting propagules in air
samples or settled dust particles. Sampling of
culturable microorganisms is based on impaction (in which microorganisms are collected from
the air stream due to an inertial force that deposits them on to solid or semi solid selection
surface), liquid impingement ( separation of microorganism from the airstream by passage
through a porous medium such as filter).
After sample collection colonies of bacteria
and fungi are grown on culture media at a defined temperature for the length of time required
for colony development (usually 3-7 days). Colonies are counted manually or by image analysis
techniques. To date, no standard methods are
available for detecting and enumerating fungi in
indoor environments, which significantly limit the
potential for comparing data from different studies. These include poor reproducibility selection
of certain species for example the choice of sampling method, culture media or temperature chosen and lack of detection of non-culturable and
dead microorganisms and microbial components,
although they too may have toxic or allergic properties. Sampling methods for airborne particles
can be subdivided into passive sampler using
natural aerosol conviction, diffusion or gravity,
and active samplers using stationary or personal
pumps. The stationary sampling is the most
widely used method for conducting microbial
measurements in indoor/outdoor environments.
The results obtained with different devices are
not easily comparable with each other due to
differences in sampling times, volumes and principles.
In addition, no good methods for sampling
personal air for culturable microorganisms are
available, and air sampling for more than 15 min111

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
utes is often not possible, whereas air concentrations usually vary widely over time. Nevertheless, counting culturable microorganisms is potentially a very sensitive technique, allowing the
identification of many different species. Traditional culture methods have proven to be of limited use for quantitative assessment of exposure.
Culture-based techniques thus usually provide
qualitative rather than quantitative data. The
former can, however, be important in risk assessment, as not all fungal and bacterial species
pose the same hazard. Furthermore, a qualitative comparison of indoor and outdoor micro biota
(in samples collected at the same time) may provide important information about potential indoor
sources of contamination. More extensive reviews of techniques for sampling and culturing
microorganisms are available. The Sample is
collected from Bio stage Sampler, at a flow rate
of 28.3 liter / minute. There were collected 50
liters of air with Bio stage sampler by using for
two minutes. The instruments were placed one
meter above the floor and in two meter distance
in every sampling in various times.
Nutrient agar media (peptone-0.5% beef extract/

yeast extract- 0.5%, agar-1.5%, Nacl-0.5%) is
also used for the bacterial growth. The malt extract agar was incubated at 350 c for 24-48 hrs
and the nutrient agar and Luria Bertani agar is
to be incubated at 370 c for 48-70 hrs. For inhibiting the contamination of fungi, during making
media especially bacterial media, the antifungal AMPHOTERICIN-B is used in 10 micro-liters
in 200 ml of media sample, to be taken for highly
concentrated.
The institute, IITR-CDRI (outdoor) building,
where the sample was taken is situated on the
bank of Gomati river. The climate is warm and
humid in March to May and a normally cool in
January to February. The temperatures fluctuate between 320c to 450c in summer, and in 150c
to 240c in early winter. Each stage of sampler
contains 200 spores, each having a diameter of
1.5 mm in all stages, for fungi, a viable spores
captured by samples were also isolated on 2%
malt extract agar medium supplemented with
Streptomycin Sulphate (40 microgram per ml)
following incubation for 48-72 hrs at 270c.
The colonies were identified based on their
colony characteristics such as color, shape and
other morphological features of the mycelia and
spores to the lowest taxonomic rank possible.
The most efficient methods of removing suspended particles from the air, example, filtration
through fine pore matrices, might be adequate
for resistant forms of microorganisms, such as
spores, but can be less damaged environmentally resistant vegetative cells.
Determination of concentration of Microbes in air samples
A fig. 1: A bio Stage Sampler used in Air Sampling
The concentration of Microorganism

counted from Petri plates or on slides for spores
is calculated as per the given formula:
(b)Media used for Growth & Culture

Analysis
generated by an Adobe applicationTotal number of microbes colonies

1000
generated by an Adobe applicationVol. of air sample in liter
The media is basically used for the growth

of Micro- organism, Malt extracts agar (malts
extract-30 gm/l, mycological peptone-5.0 gm/l,
agar-15 gm/l) and Luria Bertani agar tryptone1.0%, yeast extract-0.5%, Nacl-1.0%) media is
used for the enumeration of heterotrophs and
Fungi and for selective bacteria as E. coli. Instead of above both media, the common media
112
Total volume of air sampled the counts are

expressed as number of colony forming units
(CFU/m 3 ) or number of spores per colony
(spores / m3).
After isolation of microbes in another media by streak plate method, spread plate method
by using Inoculation loop, they have to dyeing
for the detection of their biochemically identifiwww.ijsir.co.in

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
cation. Grams staining is used for the identification and especially for classification of bacteria in their gram positive, or gram negative bacteria. For the slide preparation a drop of stain
were put on the clean slide then picked-up a
small tuff of fungus. Then gently teased the tuff
to separated the hyphae by cool needle and mix
with the Lacto phenol cotton blue stain properly
for Fungi.
A Fig.2: A Photograph of I.I.T.R. Canteen
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained from indoor area and
outdoor area monitoring reveals that the microbial concentration, bacteria and fungi were lower
in morning time in comparison to those in the
evening time. In addition to bacteria and fungi
reduction of heterotroph were also observed
from morning to evening time in canteen, office
and auditorium samples. In the afternoon these
counts rise gradually up to a maximum level at

the end of working period, which indicates that
an indoor environment provides more favorable
conditions for the survival of aerosolized fungi.
The highest in- and outdoor culturability of fungi
was observed in the humid condition. Cladosporium had the highest median value of culturability
(38 % and 33 % for indoor and outdoor, respectively) followed by Aspergillus/Penicillium (9%
and 2 %) among predominant genera of fungi.
Microbial flora of indoor air depends on
several factors including the number and hygienic standard of people present, in indoor
space and mechanical movement within the enclosed space. In poor quality and crowded domiciles, the higher number of residents confined
to a small space result in the build-up of airborne
microbes shed by the human body. For both the
in and outdoor air samples, the concentration
of total bacteria were lower than the concentration of total fungi for all the areas. For individual
fungi species the concentration of both the inand outdoor air was Cladosporium, Penicillium,
Aspergillus and Alternaria in descending order.
For both the total bacteria and the total fungi,
the outdoor concentration for the four different
areas was usually higher compared to the indoor concentrations. The indoor concentrations
of Aspergillus and Penicillium were usually lower
than the outdoor concentration near office building due to the fact that open area naturally have
higher temperatures, more humidity, and more
nutrients available for bacteria to exist naturally.
Data recorded for the concentration of microbes, bacteria and fungi in Indoor and Outdoor area
Sr. no.
Sample area
Bacterial concentration (Colony/plate)
Morning
session
(10:00-12:00pm)
After
lunch(2:30pm)
Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)
Morning session
(10:00-12:00pm)
After
lunch(2:30pm)
Canteen
1
sample -1
Canteen
sample-2
Canteen
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89
84
102
27
52
101
25
59
113

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Canteen
3
sample-3
81
106
38
43
Canteen
sample- 4
76
99
26
44
41
58
34
52
33
59
37
65
41
67
45
87
Office sample5
1
Office sample-
2
Office sample-
3
Office sample-
34
62
34
54
Canteen
sample-5
41
71
31
62
Canteen
10
sample-6
23
37
27
56
11
Canteen
sample-7
31
59
68
105
12
Canteen
sample-8
32
56
42
85
63
Canteen
13
sample-9
24
43
35
14
Canteen
sample-10
23
52
31
51
24
46
23
67
20
48
32
85
22
54
34
87
Office sample 15
6
Office sample-
16
7
Office sample-
17
8
Office sample-
114
18
16
29
23
42
19
Office sample10
21
43
27
49
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
Average
65
85
55
90
Minimum
16
29
23
42
Maximum
89
106
68
105
91
95
40
66
sample-2
98
100
31
63
Average
93
97
35
64
Minimum
91
95
31
63
Maximum
98
100
40
66
Auditorium
20
sample-1
Auditorium
21
Sample area
Bacterial concentration(Colony/plate)
Fungal concentration (Colony/plate)
(Outdoorsample)
Morning session
(10:00-12:00pm)
After
lunch(2:30pm)
Morning session
After
(10:00-12:00pm)
lunch(2:30pm)
Outdoor- 1
37
41
57
59
Outdoor-2
67
56
65
79
Outdoor-3
65
54
74
94
Outdoor-4
46
67
67
82
Outdoor- 5
70
88
78
92
Outdoor-6
64
89
64
85
Outdoor-7
56
76
85
97
Outdoor-8
74
92
Outdoor-9
54
61
64
67
10
Outdoor-10
65
72
53
68
Average
60
70
80
90
Minimum
37
41
53
59
Maximum
74
92
85
97
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76
87
115

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
In this study, an attempt was made to determine the composition and variability of airborne
fungal spores in a comprehensive manner by
synchronous use of non-viable and viable sampling method. The study was of a kind that first
volumetrically assessed the cultivable airborne
fungal spore in the region and determined its
relationship with the meteorological factors.
Fig. 3: Shows the concentration study of Bacteria in morning
Fig.4 : Concentration study of

lunch timing
bacteria after
Fig.5: Concentration study of Fungi in morning
Fig.6: Concentration study of Fungi after lunch timing

116
Non-viable sampling of total airborne spore

The total airborne fungi monitored by the
bio stage sampler showed a perennial occurrence pattern and attained the main peak in early
winter and subsidiary peak in April-May. The relative humidity and temperature in moderate temperature in moderate range, very low wind
speed, and minimal dew, during early winter might
have facilitated the release in dispersion of dry
spore mass; these factors presumably contributed toward achieving the main peak during
these months. In January, whereas ascospores
and basidiospores were the major components
of airborne fungi which peaked in May.
The total cultivable airborne fungi attained
two peaks in the first month of January-last week
to May-first week, total 50 samples were taken
for four months. Among 13 cultivable fungal genera (comprising 26 species) recorded by the viable sampler, the predominant fungal genus was
Aspergillus spp., though Cladosporium
cladosporiodes occupied the first position, other
prevalent genera included Curvularia spp., Alternaria spp., Penicillium spp., Nigrospora spheroids. Sterile mycelia (non-sporulating colonies),
which may represent the vegetative phase of either Ascomycota or Basidiomycota, contributed
a significant fraction to the total viable spore
count. The remainder such as, Absidia
corymbifera,
Mucor
hiemalis,
and
Syncephalastrum racemosum was observed in
considerably low concentration throughout the
six months. Eight species of Aspergillus were isolated of which Aspergillus niger occupied the first
position in order of dominance, followed by Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus japonicas, Aspergillus ustus, and Aspergillus sydowi.
Several cultivable fungal spores
(e.g.Curvularia hunata & Curvularia pallescenes,
Aspergillus japonicas, Aspergillus sydowi). During February, only Penicillium spp., achieved an
elevated concentration level. In a handful cultivable spores (e.g. Absidea corymbifera, A,
flavus, A. fumigates, A. nidulans, Cladosporium
spp) only three genera of bacteria and six genera of fungi as, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera and
Nigrospora and in bacteria especially, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
spp. etc. were found during sampling. The ascospores and basidiospores that constitute a significant part of the airborne fungi were recorded
only by the non-viable sampling. The ratio of total airborne fungal spores to cultivable mold was
obtained in the range of 0.19 to 4.16. The spores
of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes members
are visible in light microscope, but they are unable to grow in laboratory culture media. For this
reason, decrease in concentration of cultivable
mold compared to total fungal spores is generally anticipated while analyzed by light microscopy.
CONCLUSION
This study clearly indicates that there is
significant assessment of the indoor and outdoor
airborne bacteria and fungi. Airborne fungal and
bacterial concentrations in auditorium, offices,
canteen were lower than in the other facilities of
the outdoor area of building.
A large range of different bacteria including
Actinomycetes, mesophilic bacteria, Mycobacteria, gram-negative bacteria, and thermopile bacteria were present in canteen, which is specific
for indoor air quality. The moisture damage affects diversity of microbial concentration. In the
moisture-damaged building, the microbial diversity was higher in canteen, offices and other indoor area. The measurements of airborne microbial concentrations during four consecutive
months showed the variation of microbial levels
due to climatic conditions.
The results showed that the average fungal concentration was 80 CFU/m3, similarly the
average concentration of bacteria was 60 CFU/
m3 which was lower than the fungi concentration
in outdoor area and in indoor area the average
fungal concentration is 90 CFU/m3 in comparison to bacterial concentration is 65 CFU/m3.So
the result is the concentration of fungi is higher
than the bacteria in indoor and outdoor area.
54:48796.
3.
Gutarowska B., Jaku Bowska A. The estimation of

moulds air pollution in university settings. In: Problems of indoor air quality in Poland2001, 103112, ed. T. Jdrzejewska- cibak, J. Sowa, Publishing House of Warsaw University of Technology. Warsaw 2002, [In Polish]
4.
Sarica S., Asan A., Otku N M.T., Ture M. Monitoring

