Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Nutrition of Farm Animals 1000911304
The Nutrition of Farm Animals 1000911304
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
THE
"The
THE
MACMILLAN
NEW
YORK
COMPANY
BOSTON
DALLAS
CHICAGO
"
ATLANTA
"
SAN
MACMILLAN
FRANCISCO
"
LONDON
"
Limited
CO.,
BOMBAY
CALCUTTA
"
"
MELBOURNE
THE
MACMILLAN
CO.
TORONTO
OF
CANADA,
Ltd.
NUTRITION
THE
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
BY
HENRY
PRENTISS
DIRECTOR
OF
THE
PENNSYLVANIA
ARMSBY,
INSTITUTE
NUTRITION,
COLLEGE;
UNITED
EXPERT
FOREIGN
ACADEMY
OF
OF
THE
NUTRITION
MEMBER,
TURE
AGRICUL-
SWEDEN
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
1917
All
IN
DEPARTMENT
STATES
AGRICULTURE;
ROYAL
ANIMAL
OF
STATE
Ph.D.,
rights
reserved
OF
ANIMAL
OF
LL.D.
THE
Copyright,
By
Set
up
COMPANY.
MACMILLAN
THE
and
1917,
Published
electrotyped.
JUN
21
S.
Cushing
Norwood,
Co.
1917.
1917
Nortooofi
J.
June,
$regs
Berwick
"
"
Mass.,
U.S.A.
,0
"GI.A470024
Smith
Co.
PREFACE
The
animals
which
in
manner
presented
is
impart practical
of
of
principles
and
chief
and
of
But
of this
to
while
means
of
and
chemical
because
shall
which
the
Accordingly,
the
with
natural
the
and
seeks
with
of
be
which
points,
fullness
aim
expressed
in
almost
science
in
the
half
the
the
aspects
significance
convinced
that
training
greater
laid
be
the
upon
practice
and
importance
real
somewhat
underlie
collegiate
as
pline
disci-
well
as
deal
primarily
farm
animals,
to
animal
of
to
firm
dogmatic
mere
trie*
the
to
the
husbandry,
practice.
It
and,
statements,
of
citation
literature
even
evidence
experimental
of
the
limitations
opportunities
for
further
fundamental
the
discuss
is
feeding
persuasion
century
United
of
specific details
present
stock
of
of
indicatesomething
and
is
to
nutrition
field
complete
to
successful
based
the
attempts
broader
attempting
Its
upon
as
knowledge
present
results
business
intrinsic
made
the
governing
may
sufficient
liminary
pre-
course,
the
wisely
may
their
volume
present
far
important
study
student.
only secondarily
not
with
the
is
as
information
an
which
laws
to
the
so
regarded
believes
He
be
with
although
upon
thus
the
avoid
to
is nevertheless
receive
from
to
be
cording
ac-
purpose
stock, the
minimize
writer
of
may
laws
distinguished
as
live
to
to
desirable.
contribute
of
information
of
farm
differ
prime
agricultural colleges
our
account
on
subject
the
the
physiological
both
feeding,
related
sometimes
they
than
the
of
of
naturally
familiarity
disposed
is
nutrition
If
likely
nature
as
the
of
procedure
emphasis
feeding
upon
subject,
students
the
different
the
of the
aspect
for
that
no
view.
is
laid
the
subject, and
by
will
the
experience, particularly
of the
student
the
of
be
will
stress
of
nutrition
partake
to
subject
in
end
skill in
to
the
the
to
ultimate
the
to
the
ago
consciously
of
by
the
the
States, Professor
truth
father
Samuel
vestigati
in-
principles
or
sciously
uncon-
so
pithily
of
tural
agriculWilliam
Vi
PREFACE
Johnson,
that,
advanced
and
master,
the
knows,
the
he
more
guide
to
training
of
a
Bulletin
of
part
Agriculture
and
Agriculture";
in
indebted
named
The
Carnegie
The
F.
"
A.
Institution
Davis
Company,
43,
The
John
44,
and
W.
B.
Company,
inary
prelim-
elementary
an
net
similar
values
for
of
the
sion
permisstuffs
compilations
He
Feeding."
for
in
use
feeding
extensive
and
of
of American
Morrison
and
XVIII,
Department
Cyclopedia
their
Feeds
Chapter
the
for
"
energy
upon
"
in
Secretary
of
use
"
College,
191
of
Figure
Washington,
is
the
wise
likecuts
Figure
2,
3,
24.
17.
6, 7, 8, 16, 19,
Figures
15,
4,
29,
20,
and
22.
31,
32,
^3"
45.
Saunders
Wiley
May,
Figures
Company,
Macmillan
The
State
than
Ginn
37,
of
degree
States
following publishers
the
to
is the
rather
Honorable
United
Henry
the
of
edition
fifteenth
the
The
to
Bailey's
Appendix
the
in
contained
certain
Company
from
of
tables
the
base
to
the
Messrs.
to
student
reproduce,
to
of
459
of material
XV
Chapter
and
physics.
Macmillan
the
theory
true
reader, including
obligations
No.
to
and
permission
for
Agriculture,
"A
the
assumes
part
is under
author
The
economically
more
for
of the
chemistry
of
knowledge
the
on
he
more
practice."
and
farmer
the
for
directly
The
is the
sively,
deeply, comprehen-
that
intended
is
book
short, the
In
successful
more
farmer
farming.
the
and
work,"
the
more
think,
can
he
can
The
do.
the
equal,
which
his
be
must
can
he
clearly
of
theory
successful
advantageously
surest
the
complete
more
and
qualifications being
"Other
7.
Sons,
Pa.,
Company,
Figures
Inc., Figures
18
and
1,5,
40.
and
14.
34,
CONTENTS
PAGE
vii
Introduction
PART
MATERIALS
THE
NUTRITION
OF
CHAPTER
The
Components
Plants
of
Animals
i.
Dry
matter;
"
2.
The
carbohydrates
"
3.
Fats
"
4.
The
"
5.
The
"
6.
Sundry
proteins
3
7
bodies
related
ash
organic matter;
"
and
and
The
Lipoids
24
non-proteins
36
.
ingredients
39
CHAPTER
The
Composition
"
"
"
"
1.
2.
Animal
3.
4.
The
Animals
tissues
and
and
organs
of
composition
of feeding stuffs
the
and
as
66
OF
NUTRITION
III
Resorption
1.
organs
2.
The
chemistry
of
"
77
digestion
of
77
digestion
.
"3. Resorption
4.
61
.
II
PROCESSES
The
The
whole
"
42
45
animal
composition
CHAPTER
"
Stuffs
42
THE
Digestion
Feeding
of
cell
The
The
of
II
PART
"
16
The
determination
feces
of
89
105
digestibility
vii
in
CONTEXTS
Vlll
CHAPTER
IV
PAGE
Circulation,
Respiration,
123
Circulation
"
" 2. Respiration
" 3. Excretion
1.
Excretion
and
123
132
139
CHAPTER
Metabolism
"
"
1.
2.
144
General
Enzyms
agents
as
144
in metabolism
.
of the
carbohydrates
152
The
metabolism
of the
160
The
metabolism
of the
simpleproteins
nucleoproteins
6. The
metabolism
of the fats
"
" 4.
" 5.
"
" 8.
Functions
of ash
ingredients
182
192
"
1.
General
"
2.
Methods
"
3. The
"
4.
The
"
5.
of
Significance
conception
of
balance
balance
192
investigation
of matter
202
216
.
results
241
FEED
III
REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER
proteinkatabolism
"2.
The
energy
"3-
Conditions
1.
VII
Katabolism
The
"
194
of energy
THE
Fasting
VI
Nutrition
of
PART
The
178
of the nutrients
CHAPTER
Balance
168
171
7. Metabolism
The
148
metabolism
3. The
"
conception
katabolism
249
in
in
fasting
fasting
the fasting
katabolism
affecting
251
256
258
ix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
VIII
PAGE
Maintenance
"
The
"
Energy
1.
"
2.
Maintenance
"
3. Factors
"
4. The
energy
Requirements
.267
for maintenance
values
Net
requirements
271
animals
of farm
the maintenance
affecting
relation of the
requirement
requirement to
.
maintenance
.280
.
temperature
308
CHAPTER
1.
" 2.
" 3.
IX
Maintenance
"
"
1.
2.
Fattening
"
"
Matter
of
The
CHAPTER
The
Mature
of
.313
.332
348
Animals
350
.350
359
XI
Growth
371
"
1.
General
"
2.
The
utilization of feed in
The
feed
" 3.
of
nature
growth
371
growth
requirementsfor
381
growth
CHAPTER
396
XII
Production
424
"
1.
"
2.
factor in meat
"
production
"
4. Influence
Nature
The
of meat
animal
as
production
424
production
428
444
of external conditions
453
CHAPTER
Milk
313
CHAPTER
Meat
304
external
XIII
Production
459
"
1.
The
physiologyof
"
2.
The
animal
milk
production
production
milk production
" 3. The influence of environment
on
" 4. The utilization of feed in milk production
"5. Feeding.for milk production
as
factor in milk
459
470
478
488
500
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XIV
PAGE
Production
Work
531
1.
The
physiologyof work
"
2.
The
of the
efficiency
"
3. Feed
"
production
body
as
THE
FEED
CHAPTER
"
1.
Roughages,
"
2.
Roots,
The
"
1.
"
2.
" 3.
tubers
and
Values
578
579
Feeding
of
1.
" 2.
" 3.
XVI
Stuffs
591
Direct
comparisonsof feedingstuffs
Relative values based on compositionand digestibility
Conditions affecting
digestibility
Values
General
The
Feeding
of
values
Stuffs
computation of
Production
values
net
as
of
energy
"
values
regards protein
Rations
Feeding standards
Feed requirements
Method
of computation
597
601
630
630
regardsenergy
as
591
XVII
considerations
Production
Computation
"
572
fruits
CHAPTER
The
XV
concentrates
Production
" 1.
" 2.
" 3.
" 4.
SUPPLY
571
CHAPTER
The
IV
fodders
coarse
or
CHAPTER
Relative
560
Stuffs
Feeding
" 3.
544
requirementsfor work
PART
The
531
motor
Net
energy
values
634
....
667
....
678
XVIII
689
689
691
697
CONTENTS
XI
APPENDIX
PAGE
Estimated
Protein
Table
Energy
and
Maintenance
I.
per
Table
day
and
Animals
cattle
and
711
horses,
head
and
711
of
swine,
and
sheep
per
head
711
for
Requirements
III.
of
requirements
day
Farm
of
requirements
Maintenance
II.
