pePEND iy Useful Information I. BASIC DATA e aamss og 20.0001 m =8.1416 log, 10 = 2.9026 ve 214142 Liad, =57° 17745" = E 3 ° 3 é 5 e 2. Conversion Factors 1 ft = 80.48 em = 0.8048 m imscogm ‘1 m/sec = 3.2804 fusec. 3. Systems of Units Quantity) Length " Mass” Bee Note. The MKS. system is also known as the Internationel system of units (SI system). 4. Greek Letters Used kappa 2» mu : a eee ‘delta ® e€ ae, 4] p tho 1 ¢ sigma 5. Some Notations i tS a arene 7 © impliee &impliod bynm Factorial nie., nlsn(naA) (m= 2) 3.2 Double factorials : (2n)!! = 2n (2n ~2)(2n—A).. (2n~ 1)! = (2n ~ 1) 2n~ 3) (2n- 5) Stirling's approximation. When n is large n! ~ J2nn - IL. ALGEBRA 1. Quadratic equation : ax? + bx +¢= 0 has roots b+ Vb? -4ac) . _ ~b—v(b? ~ 4ac) 2a cerns oe Roots are equal if B?— ac = 0 Roots are real and distinct if Be Roots are imaginary if 2. Cubic equation : x1 + le? + mx +n= Cardan’s method : (@) Remove x® term by putting y = x ~ (U8) (i) Equate coeffs. in the new equation and y? — Buvy ~(u? + v*)—0 (iii) Find uw? and v®, Then find u and v. () Gety=u+vand x =y-U3. 3. Biquadratic equation : 24+ kx! + 1x? + mz +n=0 I. Ferrari's method : (@ Combine 2* and =" terms into a perfect square by adding a term in 2. (id) Make R.H.S. a perfect square to find A. (Gia) Solve resulting quadratic equations. LL. Desearte’s method : @ Remove x* term by putting y = x—(- k/4) (ii) Equate transformed expression to (y? + py +g) V?-py +9) (iif) Equate coeffs. of like powers from both sides. (iv) Find p, g and ¢" and solve resulting quadratics. 4. Cross-multiplication : ag tby +ee=0 ag + by +62 y Then — 2 Bier bye, 40g —ep0, yb, —ayby 5. Method of least squares : (i) Straight line of best fit y = a + bz. Normal equations : By = na + bEx, Zxy = ake + bEx?, To find a, b, solve these equations. Gi) Parabola of best fit y = a+ bx + ex? Normal equations : Ey = na + BEx + eEx®, Exy = aE + OEx? + Ee, Defy = ax? + bEx? + ce! To find a, b, ¢, solve these equations. 6. Progressions : (@® Numbers a, a +d, a + 24, ... are said to be in Arithmetic progression (A.P.) yeute Its nth term T,, +n=1dand sum &, = 5 Qa+n—1d) (i) Numbers a, ar, a7, ...., are said to be in Geometric progression (G.P.) al-r") 5 a Its nth term 7, = art! and sum 8, = S07, =F (<1)Numbers Va, Wa +d), (a + 2d), ..... are said to be in Harmonic progression (H.P.) (ie., a sequence is said to be in H.P. if its reciprocals are in A.P.) Its nth term T,, = Wa + 8-1) (iv) Ifa and 6 be two numbers then their Arithmetic mean = Z (a +8), Geometric mean = Jab, Harmonic mean = 2ab/(a + b) , (v) Natural numbers are 1, 2, 8, 05 1 Rin+D yp _ Mint DON + D on - 6 7. Permutations and Combinations al (n-r) oP, 8. Binomial theorem (i) When nis a positive integer 14 = 14 MCy 24 CyB MCG 2H ee $C. Gi) When n ia a negative integer or a fraction n(n-D) ,, n(n=I(n-2) 12 ** 12.38 ! (Le x= Lene ay (iii) Binomial coefficients : *C,= 9. Logarithms @) Naturals logarithm log x has base e and is inverse of e. Common logarithm logy x= M log where M = logy, €= 0.4343 log, 1 = 0; log, 0 =—= (a > 1); log, a