Indoor Airborne Fungi and Bacteria in the Different Areas of Trakya University Hospital, Edirne,
Turkey. Indoor and Built Environ 2002;11:285.
5.
Zyska, B. (1999). Zagrozenia biologiczne w

budynku, Arkady, ISBN 83-213-4117-9, Warszawa,
Poland
6.
Moritz, G., D. Morris, L.A. Mound. 2001. ThripsID:

Pest thrips of the world. Colling, CSIRO publishing, 1 CD-ROM.
7.
Yazicioglu M., Asan A., Ones U., Vatansever U., Sen

B., Ture M., Bostancioglu M., Pala O. Indoor Air
Fungal Spores and Home Characteristics in Asthmatic Children From Edirne Region of Turkey. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, January,
2002
8.
Flaningan B. Alergenic and toxigenic microorganisms in houses. Journal of Applied Bacteriology

Symposium Suplement 1991;70:61.
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Obbard J.P., Fang L.S. Airborne Concentrations of

Bacteria in a Hospital Environment in Singapore.
Water, Air and Soil Pollution 2003;144 (1), 333.
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Harrison, S., H. D. Safford, and J. Wakabayashi.

Does the age of exposure of serpentine explain
variation in endemic plant diversity in California?
International Geology Review2004; 46:23542.
11. Jones A, Harrison M. The effects of meteorological factors on atmospheric bioaerosol concentrationsa review. Sci Total Environ 2004;
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Mouli C, Mohan S, Reddy S. Assessment of microbial (bacteria) concentrations of ambient air at

semi-arid urban region: influence of meteorological factors. AEER 2005; 3: 13949.
13.
Abdel Hameed A, Khoder M. Suspended particulates and bioaerosols emitted from an agricultural non-point source. J Environ Monit
2001;3:2069
14.
Griffin, 2007 Griffin, D.W., 2007. Atmospheric movement of microorganisms in clouds of desert dust
and implications for human health. Clin. Microbiol.
Rev., 20: 459-77.
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Gorbushina, A.A., Palinska, K.A. Biodeteriorative

processes on glass: experimental proof of the role
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Fang Z, Ouyang Z, Zheng H, Wang X, Hu L.

Culturable airborne bacteria in outdoor environments in Beijing, China. Microbial Ecol 2007;
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Heldman DR. Factors influencing airborne contamination of foods: a review. J. Food Sci 1974;
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39: 962-969.
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Beggs CB. The Airborne Transmission of Infection in Hospital Buildings: Fact or Fiction? Indoor
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Martiny, J. B. Hughes, B. J. M. Bohannan, J. Brown,

R. Colwell, J. Fuhrman, J. Green, M. HornerDevine, M. Kane, J. Krumins, C. Kuske, P. Morin,
S. Naeem, L. Ovreas, A. Reysenbach, V. Smith,
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Steinberg Bio-aerosols in indoor environment:
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V-S, Jose C & Mariano G, 2009. Indoor airborne
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Pastuszka, J. S., Paw, U. K. T., Lis, D. O., Wlazlo,

A., & Ulfig, K. Bacterial and fungal aerosol in indoor environment in Upper Silesia, Poland. Atmospheric Environment 2000; 34, 383342.
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197-31.
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
IN SILICO PREDICTION OF EPITOPE-BASED PEPTIDES FROM

PROTEOME OF NIPAH VIRUS
* B. R. PANDEY 1, SUGANDHA SINGH 2, SHIPRA SRIVASTAVA 3, NIDHI SHARMA 2
1
Sky Institute, Lucknow, India, 2 Research scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,
3
Dr. Rawat Institute of Life Sciences, Lucknow, India
*Address for Correspondence
: Dr. B. R. Pandey, Director(Research), Sky Institute, Lucknow, India,

E mail ID : drbrpandey@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Prediction and modeling of T-cell epitopes of Nipah virus antigenic proteins nucleocapsid,
phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein
followed by the binding simulation studies of predicted highest binding scorers with their
corresponding MHC class I alleles were done in this study. ProPred1 tool was used to predict
the promiscuous MHC class I epitopes of viral proteins. 3D structures of epitopes were built
with the help of PEPstr server. Molecular dynamics simulation studies were performed through
the NAMD graphical user interface embedded in visual molecular dynamics. Epitopes IRTIAAYPL
and NPTAVPFTL of Matrix Protein and W-protein have lowest binding energy and highest
score with HLA-B*2705 and HLA-B*5101 MHC class I allele, respectively. These predicted
peptides are highly potential to induce T-cell-mediated immune response and are expected to
be useful in designing epitope-based vaccines against Nipah virus.
Keywords: Nipah virus, Encephalitis, ribavirin, Immunoinformatics, Nucleocapsid,
Phosphoprotein, Matrix, Fusion, Gycoprotein, L protein, W protein, V protein and C protein,
T-cell epitopes, Peptide- or Epitope-based Vaccine, NCBI, ProPred I, Histocompatibility Complex
(MHC) Molecules, Molecular docking.
INTRODUCTION
Nipah virus (NiV), of the family
Paramyxoviridae [1, 2] and the genus Henipavirus,
is a zoonotic virus that causes outbreaks of fatal
encephalitis in humans [3]. The human Nipah
virus (NiV) infection was first recognized in a
large outbreak of 276 reported cases in
peninsular Malaysia and Singapore from
September 1998 through May 1999[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The
virus was first isolated from a patient from Sungai
Nipah village in Malaysia and the name Nipah
was first introduced according to the name of
that village. It was also identified in India for the
first time in 2001 and second time in 2007.
Unfortunately, eleven outbreaks have already
occurred in Bangladesh since the first detection
of NiV in 2001, with high mortality rate an
estimated 80% in an average and 100% in some
cases [9]. The most alarming fact is that almost
every year in winter (December to March), the
deadly NiV strikes in the north and western
regions of Bangladesh. Infection with Nipah virus
is associated with encephalitis (inflammation of
the brain). After exposure and an incubation
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period of 5 to 14 days, illness presents with 314 days of fever and headache, followed by
drowsiness, disorientation and mental confusion
[10]
. These signs and symptoms can progress to
coma within 24-48 hours. Some patients have a
respiratory illness during the early part of their
infections, and half of the patients showing
severe neurological signs showed also
pulmonary signs.
During the first NiV outbreak, the virus
infected both pigs and humans, in addition to a
small number of cats, dogs and horses [5, 11]. NiV
possesses a negative-sense, non-segmented
RNA genome that is 18246 nt (Malaysian isolate)
or 18252 nt (Bangladesh isolate) in length [12]. In
Bangladesh, 135 probable or confirmed cases
of NiV infection in humans were identified from
2001 to 2008; 98 (73%) were fatal [7]. There is
no effective treatment and vaccine for Nipah
virus disease, but ribavarin may mitigate the
symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and convulsions.
Vaccination is the most effective of all the
medical interventions to save human and animal
119

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
lives and to increase production[13,14].Compared

to the conventional vaccines, peptide- or
epitope-based vaccines are easy to produce,
more specic, cost effective, less time consuming
and also safe[15]. It is well established that T cells
play a critical role in inducing cellular immune
response against foreign antigens but they
recognize antigenic fragments only when they
are associated with major histocompatibility
complex (MHC) molecules exposed on surface
of all vertebrate cells[16,17]. Immunoinformatics
approach uses computational algorithms to
predict potential vaccine candidates or T-cell
epitopes. The advantage of a peptide- or
epitope-based vaccine is the ability to deliver
high doses of the potential immunogen at a low
cost [18, 19]. Viral protein which could act as a
vaccine candidate must be surface-exposed,
antigenic and responsible for pathogenicity [20,21].
The amino acid sequence of Nucleocapsid,
phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, L
protein, W protein, V protein and C protein was
retrieved from the protein sequence database
of NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein) and
their accession number is shown in Table 1.
Prediction of MHC class I binding peptides
An online web tool ProPred I [22] has been
Protein
Nucleocapsid
Accession
No
ACT32611
Length of
amino acids
532
Phosphoprotein
ACT32612
709
Matrix
ACT32613
352
Fusion
ACT32614
546
Glycoprotein
ACT32615
602
L-Protein
ACT32616
2244
W-protein
449
V-protein
YP_007188
592
NP_112023
456
C-protein
NP_112024
166
120
used for the prediction of promiscuous MHC class

I binding peptides. It uses matrix-based method
that allows the prediction of MHC-binding sites
in an antigenic sequence for MHC class I alleles,
and also allows the prediction of the standard
proteasome and immunoproteasome cleavage
sites in an antigenic sequence. The simultaneous
prediction of MHC binders and proteasome
cleavage sites in an antigenic sequence leads
to the identication of potential T-cell epitopes.
Structure-based
epitopes
modeling
of
T-cell
3D structures of identied potential T-cell

epitopes were predicted by PEPstr (peptide
tertiary structure prediction server) server [23]. The
prediction strategy is based on the realization
that b-turn is an important and consistent feature
of small peptides in addition to regular
structures. Thus, the methods use both the bturns information predicted from Beta Turns and
regular secondary structure information
predicted from PSIPRED. The side-chain angles
are placed using standard backbone-dependent
rotamer library. The structure is further rened
with energy minimization and molecular dynamic
simulations using Amber version 6.
Table 1: Scores generated by ProPred for
MHC class I alleles.
Start
position
474
446
474
168
624
85
201
293
192
125
45
247
45
2087
1567
1564
1537
316
186
186
66
316
40
116
0
Epitope
Allele
SLLNLRSRL
KREMSISSL
SLLNLRSRL
DRETDLVHL
EPYGAAVQL
IRTIAAYPL
IAFNLLVYL
FQKNLCFSL
KQTELSLDL
AQITAGVAL
ILSAFNTVI
RIIGVGEVL
ILSAFNTVI
VLLQAGLKL
TMVDLLSDL
GRHTMVDLL
DPELFALYL
KEEPPQKRL
NPTAVPFTL
NPTAVPFTL
DGDVERRNL
KEEPPQKRL
FCSAPVENL
PDMDLLQAL
MMASILLTL
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A2
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A2
HLA-A2
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
ProPred
score
3729.239
6000.000
5968.882
2000.000
572.000
6000.000
4702.218
3000
9000
2000
2489.047
2000
3901.211
3475.964
3804.077
30000.000
1522.664
3000.000
880.000
2000
520
2000
3000.000
2000
2000
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3D structure of MHC I alleles