Table
Requirements
fattening
all
growth
in
species
"
maintenance
with
considerable
no
addition
to
"
the
requirement
712
....
Table
IV.
Table
Table
Requirements
for
growth
V.
Requirements
for
milk
VI.
Requirements
for
work
with
no
considerable
tening
fat-
712
production
7i4
....
Average
Dry
Values
Matter,
of
Digestible
Table
VII.
Values
Table
VIII.
Values
Table
IX.
Values
Table
X.
Mineral
Protein
Stuffs
Feeding
production
the
by
7i4
Energy
Net
and
horse
per
ioo
Pounds
7i4
ioo
pounds
for
ruminants
7i5
per
ioo
pounds
for
the
per
ioo
pounds
for
swine
per
horse
721
722
....
of
elements
pounds
of
dry
stuffs
feeding
per
"
ioo
substance
723
REFERENCES
The
the
full-face
numbered
numbers
paragraphs
in
and
in
parenthesis
not
to
pages.
the
body
of
the
text
refer
to
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
PAGE
i.
Different
2.
One
end
3.
Part
of
4.
Fat
5.
Scheme
of
types
of
cells
muscle
composing
the
body
43
fiber
50
fiber
.
cells
5i
in muscles
52
......
of
fat cell
Successive
6-8.
9.
muscle
Sheep's
58
in the
stages
formation
of
tissue
adipose
stomach
59
'
80
10.
Stomach
and
11.
Stomach
of
12.
Intestines
13.
Ccecum
of
14.
Section
of villi
duodenum
of
horse
81
....
hog
of
81
.......
cattle
84
horse
.
15.
Steer
16.
Blood
17.
Diagram
18.
Scheme
19.
Relation
in
85
105
digestion
stall
113
corpuscles
of
124
heart
mammalian
125
....
of
circulation
of
blood
127
....
of
cells
to
blood
20.
Main
21.
Alveoli
of
22.
Section
of two
23.
Diagrammatic
24.
Scheme
25.
Original Regnault-Reiset
29.
The
30.
Horse
31.
Lavoisier's
32.
Section
^^.
The
34.
Dulong's
35.
The
36.
Rubner's
37.
The
38.
Rate
131
of
133
scheme
133
of
metabolism
182
closed-circuit
Regnault-Reiset
Pettenkofer
130
alveoli
26.
27.
lymphatics
lung
of
28.
and
trunks
lymphatic
Scheme
vessels
respiration apparatus
apparatus
Pettenkofer
210
used
as
by
Zuntz
211
respiration apparatus
respiration apparatus,
Mockern
209
apparatus
213
explanatory
sketch
213
respiration apparatus
for
equipped
ice
experiments
214
with
Zuntz
apparatus
215
calorimeter
222
.....
of bomb
calorimeter
224
....
Zuntz
tread
power
calorimeter
water
respiration
237
calorimeter
at
The
Pennsylvania
State
calorimeter
marbling
of
226
dynamometer
gain
of
protein
238
239
356
meat
......
of
College
per
1000
pounds
xiii
live
weight
379
ILLUSTRATIONS
XIV
39."Rate
40.
of
gain
of
energy
Lobule
of
milk
gland
Alveoli
of
milk
gland
per
1000
43.
44.
Structure
of
milk
398
gland
463
Partial
section
of
wheat
Partial
section
of
oat
Partial
section
of
maize
grain
582
grain
.
45.
weight
463
42.
live
462
41.
pounds
584
kernel
588
INTRODUCTION
and
indirectly
materials
the
essential
an
of
of
smaller
portion
stored
in
up
in
legumes,
value
animal
in
into
forms
human
plays
both
in
increasing
an
for
which
conversion
the
into
human
With
the
of
growth
important
supply through
the
performed
one
with
hand,
laws
as
part
in
power
of
the
place
the
also
in
is
the
utilization
maximum
governing
to
yet
as
products
largely
the
greater
or
of
inedible
its aspects.
farm
and
of
an
as
of
conserving
soil
efficiency.
XV
to
tory
fac-
agency
body.
function
nutrition
animal
destined
all
the
work
In
seem
of
the
by
replace
in
the
industry.
to
degree
no
conversion
motor,
suggestion
no
and
of
utilized
motors
animal
knowledge
the
contain
of
inedible
possible
by-products
of
of
a
the
be
ample,
ex-
grasses
non-agricultural population
this
man's
function
production
of the
that
intimate
that,
is
are
for
they
agriculture and
may
as
for
the
the
which
agriculture,are
can
inanimate
food, there
take
can
role
only
products contribute
and
fibers
textiles, while
our
which
these
energy
substitution
however,
Vegetable
extent.
fibers
important
an
of
farm
ucts
prod-
wheat,
as
agriculture is
animal
that
clothing
of
respects,
less
and
that
proteins
essential
possible
as
matter
of
The
of
of
means
fact
such
energy
systems
system
It is true
supply
our
But
whose
all
economical
inedible
the
nutrition, while
man.
proportion
body.
animal
fill
permanent
large
as
to
as
the
directly available
the
human
for
food
the
crops,
of
in
important
so
is
crops
for
of
or
society is to
directly,because
by
regarding
well-recognized
directly
in
products
energy
both
in
true
two-thirds
unavailable
be
man
consists
distinctivelyfood
than
more
solar
the
farmer's
the
Even
direct
of
farmer
function
of
animal
this
is
It
nutrition
into
vegetable
his
function
that
farm.
the
the
concern
the
Particularly is
animals.
may
for
of
part
conversion
use.
nutrition
indirectly because
"
furnish
of
of
problems
The
This
shall
requires,
of
the
animals,
food
the
products
possible
farm
it is increasingl
on
be
the
mental
fundaso
that
xvi
INTRODUCTION
transformation
the
and,
the other
on
hand, the
so
ability
greatest economic
the
secure
be
may
possiblewaste,
laws
apply these
to
return, since
it must
as
to
be
never
in agricultureis not
forgotten that the criterion of success
a
maximum
production but a maximum
profit. It is with the
former
portion of this complex problem that the present work
attempts
Without
and
primarilyto deal.
enteringinto the controversy
be
guiding principle,
may
including the
maintain
entire
of the feed
materials
crude
nutrition
mechanist, the
the
of
regarded
complex
activities of the
the
vitalist
animal, whatever
the
its
physico-chemical
process,
as
of
reactions
by
which
into substances
converted
are
between
cells
the
suited
capable of being
In other
built up into livingstructures.
words, the study of
nutrition is a study of the chemistryand physics of the changes
through which the crude products of the soil yieldanimal tissues
hand
and
the one
secretions on
or
excretory products on the
to
the
body
or
other.
dealt with the food as a supply of
investigators
and
matter, dividingit into inorganicand organic constituents
the latter between
the nitrogenous and
distinguishing
among
In other words, they studied
the
non-nitrogenoussubstances.
as
problems of biological
problems of nutrition substantially
fundamental
far to
went
investigations
chemistry. Rubner's
shift the emphasis to the physicalside of the problem. It has
tially
to be clearly
come
recognized that the animal body is essenearlier
The
of
the
more
or
transformer
stored
may
be
this
capacityof
secretions
up
"
which
the
can
animal
part of the
be
body
matter
to
and
store
up
energy
in itself
of the
It is
food.
or
feed
in its
it
sumes
con-
a
as
significance
gives the animal its economic
of the food supply. Its value in this respect depends
proportionof its feed which it is able thus to set
which
conserver
upon
aside
the
"
i.e. upon
the
balance
between
the
income
and
outgo
four
and
principaldivisions.
"
PART
THE
MATERIALS
OF
NUTRITION
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
CHAPTER
COMPONENTS
THE
"
1.
Dry
animal
The
matter.
two
at
weight.
2.
well
incidental
or
for
known
needed
as
plant
or
food
animal
with
solutes
Finally,
its
Water
study
is
and
are
an
action
is
In
It
its
it is
more
regarded
animals.
or
the
The
and
of
in
than
of
pressures
physiologicalprocesses.
of
living
supplied
to
live
not
the
The
stock.
because
water
be
to
matter.
chiefly with
important.
3
the
carrier
osmotic
the
chemistry
more
is
ism
organ-
tissues
and
solvent
transformations,
economically
too
reflection
part of the
supporting
as
factor
essential
an
as
lose
to
ceases
little
very
material
the
acts
important
in
the
matter.
living beings is
to
essential
as
usually abundantly
of animal
ordinarily
while
products
waste
related
supply
fundamentally any
matter,
dry
or
matter.
be
plants
supply
mechanical
strength.
intimately
of
water
ingredient.
a
dry
to
means
it
plant
consisting solely of
as
the
course,
no
water
until
regarded
component
the
it has
materials
of the
very
that
other
combined
and
water
water
require mention,
show
any
by
adequate
an
to
to
is, of
is
Water
"
is
weight
residue
the
Water.
necessity
in
loss
The
accidental
consisting of
boiling point of
the
while
water,
the
composing
are
above
or
Ash
Matter;
material
as
ANIMALS
AND
Organic
The
"
regarded
be
may
PLANTS
OF
Matter;
Dry
i.
but
the
dry
this
because
is
Organic
3.
matter.
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
By the action of
"
into
two
perature,
high tem-
be
may
separated
the gaseous
state,
solid form.
in the
Following
to
older nomenclature, it is customary
distinguishthese
gredient
ash," ininorganic,"or
organic and
portionsas
the other
while
the
behind
remains
terms, however,
The
since
supposed
Organic matter
the
during oxidation
be volatilized
be said
may
of the organism,
commonly used
carbon compounds
and
even
once
is
term
broadlyequivalentto
but
may
the
in which
sense
misnomers,
extent
some
between
be
to
are
such
no
in the
"
"
"
"
two
to
at
oxygen
or
the
may
element
same
in the ash
appear
accordingto circumstances.
For example, the element
sulphur is an essential ingredient
in air part of the
these are
of the proteins. When
burned
sulphur escapes in the gaseous form, but a part also combines
in the ash as sulphates.
with any bases present and appears
Even
the element carbon, distinctive of so-called organicmatter,
may
appear in part in the ash of the plantor animal in the form of
when
carbonates
radicles.
be
an
These
examples serve
integral
part
and
matter
to
of the molecules
yet appear
in
are
that
show
after incineration
element
an
make
which
of the acid
excess
in the
up
the
ash.
may
organic
it
Thus
has
elements
like
the structure
4.