log (mn) = log m + log n 5 log (n/n 10. Partial Fractions log m log n ; log (m") = n log m. ™ eet? A fraction of the form 90% _*@)¥__+ +m box" +byx" +. Op in which m and n are positive integers, is called a rational algebraic fraction. When the numerator is of a lower degree than the denominator, it is called a proper fraction. To resolve a given fraction into partial fractions, we first factorise the denominator into real factors. These will be either linear or quadratic, and some factors repeated. Then the proper fraction is resolved into a sum of partial fractions such that (i) to anon-repeated linear factor x~a in the denominator corresponds a partial fraction of the form Allx —a); (ii) to a repeated linear factor (x ay in the denominator corresponds the sum of r partial fractions of the form Arp AS 4p As GaP eae ay (iti) to a non-repeated quadratic factor (x? + ax + b)in the denominator, corresponds a partial fraction of the form — 2+ 8; +ax+b (iv) to a repeated quadratic factor (x® + ax + 6)" in the denominator, corresponds the sum of r partial fractions of the form A= *+B, ,_Are+ By, |, A+B, xPeaxtb |G? +ax+b) GF tart by" ‘Then we have to determine the unknown constants A, A,, B, ete. To obtain the partial fraction corresponding to the non-repeated linear factor xa in the denominator, put x= a everywhere in the given fraction except in the foc tor x~a itself.Inall other cases, equate the given fraction to a sum of suitable partial fractions in accordance with ( to (iv) above, having found the partial fractions corresponding to the non-repeated linear factors by the above rule. Then multiply both sides by the denominator of the given fraction and equate the coefficients of like powers of'x or substitute convenient numerical values of x on both sides, Finally solve the simplest of the resulting equations to find the unknown constants. Matrices (i) A system of mn numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns is called a matrix uu. wi) Gi) (ie) () (wid (vii) (witi) of order m x n. In particular if m = n, it is called a square matrix of order n. ‘Two matrices of the same order can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements. Product of a matrix A by a scalar h is a matrix whose each clement is k times the corresponding elements of A. ‘Two matrices can be multiplied only when the number of columns in the first is equal to the number of rows in the second, IfA is of order m x n and B is of order n x p, then the product AB is a matrix of order m x p, obtained by multiplying and adding the row elements of A with the corresponding column elements of B. Transpose of a matrix A is the matrix obtained by interchanging its rows and columns and is denoted bya’ A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = 4’ and skew symmetric if A IfA and B are two square matrices such that AB = (i.e., a unit matrix), then B is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A“. Then AA =A A= I. Rank of a matrix is the largest order of any non-vanishing minor of the matrix. Consisteney