Information and 3D structure of selected HLA
alleles were retrieved from IMGT/HLA database
( h t t p : / / w w w. e b i . a c . u k / i p d / i m g t / h l a /
intro.html)[24].The Database currently contains
10,103 allele sequences. In addition to the
physical sequences, the database contains
detailed information concerning the material from
which the sequence was derived and data on
the validation of the sequences. PDB codes of
relevant MHC class I alleles were shown in table
2.
Table 2: List of class I MHC alleles
considered in this study for prediction of
binding peptides.
S. No.
Allele
Crystal Structure
(PDB ID)
HLA-A2
1AKJ
HLA-A*0201
1AKJ
HLA-B*2705
1HSA
HLA-B*5101
1E27
Molecular docking
AutoDock 4.2[25, 26] has been used for In-silico
docking of peptides and alleles structure.
Gasteiger charges were added to the ligand and
maximum six numbers of active torsion are given
to the lead compound using AutoDock tool (http:/
/autodock.scripps.edu/resources/adt). Kollaman
charges and salvation term were added to the
protein structure using AutoDock tool. The Grid
for docking calculation was centered to cover
the protein-binding site residues and
accommodate ligand to move freely. During the
docking procedure, a Lamarckian genetic
algorithm (LGA) was used for exible peptide and
rigid protein docking calculation. Docking
parameters were as follows: 30 docking trials,
population size of 150, maximum number of
energy evaluation ranges of 250,000, maximum
number of generations is 27,000, mutation rate
of 0.02, cross-over rate of 0.8, other docking
parameters were set to the softwares default
values.
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Molecular dynamics simulation of epitope

and HLA allele complex
Molecular dynamics simulation was done
using the NAMD graphical interface module [27]
incorporated visual molecular dynamics (VMD
1.9.2) [28]. A protein structure le (psf) was created
from the initial pdb and topology les. The psfgen
package of VMD is used to create this. To create
a psf rst a pgn le is made, which is the target
of psfgen. After running psfgen, two new les
were generated protein pdb and protein psf and
by accessing PSF and PDB les; NAMD
generated the trajectory DCD le. Root mean
square deviation (RMSD) of the complex was
completed using rmsd tcl source le from the Tk
console and nally rmsd .dat was saved and
accessed in Microsoft ofce excel.
Prediction and analysis of MHC class I
binding peptides
The Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL at
position 8593 showed ProPred score of 6000
with HLA-B*2705 MHCI allele. The W-protein
peptide NPTAVPFTL at position 186194
showed ProPred score of 880 with the HLAB*5101 allele. ProPred scores of peptides with
MHC I alleles are shown in Table 1.
Docking energy determination by AutoDock
AutoDock binding simulation studies
showed that IRTIAAYPL epitope of Matrix protein
with HLA-B*2705 allele as well as NPTAVPFTL
epitope of W-protein with HLA-B*5101 allele
formed stable HLApeptide complexes with the
energy minimization values of -4.03, and -4.14
kcal/mol, respectively (Table 3).After docking
studies, we determined the number of H bonds
present in the stable complex formed. Using
AutoDock, it was found that two H-bond were
present in Matrix protein IRTIAAYPL-HLAB*2705 complex (fig. 1) via residue GLY1 and
LYS243 of allele HLA-B*2705 with epitope
IRTIAAYPL. No hydrogen bond was present in
W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL- HLA-B*5101
complex (fig. 2).
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Table 3: Docking result of epitopes with Allele structures.

Protein
Nucleocapsid
Phosphoprotein
Matrix
Fusion
Glycoprotein
L protein
W protein
V protein
C protein
Epitope
SLLNLRSRL
KREMSISSL
SLLNLRSRL
DRETDLVHL
EPYGAAVQL
IRTIAAYPL
IAFNLLVYL
FQKNLCFSL
KQTELSLDL
AQITAGVAL
ILSAFNTVI
RIIGVGEVL
ILSAFNTVI
VLLQAGLKL
TMVDLLSDL
GRHTMVDLL
DPELFALYL
KEEPPQKRL
NPTAVPFTL
NPTAVPFTL
DGDVERRNL
KEEPPQKRL
FCSAPVENL
PDMDLLQAL
MMASILLTL
Allele
HLA*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A2
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-A2
HLA-A2
HLA-A*0201
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*5101
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
HLA-B*2705
BE
-0.57
-0.72
-1.45
0.01
-2.96
-4.03
-1.88
0.36
2.99
-0.61
-2.28
1.1
-0.86
-1.41
-0.23
0.65
-2.92
1.7
-4.14
-2.53
3.05
-0.11
-2.51
1.86
-1.54
IME
-11.61
-12.05
-12.49
-10.73
-11.02
-12.68
-11.42
-10.38
-8.04
-8.37
-11.22
-8.44
-9.81
-11.26
-10.08
-9.49
-12.17
-9.64
-11.3
-9.69
-7.99
-11.45
-10.87
-7.98
-11.38
IE
-6.7
-5.25
-4.94
-6.03
-6.84
-6.47
-4.85
-4.64
-4.27
-3.82
-6.9
-3.43
-4.73
-6.49
-6.47
-6.91
-8.04
-6.1
-7.46
-4.23
-4.52
-3.99
-7.44
-5.07
-3.75
TorE
11.04
11.34
11.04
10.74
8.05
8.65
9.55
10.74
11.04
7.76
8.95
9.55
8.95
9.84
9.84
10.14
9.25
11.34
7.16
7.16
11.04
11.34
8.35
9.84
9.84
VdwE
-10.74
-9.77
-11.75
-10.69
-10.79
10.74
-10.82
-9.12
-7.74
-8.32
-11.71
-7.99
-9.23
-9.53
-10.65
-8.65
-10.74
-7.44
-10.76
-8.89
-7.44
-9.43
-6.23
-6.28
-11.43
EE
-0.87
-2.29
-0.74
-0.04
-2.23
-1.94
-0.6
-1.26
-0.3
-0.04
0.49
-0.45
-0.58
-1.73
0.57
0.84
-1.43
-2.2
-0.54
-0.8
-0.55
-2.02
0.45
-1.7
0.15
BE: Binding Energy; IME: Intermolecular Energy; IE: Internal Energy; TorE: Torsional Energy;
VdwE:Vdw-lbDesolv Energy; EE: Electrostatic Energy.
Fig. 2: Docked W protein peptide NPTAVPFTLHLA-B*5101 allele (PDB Id: 1E27) complex
Fig. 1: Docked Matrix protein peptide IRTIAAYPL
- HLA-B*2705 allele complex depicting position
of amino acids along with the formation of two
Hydrogen bonds(shows as dotted line) with GLY1
and LYS243 residues of Protein 1HSA
122
Molecular dynamics simulation of peptide

allele Complex through NAMD
The peptideallele complexes formed by
AutoDock were subjected to molecular dynamics
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
simulation and RMSD. Matrix protein epitope

IRTIAAYPL - HLA-B*2705 allele complex
displayed the highest peak at RMSD value of
0.96 (Fig. 3). W protein peptide NPTAVPFTL HLA-B*5101 allele complex resulted in highest
peak at RMSD value of 1.03 (Fig. 4). The
current study incorporates immunoinformatics
approach for reducing the time consumed in the
long array of experiments to avoid hit and trial
sets.
Fig. 3: Graph displaying molecular dynamic

simulation of Matrix protein peptideallele
complex, resulted in highest peak at 0.96
Fig. 4: Graph displaying molecular dynamic

simulation of W protein peptideallele complex,
resulted in highest peak at 1.03
The molecular dynamics simulation showed

that complex formed between a peptide and
allele was attaining proper stability by creating
a parallelism in RMSD over a time window. The
mentioned peptides can be either isolated or
formulated for further in vitro and in vivo testing.
CONCLUSION
From the present study it is concluded that
the epitopes IRTIAAYPL and NPTAVPFTL of
Matrix and W protein, respectively, have
considerable binding with HLA-B*2705 and HLAwww.ijsir.co.in
B*5101class I allele and low-energy minimization

values providing stability to the peptideMHC
complex. These peptide constructs may further
be undergone wet laboratory studies for the
development of targeted vaccine against Nipah
virus.
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Halpin K., Meehan G. et al. Feral cats and risk for
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B. et al. Genetic characterization of Nipah virus,
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Horzinek M.C. Vaccination: A philosophical view.

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Tang H., Liu X.S., Fang Y.Z., Pan L., Zhang Z.W. et
al. The epitopes of foot and mouth disease. Asian
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15.
Kumar A., Jain A., Verma S.K. Screening and

Structure-based Modeling of T-Cell Epitopes of
Marburg Virus NP, GP and VP40: An
Immunoinformatic Approach for Designing
Peptide-based Vaccine. Trends in Bioinformatics.
2013; 6: 10-16.
16.
Shekhar C., Dev K., Verma S.K., Kumar A. In-silico:

Screening and modeling of CTL binding epitopes
of crimeancongo hemorrhagic fever virus. Trends
Bioinformatics. 2012; 5:14-24.
17.
Mohabatkar H., Mohammadzadegan R.

Computational comparison of T-cell epitopes of
gp120 of Iranian HIV-1 with different subtypes of
the virus. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2007; 10: 4295-4298.
18.
Von Hoff D.D., Evans D.B., Hruban R.H.

(eds). Pancreatic cancer. Jones and Bartlett,
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Tang H., Liu X.S., Fang Y.Z., Pan L., Zhang Z.W. et
al. Advances in studies on vaccines of foot-andmouth disease. Asian J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2012; 7:
1245-1254.
20.
Cerdino-Tarraga A.M., Efstratiou A., Dover L.G.,

Holden M.T.G., Pallen M. et al. The complete
genome
sequence
and
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Corynebacterium diphtheria NCTC13129. Nucl.
Acids Res. 2003; 31: 6516-6523.
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Verma S.K., Yadav S.S.P., Kumar A. In silico T cell

antigenic determinants from proteome of H1N2
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swine influenza A virus. Online J. Bioinformatics.