Subdivision
of
"
"
organic
organic
organiccompounds found
is very
necessary
only the
great.
For
the
into
enter
molecules.
matter.
"
The
in the animal
present
purpose,
number
body
or
ual
of individin the
however,
plant
it is
not
consider
of the
body
may
be subdivided
into
COMPONENTS
THE
PLANTS
OF
ANIMALS
AND
sometimes
classed
togetheras
non-proteins.In
the
the
knowledge of
physical.
some
Mineral
5.
found
their
matter,
in the ash
and
both
generalproperties,
ash. "To
or
what
extent
reckoned
commonly
as
chemical and
the elements
the mineral
ments,
ele-
as
term
at
with
definiteness.
as
state
any
In
The
proportionof
ash in
siderably
con-
Cereal crops
Leguminous
Oil plants
.
The
crops
.
varies
proportion
In the
About
in the straw
most
Ash
matter
is
by
no
and
least in the
grain.
absent
(freefrom
from
the soft
gredient
body, however, of which it forms an essential inThe
proportionvaries in different organs, but as
the body, inclusive of the skeleton,
rough general average
tissues of the
contains
about
3.5
per
cent
of ash in
the
fresh
substance,
NUTRITION
about
equivalentto
FARM
OF
of the
cent
7.1 per
ANIMALS
dry
matter.
The
portion
pro-
mature
The
to
matter
"
metal
is
This
"
"
"
mineral
ingredient,while
which
Crustacea, the shell,
in
the
lower
animals
mals,
ani-
contains
chieflycalcium carbonate.
Magnesium.
Magnesium is also one of the elements essential
for plantgrowth. It is found throughout the plantin smaller amounts
than calcium,but is more
abundant
than the latter in the seeds and
In the animal
to aid in seed formation.
seems
body, magnesium
in
much
smaller
but
amounts.
usuallyaccompanies calcium,
Iron.
A small amount
of iron is requiredby the higher plants
for the formation of the green coloringmatter
(chlorophyl)by means
of which
mal,
they assimilate the carbon dioxid of the air. In the aniiron in small quantity is necessary
for the formation
of the red
(haemoglobin)of the blood which is the agent for
coloringmatter
conveying the oxygen of the air to the tissues. While, therefore,but
of iron is requiredby either plants or animals,1
a very small amount
"
"
it is nevertheless essential
1
It is estimated
to
the most
fundamental
of
man
an
adult
processes
of life.
of iron.
by chlorophyl-b
earingplants,and the great
vegetabletissue is composed either of carbohydratesor
dioxid
of carbon
of
mass
of their
The
carbohydrateshave
common
more
Starch is familiar
time.
tubers,and cellulose
forms, in the woody fiber
presence
in
of
since almost
known
has been
long
other sugars in
The
familiar fact.
for
of this and
honey, etc.,is
been known
in the
to us
in certain
sugar
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
plant juices,in
more
common
fruits,
sweet
sugars
were
separatedand
"
Monosaccharids,or simplesugars
8.
Composition.
the
by
general formula
formula
nine
known
are
carbon
and
atoms
monosaccharids
The
"
Cn H2" On.
whose
which,
may
Substances
molecules
from
represented
having this general
be
from
contain
chemical
one
to
point of view,
dehyde,
carbohydrates. The simplestof these is formalto be the first step in
CH20, which is believed by many
the synthesis
of carbohydratesby the green plant. Only the
the
as
C6 and C5 compounds, however, known
respectively
of importance in their
hexose and pentose carbohydrates,
are
be called
may
relations to nutrition.
9.
are
an
Hexoses.
"
The
most
important hexose
monosaccharids
dextrose,levulose,galactoseand mannose.
Dextrose,^-glucose,or grape sugar, is generallyregarded as
aldose
of the hexatomic
Sorbite
Dextrose
alcohol sorbite.
CH2OH:
CH2OH-
(CH
"
(CH
OH)4- CH2OH
"
OH)4-
CHO
It
and
levulose
cane
and
Galactose
in small
also
of
isomers
this
with
in
amounts
compound
known.
are
of
isomers
are
mannose
the
Sixteen
of which
possible,twelve
are
ANIMALS
AND
is found
and
sugar,
mammals.
of
blood
the
universallyin
almost
occurs
PLANTS
OF
COMPONENTS
THE
dextrose, occurring in
di- or polysaccharids.
as
only in combination
Levulose, or fruit sugar, is a ketose of sorbite, having the
formula
CH2OH(CH
OH)3-CO-CH2OH,
eight isomers
nature
"
possible.
being theoretically
in
honey.
plant juicesand
and
readily diffusible
found
those
in
nature
have
are
polarizedlight. Thus
right-handed rotation
They reduce an alkaline
of
fermented
and
in
less sweet
or
dextrose
water
taste.
in
and
All
and
levulose
left-handed
salts,especiallyof
of metallic
solution
rotation.
qualitativetest for
of quantitativedetermination.
a means
as
They are
by yeast, yieldingas the chief products ethyl alcohol
and
them
more
with
all soluble
are
and
copper,
mixed
occurs
monosaccharids
hexose
The
It
as
dioxid.
carbon
ing
simple sugars, correspondbut
the hexoses
to
C5H10O5.
having the general formula
aldoses.
Like the hexoses, they
Those
are
occurring in nature
reduce
metallic
able
oxids, but unlike them
they are not fermentby yeast.
10.
Pentoses.
"
The
pentoses
are
urine
in small
"
amounts.
there is produced a
By the hydrolysis of wood
Xylose.
gum
known
The
as
levo-rotatoryform
/-xylose.
dextro-rotatory pentose
of the same
(J-xylose)is obtained in the hydrolysis of certain
sugar
nucleo-proteins,the pentose group
seeming to be a constituent of
of those compounds.
the molecule
"
Rhamnose
is
derivative
of the
pentose
replaced by
hydrogen has been
widely in the vegetable kingdom.
of
sugars
methyl.
It
in which
occurs
an
atom
somewhat
NUTRITION
IO
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
Glucosids
monosaccharids
11.
not
Disaccharids
12.
as
The
hexose
group.
The
"
polymers or anhydridsof
of two
union
the
to
by
hexose
the
another
From
glucosidsof
Sucrose.
juicesof
the
sap
number
By
of
Sucrose,or
"
cane
familiar
more
the
reverse
C12H22O11 +
by
H20.
writers
some
has
utilized
are
commercial
as
it is present in
amounts
heat, aided by
be
may
dilute acid
with
brought about,
large
alkali,or by
or
molecule
and
levulose.
rotates
while,owing
greater than
to
the
is formed
to
sucrose
molecule
C6H12O6 -f-C6H12O6
of
yield one
plane of polarizedlight to
that of
molecule
one
of water
one
C12H22O11 + H2O
which
sented
repre-
of certain enzyms,
notably the invertase of yeast,
of the
of the general reaction
for the formation
each of dextrose
Sucrose
be
may
plants.
disaccharids
combining
long
be-
smaller
In
the action of
action
formation
equationCeHi206 + CeHi206
point of view they are termed
the
two
their
one
present known
at
of sugar.
sources
and
of
the elimination
only disaccharids
group
may
the monosaccharids.
of the
known
The
be
regarded
monosaccharids, formed by the
molecules
of water.
molecule
the
disaccharids
of
the
of levulose
equal parts
foregoing reaction
right,
rotates
is
of the
to
the
THE
left.
has
COMPONENTS
On
account
been
called
extended
to
OF
of this
PLANTS
inversion and
the
milk
Lactose, or
"
cane
of this term
use
sugar
has
been
of
monosaccharids,
than
It is less soluble
taste, having
in
this
ent
ingredi-
it may
be broken
of water, into two molecules
case
and
sucrose
characteristic
sucrose,
molecule
grittyfeel
is
Like
one
di-
monosaccharids.
sugar,
of mammals.
the addition
of
II
of the milk
up, with
ANIMALS
fact,this breaking up of
AND
dextrose
and
therefore less
in the mouth.
It is
galactose.
sweet
the
to
found
not
in
plants.
Maltose.
the
By
"
action
duringthe germinationof
of
animals, a disaccharid
of certain
seeds
and
known
as
ferments
maltose
tract
digestive
is produced. It is
when
13.
soluble
General
properties.
"
in water
The
starch
also in the
therefore present
sugar
upon
its
This
name.
of dextrose.
disaccharids
are
crystalline,
and
active.
Sucrose does not reduce
optically
alkaline copper
but lactose and maltose
do.
The
an
solution,
disaccharids are not fermentable.
Any cases in which they are
action
apparently fermented are found to be precededby some
inverts
which
breaks
or
up
the
disaccharids
into
their
stituent
con-
monosaccharids.
Trisaccharids
14.
the
By
elimination
the
as
molecules
of C6Hi206
molecules
of
with
be
One
ramnose,
barleyand
each
of three
two
compound
known
in
of
union
dextrose,levulose and
the
formed
such,
seed,
cule
mole-
galactose.
Polysaccharids
Chemical
sacchari
like the dipolysaccharids,
are
anhydrids,but are formed by the combination of
molecules of the monosaccharids
and have a correspondmany
ingly
high molecular weight. The generalformula of the hexose
the value of n doubtless varying
polysaccharidsis (C6H10O5)n,
15.
structure.
"
The
NUTRITION
12
through
wide
FARM
OF
but
range,
the
ANIMALS
dividua
weights of the indetermined.
finally
stances
usuallyamorphous sub-
molecular
hexosans, derived
anhydridsof
16.
The
those which
the
from
hexoses, and
the
pentosans, the
pentoses.
hexosans.
are
the
most
"
This
of
group
in the
abundant
carbohydratesincludes
vegetablekingdom and
derivatives.
It will be
important hexosans
more
convenient
to
in the order
somewhat
for
man
and
cellulose and
consider
of their
the
sistance
re-
to solvents.
17.
Cellulose.