of a system of equations in n. unknowns. If the rank of the coefficient matrix A be r and that of the augmented matrix K be r’, then (a) the equations are inconsistent (i.e. there is no solution) when r +r’, () the equations are consistent when r =r’. (c) the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions when r =r’ b>0), equi of ipse te It parametric equations are x= a cos 8,9 = b sin 8. Eccentricity e = 11 — 6%a*), Latus-rectum LSL! = 2b*a. Foci $ (- ae, 0) and S” (ae, 0) Directrices ZM (x =~ é/e) and Z’M' (x = ale). ‘Sum of the focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to the major axis i.e, SP +S'P = 20. Equation of the tangent at the point (x,,y,) to the ellipse2 Condition for the line y = mx +¢ to touch the ellipse * ise=V (am? +b?) . (ii) Another standard form of ellipse ~; +e =1a>b>0) Vertices: A (Oo, a) ; A’ (0, ~ a) Foci : $ (0, ae) ; 8 '(0,- ae) Directrices : ZM :y = ale, Z'M" : Latus rectum : LSL! = 2b%a 6. Hyperbola @ Standard equations of the hyperbola is oad a Its parametric equations are x=asec®, y=btand. Fig, AP-2.4 (a) Eccentricity ¢ = (1 + 67a"), Latus-rectum LSL' = 2b%/a, Directrices Fig. AP-LS 2M (x= ale) and 2'M’ (x =—ale). (ii) Equation of the tangent at the point (x,,y,) to the hyperbola ey a? BF ii) Condition for the line y = mx + ¢ to touch the hyperbola 2 ¥ a oF 2 4 (iv) Asympiotes of the hyperbola = — = a (v) Equation of the rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes as axes is xy = 2. Its parametric equations are x = ct, y = oft. Nature of a conic The equation ax! + 2hxy + by? + 2gx + 2fy +.¢ = 0 represents che hoe efe Gi) acirele, ifa =b,h=0,A*0 (ii) a parabola, if ab —h? = 0, 40. (iv) an ellipse, ifab- h? > 0, A#0. (0) a hyperbola, if ab - h? <0, #0, and a rectangular hyperbola if in addition, « +b = 0. i) a pair of lines, if IV. SOLID GEOMETRY 1. (@) If1, m,n be the direction cosines of a line then 2? +m? +n? = 1. a Ifa, b, ¢ be the direction ratios of a line then ¢ = (ti) Hobe the angle between the lines having d.c.’s l, m,n andl’, m’,n', then 08 0 = UI" + mm’ + nn” Lines are perpendicular if, W + mm’ +nn Lines are parallel if(iii) Projection of the line joining the points (iy, ¥y, 2,) and (Xy Yq, 22) on a line having d. 1 (x, x4) + mG, ~ yg) + lz —2,) 2. Plane (Different forms of equation of a plane General form: — ax+by+cz=d where a, b, ¢ are the d.r.s of a normal to the plane. Normal form : bx + my + nz =p Intercept form: = 4242 ab" —Any plane passing through the point (x,y, 24) i8 a (x -%,) +b (y —y,) + € (2-2; (ii) Angle ® between the planes ax + by + ez =d and a'x + b'y + cz =d’ is given by aa’ + bb" Via? +0? +c*) Va? +b +c%) Planes are perpendicular if aa’ + bb’ + ec’ = 0 Planes are paraltel if ala’ = bib" = ee’ (iii) Any plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz = dis ax + by +2 =k 3, Straight line (® Equation of the line through the point (c,,9,,2)) having d.r.s a, b, ¢ is cos © = 5 (Symmetrical form) (ii) Equation of the line through the points (x,,,2;) and (x, V9.2) is, 2, BO (Two point form) mM eM (iii) Angle 