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Singh H., Raghava G.P.S. ProPred: Prediction of

HLA-DR binding sites. Bioinformatics. 2001;
17(12), 1236-37.
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Kaur H., Garg A., Raghava G.P.S. PEPstr: A de novo

method for tertiary structure prediction of small
bioactive peptides. Protein Pept Lett. 2007;
14:626-30.
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Robinson J., Halliwell J.A., McWilliam H., Lopez

R., Parham P., Marsh S.G.E. The IMGT/HLA
Database. Nucleic Acids Research. 2013;
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Goodsell D.S., Olson A.J. Automated docking of

substrates to proteins by simulated annealing.
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Morris G.M., Goodsell D.S., Halliday R.S., Huey

R., Hart W.E., Belew R.K, Olson A.J. Automated
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James C.P., Braun R., Wang W., Gumbart J.,

Tajkhorshid E., Villa E., Chipot C., Skeel R.D., Kale
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Humphrey W., Dalke A., Schulten K. VMD Visual

Molecular Dynamics. J. Molec. Graphics. 1996;
14.1, 33-38.
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
A study of Environmental Awareness among B.Ed. Students of Dehradun

District, Uttarakhand
*SHAILJA ASTHANA1, D.K. DIVEDI2
1
Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India, 2 Pestle Weed College of Information Technology,
Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India
*Address for correspondence: Shailja Asthana, Research Scholar, Sai Nath University, Ranchi, India,
E mail ID : aklasthana@wihg.res.in
ABSTRACT
Today the environmental degradation is a matter of great concern before human society. Both
developing as well as developed countries are facing severe environmental problems. In the
developmental process man has been ruthlessly exploiting natural resources and polluting
natural environment. The major problem of our present world is environmental degradation.
To combat this problem, we need environmentally sensitive and aware people. The present
investigation was conducted to find information about the level of environmental awareness
of B.Ed students in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand (India). It was found that their level of
environmental awareness was remarkable high.
Keywords: Environmental Awareness, Degradation, Pollution, Uttarakhand
INTRODUCTION
According to the Universal encyclopedia, the
sum total of all conditions, agencies and influences,
which affect the development, growth, life and
death of an organism, species or race is called
environment. Duglass and Roman Holland opined
that environment is a word which describe, in the
aggregate, all of the external forces, influences and
conditions which affect the life, nature, behavior
and the growth, development and maturation of
living organism. Indeed environment covers all the
outside factors that have acted have been acting
on the living being in general and humans in
particular since they began life.
The environment for man is its surroundings
on the earth. In the known universe, the earth is
only planet that is gifted with life by the Absolute. It
is mans supreme duty and responsibility to protect
the environment. Man cannot afford to ignore
environmental degradation. It is a matter of survival
or suicide. The United Nations conference on
environment and development held in Rio De
Janerio in 1992, known as Earth Summit brought
the issue of rapid environmental degradation and
climate change to the center stage and highlighted
the reasons for this and called upon the world
community to take immediate suitable steps. Same
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warnings were given by Johannesburg Summit in

2002.
Earth is the only planet in this universe
which has been gifted with life supporting vital
elements; water, food, land and air and a rich
bio-diversity of flora and fauna bestowed with
aesthetic, commercial and medicinal values that
are of the utmost significance to human beings.
Life on this planet- earth has been possible
only because of its environment and it is depends
on natural resources; forest, water, minerals,
foods, energy and land. Forests, one of the most
important natural resources cover the earth like
a green blanket. Water, is indispensable natural
resource on this earth for the survival of living
beings. Minerals which form a very important
part of any nations economy occur naturally in
inorganic and crystalline solids. Land is a finite
and valuable resource upon which we depend
for our food, fiber and fuel wood- the basic
amenities of life. But, unfortunately this planet
i.e. the Earth which used to be reservoir of
natures wealth is loosening its resources
because of lack of for sightedness on the part
of human beings in the name of development,
industrialization, greater production, agricultural
extension etc. Development has become
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synonymous with growth. Greater production has

become the key to prosperity and peace. The ill
effects of industrialization and deforestation for
agricultural extension are now apparent. Only
recently human beings realized the extent of
damage done to the earth and the environment.
Since the evolution of man on the earth, he
had been dependent on the environment. Initially,
the human population was small and its need
limited. Therefore his activities did not affect the
environment. Much slowly, he settled down,
became civilized and learnt how to cultivate. As
time passed, the development, of science and
technology made the life more and more
comfortable and man also became more and
more ambitious. With such development, human
dependence on environment increased, he
consumed more resources and the effect of his
activities on the environment became more and
more visible. With the industrial revolution the
consumption of raw material such as wood,
minerals, coal and fossil fuels increased
tremendously and with the passage of time the
pollution of air, water and soil became visible.
This made the man more conscious of his
actions and their consequences. Slowly, it was
realized that the existence of human race itself
was in danger and to survive as a race it was
necessary to educate the people about the
environmental pollution. This led to the
development of concept of environmental
education.
Environmental education is a process of
providing learning experiences to obtain
knowledge, understanding, skills and awareness
with desirable attitudinal changes about mans
relationship with his natural and manmade
surroundings [8]. This includes over population,
pollution, resource allocation, transportations,
technology and urban and rural planning.
Environmental education must utilize diverse
learning environment and a broad array of
educational approaches to teaching learning
process. It should help learners to discover the
symptoms and real causes of environmental
problems and thus to develop critical thinking
and problem solving skills. Environmental
education should be a continuous life long
process, beginning at the pre-school level and
continuing through all formal and non-formal
126
stages of getting education and should be

interdisciplinary in its nature.
The Stockholm conference in 1972 at
Stockholm adopted Declaration on the human
environment and Declaration of principles. In
short, the declaration states that the men are
both creator and molder of his environment and
the protection and improvement of human
environment is a major issue for the survival of
human race. His capability to transform his
surroundings should be used wisely. In
developing countries most of the environmental
problems are caused by lack of proper
education. At the very outset, special attention
must be paid to the school going children and
women. They are to be made aware of health,
nutrition, sanitation, hygiene, development,
water and food contamination, fodder and fuel
wood etc. Non-Government Organization
(NGOs) has to play a significant role in
environmental awareness programmes. There
are 200 NGOs which work in the area of
environmental education and awareness. The
chief goals of environmental education in India
must be: i) To minimize the environmental
pollution, ii) To improve the quality of the
environment and iii) To create awareness
towards environmental protection. There are
several authors like [1-13] have studied and given
his views about the Environmental Awareness
of the students.
Sharma (1998) investigated attitudes and
awareness of primary and upper primary school
teachers towards problems and issues related
to environmental education [14]. The sample
comprised of 750 teachers of 16 primary and
16 upper primary schools from 6 districts of
Rajasthan. The sample was selected with the
help of stratified cluster sampling method. The
researchers developed environmental
awareness test and environmental awareness
scale for data collection. The data were analyzed
with the help of t-test. The findings of the study
were:
i) The male teachers had more favorable
attitude towards environmental education than
their female counterparts. ii) The graduate
teachers had more favorable attitude towards
environmental education under graduate
teachers. iii) The urban and rural teachers could
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not be distinguished so far as their attitude

towards environmental education was
concerned. iv) The teachers with science
background had more favorable attitude towards
environmental education than their colleagues
with non-science background. v) The male
teachers had more awareness about the
environment than their female counterparts. vi)
The
environmental
awareness
and
environmental attitude were positively related.
Das (2002) studied the development of
environmental awareness through the study of
life science in the secondary schools of West
Bengal, with the help of three sets of
questionnaires (especially meant for students,
teachers and parents).[15] A part from survey,
curriculum analysis was also made. The study
found heterogeneity among the groups in terms
of their perceptions of environmental awareness.
It was also observed that several approaches
related to life science helped in enhancing
environmental awareness among the students.
Agnihotri (2004) examined environmental
awareness in teacher trainees.[16] The sample
comprised of 700 teachers trainees from
Bundelkhand University. Environmental
awareness ability measure test by Dr. Praveen
Kumar Jha was used for data collection. The data
were analyzed by t-test, ANOVA, point bi-serial,
correlation and regression analysis. The findings
of the study were: i) High awareness was found
in teacher trainees. ii) No significant difference
in male & female teacher trainees was found in
environmental awareness. iii) Urban teacher
trainees were found to have more environmental
awareness as compared to rural teacher
trainees. iv) Post graduate teacher trainees were
found to have more awareness as compared to
graduate teacher trainees. v) No significant
difference in environmental awareness was
found between general & other backward class
teacher trainees. vi) High environmental
awareness was found for teacher trainees of high
socio-economic status where as low
environmental awareness was found for teacher
trainees of low socio-economic status.
Saheb lal (2011) conducted a study on
environmental awareness study habits and
academic achievement of B.Ed. students.[17] The
sample of the study included 214 B.Ed., Male
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Teacher Trainees selected randomly from

Karnataka University Jurisdiction. The study
revealed that i) The B.Ed., male teacher trainees
with extravert personality had more
environmental awareness than male teacher
trainees with introvert personality.
B.Ed. students are would be teachers. They
would have to sensitive the school going children
regarding environmental issue. The investigator
thought it useful to first find the level of
awareness of prospective teachers i.e. B.Ed.
students themselves.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The major objectives of the study are as
follows:
1.
To stud y the level o f environmental

awareness of B. Ed students
2.
To compare the levels of awareness of B. Ed

students with special reference to gender.
3.
To compare the levels of awareness of B.

Ed students with special reference to their
locality (rural urban).
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

Proposed research hypotheses are as
underHo1. There is no significant difference between
the levels of awareness of urban male
and rural male B. Ed students.
Ho2. There is no significant difference between
the levels of awareness of urban female
and rural female B. Ed students.
the levels of awareness of urban male
and urban female B. Ed students.
the levels of awareness of rural male and
rural Female B. Ed students.
Sample- A sample of 300 B.Ed. students
was selected from various B.Ed. colleges of
Dehradun district using random sampling
techniques.
METHODOLOGY
In the present study the investigator has
adopted the descriptive survey method of
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research. To measure the environmental

awareness a tool- Environmental Awareness
Ability measure Test (EAAMT) constructed and
standardized by Jha, P.K., has been used.
Suitable statistical techniques have been
adopted for the analysis of data.
DATA ANALYSIS, RESULT AND DISCUSSION
S.N. Variable Sample Mean Standard

Degree of t
Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value
1 Urban 83 43.20
3.62
Male
148 0.093
2 Rural
67 43.14
4.23
Male
Significance
Level
Nonsignificant at
0.05 level
In the following table, various basic

statistics of the distribution of the
environmental scores are given:
Table no2: Mean score of Urban male and

Rural male pupil teachers on Environmental
awareness scale
Table 1.Various Basic Statistics for the

Distribution of Environmental Awareness
Scores
It is apparent from table 2 that obtained

difference between the means of urban male
B.Ed. students and rural male B. Ed students
is 0.06 (i.e. 43.20-43.14); and the standard
deviations are 3.62 and 4.23 respectively. The
obtained t value is 0.09 at 148 degree of
freedom and at 0.05 level of significance. This
value of calculated t is less than the table
value of t (i.e., 1.98). Thus the hypothesis
which states that there is no significant
difference in environmental awareness of
urban-male B.Ed. students and rural male
B.Ed. students is therefore accepted.
Sr. No.
Statistics
Value
Sample Size
300
Range
51
Mean
43.76
Median
43.84
Mode
43.23
Quartile Deviation
2.39
P10
37.70
P90
47.80
SD
3.74
10
Skewness
-1.08
11
Kurtosis
0.2366
Interpretation: Statistics calculated for

sample are represented in the above table 1.
It is apparent from the table that the mean,
the median and the mode are almost same.
Obviously the raw scores indicate that the
distribution is approximately normal. Raw
scores distribution indicates slightly negatively
Skewness, (-1.08). It means the mean (43.76)
of the scores is less than the median (43.48).
It implies that more than 50% scores are above
the mean score of the group. A kurtosis of
0.2366 suggests that the distribution is
leptokurtic as the calculated value is less than
the normal value i.e. (0.263).
Ho 1. There is no significant difference
between the levels of awareness of urban
male and rural male B. Ed students.
Ho 2. There is no significant difference

female and rural female B.Ed students.