Cellulose
"
constitutes
the
plantsand is also found in certain lower animals (tunicates). Clean cotton consists of nearly pure cellulose,each
fiber being a singlecell from which
the contents
(protoplasm)
of paper
have nearlydisappeared. Linen and the best qualities
other examples of nearly pure
cellulose. A
are
crystalline
walls of
form
Cellulose
to
described.
is insoluble in
reagents in
water
and
comparativelyresistant
enzyms
COMPONENTS
THE
in
cellulose
instead
in the
further
fact that
of
in the
yieldingonly dextrose,as
produces a variety of both hexose
former
mannose
includinggalactose,
dextrose,and
and
While
plant,the
the
analysis,
(109) and
19.
whether
true
cellulose
in the
hydrolysis,
of
case
to
xylose. The
"
found
are
loses
hemicellu-
of
both in the
extent
as
feedingstuffs
"
crude fiber
"
(110).
of
is
of
In
"
union
the framework
method
"
hexosans
chemical
or
greater or less
extract
nitrogen-free
cellulose,
the
sugars,
levulose,as well as
constitutes
serve
the young
cellulose.
With
nearlypure
and
the
pentose
and
In the conventional
hemicelluloses
Lignin.
and
in mixture
hemicelluloses
material.
reserve
13
regarded,therefore,as containingboth
pentosans, but
uncertain.
the
be
must
ANIMALS
These
"
with
AND
Hemicelluloses.
18.
PLANTS
OF
but
of numerous
by the deposition
incrusting
substances,"the most
important group of which has received
the collective name
of lignin. These substances contain a considerably
of
carbon than cellulose (54 to 60
higher percentage
be separatedfrom the latter by oxidizing
per cent) and may
agents. The substances of the ligningroup contain methoxyl
(" O CH3) and ethoxyl (" O C2H5) groups in considerable
are
amount, and by some
regardedas substituted celluloses.
so-called "crude
The
fiber.
20. Crude
fiber"
(109) of
plantscontains most of the cellulose and ligninof the cell walls
"
"
"
and
in addition
of carbon
to be
third group
the cutin group1
whose percentage
is stillhigher(60-75Per cent). Cutin appears
"
"
indigestible.
Starch
is
of the most
and
important
of the vegetablecarbohydrates. In the growth of plants,
starch is formed in the green leaves by the aid of light,
and is
In the mature
the first visible product of assimilation.
plant,
it is stored up in largequantities
in the seed or in the tuber to
supply the needs of the new
grains,
plant. Hence the common
well
as
potatoes, are rich in
corn, wheat, oats, barley,etc., as
21.
Starch.
starch and
legumes
"
form
contain
1
one
commercial
sources
it in less amounts
Compare Konig:
Landw.
Vers.
common
of it.
but
The
still
seeds of
most
abundantly.
In
NUTRITION
14
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
It is not
found
in the animal
body.
and
soluble substance
more
When
lose.
in
occurs
bursts
the
envelope and
substances
or
hot
water
known
as
the enclosed
granulose dissolves,
less hydration.
or
probably after undergoingmore
be hydrolyzedreadilyby dilute acids or alkalies
Starch may
or
by heat. The final product of its hydrolysisis dextrose,
in an
which
glucose or
impure form constitutes commercial
As alreadynoted,
Starch is therefore a dextran.
starch sugar.
certain enzyms,
notably those formed in germinating seeds
and others secreted in the digestive
tract of animals, act upon
Starch is also
starch readilywith the productionof maltose.
acted upon
speciesof bacteria with the formation of
by some
and in some
cases
lactic,butyricand other acids,methan
drogen
hy22.
Galactans.
"
Galactans
plants,other feedingstuffs
from
23.
in leguminou
particularly
being comparativelyfree
more
occur
them.
Inulin.
The
"
roots
of the
artichoke,dahlia,dandelion,
it is a levulan.
dextrose,i.e.,
24.
The
25.
Glycogen.
less
dextrins.
degreein
"
"
In
In
the
muscles
body, there
of
animals, and
is found
to
in rather
NUTRITION
"
Fats
3.
OF
Related
and
ANIMALS
FARM
Bodies
Lipoids
the
"
28.
or
of chemical
largenumber
"
Under
"
individuals
of varied
lipoids,"
fats,a
complex
(with the
true
and
structure.
the
be conveniently
principal
lipoids
grouped under
may
five heads : (1)fats,(2) waxes,
(4)phosphatids
(3)cholesterins,
or phospholipins,
(5) cerebrosids or galactolipins.
purpose,
The
29.
Occurrence.
animals
contain
It is
"
seldom
rise
may
the
as
below
falling
high as fortyin
material
reserve
inconsiderable
not
Fats
the very
of the body and
of
adiposetissue (94) consisting
called
more
or
less filledwith
tissue
are
found
fat.
in all
Larger
or
of
amount
the bodies
fat,the
lean animal
centage
per-
while it
fat animal.
The
is contained
in what
cells of connective
smaller
of
fat is
is
tissue
of adipose
amounts
in
parts of the body but especially
the subcutaneous
plants,fats
In
usuallyless abundant.
stored
plant but are especially
are
where
They
up
occur
in the
in
seeds,
material
which
is metabolized
as
reserve
they serve
seeds, like those of cotton, flax
during germination. Some
and rape, contain fat so abundantly that they are commercial
of oil. In the plant,'
the fat is not depositedin special
sources
tissues but is usually distributed through the protoplasm of
the
cell.
various
free
Both
animal
and
simple fats,often
fattyacids.
vegetable
fats
containingalso
are
small
mixtures
of
amounts
of
COMPONENTS
THE
Molecular
30.
structure.
AND
PLANTS
OF
The
"
ANIMALS
17
fats
simple neutral
are
tri-
which
radicles,
acid
OH
CH2
fat CH2
ORi
Glycerol
Neutral
fattyacids
The
unsaturated.
CnH2n02
lower
the two
acetic acids.
each
carbon
saturated
and
OH
OR2
to
"
CH2
CH2
"
"
have
acids of
of which
being united
same
OH
OR3
the
mula
general forthe aliphatic
series,
formic
as
of these acids
the
and
the
familiar
are
generalformula
The
"
fattyacids
the normal
are
members
atom
CH
"
be divided
may
The
CH
"
be the
not
may
or
may
is
adjacentones
and
as
follows,
by
single
bond.
CH3-(CH2)n
-COOH
The
are
two
are
beingbutyric,C4H8O2, caproic,
C8Hi602, capric,C10H20O2,lauric,C12H24O2
C6Hi202, caprylic,
and
myristic,C14H28O2.
found also higheracids of
In
the
the
same
body
fats there
have
been
arachnic
series,
particularly
acid,C20H40O2.
The
in
unsaturated
containingtwo
instead
than
of
one
in
or
and
the saturated
abundant
fattyacids
more
differ from
carbon
acids.
animal
CH3-(CH2)7-CH
united
Of the unsaturated
fats is oleic
=
acids
by two bonds
containingless hydrogen
atoms
consequentlyin
the saturated
acids,the
most
CH-(CH2)7-COOH
to
related
series of unsaturated
CnH2n_402 with
double
unions
of the
of carbon
general formula
atoms.
It is a
in the
two
acids
reactions.
Chemical
31.
the chemical
Of
"
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
reactions
of the
is that known
importance physiologically
as
more
or
hydrolysis. It consists of
strictly
as
saponification,
a cleavage and
hydrationof the molecule, yieldingglyceroland
of this reaction
familiar instance
is in
fatty acids. The most
For example, if tri-stearin is acted
the process of soap making.
fats,the
of
one
most
is
final result
represented
as
"
+ (KOH)3
C3H5(C18H3502)3
Potassium
Tristearin
In
soap,
(KC18H3502)3+ C3H803
hydrate
tristearate
Potassium
Glycerol
this
instead
of the
salt.
The
of acids,
decompositionmay also be effected by means
which probably act as catalyzers.
is the hydrolysis
of fat by
Of most importancephysiologically
Such enzyms
of enzyms.
are
means
produced by certain plants
and are also found in various digestive
juices,notably in the
same
of the
secretion
of
general name
to
appears
of low
may
be
the
lipases.The
reversible
molecular
effect
These
pancreas.
enzyms
hydrolysisof
reaction,at
In
weight.
of
have
other
fats
least with
words,
the
glyceroland the
an
equilibriumat
certain
the
by enzyms
glycerids
the
same
enzym
the combination
cleavage
glycerid
the
reaction in either
fattyacid,
or
received
case
of
reaching
stage.
general propertiesare
Their specific
to all the fats.
common
gravityis in all cases
less than one, so that they float on water.
They have a fatty
feel and leave a permanent
grease spot on paper or fabric. They
is soluble to a not
almost insoluble in water, althoughwater
are
in fats. They are readilysoluble in ether,
inconsiderable extent
of them
in petroleum ether,
benzol, carbon disulphidand most
but only sparinglyin alcohol.
The
melting point of the fatty acids increases with the
cult
molecular
weight. The exact melting point of a fat is diffifor the three common
to determine, but
glyceridsand
be stated approximately as
the correspondingacids it may
32.
Physical properties.
follows
"
"
Certain
COMPONENTS
THE
OF
PLANTS
Melting
AND
ANIMALS
Points
Oleic acid
-40 to -50 C.
140 C.
Palmitin
630 to 650 C.
Olein
.
Palmitic
fats
The
the
62. 6" C.
acid
Stearin
71.60 C.
Stearic acid
71.50C.
distinction is
19
commonly
made
between
fats and
oils,the
and
at
their presence
The
An
is
known
as
an
emulsion.
Fat
is said
to
be
emulsified
when, in
the
not
and
with
water
permanent,
risingto
certain
other
an
emulsion
is formed.
Such
the surface.
substances
prevent this
The
an
soon
of small
presence
dissolved in the water,
emulsion
coalescing
amounts
of
however, will
NUTRITION
20
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
and
of esters of lauric,
palmiticacids,althoughsmall quantities
myristicand arachnic acids and frequentlyfree fattyacids are
also found, as well as minute
of esters
amounts
of the higher
Since stearin and palmitin are
alcohols,coloringmatter, etc.
solid at ordinarytemperatures, while olein is liquid,the consistency
of a fat depends largelyupon
the proportion of olein
which it contains and varies not only between
different species
of animals but often in different parts of the body of the same
animal.
The
fats of cold-blooded
at
animals
animals
and
contain
olein
more
therefore remain
liquid
temperatures.
The
"
Table
i.
"
Composition
of
Triglycerids
Triolein
Carbon
77-31
Hydrogen
Oxygen
10.85
11.84
Total
100.00
Naturally,therefore,the composition
animal
different
Schulze
gave
speciesof
and
either
little,
animals.
Reinecke1
upon
the followingresults.
1
Landw.