0 between the plane ax + by + cz = d and the line a’ e aa’ + bb’ + 00 V(a? +8? +07) (a? +6 +07) Line is parallel to the plane if aa’ + bb’ + cc’ =0 Line is perpendicular to the plane ifa/a’= bib" = cle? () Coplanar tines is sin@ are coplanar if 4 Mi. Me and equation of the plane containing these lines is XoM 9H ea Lom om 4 me Me (0) Shortest distance between two skew lines e-m 9-4 og FH IW: mm 4 Mm Me is Uy —x,) + my y,) + nl, -2,) where [, m,n are given by W, + mm, +nn,=Oand Ul, + mm, +nn,=0(emnPebOeTUsirUL oman Equation of the line of 8.D. is given by xm YM e-z tomy oy tom on and om, tom on X-%2 Y-Yo "| 4. Sphere (@) Equation of the sphere having centre (a, 6, ¢) and radius r is @-a)+(y-bP +@-eP =P? (ii) Equation x + y? +z? + 2ux + Quy + 2wz + d = 0 represents a sphere having centre (~ u, radius =u? + v? + w?-d) (iii) Equation of the sphere having the points (x,, y,,2,) and (x,, y,, 2,) as the ends of a diameter is (x ~x,) @—x,) + 0-9) 9-9.) + @-2) @-2)) = (iv) Equation of a circle (:¢., section of a sphere S = 0 by the plane U'= 0)is given by $ = 0 and U =O taken together. (v) Equation of any sphere through the circle of intersection of the sphere S = 0 and the plane U = 0 is S+kU=0. (vd) Tangent plane at any point (x,,,,2,) of the sphere sey? +28 + Quxt Quy + Que td = Oin 3x, +99, +22, + ule +x,) +0 +y,) + (2 +2, 4d =0 (wit) Two spheres x® + y? +22 + 2ux + 2uy + 2uz +d =Oand 2 ayh+ 2% u'r + Qo'y + 2u'z +d’ = 0 cut orthogonally if 2uu' + 2ov' + 2ww' = vw) and +d. 5. Cone @ Equation of a cone with vertex at the origin is a homogeneous equation of the second degree in x, y, z. (i) Envetoping cone of the sphere $ = 0 with vertex (x, ¥,, 21) is SS, = T? where S = x? + y? +2? —a, Syaxye+y,? +22 -0%, P= xx, +99, + 22-0? 6. Quadric surfaces (i) Ellipoid: + + (ii) Hyperboloid of one sheet: + Hyperboloid of two sheets: + iii) Cone: + TBP Pal Pele Pa Se Pale iv) Elliptic paraboloid: Hyperbolic paraboloid: 7. Volumes and surface areas BRAK ALA APCD. als cs ols ae cls. ahsV. TRIGONOMETRY 3. Any t-ratio of (n. 90° + 8) = + same ratio of 8, when n is even. tco-ratio of 8, when n is odd. The sign + or~ is to be decided from the quadrant in which 1, 90° + 0 lies. a a tan 315° = tan (3 x 90° + 45°) = — cot 45°=-1 4. sin (A+ B)= sin A cos B + cos A sinB cos (A+B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B sin 2A =2sin A ens A= 2tan AA1 + tan? A) eB ‘sin 570° = sin (6 x 90° + 30°) = ~sin 30° = 0s 24 = cos? A ~ sin? = 1 ~2.sin?A = 2 cos? A—1 = 1—tan_ A T+ tan? A tan (Assy tn AttanB ig, 94. 2tand 1¥ tan A tan B 1-tan? A 5. sin A cos B= 3 [sin (A + B) + sin(A~ BY) cos Asin B = 3 fein (A + B) ~ sin (A — B) 0s A cos B = 2 feos (A + B) + cos (A ~B)l sin A sin B = 3 (eos (A ~B)~ cos (A + B)) C+D. Cc cos 6. sinC + sinD=2 sin sin C~ sin D = 2 cos C+D 2 ens C +605 0 =2 cos cos 5 C+D, 0-D 2 2 cos C - cos D =~ 2 sin2 7. sin 3A =3 sin A—4 sin’ A, e053 = 4 ens A — 3 cos.A; tan 24 = Stn AW tan A 8. asinx +b cosx =r sin (x +6) cos x +b sin x =r cos (x—0) where a =r cos 8, 5 =r sin @ so that r = V(a? + 6%), @ = tan“? (b/a) 