Degree of t
1 Urban
92 43.28
3.93
female
148
0.20
2 Rural
58 43.43
4.35
female
Significance
Level
Nonsignificant
at 0.05 level
Table no.3: Mean score of Urban female and

Rural female pupil teachers on Environmental
awareness scale
From table 3, it is clear that the obtained
difference between the means of urban female
B.Ed. students and rural female B.Ed. students
is 0.15 (i.e., 43.43-43.28); and the standard
deviations are 4.35and 3.93 respectively. The
calculatedt value is 0.20 which is far below
that the table value of t (i.e., 1.98) at 0.05
level of significance and at 148 degrees of
freedom.
Thus the hypothesis which states that
128
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P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
there is no significant difference in

environmental awareness of rural female B.Ed.
students and urban female B.Ed students is
therefore accepted.
It is concluded that the level of awareness
of rural female B.Ed. students is more or less
same as that of urban female B.Ed. students.
Ho3. There is no significant difference
male and urban female B.Ed students.

Degree of t
1 Urban
83 43.20
3.62
Male
173 0.137
2 Urban
92 43.28
3.93
female
Significance
Level
Non
significant
at 0.05 level
Table no. 4: Mean score of Urban male and

Urban female pupil teachers on Environmental
awareness scale.
It is clear from Table no.4 that the
obtainedt value 0.14 is far below than the
table value of t at 0.05 level of significance
and at 173 degree of freedom. Thus the
hypothesis which states that there is no
significance difference in environmental
awareness of urban male B.Ed. students and
urban female B. Ed. Students is therefore
This indicates that the level of awareness
of urban female B. Ed. students (M=43.28) is
significantly not higher than that of urban male
B. Ed. students (Mean=43.20).
Table 5 clearly reveals that the obtainedt

value 0.28 is significantly not higher than the
table value of t at 0.05 level of significance
and at 120 degree of freedom. Thus the
hypothesis which states that there is no
significant difference in environmental
awareness of male and female B.Ed. students
is therefore accepted. This indicates that the
level of awareness of rural female B.Ed.
students (Mean = 43.43) is significantly not
higher than that of rural male students
(M=43.14).
CONCLUSIONS
The B. Ed. Students of Dehradun district
of Uttarakhand have remarkably high level of
environmental awareness. With regard to sex,
it is revealed that the level of environmental
awareness of male and female B. Ed. student
is almost same. The study further reveals that
the level of environmental awareness of urban
students high as that of rural B. Ed. Students.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Principal,
Pestle Weed college of Information
Technology, Dehradun for her valuable
suggestions and providing facilities to publish
this paper.
REFERENCES
1.
Arumugarajan, R. (2010) Environmental

Awareness Edutracts, Hyderabd, Oct 2010.
2.
Bhattacharya, S. (2003) A critical analysis of

Environmental Education curriculum of
prospective teachers. Paper presented in the
national seminar on 36th annual conference on
Environmental Education: Perspective and
prospect Organized by the IATE and Deptt. Of
Tech. Education, Uttranchal, March 13-15.
3.
Dubey E. Dubey (2003) Teacher Education and

preparation of teachers for environmental
education. NCTE (1998) Curriculum frame work
for quality teacher Education. New Delhi; NCTE.
4.
Patel, D. Nanubhai (1995) An Investigation in

to the environmental Awareness of science
students and effect of environmental studies.
Progress in Education, 72 (2), 26-29.
5.
Rajaram, Kalpana (2004) Science and

Technology in India Spectrum Books Pub.
6.
Rajput and Gupta (1998) Environmental

awareness among children of non-formal
Ho4. There is no significant difference

between the levels of awareness of rural
male and rural Female B. Ed students.
S.N. Variable Sample Mean

1
2
Rural
male
Rural
female
Standard Degree of t Significance

Deviation(SD) Freedam(df) Value Level
67 43.14
4.23
Non123 0.276 significant
58 43.43
4.35
at 0.05 level
Table no.5: Mean score of rural male and

rural female pupil teachers on Environmental
awareness scale
www.ijsir.co.in
129

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
education centers of M.P. & Maharstra. Indian

Educational Review, 119-125.
7.
Shanawaj (1990) Environmental awareness and

environmental attitude of secondary and higher
secondary school teachers and students. Ph.D.
Education Uni. of Rajasthan.
13.
Pradhan (2002). Environmental awareness

among secondary school teachers, A study.
The educational review, 45 (2) 25.
14. Sharma, B.D. (1998). Attitude and Awareness

of Primary and Upper primary school teachers
of Rajsthan towards problem and issues related
to environmental education, Ph.D. (Edu).,
M.D.S. University. Sixth survey of Education
(1993-2000).
8.
Sharma, V.S. (2005) Environmental Education,

Anmol Pub., New Delhi
9.
Bharati, C.,et..al. (2004). The study of

environmental awareness among the higher
secondary school students. School Science,
XLII (1), 48-53.
15. Das, J. (2002). Environmental Education, recent

research trends, Rajarshi Ray, university News,
44 (12), 20-26.
10. Dhawan, S.,et.al. (2005).Environmental

Education in Pre-service Teacher Education.
Journal of Indian Education, 29-43.
16. Agnihotri, G. (2004). Environmental Awareness

in teachers trainees, Ph.D.(Edu). Bundelkhand
University. Sixth survey of Education (19932000).
11.
Mishra, B.B. (2006). Environmental Awareness

of Secondary School
Students with
reference to their intelligence and School
background. AIAER, Vol-18 (1,2), 71-73.
12. Pareek and Ashok (1998). Environmental

awareness among secondary school
students. The educational review, (11), 104.
130
17. Saheblal Mehiboob , Nadaf. (2011). A study of

Environmental Awareness of B.Ed. teachers
trainees in relation to their personality. Sectors
self-concept and study habit. International
referred research Journal. ISSN no. 9742-832
Vol.4 (III) issue.
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LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF IN-BUILD SECURITY

1
IMRAN FAROOQ1, JYOTI AGARWAL2, *KAMLESH KUMAR SHUKLA3

Research scholar, Sai Nath University,Ranchi,India, 2Research scholar, Bhagwant University,Ajmer, India,
3
Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College, University of Lucknow, Lucknow,India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. Kamlesh Kumar Shukla, Assistant Professor,

Department of Commerce, Kalicharan P G College,, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P., India,
Email ID: drkkshukla78@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The primitive man fought against the forces and creatures of nature to protect him. The man in
the Stone Age struggled for security by taking shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was
strengthened by the formation of groups within which, all its members shared the common
risks. With the passage of time, forms of security changed to meet particular needs. Man
derived security from the possession of land and livestock. It was agricultural economy in
India, which gave rise to the system of joint family which was the main and often the sole form
of security in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic education to the children. The
principal function of life insurance is to protect against the financial consequences resulting
from the loss of human lives and to provide a systematic method of accumulating a fund for
educating children, meeting financial emergencies and finding old age security and other
benefits including tax saving and other welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially and
economically stabilizing influence.
Keywords: Insurance, Agricultural Economy, Financial Sickness
LIFE INSURANCE AND ITS PROVISION OF INBUILD SECURITY
The urge for protection led to the invention
of insurance. Life insurance policies are the
instruments of social security for the welfare of
individuals. In todays uncertain world it has
earned paramount importance and is one of the
basic necessities of life. With the arrival of human
life on Earth, the problem of want or poverty has
haunted human beings, in some or the other
form; and they always made efforts to secure
relief from it. The quest for security and freedom
from want and distress has been the unfailing
urge of man through ages. Thus, right from the
cave age till date, the story of evolution of
mankind is in fact a saga of continuous search
for security. Though centuries have passed but
these problems remained the same, in context
to the changes in economic and social
circumstances.
EVOLUTION OF LIFE INSURANCE AND
SEARCH FOR SECURITY
The primitive man fought against the forces
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and creatures of nature to protect him. The man

in the Stone Age struggled for security by taking
shelter in a cave. Gradually, security was
strengthened by the formation of groups within
which, all its members shared the common risks.
With the passage of time, forms of security
changed to meet particular needs. Man derived
security from the possession of land and
livestock. It was agricultural economy in India,
which gave rise to the system of joint family which
was the main and often the sole form of security
in sickness and old age. It also assured the basic
education to the children. Gradually, Industrial
economy supplanted the purely agricultural
economy, resulting in the disintegration of joint
family system. With the advent of Industrial
Revolution first in England, and thereafter in
other countries including India; man became an
individual unit and found his security in money
power, which enabled him to buy food, clothing,
shelter and other basic necessities of life.
NEED OF SECURITY FOR HUMAN LIFE
Man is no more solely dependent on any
group for the solution of his problems of personal
131

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971
security. He has to provide for all his family

needs, and keep aside something on a regular
basis as savings for any contingencies in life
because life is unpredictable. This necessity of
the man multiplied with his persistent quest for
safety, security and welfare which brought into
the idea of life insurance. Insurance enables man
to share in an equitable manner, with other men,
the major risks in life, which are usual in the
modern life. People found security in their work,
which is investment of time, and property. As long
as one has an able body and sound health; one
can keep earning and ensure ones familys wellbeing. It is his income, personally earned,
through investment of time at his disposal, which
helps him to get along happily. But there is no
guarantee that he will always be able to earn,
that his income would be regular and continuous,
irrespective of what happens to him, that the
usual hazards of life like disease, disability,
unemployment and death should always be
guarded against in his own world. This guarantee
comes through the institution of insurance in
general and life insurance in particular; life
insurance enables man to share in an equitable
manner, with other men, the major risks to
income, which are unavoidable in todays
industrial world. Life insurance is a much more
evolved solution to the problem of uncertainty
of life than the joint family system or any other
system which the human ingenuity has so far
invented. Insurance is a product of a cooperative
effort of a large group of people similarly
threatened by four hazards of human life namely,
unemployment, old age, disability and death.
LIFE INSURANCE AS AN AID TO FOUR
HAZARDS OF HUMAN LIFE
Both men and women has to work very hard
so as to meet out the basic amenities of life.
Generally they invest about eight or more hours
of their time to earn money. The creation of
capital of such magnitude out of his/her savings,
demands continuous work for years, which can
be interrupted, diminished or destroyed by the
serious hazards of life like unemployment, old
age, disability and death. Life insurance is the
arrangement through which one can face these
hazards of human life and plan for the
continuation of an uninterrupted income if such
hazards happen and destroys the ability to earn
132
a living. In other words, life insurance is the only

means and measure that is designed to protect
against the loss of income arising from inability
to work irrespective of whether it is caused by
death, accidental injury, sickness or old age.
IN BUILD SECURITY IN LIFE INSURANCE
Further, life insurance intrinsically provides
an alternative source of income when the
insureds working capacity, ceases due to old
age, death or disability. Insurance enables man
to share in an equitable manner with other men
the major risks and contingencies of life. Life
insurance is a perfect combination of the twin
principles of savings and security and the plans
are easy, convenient and practicable. It affords
security against premature death or disability,
which are the basic risks for every individual. Its
special virtue is that it can be used to spread
the savings conveniently throughout the working
period of life.
Further, the very idea of having to provide
for the future in the shape of small installments
out of the present earnings, keeps the person
quite reassured of his future, widens his outlook
on life, and gives him a sense of security. Life
insurance is the only measure of social security
to provide against the hazard of death and for
the insureds own old age. Life insurance
essentially leads to the maintenance of income
in a definite way. For instance, in the case of
endowment type of policies maturing during the
lifetime of the insured persons, the insurance
money serves the purpose of old age provision
(though it can also be used as provision for the
marriage or education of children). Similarly, in
the whole life type of policies or even in
endowment type of policies, where death occurs
before the expiry of the term of policy, life
insurance serves the inevitable purpose of family
protection.
Thus, life insurance is the only available
means of legal and financial assurance in a
persons future plan and it is thus a form of social
security. Insurance safeguards the interests of
one and all who have got a financial stake in the
existence of a particular person or persons. The
value of life is immeasurable and its loss in the
real sense cannot be met. But it can come to
their rescue to replace the value of such lives
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through the only device called life insurance. It