The
the
of the
ordinarymixed
in different individuals
classic
in
investigationsof
compositionof
or
animal
fats
Table
Benedict
and
2.
to
be
Composition
"
fat
Table
average
PLANTS
Osterberg1 obtained
of human
The
OF
COMPONENTS
THE
3.
carbon
76.5 per
Animal
of
the
ANIMALS
21
Fats
followingfor
the
position
com-
commonly
sidered
con-
"
Composition
"
AND
content
of
Human
of animal
Fat
fat is
cent.
Waxes
35.
In
popular
usage,
upon
their obvious
well-known
feel
based
fats and
waxes
is
the
substances having
physicalproperties,
called
oils
fats
or
being
according to their
greasy
are
consistencyat ordinary temperatures while the waxes
solid,can
be kneaded
and lack largelyor wholly the greasy feel.
1
Amer.
NUTRITION
2 2
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
isocholesterin.
Beeswax
true
wax,
Cholesterins
36.
residue
of this group are found in the nonsaponifiable
fats.
In the animal organism they are
found widely
Substances
of various
distributed
through
normal
the
constituents
tissues in small
of
in wool
protoplasm.
amounts
As
and
are
ently
appar-
are
fats in combination
of the other
ether-soluble
cell constituents.
Phosphatidsor Phospholipins
Quite closelyrelated to the fats are the
substances
known
which are
as
lecithins,
sometimes, although
called
Like
the fats, the lecithins
inexactly,
phosphorized fats.
37.
Lecithins.
"
of
esters
derivative
addition
to
nitrogen.
of
NUTRITION
24
"
40.
Importance.
of the
matter
"
4.
animal
The
ANIMALS
Proteins
far the
By
body,
the
belonging to
these
FARM
OF
largershare
aside
organic
from
well-defined
stances
fat, consists of subof the proteins,
group
the results of
compounds, according to
of the
analysesrecorded
41.
Nomenclature.
has
molecule
and
even
Accordingly,the
substances
"
until
The
has been
been
for
but
of
structure
quite recentlybeen
yet has
basis
chemical
very
almost
the
tein
pro-
known
entirelyun-
partiallyunraveled.
of
therefore,
necessity,
the nomenclature
hitherto followed has been based chiefly
their physicalproperties,
their solubilities
on
more
particularly
and coagulationtemperatures.
Naturally,such a classification
has been far from satisfactory
and this has been the more
true
of the difficulty
of accuratelyseparating the different
account
on
or
proteinseither by precipitation
crystallization.
there has existed a great and confusingdiversity
Accordingly,
in the nomenclature
of the proteins,
and uniformityis stillfar
from having been reached.
desirable
For the present, it seems
to
follow
lacking.
matter
nomenclature
which
has
been
adopted provisionally
Society1
by the American
Physiological
This
and
the American
Society of BiologicalChemists.2
nomenclature
rejectsentirelythe term proteidas ambiguous
of the wide diversity
in its use, and employs protein
account
on
a
as
general term to signifythe group of substances which,
accordingto the nomenclature
adopted by the Association of
American
AgriculturalCollegesand Experiment Stations in
1898,3was called proteids. In other words, proteinunder the
new
plan excludes altogetherthe non-protein nitrogenous
substances
1
2
3
of
Proceedings,Amer.
The
OF
COMPONENTS
THE
this
proteinsin
2.
3.
defined
their
or
to
some
"
molecule
other
upon
contain
which
yielding only
gated
hydrolysis. Conjucule
the
protein mole-
those
as
derivatives
those
proteins are
united
into
25
Simple proteins
Conjugated proteins
Derived proteins
1.
amino
subdivided
are
sense
ANIMALS
AND
PLANTS
or
molecules
otherwise
than
salt.
Derived
"
as
soluble in water,
or
whether
realitya suspension,has
shown, however, that
been
these solutions
are
conductors
of
is in
been
electricity
and
it has been
concluded
that
26
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
43.
Coagulation.
An
"
is that of
coagulation.
egg albumin
be heated
of
important property
instance,if
For
550 C.
solution
the
proteins
ordinary-
of
the albumin
beginsto separate
in an insoluble form and at about 6o" C. the precipitation
is
complete. This change differs from the change in the case of
gelatinsolutions from liquidto solid in being irreversible,
i.e.,
be changed back to the soluble form.
coagulated proteincannot
It should be noted that this change is entirely
distinct from the
of proteinsby means
of ammonium
precipitation
sulphatefor
of the change is unknown, but it
example. The exact nature
would
All forms
of
the chemical
obtained
be in part chemical
to
seem
standingpass
"
proteinappear
sense
from
to
of the word.
solutions
more
form.
to
or
The
be
subjectto coagulationin
the precipitated
proteins
Thus
are
less
in character.
rapidlyinto
is true
same
but
on
"
the
of the
natured
decoagulatedor
solid proteinslike
Composition.
simpleproteins
The
pounds
simpleproteinsdiffer from the comin the previous sections in containing,
considered
in
addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
the elements
gen
nitroand sulphur. Notwithstandingthe considerable variation
in the properties
of the different simpleproteins
and the notable
differences which
"
have
been
shown
to
structure, their
Carbon
53-o8
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen
7.10
iS-93
1.90
21.99
100.00
The
as
variations
stated
by
in the
*
Cohnheim
Chemie
The
der
elements
percentages of the principal
and
by
Plimmer
Eiweisskorper,2d Ed.,
Chemical
Constitution
of the
are
"
p. 151.
Proteins,Part I, p.
2.
COMPONENTS
THE
AND
PLANTS
OF
ANIMALS
27
Plimmer
5i-55%
Carbon
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
15-17%
7%
Sulphur
0.4-2.5%
0.4
rule,the vegetableproteinscontain
of nitrogen than do the animal
proteins.
As
45.
the
proteinsis
very
large,but
latter
given concordant
weight of 16,666, from
the
pressure.2
For
weight of
the
result
results
which
the
for edestin
to
like those
mum
indicatinga minihas been computed
of determinations
5000
and
8000
figure10,166
is
These
14,500.
has
within
marked
minimum
been
figuresare
comparatively few
justmade
of its osmotic
For
albumin,
ever,
of value, how-
of the
years,
the limits of our
lar
molecu-
obtained.
reported,for
as
chiefly
showing the complex nature
Up
the
globinof haemoglobin,a
between
albumin,
of
of
reportedas
of the
Determinations
made.
of
weights are
determinations
satisfactory
C758Hi203Ni96FeS2. Confirmation
the formula
5378, and
very
been
structure
their molecular
have
molecular
serum
no
have
structure
methods
been
yet
as
"
and
molecular
The
proteins.
complex
very
magnitude
molecular
two
of the
Structure
higherpercentage
egg
cule.
proteinmole-
generalstatements
knowledge of the
nature
of the
structure.
1
Four
to
five per
cent
in keratins.
Zentbl. Physiol.,
21, 73".
28
NUTRITION
Hydrolysis of proteins.
46.
"
when
undergo hydrolysis
by various
or
FARM
OF
enzyms
ANIMALS
The
acted upon
such as the
simple proteinsreadily
the
the
substances.
the
When
hydrolysis,
acid hydrolysis,
of the simpleproteinsis pushed as
especially
far as possible,
there result a number
of comparativelysimple
for all
substances which are qualitatively
the same
crystalline
proteinswith a few exceptions,
although the proportionsof the
from
various products obtained
different proteinsvary
terially.
maIt is believed,therefore,
that the proteinmolecule
is
built up of these final products of hydrolysis,
the so-called
buildingstones."
These primary cleavageproducts of the simpleproteinsare
Cleavage products of proteins.
47.
"
"
all
amino
glycinor
:
acids.
One
be isolated
was
mula
acid, representedby the followingfor-
aminoacetic
"
CH3
CH2
"
NH2
COOH
COOH
Acetic acid
The
to
Glycin
other
I
CH
"
CO
is therefore
common
general chemical
which
they
are
NH2
OH
behavior
derived.
as
well
as
and
determines
that of the
their
proteinsfrom
COMPONENTS
THE
The
into
amino
two
acids derived
from
NH2
containing one
NH2
two
group,
To these
groups.
the
has
are
be added
to
certain
acid.
Glycin,C2H5NO2, or aminoacetic
COOH
CH2
(NH2)
Alanin, C3H7NO2, or a-aminopropionicacid.
COOH
CH3
CH(NH2)
"
"
"
3.
29
Monoaminomonocarboxylic acids
"
2.
ANIMALS
1.
AND
the
Plimmer
heterocycliccompounds.
the
PLANTS
OF
Valin, C5HnN02,
a-aminoisovalerianic
or
acid.
CH3\
CH
CH(NH2)
"
COOH
"
CH3/
4.
Leucin, C6Hi3N02
a-aminoisocaproicacid.
or
CH3\
CH
CH2
"
CH(NH2)
"
COOH
"
CH3/
5.
Isoleucin,C6Hi3N02,
or
acid.
a-amino-|3-methyl-/3-ethyi-propionic
CH3v
CH
CH(NH2)
"
COOH
"
C2H5/
acid.
Phenylalanin,C9HnN02, or jS-phenyl-a-aminopropionic
COOH
CH2
C6H5
CH(NH2)
or
/3-parahydroxyphenyl-a-aminopropionic
7. Tyrosin, C9HnN03,
acid.
COOH
HO
C6H4
CH2
CH(NH2)
acid.
8. Serin, C3H7NO3, or /3-hydroxy-a:-aminopropionic
COOH
CH(NH2)
CH2(OH)
dicysteine,or di- (/3-thio-a-aminopro9. Cystin, C6Hi2N204S2, or
HOOC
S
S
COOH
CH2
CH2
pionicacid)
CH(NH2)
CH(NH2)
6.
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
11.
"
"
"
"
Monoaminodicarboxylic acids
B.
10.
"
acid.
Asparticacid,C4H7N04, or a aminosuccinic
HOOC
COOH
CH2
CH(NH2)
Glutamic
acid,C5H9NOi, or a-aminoglutaricacid.
HOOC
COOH
CH2
CH2
CH(NH2)
1
The
Chemical
"
"
"
"
Constitution
"
"
"
I, 2d Ed.,
1912.
NUTRITION
30
OF
Arginin,C6Hi4N402,
HN
"-amino-y-guanidinvalerianic
or
Lysin, CoHi4N202
H2N
"
"
or
CH2
a,
CH2
CH2
"
"
CH2
CH(NH2)
"
COOH
"
e-diaminocaproic acid.