9. In any AAB (@) afsin A = b/sin B = olsin C (Sine formula) 2 aed eve (Cosine formula) (iii) a = cos C +c cos B (Projection formula) (iv) Area of ABC = 3 be sin A = Je= @)(@=B)(E=0) where x= Flarbeo) 10. Series Gi) cos A = (i) Exponential series : e* = 1+ a 2 2 (i) Sin, cos, sinh, cosh series (tii) Log series log (1-42) = x (iv) Gregory series 2 ox Fh men Oy 3°65 11. @ Complex number : (cos 0+ i sin 8) = (ii) Euler’s theorem : cos @ +i sin @= (iii) Demoivre's theorem : (cos 6 + i sin 8)" = cos n6 +i sin n® tan lx = sxtiy= 12, @ Hyperbolic functions : i) sinh x= “S*—; cosh x = © a sinh x 1 tanh x + z= ech x = 3 cosech x = cosh x sinha’ cosh x" Sinha (ti) Relations between hyperbolic and circular functions > sin ix = i sinh x; ¢0s ix = cosh x; tan éx =i tanh x. itt) Inverse hyperbolic functions: sinbot x = log [x + [z? 4 1]; cosh" x = log [x + V(x? — 1)}; tanh VI. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1, Standard limits: @ nu =na"-¥,n any rational number (ii) Lt, Soe Jf ie tox (iv) Lt x1Differentiation a feo @ au) v fax soy =nlax+ by Ge or OY =n lax « w + ey = 08 0g,0 4 tog,9= de 80 loge iy ia. Git) (sin x) = eos. oe (cos x) =—sin x a: 2 & = gy (tan) = sec? Ge (0b x) = — cosec? x d € ay (S002) = see x tan x Fr leosee:x) = — cose x eat:x xy © (sin x) = ogg" x) = -—_ _ (oo) F (sinc 2) ae ODE Ty d a 1 < (tant x)= # (cot x) = de de lex d 1 d . (see! xy=—_1__ (eosoe"! x)=} as xV@? 1 dx OS aD wo) © (sinh 3) = eorh Cosh x)= sinh 0) Jy (sinh 2) = cosh x (cosh x)= sinh x (tanh 2) = sech? x # (coth x) =~ cosech? x (vi) DE ax + BYP = lm —1) (m2) ae mon +) Cae + BYE a D" log (ax +b) =(— 17-1 (n 1) !arMax + by De (er) = mem D*(a™) = m" (ogay* am D eri =o [2 feeehera cos (ax +6) cos (ax +8 + nM/2) De (ae me = (a? + B22 e* [sin (bx +e +n tan” b/a) cos (bx + 0)! cos (bx + +n tan™ b/a)| (vii) Letbnite theorem: (uv), = uy + "Cyt, dy + "Cally 9 Ve + 2 at 2 2 Plas Fi a+ = pria)to. 2 3.) Maclaurin’s series: fe) = NO) + 5 £°(0) += £7 (0) + x (ii) Taylor's series : fix +a) = fla) + 4. Curvature 1 += (ty, ye x (iii) Evolute is the locus of the centre of curvature of a curve. The curve is called the involute of the evolute. Gv) Envelope of a curve f (x, y, «) = 0 is the ‘a! eliminant from 13,9, 0=0and Lt, 0) =0, The envelope of the normals to a curve is its evolute.. Asymptotes (i) Asymptotes parallel to x-axis are obtained by equating to zero the coefficient of the highest power of xin the equation, provided this is not merely a constant. Asymptotes parallel to y-axis are obtained by equating to zero the coefficient of highest power of y in the equation, provided this is not merely a constant. (ii) Oblique asymptotes are obtained as follows. Put x=1,y = min the highest degrees terms getting 6,(m) Put 6, (m)=0 and find the values of m. Find c from c =~ 6, _ ,(m)/p,"(m) If two values of m are equal, then find c from 2 SMa" (+684, () +p) = 0 ‘The asymptotes is y = mx +c. (ii) Asymptotes of polar curve Ur = f(0) is r sin (0 ~ «) = Uf" (c) where cis a root of f (0) = 6. Curve tracing (i) A curve is symmetrical about x-axis, if only even powers of y occur in its equation. (ii) A curve is symmetrical about y-axis, if only even powers of x occur in its equation. (tid) A curve is symmetrical about the line y = x, if on interchanging x and y, its equation remains unchanged. (iv) A eurve passes through the origin, if there is no constant term in its equation. (v) Tangents to curve at the origin are found by equating to zero the lowest degree terms. 