tries to provide the people with the strength and
the security that makes life worth living .The
principal function of life insurance is to protect
against the financial consequences resulting
from the loss of human lives and to provide a
systematic method of accumulating a fund for
educating children, meeting financial
emergencies and finding old age security and
other benefits including tax saving and other
welfare measures. Life insurance has a socially
and economically stabilizing influence. The
stability of life insurance allows safety and
security to policyholders and their beneficiaries.
Life insurance affects almost every living person
in the country and today it occupies an important
place in our society. In the process, it also raises
the standards of the community and promotes
the welfare of the society. Life insurance is
primarily concerned with the benefit of individual
and his family members, but in recent times, it
has been clothed with some social security
policies, which the state provides to fulfill on a
constitutional mandate through the life insurance
industry.
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Thus, life insurance is the greatest and the

most efficient system of providing means for all
contingencies and of covering all risks to enable
everyone to obtain security at the most
economical rate. In this way, life insurance
becomes of paramount importance today as the
fourth basic necessity for every individual. It tries
to provide the people with the strength and the
security that makes life worth living.
REFERENCES
1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance
2.
http://www.economywatch.com/indianeconomy/
india-insurance-sector.html
3.
Praveen Singh and Dr.Divyanegi Growth of

Insurance Services in the Himalayan Region of
India, the Journal, Vol-1, November 2011, pp
203
4.
Business Line dated 26th January, 2012.
5.
Business Line dated 25, January 2012 measured

in this study by various parameters according to
the available data.
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AIR QUALITY INDEX FOR UTTAR PRADESH WITH

A FOCUS ON LUCKNOW
1
*SHUKLA S.P.1, SACHAN R.1, DWIVEDI L.2, SHARMA K.J.2, YADAV V.P.3, SINGH N.B.1
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, India, 2Research Scholar, Sai Nath University,
Ranchi, India, 3Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, India
*Address for correspondence: Dr. S. P. Shukla, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Institute of Engineering and Technology, Sitapur Road, Lucknow,U.P., India,
E-mail ID: sps.iet@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper presents air quality data interpretation and air quality index (AQI) prevailing in 13
districts of Uttar Pradesh during period of 2001 to 2009. The mathematical function for calculating
sub-indices is based on IND-AQI and USEPA. A maximum operator calculation mode is used to
determine the overall AQI. The air pollutants included in the AQI are SO2, NO2, SPM, PM10,
PM2.5, NH3, CO, C6H6, O3, Pb, Hg, Ni, As and benzopyrene. The data show that air quality is worst
in winter months because of SPM, PM10 and PM2.5. Air Quality generally improves in monsoon
months because of washout of air pollutants with rainfall. Maximum AQI variation is found in
Ghaziabad, Agra and Firozabad whereas minimum AQI variation is found in Anpara, Gajraula
and Jhansi.
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution has emerged as a major challenge,
particularly in urban areas. The problem
becomes more complex due to the multiplicity
and complexity of the air polluting source mix
(e.g., industries, automobiles, generators,
domestic fuel burning, road side dusts,
construction activities, etc.) [1]. A human need air
for respiration. An adult at rest breathes 16
respirations per minute- approximately 5 m3/h
(lungs volume 4-6 L), with harder work the rate
is 3-6 times more (15-30 m3/h). Poor air can have
adverse impact on our quality of life and can
damage the fabric of building and sensitive flora
and fauna. Air pollution is the accumulation of
hazardous substances into the atmosphere that
danger human life and other living matter [2].
Outdoor PM air pollution is estimated to be
responsible for about 3% of adult
cardiopulmonary disease mortality, about 5% of
trachea, bronchus and lung cancer mortality, and
about 1% of mortality in children from acute
respiratory infection in urban areas worldwide.
This amounts to about 0.80 million (1.2%)
premature deaths and 6.4 million (0.5%) lost life
years [3]. The World Health Organization reports
that in 2012 around 7 million people died - one
in eight of total global deaths as a result of air
134
pollution exposure confirming that air pollution

is now the worlds largest single environmental
health risk. Reducing air pollution could save
millions of lives [4]. High PM10 level in air may cause
chronic and acute effects on human health,
particularly the pulmonary function, as they can
penetrate deep into the lungs and cause
respiratory problems. Association with high levels
of NO2 etc. may further exaggerate such effect.
High concentration of PM10, sulfate and SO2 would
cause respiratory mortality in several situations
[5]
. Air quality within a region is affected by
emission quantities and meteorological
conditions. Good air quality is essential to human
health, plants and animals, buildings and to the
environment as well. Poor air quality adversely
impacts our quality of life and can damage the
fabric of building and sensitive flora and fauna.
Ambient air monitoring stations measure air
pollutant concentrations which not only
determine existing air quality, but also help in
evaluation of the effectiveness of air pollution
control program and to identify areas in need of
restoration and their prioritization. Air quality
index (AQI) is designed to inform the public about
the air quality in their surroundings. AQI is a very
useful tool for evaluating the pollution hazards
of a particular area on a particular day and can
be very helpful to citizens of that area, because
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it can show them whether or not they need to

take precautions while going out. With AQI, one
can describe ambient air in terms of pollution
level and quality of the air at a certain time and
area by single number or color code. Awareness
of the air quality is also important for the people
who suffer from illness caused by air pollution.
According to USEPA (1999) [6], Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) developed a uniform
AQI in 1976 and primarily it was known as
pollutant standard index, for the use of state and
local agencies to assess urban air quality in USA.
AQI may be defined as a single number for
reporting the air quality with respect to its effect
on human health. In most elaborate form it
combines many air pollutant concentrations in
some mathematical expression to arrive at a
single number for air quality [2]. One of the earliest
AQI was proposed by the Green in 1966 based
on two pollutants SO2 and COH (coefficient of
haze). This index did not include any other
pollutants and was applicable only for winter
season [7]. In 1967 Rich developed a consumption
product index. The index was having the
advantage of requiring few actual measurements
of air quality relying instead on the assumption
that the severity of pollution is directly related to
the quantity of fossil fuel burned and inversely
related to the atmospheric mixing volume
overhead. There are several other AQIs
developed in the past such as: Combustion
Product Index 1967, Ontario Air Pollution Index
1970, Extreme Value Index 1972, Environmental
Quality Index 1976, Dosage Population Product
1978. Oak Ridge AQI 1971 was based on the 24
hr average concentration of pollutant variables
(SO2, NOx, PM, CO and Photochemical Oxidants).
The Greater Vancouver AQI (GVAQI, 1997) was
based on Canadian Federal Government air
quality objectives. This index was based on six
pollutants (SO2, NO2, O3, TSP, COH and PM10)
and relates public health to environment. Index
values (25, 50 and 100) were divided into three
ranges (Federal Desirable, Acceptable and
Tolerable respectively). The GVAQI value was
determined by calculating a sub-index for each
pollutant measurement and averaging time. The
particular pollutant responsible for the maximum
sub-index is called the index pollutant with the
index value greater than 25. Index was based
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on the assumption that the combined effect of a

number of air pollutants was related to the highest
concentrations relative to air quality objectives.
Albertas AQI is based on 24 hr average
concentration of Ox, NOx, CO and suspended
particulates. Pindex is combined index designed
for synergistic effect of air pollution and is based
on particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
oxidant, solar radiation and particulate sulfuroxide synergism. Inhabers AQI was developed
by Inhaber and was based on root-mean-square
method of averaging and combining of subindices. Pollution Standard Index was based on
SO 2, NO 2 , CO, PM, O 3. CityAIR index was
developed for urban area and was based on
concentration of CO, NO2, O3, C6H6 and PM10.
ORAQI, GVAQI, GI and MURCI are modified
according to Indian conditions (index is modified
for three pollutants) [8]. These modified indices
gave contradictory result for the same set of data
for three cities (Delhi, Mumbai and Howrah). Most
of the indices developed after 1990 were based
on the maximum value of sub-index.
METHODOLOGY
Calculation of AQI is based on number of
pollutant variable, calculation method
(mathematical functional relationship between
pollutant concentration and index), calculation
mode and description categories (good,
moderate, unhealthy for sensitive people,
unhealthy, Very unhealthy, Hazardous). Minimum
three pollutants (SO 2 , NO 2 , and SPM) are
sufficient to develop an AQI, although all the
pollutants are not necessary, but desirable [8].
The reference scale of the AQI with the
corresponding categories varies in the range 0500. To relate the air quality and its effect on
human health, the index scale 0-500 is divided
in six categories (Table 1) to provide description
of index value depending on the break point
concentration of each pollutant. The basis of
breakpoint for the proposed AQI is based on
USEPA, IND-AQI [9, 10, 11] and report of review of
ambient air quality standards [12] (Table 2). The
AQI value of 50 defines the prevailing National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for each
pollutant and 500 as hazardous level.
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Table 1: Categories and break point concentration of AQI System
Index
Descriptor Categories
Health Effects
0-50
Good
No effect on human health and on environment
51-100
moderate
Unusually
sensitive
people
may
experience
respiratory symptoms
101-150
Unhealthy for sensitive Increasing likelihood of respiratory symptoms and

people
breathing discomfort in active children and adults and

people with lung disease, such as asthma
151-200
Unhealthy
Greater likelihood of respiratory symptoms, increased

aggravation of heart and lung disease
201-300
Very Unhealthy
significant
increase
in
respiratory
symptoms,
significant aggravation of heart and lung disease,

premature mortality in people with cardiopulmonary
disease and significant increase in
respiratory
symptoms
301-500
Hazardous
Severe respiratory symptoms and serious aggravation

of heart and lung disease, premature mortality in
people and serious effect of respiratory symptoms in
general people
Table 2: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
S.
No.
1.
2.
3.
136
[13]
Concentration in Ambient Air

Time
Industrial,
Ecologically Sensitive Area
Pollutants
Weighted
Residential, Rural and
(notified by Central
Average
other Areas
Government)
50
20
Sulphur Dioxide Annual
3
(SO2), g/m
24 Hours
80
80
Nitrogen
Annual
40
30
Dioxide
24 Hours
80
80
(NO2), g/m3
Particulate
Annual
60
60
Matter
(Size <10m) or 24 Hours
100
100
3
PM10, g/m
Particulate
Annual
40
40
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Particulate
Matter
(Size <2.5 m)
or PM2.5, g/m3
Ozone
(O3),
g/m3
Lead
(Pb),
3
g/m
Carbon
Monoxide
(CO),
mg/m3
Ammonia
(NH3), g/m3
Benzene
(C6H6), g/m3
Benzo(a)Pyrene
(BaP)
particulate
phase
only,
3
ng/m
Arsenic (As),
ng/m3
Nickel
(Ni),
3
ng/m
Annual
40
40
24 Hours
60
60
8 Hours
1Hour
Annual
24 Hours
8 Hours
100
180
0.50
1.0
02
100
180
0.50
1.0
02
1Hour
04
04
Annual
24 Hours
100
400
100
400
Annual
05
05
Annual
01
01
Annual
06
06
Annual
20
20
Study Area
Study area for the calculation of AQI is Uttar
Pradesh where ambient air quality is monitored
in 13 districts. Uttar Pradesh is situated between
24N-30N and 77E-84E with a population of
200 million people. The state is spread over a
total area of 243,286 km 2. Three dominant
seasons, summer (March-June), monsoon (JulyOctober) and winter (November-February) are
observed in the study area with maximum
temperature in summer (more than 45C) and
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minimum temperature in winter (less than 1C)