CH2
"
CH2
"
CH2
"
CH(NH2)
"
COOH
"
Heterocyclic
compounds
D.
Histidin,C6H9N302,
14.
acid.
C/NH2
NH
13.
ANIMALS
Diaminomonocarboxylic acids
C.
12.
FARM
or
acid.
/3-imidazol-a-aminopropionic
CH
^
N
NH
CH(NH2)
-pyrrolidin
carboxylicacid
CH
Prolin,C5H9N02,
15.
or
CH2
CH2
"
"
COOH.
"
CH2
"
CH2
CH
"
COOH
/
NH
16.
Oxyprolin,or oxypyrrolidinecarboxylicacid.
17.
QH9N03
acid.
Tryptophan, CnHi2N202, or /3-indol-a-aminopropionic
C
CH2
"
CH(NH2)
"
"
COOH
/x
CH
C6H4
NH
48.
have
Synthesis of proteins.
shown
of the
of
one
acids which
Fischer
"
and
the
result from
others
cleavage
elimination
of amino
exact
Peptids.
"
of
one
tnolecule
water.
As
as
many
18 molecules
in this way,
although the
less
of the resultingcompounds is still more
or
acids have
structure
of
been
combined
uncertain.
The
compounds of the
have received
artificially
amino
the
di-,tri-,
etc., being used
acid molecules
entering into
acids which
generalname
to
the
indicate
prepared
peptids,the prefixes
have
of
been
the number
compound.
The
of amino
term
poly-
Table
The
4.
Products
Cleavage
"
results shown
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
32
in the
of
Proteins
foregoingtable
typical. In
are
few
the various
cleavage products
of the most
one
proteins,
acid which
of wheat
to
abundant
more
51.
Classification.
to
The
ranges
littleover
enter
sign +
determined.
determined
into
quite variable
cent
it
seems
full description
of the various
in the different
For
"
is
show
that it
was
not
present but
the
was
ingredient in
present.
fluous
super-
simplepro-
quantitatively
not
question was
not
THE
teins.
The
COMPONENTS
principal
groups
designatedas
"
into which
are
Albumins
ANIMALS
they are
33
subdivided
are
coagulableby heat.
they include the albumins
serum.
AND
These
"
PLANTS
and
water
follows:
Albumins.
a.
OF
have
also been
Besides
the
of blood
found
in pure
familiar egg albumin,
and
serum
in small
of milk
in
amounts
great varietyof
pea,
b.
in pure water
but soluble in neutral solutions of salts of
bases
with strong acids. Globulins
found in the
are
and
the blood
and
serum
in the muscles
and
other
strong
lymph
organs,
but
Albuminoids.
This
"
name,
formerlyused
to
rye, the
malt.
able
consider-
possess
as
the
essentially
1
The
same
chemical
structure
as
the
other
34
NUTRITION
proteinsbut
are
characterized
form
They
neutral solvents.
appendages and
its
the
in all
by great insolubility
principal
organicconstituents
definition does
is,however,
artificialderivative
the
not
also been
constitutes the
which
provide for gelatin,
of collagen. Besides gelatin
organicbasis
of
and
cartilage
the ligaments;
of
epidermal tissues
such
the keratins
of the
chondrin,
are
ing
cover-
called sclero-
of this group
important members
more
which
collagen,
or
hence
proteins. This
an
ANIMALS
of animals
FARM
OF
hair,wool,
as
feathers,horns, hoofs,etc.
The
52.
Nucleoproteins.
conjugatedproteins
"
In
of classification here
the scheme
"
These
defined as follows :
are
(41),the nucleoproteins
proteinsare especiallycharacteristic of the nucleus of the
cules
vegetableand animal cell (74). They consist of proteinmoleof the compounds known
united with one
as
or
more
ing
These are
nucleic acids.
complex organiccompounds containalso a xanthin group."
a phosphoricacid radicle and
The simpleproteinsof the nucleoproteins
apparentlymay be
of the
and belong to various groups
of quite diverse nature
specialinterest of the nucleoproteins
simple proteins. The
attaches to the nucleic acids enteringinto their composition.
These
acids.
53. Nucleic
compounds contain in addition
the element
to carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
phorus.
phosoxygen
Their constitution has not yet been fullyworked
out,
but their cleavage yieldsfour classes of products,viz.,
followed
"
i.
2.
3.
4.
According to
the
the recent
acid
nucleic
Xanthin, or purin,bases
Pyrimidin bases
A pentose carbohydrate
Phosphoric acid
molecule
of
investigations
may
be
regarded
combinations
nucleosids,or glucosid-like
with
nucleosid
of
purin or pyrimidinbase. By
with phosphoric acid there is
a
Finally,the
most
common
nucleic
Levene
acids
and
others,
built up
as
pentose
from
drate
carbohy-
the union
of such
formed
nucleotid.
are
tetranucleotids.
which
OF
COMPONENTS
THE
always
seem
to contain
PLANTS
both
AND
ANIMALS
purin and
35
pyrimidinnucleo-
sids.
54.
Glycoproteins.
of the
The
"
"
glycoproteinsare defined
proteinmolecule
with
substance
other
than
are
group
as
pounds
Com-
substances
or
nucleic
the mucins
and
acid.
the
mucoids."
55.
Phosphoproteins.
"
These
are
the
defined
compounds of
yet undefined,phosphorusas
and
57.
with
of the
"
protein molecule
lecithins.
The
58.
of the blood.
coloringmatter
Lecithoproteins.
Compounds
derived
proteins
protein derivatives.
Primary
formed
through
"
Derivatives
hydrolyticchanges which
of
involve
protein apparently
only slight
Insoluble
"
products which
apparently result
from
the
very
group
weak
acids
and
alkalies but
insoluble
"acid
in neutral
proteins"and
fluids.
This
"alkali proteins,"
the salts of
proteinswith acids.
Coagulatedproteins. Insoluble products which result from (1)the
action of heat on
their solutions,
the
or (2) the action of alcohols on
protein.
59. Secondary protein derivatives.
of the further
Products
hydrolyticcleavageof the proteinmolecule.
Soluble
in water, uncoagulated by heat, and
Proteoses.
cipitated
prezinc
or
by saturating their solutions with ammonium
sulphate.
Peptones. Soluble in water, uncoagulated by heat but not precipitated
by saturatingtheir solutions with ammonium
sulphate.
of two
Peptids. Definitelycharacterized combinations
or
more
amino
the
acids,
carboxyl group of one being united with the amino
of
the
other
with the elimination of a molecule of water
group
(48)
not
"
"
"
"
"
36
NUTRITION
"
60.
and
Occurrence.
"
contain
animals
considerable
Non-proteins
5. The
addition
In
a
to
the
proteins,both
great varietyand
of
amounts
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
plants
relatively
sometimes
the
most
of such
pecially
compounds, esfrom an early day, it was
in feedingstuffs,
known
was
relatively
cant
insignifipresent were
long assumed that the amounts
in regarding all
involved
and that no material error
was
the nitrogenof a feedingstuff as existingin the form of protein.
Accordingly,the total nitrogenmultipliedby the conventional
crude protein was
taken as
factor 6.25 and designatedas
of the material.
The
representingthe true protein content
While
diverse nature.
occurrence
"
researches of
however, showed
was
were
that
found
very
one-third
"
that
this
was
Kellner
far from
nitrogenous substances
widely distributed
that
even
of the
seventies,
being
the
other
than
sometimes
as
case.
It
protein
much
as
nitrogen of feeding
These
results
stuffs existed in these non-proteincompounds.
and it
have been fullyconfirmed
by subsequentinvestigations
between
these
to distinguish
has therefore become
necessary
and the true proteins.
substances
these nitrogGeneral
61. Definition.
properties. While
enous
varied
compounds other than protein are of the most
less
nature, they all differ from the proteinsin having a much
Complex molecular structure.
Many are comparativelysimple,
of them
substances,most
crystalline
readilysoluble in water
and diffusible,
and they appear
inferior in nutritive
distinctly
value to the proteins. It is a matter
of practical
convenience,
have
them
to
which
to distinguish
a group
name
therefore,
by
and for this purpose
the term non-proteins
has been proposed.
It is,of course, a contraction for non-proteinnitrogenoussubstances
and means
simply substances which contain nitrogen
but are not proteins. It therefore includes a great varietyof
for
a
cover
compounds and may be considered as in a sense
The
our
more
ignorance of their exact nature.
important
of
non-proteinsare:
groups
or
one-half
and
in the
total
"
"
The
nitrogenousmuscle extractives
The nitrogenouslipoids
THE
COMPONENTS
The
OF
PLANTS
AND
ANIMALS
37
nitrogenousglucosids
and organicbases
Alkaloids
Amino
acids and
Nitrates and
62.
The
muscle
muscle
bases
extractives
includes
and
more
important nitrogenous
creatin,creatinin
are
and
the
purin
"
number
of
contained
noted
lipoids.
the lecithins.
are
The
"
which
contain
cerebrosids,
with fatty acid radicles.
this group
salts
hypoxanthin.
Nitrogenous
group
ammonium
extractives.
xanthinand
63.
amids
nitrogenous group
The
The
familiar members
most
actual
in combination
of
stances
of these sub-
amounts
or
their
Alkaloids
and
organic bases.
Alkaloids
"
are
tively
compara-
in
agricultural
plants,the seeds of the lupineforming
the principalexception. The
the other
organic bases, on
hand, appear to be somewhat
widely distributed. In addition
"
hexon bases
to the so-called
derived
arginin,lysinand histidin,
from the proteins and nucleo-proteins,
the bases cholin,
and stachydrinhave been found in a variety
betain,trigonellin
of plants.
rare
"
65.
The
Nitrogenous glucosids.
"
characteristic
of
substances
the
of this group
They contain
vegetable kingdom.
a
nitrogenouscompounds coupled with simple sugars.
The nitrogenousglucosidsdo not appear
to be especially
dant
abunin the ordinary feeding stuffs of domestic
animals
and
where they do occur
rather by their specific
are
distinguished
physiologicaleffects than by their nutritive value in the ordinary
are
varietyof
sense.
which
have
66.
Amino
the most
Schulze1
E.
been
found
acids
abundant
and
forms
mentions
in various
amids.
"
bodies
seven
of this class
plants.
These
substances
of
are
by
far
non-proteinin vegetablematerials.