7. Partial Differentiation i) Euler's theorem, If w is a homogeneous function i x and y of degree n, then Ou Me ny; eeu, you nee a 199 Ft ay 4 = nin— Wu rule : 24 = 24 de , du dy (i) Chain rule : “ Se aer ii) B -_% /® ste.) = tui) & ~ 3/9 itso S ifu=fixyx= Oy = yo. a Jecabian J (22 ee). (u,v) _|du/ax du/dy ay) x,y) | Av/ax avfay Ife = alu, vale, y) and J’ = Ax, y)/A(u, v), then eI’ = 1 Altuv) Aww) alr,8) Ox,y) OUr,8) "Az, ») (v) Taylor's series : fla +h, b +k) =f (a,b) + ( (vi) Maxima Minima (a) x = errr er ay ay ©) 352 52? Fady fgg? <0 for maximum 2L > 0 for minimum. ee a fp =f? fla (vit) Leibnite’s Rule A {firacaa} [Te ae where fix, o) and 9 are continuous functions of x and a and a, b are constants.VII. INTEGRAL CALCULUS 1. Integration pa @ fxtar-2 ew J tae = tog, ef draet J ode =e°70g, a (ii) | sinxdx = —cosx J cos de = sin tan x dx =~ log cos x J cot ede = log sin x sec x dx = log (sec x + tan x) J cosee x dx = log (coseex — eat x) sect x dx = tanx Joosectx dx =— cot x [<= Nia? ~ x?) Sram Sama 2 (ve) [ a? —x2)de= a" sin = Via? ~x*) dx 3 Saint Va? ex2)dve2N@ +2) oe? ae (a* +x"), eo + 2 sinh cosh = () (a sin bx —6 cos bx) F Je cos bx ae = a (a e08 bx + sin xp (iy J sinh ede = cosh x J cosh x de = sinh x J tanh x dx = log cosh x J coth x dx = og sinh x sech® x dx = tanh x J cosech® x dx =—coth x wii) ERD B es (E,omly nis even) gf A EIB (Feonty i both mand mare wen) (witty [p09 dx = Pra 2)dx [iforde=2[[peode, —itfdis an even function =0, if fix) is an odd function. faddx=2[fede, — iffaa—x =f) if f (2a ~x) =~ fix).2, Lengths of curves (i) Lenth of curve y = f (x) between eos fal« wi Lmethofanesfo/bweny =a =bie 14S) |e 3. Areas of curves (@) Area bounded by y = f(x), x-axis and x= 6 ,x=bis ['yde > (ii) Area bounded by x = f(y), y-axis and y =a,y= bis [ xdy ii) Area bounded by r = f (0) and lines 0 = a, 0= Bis ape ao 4, Volumes of revolution (i) Volume of revolution about x-axis of area bounded by y = f (x), x-axis and x = a,x =b is [invtac (ii) Volume of revolution about y-axis of area bounded by x = f(y), y-axis and y =a, y =b is fix x dy (iii) Volume of revolution bounded by r = f (®) and @ = 0, @= B (aabout ox = f° r*sinede b)abour ov = ff 2, cos eae 5. Surface areas of revolution (i) Surface area of revolution about x-axis of curve y = fix) from x =a tox = b is Ss Scie yds ant Cartesian form: S= fom Sax where a _ | {) + (2) | > ay Puamaicfom: Saf rnin whee tate) «(4 = as ds fay (ary Polar form: S= [2m Zao whe s-((: (ay} (ii) Surface area of revolution about y-axis is {ane ds. 6. Multiple integrals @ Area = J iB dt dy; Volume = [* £ ededy or [" J [" dedyae ny dey Jf pacay __ ff