[13, 14, 15]
. The state receives average annual rainfall
of 1,025 mm in monsoon season.
National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring in
India started in 1984 and presently ambient air
quality is monitored in 13 cities of Uttar Pradesh
(UP). A total of 39 ambient air quality monitoring
stations are maintained by UP Pollution Control
Board (UPPCB) and Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) in these 13 districts covering
various land use patterns (Table 3).
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Table 3: Details of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Study Area
S.
Districts
No.
1
Agra
Location of
Land Use
Monitoring Station
Pattern
Tajmahal
Sensitive
Monitoring Days
Monitoring
Agency
Sunday,
Monday, CPCB
Tuesday,
Wednesday,
Thursday, Saturday
Regional Office Bodla
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Nunhai
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
DIC Nunhai
Sensitive
Wednesday,
CPCB
Saturday
Allahabad
Anpara
Firozabad
Gajraula
Itmad-ud-daulah
Sensitive
Tuesday, Friday
CPCB
Rambagh
Sensitive
Monday, Thursday
CPCB
Square Crossing
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Bharat Yantra Nigam
Residential
Monday,Thursday
UPPCB
Anpara Colony
Industrial
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Renusagar Colony
Industrial
Monday,Wednesday
UPPCB
CDGI
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Tilak Nagar
Residential
Wednesday,Saturday
UPPCB
Raza Ka Tal
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Indira Chowk
Residential
Friday, Sunday
UPPCB
Raunaq Auto Ltd.
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Bulandshahar Road
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Jail Chauraha
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Veeranga Nagar
Residential
Saturday, Tuesday
UPPCB
Fazalganj
Industrial
Saturday,Wednesday
UPPCB
Jajmau
Industrial
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Deputy Ka Parao
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Dabauli
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Vikas Nagar
Residential
Monday,
Ghaziabad Atlas Cycles Ind. Ltd.
Jhansi
Kanpur
Tuesday, CPCB
Thursday, Friday
Kidwai Nagar
138
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
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10
Khurja
Lucknow
CGCRI
Industrial
Sunday, Thursday
UPPCB
Ahirpara
Residential
Tuesday, Saturday
UPPCB
Talkatora
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Mahanagar
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
Kapoor
Hotel Residential
& Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Hazratganj
Commercial
Chandganj
Residential
Monday,Wednesday
Aminabad
Residential
Tuesday,Wednesday, UPPCB
UPPCB
Friday
11
12
13
Meerut
Noida
Varanasi
Begum Bridge
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
UPPCB
Thana Railway Road
Residential
Wednesday, Friday
UPPCB
R.O. UPPB
Residential
Tuesday, Thursday
UPPCB
GEE-PEE
Industrial
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Regional Office
Residential
Monday, Thursday
UPPCB
Shivpuri
Residential
Friday, Tuesday
Sigra
Residential
Tuesday, Friday
Computation of AQI
To calculate AQI, first step is the calculation
of sub-indices (I 1 , I 2 ,.I- n ) for n pollutant
variables (X1, X2, .. Xn) and is carried out using
sub-indices functions that are based on air
quality standards and health effect. Each subindex value represents a relationship between
pollutant concentrations and health effect.
Mathematically
Ii= f (Xi),
i = 1, 2..n
Function used to convert concentration to AQI

value is given below
Ip =
I HI I LO
(C P BPLO ) + I LO
BPHI BPLO
UPPCB
or equal to Cp
IHI = the air pollution index value corresponding
to BPHI of the pollutant p
ILO = the air pollution index value corresponding
to BPLO of pollutant p
In the second step, aggregation of sub-indices Ii
is used with mathematical function to calculate
overall index (I).
I = F (I1, I2In)
In second step aggregation function F may
be summation or multiplication operation or
maximum operator. In this study, maximum
operator system has been adopted as follows:
Where,
AQI = Max (I1, I2.In)
Ip = the index for the pollutant p
In third step maximum operator function is

used for AQI value. It is free from the eclipsing
(situation when pollutant is underestimated by
AQI) and ambiguity (situation when pollutant is
overestimated by AQI) problems. Drawback of
the maximum operator function is that synergistic
effect of pollutants is not known.
Cp = the actual concentration of pollutant p

BPHI = the break point in the Table 4 that is
greater than or equal to Cp
BPLO = the break point in Table 4 that is less than
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Mathematical function that is used to

calculate AQI value is a segmented linear
function. Same function is also adopted by
various countries (GVAQI and ORAQI etc.). This
function is used to calculate AQI value of each
pollutant. A pollutant that gives the maximum
value, considered as a responsible pollutant and
sub-indices value considered as AQI value.
Good category lies in index value that is NAAQS
for each pollutant.
The pollutants included in the air quality
index are SO2, NO2, SPM, RSPM, Pb, As, Ni, C6H6,
BaP, O3, NH3 and CO. AQI for all monitoring
stations existing in 13 districts has been
calculated. The monthly variation, seasonal
variation, yearly variation, rainfall impact and
responsible pollutant of Lucknow city are
presented in detail in this paper and for other
cities are mentioned briefly.
Monthly Variation of AQI
The monthly variation of AQI at all five
monitoring stations of Lucknow city (Talkatora,
Mahanagar, Kapoor Hotel Hazratganj, Aminabad
and Chandganj Nagar) based on available data
140
for the period 2001 to 2009 is shown in Figure

1. AQI category in Lucknow was unhealthy to
sensitive people at all locations except Talkatora,
where it was unhealthy category during 200102. Index value at Mahanagar lies at moderate
category during 2001. At Talkatora maximum and
minimum in AQI was found in March and
December during 2001-02. During 2004-09
maximum AQI was found in December, January
and February in all the locations. At Kapoor Hotel
during 2001-09 maximum AQI was found in
November, December, January, February and
May. During 2001-09 at Mahanagar maximum
AQI was found in April, May, June, November,
December, and January. During 2005-09 at
Chandganj Nagar and Aminabad maximum AQI
was found in November, December, January,
February and April. Minimum AQI at all the
locations was found in August and September
and sometimes July (at Aminabad, Chandganj
Nagar and Kapoor Hotel, 2005). During 2001
Maximum variation of AQI are shown in March,
June and September at Talkatora and
Mahanagar and rest of the locations shown in
December except in year 2009 where it was in
June and January and minimum variation are
shown in August and September.
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Figure 1: Monthly variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09
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Overall at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh, AQI value decreases from July to October and lies in
good to moderate category due to rain whereas AQI value increases from November to February
and lies in unhealthy for senstive people category to unhealthy category in most of the cities as
calm condition prevails in these months compared to other months. AQI values from March to June
are indicating unhealthy for senstive people category to unhealthy category due to dust storms.
Maximum monthly AQI vaiation is found in Ghaziabad, Agra, Firozabad. Minimum AQI variation is
found in Anpara, Gajraula, Jhansi.
Seasonal variation of AQI
Figure 2 shows seasonal variation of AQI at all five monitoring stations of Lucknow city based on
available data for the period 2001 to 2009.

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Mahanagar Lucknow , 2004
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Figure 2 Seasonal variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09
During period of 2001-09, maximum variation of AQI in Lucknow city is found during 2002 at
Talkatora, whereas in Kanpur city it is observed during 2005 at Vikas Nagar. The metrological condition
and turbulence in the atmosphere are the primary factors affecting pollutant distribution, dispersion
pattern and seasonal variations. The air quality generally improves in Monsoon. During Monsoon
frequent rain washes down the air borne particulates and gaseous pollutants.
Annual variation of AQI
Annual variation of AQI at all 13 districts of Uttar Pradesh having monitoring stations based on
available data for the period 2001 to 2009 has been observed. In Lucknow city, during 2005-09 there
is a little variation in AQI at all the locations (Figure 3), whereas during 2001-04, AQI value is low and
AQI value increases after 2004.
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Y
20
02
240
160
Y
20
01
320
240
Y
20
05
400
320
Y
20
04
400
Y
20
02
AQI
640
Y
20
01
720
AQI
Y2008
Y
20
08
Y2005
Y
20
09
Y
20
07
Y2009
Y
20
06
Y2008
Y
20
05
Y2007
Y
20
04
Y2006
Y
20
02
Y2005
Y
20
01
Year
Figure 3 Annual variation of AQI at Lucknow during 2001-09

150
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mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/
en/) (June 30, 2015)
Responsible pollutant for AQI

The analysis of AQI is based on maximum
operator calculation mode, where the maximum
sub-index value of pollutants becomes the
overall index. It is observed that most of the time
SPM and PM10 are the responsible pollutant for
high AQI value. Thus, to improve the air quality
of U.P. concentration of SPM and PM10 have to
be reduced on priority basis.
5.
Singh, K.P., Gupta, S., Kumar, A. and Shukla, S.P.

(2012). Linear and nonlinear modeling
approaches for urban air quality prediction.
Science of the Total Environment, 426, 244-255.
6.
USEPA (1999). Federal Register, Part III,

Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Part 58,
Air Quality Index Reporting, Final Rule, 64(149),
42530-42549.
7.
Ott, W.R. (1978). Environmental indices theory and

practice. Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann
Arbor, Mich. 48106.
8.
Sharma, M., Maheshwari, M. and Pandey, R.

(2001). Development of Air Quality Index for data
interpretation and public information, Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur, Report submitted
to Central Pollution Control Board Delhi.
9.
Sharma, M., Pandey, R., Maheshwari, M.,

Sengupta, B., Shukla, B.P., Gupta, N.K. and Johri,
S. (2003). Interpretation of Air Quality data using
an air quality index for the city of Kanpur, India,
Journal of Environmental Engineering and
Science, 2(6), 453-462.
10.
USEPA (2006). Guideline for Reporting of Daily Air

Quality - the Air Quality Index (AQI), EPA-454/B-06001, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Air Quality Planning and standards, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.
11.
USEPA (2014). Air Quality Index- A Guide to Air

Quality and your Health, EPA-456/F-14-002, US
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Outreach and
Information Division, Research Triangle Park, NC.
12.
IIT Kanpur (2009). Review of Ambient Air Quality

Criteria/ Standards, Report submitted to the CPCB.
13.
CPCB (2009). National Ambient Air Quality

Standards, Central Pollution Control Board,
Notification, New Delhi, the 18th November, 2009.
(http://cpcb.nic.in/National_Ambient_Air_Quality
_Standards.php) (July 02, 2015)
14.
Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2008). Source

apportionment of atmospheric PM 10 in Kanpur,
India. Environmental Engineering Science, 25 (6),
849-861.
15.
Shukla, S.P. and Sharma, M. (2010). Neutralization

of rainwater acidity at Kanpur, India. Tellus, 62B,
172-180.
16.
Shukla, S.P., Singh, N.B. and Sharma, M. (2010).