The first one
in 1805, in asparto be discovered was
asparagin,
agus
this
and
substance has since been found in a large
shoots,
number
of plants or parts of plants. Glutamin, a second
in plants.
amid, is also of frequentoccurrence
1
Jour. Landw.,
52
(1904),305.
38
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
COOH
COOH
COOH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
"
CH
NH2
"
NH2
COOH
CO
Aspartic acid
CH
NH2
"
"
CH
NH2
COOH
less
or
thus
NH2
Asparagin
Glutamic
It has
"
used
commonly
about
come
as
"
NH2
Glutamin
amids
has been
for the
generaldesignation
nitrogenoussubstances
however, is unfortunate.
class of chemical
CO
acid
in
found
The
substances
feedingstuffs.
word
amid
denotes
more
tein
non-pro-
The
usage,
distinct
of which
Hart
Bentley
of the water-soluble
as
amounted
amino
to
Occurrence.
relation
be in
to
from
acids
found
well
from
guanidin,allantoin
various vegetablematerials.
as
that from
50
cent
to
20
per cent.
evidentlystand in a close
to the proteinmetabolism
of the plant. They appear
of protein
part intermediate productsin the synthesis
"
These
nitrates and
substances
ammonium
in part to be formed in
for their translocation and
salts and
cleavageof proteinsnecessary
resynthesis
duringthe processes of growth. They
are
especially
2
Ztschr. Physiol.Chem., 45 (1905),38.
(1904),305.
4
Jour. Biol. Chem., 22 (1915), 477Physiol.Chem., 47 (1906),507.
Jour. f. Landw.,
3Ztschr.
70 per
isted
nitrogenof a varietyof feedingstuffs exwhile the amid nitrogenproper
or
peptids,
only 10
the
to
52
not
great variety of ingredients
Similarly,plantscontain
strictlybelonging to any
of
do not
food
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
40
the
four
main
often add
feeding stuffs,but, on
cases
considerablymodify
the
the actual
have
feeding stuffs
of
received
other
their
the
the potential
greatlyto
of
value
In
groups.
hand,
palatability
and
affect
so
gredien
secondaryincomparativelylittle
attention.
Organic acids.
69.
Aside
"
the small
from
of free
amounts
of
Ethereal
complex
oils in their
in
oils.
molecular
The
of
Familiar
steam.
peppermint,lemon, anise,and
they have any direct nutritive
add
odor
of
the
stimulate
to
the
hay, for
ethereal
oils. To
and
71.
the
sense
food
of
cases
The
the
of
lieved
be-
agreeable
vorable
part its fa-
in
erties
prop-
ethereal
oils
in
and
general.
"
What
is called
are
resembling in
class
same
they
whose deleterious
garlic,
dairyproductsis so well known.
Flavoring substances
flavor of
on
the flavor of
some
doubtless
substances
in
known
but
themselves
digestiveprocesses.
example,
dietetic effect,
is due to
good
value
of feeds and
aroma
It is not
the like.
oils of
that
substances
nature, somewhat
physicalpropertiesbut
current
"
the
the action
either
con-
tained
foods,
bitter
of
or
whose
and
properties
The
known.
the
from
aside
gums,
is
palatability
direct
any
little
feed,
these
upon
nutritive
is
cated,
indi-
factor
will
etc.,
ingredients,
accessory
effect
etc.,
already
as
of
nothing
or
important
an
cooking.
resins,
waxes,
of
case
variety
great
of
the
during
effects
palatability
dependent
that
fact
contain
41
in
especially
physiological
and
flavor
usually
are
while
substances,
astringent
ANIMALS
developed
or
feeds
stock
oils,
AND
or,
added
artificially
ethereal
Besides
PLANTS
originally
material
the
in
human
OF
COMPONENTS
THE
in
in
appear
trition
nu-
later
discussions.
Vitamins
72.
been
yet
devoted
rather
their
ill-defined
and
are
properties
in
and
their
growth
few
past
of
group
however,
considered
maintenance
the
vitamins
chemical
Much
substances.
attention
has
"
during
investigators
substances,
Growth
by
food
others
known
and
by
may
relations
(438,
to
years
498,
important
an
constituents
effects
therefore
to
738).
by
substances.
growth
their
called
but
the
more
some
These
rather
be
as
than
by
ately
appropri-
requirements
for
CHAPTER
THE
OF
COMPOSITION
ANIMALS
"
Definition.
73.
of all life.
unit
exist.
can
relation
molecule
in its
seen
in which
As
united
to
cell
form
to
as
that
of the
cells
the
such
74.
cell
Structure
body,
of
distributed
of form
in
the
Fig.
cells.
of
from
cell
a
the
cells
of labor
and
the
The
extreme.
likened
of the
single citizen
forms
of animal
i.
The
"
remainder
of
part
the
nucleus.
All forms
entire active
of
dissolublyassociated
and
consists
cell
typical
is the
often
of
separate
It
should
is not
be
The
cell.
more
cell
the
was
as
well
but
as
animal,
through
by Huxley
understood, however,
chemical
not
protoplasm is often
cell,i.e.,to cytoplasm plus
manifested
called
or
name
part of the
and
the
The
nucleus.
somewhat
to
serves
life,vegetable
with
which
protoplasm,
of life.
the
of
that
to
distinct
membrane,
surroundings. Sometimes
a
wall, is developed, especiallyin plants, although this is
necessary
or
are
an
been
are
being
its
applied to
of
singlecell.
numbered
diverse
or
than
of cells
cells
reach
the
complex
different
the
has
same
vital functions
functions
few
to
number
among
which
cytoplasm, within
peripheral portion of the cytoplasm is
compact
does
the
organization
individual
living matter
performed by
are
biological
somewhat
physiological division
an
represented
are
of life
nation, in which
or
one
in unicellular
of
STUFFS
the
as
which
atom
higher organisms
highly specialized.
are
of
differentiation
organization of
state
the
while
corresponding
in
plant that
scale
the
In
defined
or
less extent
or
by myriads,
the
FEEDING
simplest
regarded as bearing
functions
one
groups.
be
form
simplest form
in
greater
such
all the
ascend
we
cell may
be
might
OF
Cell
It is the
the animal
to
organic
It is
It
AND
The
i.
The
"
II
biological
the
are
the activities
physical
the
that
word
It is
term.
42
in-
basis
toplasm
pro-
struc-
COMPOSITION
ture
OF
ANIMALS
substance.
than
rather
to
common
kinds
are
all
OF
AND
FEEDING
STUFFS
Moreover, there is
cells,but
as
many
not
43
one
toplasm,
pro-
protoplasmsas
there
of cells.
the
sharp differentiation between
those
of the cytoplasm. The
functions of the nucleus and
concerned in cell reproduction,
to be especially
nucleus appears
is
There
Fig.
1.
or
less
"
the formation
nucleus
more
of
of
new
continued
an
of
at
least
minimum
function
the
cytoplasm, on
of it is essential
amount
of the
the
the
it is unnecessary
to attempt a
details of the structure
of the cell which
by
Horse
cell
existingc"U
main
of its cytoplasm. The
the other hand, seems
to be
presence
(Hadley, The
have
been
and physiologist.
histologist
worked
out
NUTRITION
44
75.
FARM
OF
Composition of protoplasm.
ANIMALS
The
"
chemical
constitution
of
protoplasm is unknown,
partlybecause it is undoubtedly
living
because of its instability
and the impossibil
very complex but chiefly
of isolating
it without at the same
time destroying
its life. Moreover, it doubtless varies materiallyin cells of
different types. The
with each
proteins,perhaps combined
other
into
giant molecules," undoubtedly constitute the
basis and predominatingingredient
of protoplasm,but certain
and cholesterins),
ash ingredients
(lecithins
lipoids
(electrolytes),
and perhaps glycogen and other carbohydrates,in addition,
"
is
tubers,the
and
roots
cell wall
remains
in mature
tissue. In other parts of
comparativelythin even
the plant,on the contrary, it becomes
thickened by
very much
of additional cellulose and especially
the deposition
of substances
other
to
be
than
cellulose.
These
other
essentially
carbohydratesor
general kinds.
The
which
readilyattacked
pure
of
The
are
more
cellulose and
reserve
second
material
substances, which
their derivatives,
are
first of these
of two
(18),
is the hemicelluloses
by hydrolyzingagents than
constitute to a large extent
a deposit
which
and
appear
include
both
and
hexosans
pentosans.
ligninand
belonging
cutin groups
(19,20),which serve to impartstrengthand rigidity
less impermeabilityto the cell wall.
or
along with more
They
in older plants as comabundant
pared
are, therefore,particularly
with
consists of substances
younger
and
ones
cell wall is
as
seen
in those
the stem.
in wood.
the
to
organs
The
A
which
extreme
few
serve
form
of the
to
of the
numerous
AND
vegetable cells
of
forms
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
in
illustrated
are
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
45
Figs. 43-45
of
Chapter XV.
Cell enclosures.
77.
cytoplasm and
of the
a
variety of
entered
has
which
products of
of waste
cells have
many
may
is on
consist of food
its way
protoplasm, or,
activityon their
of
the power
to
in cells
on
material
porated
being incor-
the other
way
hand,
creted
being ex-
to
surroundingmedium.
from
observed
are
of
cell
essential constituents
the
designated as subsidiaryingredients
These
to
there
nucleus
substances
other
cell enclosures.
or
addition
In
"
Moreover,
storingup surplusfood,especially
material.
Such material
non-nitrogenoussubstances,as reserve
is not usuallyregarded as constitutinga part of the protoplasm
but as being simply included in it mechanically.
in the animal is fat,which
cell enclosure
The
most
common
is contained in large quantityin certain connective tissue cells
and
the
constitutes
in
also store
the
reserve
fuel material
of the animal
much
storage
limited
the
up
of
large amounts
of fat in their
materials
predominatingreserve
of
body,
more
plants
seeds,nevertheless
vegetablekingdom
carbohydratesof the
in the
Both
and
because
the
animal
of the
chemical
composition of
the
cell wall
nature
cells and
"
tissues
2.
are
Animal
proteidor fattyin
chiefly
Tissues
and
character.
Organs
Classification.