vpacdy ffvea” ffpacay (ii) C.G. of a plane lamincocofamtirs Sf] rocearte 5 [ff yosrarde If spdedy ae J[fracayae” [ffodeayae*~ fff paxdya [Jmea ff mace (ii) Conia i wads a i (iv) ML about x-axis ie., 1, = Shoo" +2") dx dy dz Md. about y-axis ie..1, = fff pte? +2) de dy dz MA. about z-axis te.,1,= fff p(s" +y*)dx dy de 7. Gamma function T(n) i xl de = (n-1)!, Mn+ Dan Tn)=n!, M2) =e Pm) Tn) (m>0,n>0) Ton +n) Beta function (m,n) = Ll (xy dex VILL. VECTORS 1. @ TER = aT 49d 42K then r= | R |= ve +924 2%) (ii) PQ = Position vector of @ — position vector of P. 2. WA=a,l+a,J +a, K,B=b,1 +b, +b, K, then () Scalar product: A.. B= ab cos @ =a, b, +4, , +055, (ii) Vector product: A x B = ab sin @ N= Area of the parallelogram having A and B as sides Ig K =a, a as by by by Git) BL Asif A. B= 0 and A is parallel to Bif A x B=0 a a as 3. (i) Sealar triple product [A BC] =| 6, by) bs; | = Volume of parallelopiped 1 & os (i) If [A BC] = 0, then A, B, C are coplanar. (iii) Veetor triple product Ax (Bx C) = (A.C) B-(A.B)C (AxB)«C=(C.A)B-(C.B)A Fr, Fy, 4. ave Fy Fy ( grad f= Vf= S145 I+ 2K curl F I+ hd+hK fi fe (i) Ifdiv ¥ = 0, then Fis called a solenoidal vector. (iii) Ieurl F = 0 then F is called an irrotational vector 5. Velocity = dR/dt ; Acceleration = d*R/dt? ; Tangent vector = dR/dt ; Normal vector = V 6. Green's theorem: [odes vasr~ ff (% ) aa ae ey.L. To find CF. To find PL. @X=e, Pla e**, put D =a, Faso =e 7 e*, put D =a, F@)=0,f"(a) #0 =¥ pap SPMD =a. Ya) 0,77 (a) #0 (i) X= sin (ax + 6) or cos (ax +6) Phe ww ssin (ax +) [or cos (ax + 6)], put D? = —a, loa)? +0) $8 opp sin ee #8) lor cos ox + )), put DP = lola?) = 0, 6-0) 0) =x? 1 sin (ax + 6) lor cos (ax +6), put D® = Iya =0,9" Ca 20 eo) (iit) X =x", PL = a = f(D)" x” . Expand | f (D)}"" in ascending powers of D as for as D® and operate on x" term by term. Ww) xX=e4V,PL=—t ex vee_1_y, FD) Fb+a IIL, Complete Solution : OS. is = CF. +P. i ra dy aty ay * 3. Homogeneous linear equation : 2 £4 hx? TF + hye Gh + hy =X reduces to linear equation with constant coefficients by putting xeeye® opy x2 BY -pw-)y,39 LY -pwW-w-Dy dx a? dx ear partial differential equation » P, Q, R being functions of x, y, 2. To solve it (i) form the subsidiary equations 2 (iz) solve these equations giving u =a, v =. (ii) Complete solution is 6 (u, v) = 0 or u = ftv). 5, Homogeneous linear partial differential equations with constant coefficients: wz oe a hawt Symbolic form :(D" + ah D'+...+h,D 2 = Fx, y) ate wth, SS =F Gy) faa‘Avoasonx 1—UserU Inromunrion 11219 To find C.F. Roots of A.B. cK, Z a My My Ms, 6 eae Ce My My Migr asl eaters) Hla sit ec) GD) may mys Py one ee emg om To find P.I. @ F,y)=e8*, PL. = e+, put D =a, D'=b. AD, (ii) F (x, y) = sin (mx + ny) or cos (mx + ny) PL. FEE BD DA 80 0 608 (mer + my), pu DF =m, DD’ = min, Den? Gil) Flx, y) =x" y" , PL = (f(D, DY" x” y". Expand [f (D, DY and operate on x”y".] (jv) Fix, y) is any function of x and y, P.I. = jot y. Resolve UD, D’) into partial fractions considering f(D, D’) as a function of D alone and operate each partial fraction on Fs, ) remembering that 1 Finy)= | Foxc~ mx) dx. Complete solution: CS. is y = CF. + P.l. X. INFINITE SERIES 1. Basic test: If Lt u, #0 then the series x, diverges. 