Air quality survey at Kanpur City. Indian Surveyor,
64(1), 74-80.
CONCLUSION
AQI has been calculated for the 13 districts
of U.P. for knowing the status of air pollution with
its effect on human health. While comparing all
12 pollutants, it was observed that the
concentration of SPM and PM10 are higher than
the prescribed standards and concentration of
SO2 and NO2 is lower than NAAQS. The air quality
worsens in winter month and also during summer
month. The summer month are characterized by
dust winds resulting high SPM. The AQI generally
improves in monsoon period due to rain, good
to moderate. The SPM and PM10 have been
responsible pollutant for the index. The air quality
is giving the holistic view of air pollution levels
as clearly exceeded the high air pollution
category and has been crossed severe pollution
category at many places.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Singh, D., Shukla, S.P., Sharma, M., Behera, S.N.,

Mohan, D., Singh, N.B. and Pandey, G. (2014). GIS
based on-road vehicular emission inventory for
Lucknow city. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and
Radioactive Waste Mgmt, DOI: 10.1061/
(ASCE)HZ.2153-5155.0000244.
Bishoi, B., Prakash, A. and Jain, V.K. (2009). A
Comparative Study of Air Quality Index on Factor
Analysis and US-EPA Methods for an Urban
Environment, Journal of Aerosol and Air Quality
Research, 9(1), 1-17.
Cohen, A.J., Anderson, H.R., Ostro, B., Pandey,
K.D., Krzyzanowski, M., Knzli, N., Gutschmidt, K.,
Pope, A., Romieu, I., Samet, J.M. & Smith, K.
(2005). The Global Burden of Disease Due to
Outdoor Air Pollution, Journal of Toxicology and
Environmental Health, Part A: Current Issues,
68(13-14), 1301-1307.
WHO (2014). 7 million premature deaths annually
linked to air pollution. (http://www.who.int/
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VALUE BASED EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1
*ANSHU TRIPATHI1, B.C. TRIPATHI2

Department of Teacher Education, K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad, U.P. India, 2Rama P.G. College, Chinhat,
Lucknow, U.P., India.
*Address for correspondence: Dr. Anshu Tripathi, Assistant Professor, Department of Teacher Education,
K.S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya, Faizabad U.P., India,
Email ID: tripathi.anshu27@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The Indian education system should adopt value based education at all levels The value oriented
educational program should not be led only during the further level, but should be carried on
further up to the level of higher education too, as it is form there that the nations political
leaders, bureaucrats and army personal would emerge. Values based education therefore is a
part of the educational programs, which cannot be shelved or done away with. It has to be a
part of life, life is a constant education, and the process of living is a process of learning. India
is badly in need of value based education and teaching system, which inculcates among the
young students values that they need to imbibe and embalm within them. Values based education
imparts social, moral integrity, character, spirituality and many more. It builds the qualities of
humanity strength and honesty in a person they become better citizens of a country. People
with high ethical values will never cheat others. People are taught to co-operate with each
other. They make their life happier and works hard to make others happy. A child learns a lot
from the people around him, if the social environment is not good, then it becomes very difficult
for him to display ethics and values in his behavior.
KEYWORDS: Value, Education, Development
INTRODUCTION
Value is a dynamic term used in different
aspects. Indian Philosophy has used it in sense
of state free from pleasure and pain 1 . In
Psychology the term Value is generally employed
to designate a dominant interest motive or broad
evaluative attitude. Psychologist in the sense of
Psychic energy. Sociologists in the sense of use
of time energy and money for certain ends. Value
has been defined variously by different
Educationist but on the whole it is interpreted to
be either a set of feeling or an action. Values
are define as, Socially approved derires and
goals that are internalized through the process
of conditioning, Learning or socialization and
these become subjective preferences, standards
and aspirations.
NEED AND IMPORTANCE
All port is right when he says ordinarily
attitude should be employed when the disposition
is bound to an object or value. Values are
generally long term standards or principles that
used to judge the worth of an idea or action2.
152
They provide the criteria by which we decide

whether something is good or bad right or
wrong. Attitude predispose us to respond in
particular ways to people and events. They are
not so deeply felt as values and quite often
change as a result of experience.
VALUE AND CULTURE
It is universally accepted that the progress
and development of a nation depends upon the
quality of values cherished by its citizen, which
depends on a large number of factors including
intelligence abilities, interests, school climate,
teacher values and beliefs, socio-economic
status. Cultural background and peer, home and
neighborhood influences.
Values and their realization through
education can be imagined in the words of Dr.
S. Radha Krishnan when he says, Education is
not limited to the imparting of information or the
training in skills. It has to give the educated a
proper sense of values.
Values are a new term used today prior to it
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the words morals, virtue, ideals, norms or

standards were in use. The ancient philosophers
used the term virtue for moral goodness,
particular moral excellence, chastity, good quality
or efficacy. This word virtue has been used for
behavior showing high moral standard. Values
are necessary for individuals and society alike;
but today the scientific and technological
developments have created evils like
industrialization, materialism communalism
terrorism, dowry murders, drug addiction, sex
abuse, female feticide suicides and all sorts of
corruption. Which are the forces to disintegrate
and disturb the social life. Religious political and
other leaders in the society have lost their
integrity. Actually there is a state of chaos and
disorder3.
In todays world teaching values to our youth
is more important than ever. From the moment
they are born children are extremely
impressionable. They begin to form their opinion
and view of the world before they even hit their
adolescence.
VALUE AND EDUCATION
As parents and educators, we are childrens
biggest and number one influences and it is our
responsibility to teach our youth about core
values so they may grow up to be caring,
confident and respectful adults since students
spends a majority of their time at school. It should
be a place that supports families and
communities efforts to establish strong values
in students. Educators are tasked with the job
of helping children see that values are not only
an important part of the educational process but
also to their overall development as an individual.
By fostering an environment where core values
are a focal point, it enables students to logically
grabble with the moral life and encourages
healthy brain development and growth.
Value based education is an approach to
teaching that works with values. It creates a
strong learning environment that enhances
academic achievement and develops students
social and relationship skills that last throughout
their lives value education aims to achieve two
basic outcomes:
1.
Helping students to better understand the

values that guide their own daily lives.
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2.
Contribution to changes in values held

collectively by communities and personally
by individuals value education is a process
of teaching and learning about the ideals
that a society deems important. So we know
that value education is used to influence
student attitudes and behavior for the better
at least in life, with what a society would
consider appropriate and morally
acceptable. Value education may be seen
on 3 levels curriculum, school and
community. The level interact with one
another.
The Radha Krishnan Commission5, The

Kothari Commission National Policy of
Education 7 , Rammurti Committee Central
Advisory Board of Education on Policy, planning
commission core group on values orientation of
education, all have gone deep into the role that
education plays and can play in designing and
developing the national characters. The
programs and policies have remained just on
paper, just due to lack of co-ordination between
the different implementing agencies. It is not
merely talking about great men that the child
would get oriented to values4. The teacher has
to play a major and a decisive role in giving this
lesson by precept as well as by example. It is
the intellectual, the physical, the emotional, the
psychological parts of the childs personality
which would need to be molded and modeled.
In a vast nation like India with so many
section in the society, so many sects, so many
religions, so many regions and so many
languages, the child has to be taught the lesson
in unity in diversity.
CONCLUSION
Education is the deliberate and systematic
influence exerted by the mature person through
instruction, discipline and harmonious
development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic,
social and spiritual power of human being. There
valued inputs led to the decision to develop a
handbook for schools on strategies of value
implementation which hopefully would keep
those responsible the selection and
development of instructional material for
inclusion in the schoolbook they may think of
developing. Value cannot be forced, even if
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conveyed with intentions. No real integration or

internalization of value can be achieved unless
the learner agree with it, but it can be developed
with the cooperation of all. As the climate of
respect surrounds the learners, they
automatically imbibe an attitude of tolerance
towards their fellowmen and this would certainly
activate the human development that eventually
leads national development.
154
REFERENCES:
1.
Approach paper for secondary teacher education

curriculum renewal NCTE 2013. New Delhi.
2.
Biswas N.B. stress on changing values in life of

the teaching professionals. Teacher education
1998, Vol.XXX11. Nos. 1 & 2
3.
Mukherjee R.K. (1969), social structures of values.

S. Chand & Co. New Delhi.
4.
Nation policy on education (1986), Government

of India MHRD Department & Education 2005,
New Delhi.
5.
Pandey K.P. Shiksha ke Darshnik and samajik

Adhar, Vishvidyalay Prakashan , Varanasi.
6.
National curriculum frame work 2005. NCERT

New Delhi.
7.
Report of education commission (1964-66)

government of India, ministry of education, New
Delhi.
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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015 3 (1) P-ISSN 2347-2189, E - ISSN 2347-4971

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International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1)

P-ISSN 2347-2189, E- ISSN 2347-4971

DR. B.R. PANDEY

COMMITTEE FOR EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

Dr. Pankaj Verma

Shri Sanjay Pandey

Shri Ashish Tiwari

Shri Sanjay Dixit

Senior Research Fellow,

Deptt. of Oral & Maxillofacial

Prof. (Dr.) S.P. Singh

Former Vice Chancellor, CCS Meerut University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Former Prof & Head, Deptt. of Pharmacology,

Prof. (Dr.) R. L. Singh

King George Medical University, Lucknow.

Prof & Head, Department of Biochemistry & Coordinator Biotechnology

Dr. Sarita Verma

Prof. (Dr.) S.K.Agarwal

Prof.(Dr.) M.I. Khan

Pro. & Ex-Head, Deptt. of Biochemistry, Lucknow University,

Prof & Head, Deptt. of Mechanical Engg.,

Dr. Bharat Sah

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Avasthi

Prof.(Dr.) Amrika Singh

Prof & Head (Chemistry), Deptt. of Applied Sciences,

Prof., Deptt. of Physiology,

Prof.(Dr.) U.N. Dwivedi

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Clinical Hematology & Medical Oncology,

Prof.(Dr.) U.K. Misra

Head, Deptt. of Neurology, Ex Dean,

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Biostatistics & Health Informatics,

Dr. A.K. Gupta

Dr. Rupesh Chaturvedi

Associate Prof., School of Biotechnology,

Prof. (Dr.) Amod Kumar Tiwari,

Prof.- Director, Bhabha Institute of Engg.& Technology, Kanpur, U.P.

Asstt. Prof. Deptt. of Internal Medicine, CD University,

Prof.(Dr.) Chandra Dhar Dwivedi

Former Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of

Prof.(Dr.) Vimal Kishore

Principal Scientist, Martek Biosciences Corporation,

Prof. & Chairman, Deptt. of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Prof .(Dr.) M.C. Pant,

Chief Scientist, Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research

Dr. Mohd. Tarique

International Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 2015; 3(1)

Dr. Vinod Singh

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Medicinal Chemistry,Institute of Medical Sciences,

Assoc. Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Microbiology, Baruktulla University, Bhopal,

Prof.(Dr.) R.K. Singh

Assoc. Prof., Deptt. of Physics & Electronics.Dr. R. M. L. Awadh University ,

Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Diwedi

Senior Scientist, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants,

Dr. Atul Gupta

Former Director, National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG) , ICAR,

Dr. Saudan Singh,

Prof. (Dr.) Nuzhat Husain

Prof. (Dr.) Amita Jain