2. GLP. Series: Lt rt rte 19+... converge if | r | <1; diverges ifr 2 1 and oscillates ifr <1. .. © converge for p > 1; diverges for p <1. 4. Comparison test: Iftwo positive term series Eu, and Zu, be such that Lt = finite quantity (#0), then u,, and Bu, converge or diverge together. uy 5. Ratio test: In the positive term series Eu,.i , then tte series converges for k > 1, diverges for ine he < Land fails for k= 1. , then the series converges for k > 1, 6. Raabes' test: In the positive term series Eu,, if Lt of Une diverges for # < 1 and fails for & 7. Logarithmic test: In the positive term series Eu,, if Lt (i ) =h, then the series converges for he> 1, diverges for k < 1 and fails for & = 1. 8. Ifu,/u,,, , does not involve m as an exponent or a logarithm, then the serivs Eu, diverges 9. Cauchy's root test: Tn a positive term series Eu, if Lt (Un)"" = A, then the series converges for A < 1, diverges for > 1 and fails for 2 = 1. 10. Integral test: A positive term series Bf (n) converges or diverges according as { f(x) dx is finite or infinite where fix) is continuous in 1 < x < « and decreases as n increases. ‘ LL. Leibnite's test for alternating series: An alternating series u, —uy + 3 — uy +. is numerically less than the previous term and Lt, = 0 if Lt #0, then the given series is oscillatory. © converges ifeach termHicven Ewcnecrana Mannan] 12, General Ratio test: In an arbitrary term series Eu, if Lt “"* 2 |, then Ex, is absolutely convergent ne [ty if | h | <1and divergent if | k | > 1 and the test fails if | k | = 1. XI. FOURIER SERIES 1 fa) = 5 ay +, cos +0, c08 Be + +b, sin x + by sin 2x +... in (0 2n), where a= 4 [Pade 0,= 2 [Flo cosneds, 8, = + [yay sin med 2. fixd=Say+ Ya, cosnx + >) b, cos nx in any interval (0, 2c), ma a if am nm rf «AR where ay= (x) dx, a, = — (x) cos — dx, b, (x) sin — n= tf, Fedde, a, = 2] fx) cos offre sin 3. For even function fix), Fourier expansion contains only cosine terms. ie, aye 2 f'fendea, = 2 f pea) cos deb, = 0. For odd funetion f (x), Fourier expansion contains only sine terms. 2 ie, dy =0,4,= 0,6, [fe sin = de. XII. TRANSFORMS 1. Laplace Transforms. L (f(t) = fe fitdt @Lay=t a) Ley = ’ ° ii) Lee) = wa (w) L (cos at)= = * 5 wea (vii) L (cosh at) = (ix) Lf = sk f()-f(0) 1 ~ 7 (Owhent 0Standard 5-point formula: u,,; =i tiga j Niger tt 1 ima ij Diagonal 5-point formula: t, ; Ou eu (tii) Poisson's equation: ° 9). eq ae yr fay Standard 5-point formula: Wyaay tins, pt Mier tM jo, = Al RD atu oP 4(1-2d) u, 0, (iv) One-dimensional heat equation Schmidt formula: u, ;, = 0, when = 1/2, it reduces to Bendre-Schmidt relation: u, where a = ke%th® ahd ay +p 1 a innit Minty it (v) Wave equation: m oe Explict formula for solution is Uy, 4 = 2 oP e?) uy, + 0 C2 (a, Ifa is so chosen that the coefficient fu, simplified form 4, 1,j) th, jy where a=k/h zero ie, k = hie then the above explicit formula takes the yey Mais es Majd