"
Not
46
NUTRITION
form
to
such
organs,
liver and
the
as
AMIMALS
the
as
like,each
interplayof
FARM
OF
activities necessary
organism
whole.
treatise
to
anatomy, it is unnecessary
consider in detail all the diverse types of tissue or all the various
a
on
organs
the
up
classification.
lage,
supportingtissues,
bone, tendon,cartiincluding
ligament,elastic tissue,etc.
tissues of motion, including the muscular
Second : The
First
The
tissues and
Third
and
the
The
and
respiration
:
The
The
Fifth:
tissue,those
the
or
system.
nervous
alimentation,includingthe tissues
in digestion,resorption,circulation,
tissues of
concerned
organs
Fourth
tissues
nerve
excretion.
epidermaltissues.
reserve
tissues, including,besides
tissues in which
glycogen is
more
or
adipose
dantly
less abun-
stored.
The
79.
animals
Intercellular
supportingtissues
substance.
"
an
the bodies
In
of the
development
enormous
higher
of the
so-called intercellular
greater
or
is
entirelyhomogeneous
less number
of fibers imbedded
but
in
of
By virtue of the specialproperties
the intercellular substance, tissues of this sort perform primarily
mechanical
functions,maintainingthe form of the body
while the cells
or
servingto connect and support other tissues,
homogeneous
themselves
serve
basis.
to produce and
principally
substance.
The
organicbasis
maintain
the intercellular
group
48
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
carcass
of the
animal
81.
Bone
83.01 per
in the bones.
of the ash
cent
gen
Of the total nitro-
in the
recorded.
not
are
and
of
carcasses
contained
was
contained
was
ANIMALS
ash.
But
"
is quitevariable,that of
while
the
species. The
phosphate but it contains,also,calcium carbonate as well as
phosphates and carbonates of magnesium and other bases.
The average
compositiongiven by Zalesky' is as follows :
different
"
Table
5.
Composition
"
of
Bone
Ash
of
Species
Different
Turtle
%
Calcium
phosphate
phosphate
.
85.98
1.36
Magnesium
Calcium
combined
.
dioxid
5-27
analysesby
Gabriel2
yielded the
following
"
Table
6.32
....
detailed
More
results
C02
CI, Fl
Carbon
with
Neumeister
2Ztschr.
6.
"
; Lehrbuch
Physiol.Chem.,
Composition
der
18
of
Bone
Ash
PhysiologischenChemie, 1897,
(1894),257.
p.
456.
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
OF
AND
FEEDING
STUFFS
49
of
small
82.
of
the
in
down
end
amounts
tissue.
of the
cartilaginousground work
into bone.
the embryo is converted
of bones
surfaces
at
skeleton
all
laid
as
the
particular,
which in
cartilage,
adjoining bones,
In
of
jointconsist
Not
"
which
muscles
the
forms
cases
body
attached
are
impart motion
to
serve
the bones
to
the
to
by
various
the
the
and
the
parts of
of tendons.
means
In
supporting tissue
abundant
are
the
of elastic tissue
gives them
blood
pumped by
"
The
in the walls
contained
certain
the
to
degree of resilience
of the
arteries which
to the pressure
of the
the heart.
"
sue,
organic portion of all these forms of supporting tisof
like the organicportion of the bones, consists essentially
different proteinsbelonging to the group
of albuminoids.
Connective
83.
tissue.
This
"
is
name
sometimes
applied
of
or
various
lean meat,
forms
and
servingto
careful examination
shows
tissue is continuous
with
between
the
them
that
other
and
singlemuscles
and
connect
them.
of connective
tissue extends
into muscular
bundles
or
connect
them
together. A
this subcutaneous
similar
serves
Not
at
only
same
so,
but
time
extends
to
limit
de-
this sheath
itself,
dividing it
these againinto secondary
fasciculi and
connective
tissue which
the
more
NUTRITION
5"
The
fasciculi.
connective
is continuous
of which
means
form
the muscles
muscle
of connective
tendons, by
attached
are
the
to
(Fig.2).
of connective
similar sheath
with
tissue
bones
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
of* the
them, forming
tissue surrounds
and
body
framework
extends
which
as
into
supports the
well
as
the blood
If
Fig.
One
2.
of
end
fiber.
muscle
and
(Hough
Sedgwick,
The
Human
Mechanism.)
which
in connective
it is
however,
of fat
tissue consists
composed
of
also store
may
collagen. Cells
within
up
ically,
Chem-
fibers.
of connective
themselves
tissue,
largeamounts
(94).
Tissues
84.
chieflyof
The
animal
muscles.
"
Both
of motion
the
external
of
movements
an
and
nearly all
mass
body
of
the
proteincontained in
The compositionof muscle
carcass.
is of special
interest.
85.
Structure
muscular
of muscles.
"
The
make
lean
the
up
animal
edible
and muscular
largepart
and
furnish
portion of
the
therefore,
tissue,
smallest anatomical
element
of
tissue is the
nuclei.
"
are
very
thin
transparent
membrane
and
contains
many
hundreds or even
thousands
largenumber of these fibers
bound
togetherto form a fasciculus,the fibers running lengthwise
each
and overlapping
other,being generallyshorter than the
A
"
surrounded
by
its
serves
in
connective
is
of
86.
various
lipoidsand
the
in greater
less
or
such
But
protoplasm.
tive
ac-
ing
considerof
the
limitation of the
entire
is
muscular
fibers,and
with
that
Since,however, the
muscular
tissue,
nerves,
less of the
Fig.
the nutrition
muscle
system,
structures, and
rather than
little suited
we
not
are
as
merely for
productionof
the
"
"
meat
muscle-fibers.
contains
variety of tissues
sense
narrower
"
connective
with
more
or
fluid
contents
of the
latter
(Hough
tissue in the
blood and
of
Part
"
fiber.
all
with
of the ultimate
lean
3.
Human'Mechanism
build
requiredto
aside from
rational from
In
animal, material
all
in
amounts
present purpose.
its accessory
the muscle
to
the
electrolytes
standpoint,is
anatomical
amount
the
extractives
tissue,however
muscular
the
to
accessory,
protein, meat
the
up
the
elements
structural
of water,
found
up
may
it may
probably be
tially
general wray that it consists essen-
as
said in
are
producing motion,
other
muscle
of the
moreover,
and
If
"
limited
be
fibers which
muscular
the
muscles.
of
tissue
muscular
agents in
to
lymphatics
and
material.
Composition
ultimate
an
connective
tuting
consti-
far from
animal, are
an
homogeneous
term
bundles
of fat.
and
The
muscles.
blood
contain
term
tissue,these
vessels,nerves
abundantly supplied,and,
carry
51
united
the individual
the
STUFFS
previousparagraph (83),
into largerfasciculi,
tissue and
envelope of
form
muscle
the
which
with
FEEDING
OF
stated
connective
or
tissue
AND
as
fasciculi,
These
fasciculus.
are
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
even
"
it is evident
that its
considerable
and
variable
it is practicable
ever,
This fat, howseparate mechanically has been removed.
forms no part of the muscle proper but is simply a deposit
NUTRITION
52
of
individual
the
between
size from
the
largermasses
the scalpel.It
with
lean
between
of
content
fat,and
which
be
may
is necessary
in the commercial
meat
bundles
fibers and
muscular
of
masses
muscle
the
between
(94) developed
tissue
in minute
It is contained
material.
reserve
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
adipose
even
or
in
only
differing
trimmed
off
or
moved
re-
fore,
theredistinguish,
to
sense, with
its varying
lean meat
i.e.,the fat-free
The
muscle.
position
com-
be
tained
ascer-
by actually removing
ordinary trimmed
either
the
and
of a solvent
by means
veniently,
conanalyzing the residue or, more
by analyzing the fresh
ically,
and removing the fat arithmetmeat
position
i.e.,by calculatingthe commeat
"
87.
The
composition of
lean meat
of butchers'
"
the
cuts
fat-free
has been
determined
Fig.
4.
Fat
"
cells in muscle.
(Bailey'sCyclopedia
Agriculture.)
meat
of the
Table
7.
"
of
entire
Average
1
2
can
Ameri-
carcasses
Composition
of four
of
steers.
Fat-free
Lean
Meat
of
Sheep
8.
Table
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
of
Fat-free
No.
Water
53
Steers
of
Old
Average
All
of
No.
Meat
Mos.
32
No.
STUFFS
Lean
Old
Mos.
22
No.
77.61
76.60
78.01
77.18
77-35
21.37
22.30
20.94
21.77
21.60
(by
Total
nitrogenous matter
difference)
Ash
OF
Composition
Average
"
FEEDING
AND
1.05
1. 10
1.02
...
1.
1.05
100.00
100.00
100.00
05
100.00
"n the
of
course
investigations
upon
merous
nutrition,nu-
human
Elementary
composition
of
fat-free
meat.
"
The
lowing
fol-
prolonged extraction
tissue after
Table
9.
Composition
"
Fat-
of
Carbon
Rubner
and
and
Argutinsky
Kohler
Langbein
....
muscular
The
ether
Hydro-
gen
Nitro-
52.02
7-30
52-33
7-30
Ash-free
gen
"
Muscular
Oxygen
16.30
16.36
16.15
53-40
Stohmann
hens.
with
24.32
Tissue
Heat
of
Combustion
Gram.
per
Cals.
5.6561
5.6409
24.22
Ztschr. Physiol.Chem.,
31
(1901),479.
NUTRITION
54
removed
fully as
as
The
ether.
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
possibleby prolonged
extraction
be removed
cannot
with
in this way
determined
and a
by Dornmeyer's digestionmethod
in the analytical
results.
correction made
The
was
are
Table
his averages
io.
"
Composition
of
Fat-
and
ash-free substance
Ash-free
Lean
responding
cor-
lowing
fol:
"
Meat
Heat
Combus-
of
tion
per
Gram.
Cals.
Cattle
Sheep
5.6776
5-6387
Swine
5-6758
Horse
5-5990
Rabbit
5.6166
5-6173
Hen
All
were
the
samples
found, except
which
an
accounts
tested
were
for
glycogen,but only
traces
average
in
the
figurefor nitrogen.
The
tissues
of alimentation
grouped the
and tissues directlyconcerned
supplying food to
organs
the organism,with its distribution through the body, and with
cludes
of waste
the removal
productsof cell activity. That is,it inthe organs
of digestion,
circulation,
tion
respiraresorption,
and excretion,
which constitute what are ordinarily
spoken
of the
animals.
So far as most
of as the entrails of slaughtered
familiar internal organs
concerned
of the animal
are
they may
sues
be considered as made
of the classes of tisup to a largeextent
In addition, however, the internal
already considered.
distinct type of tissue,
include a somewhat
viz.,glandular
organs
gestive
tissue,which plays an especially
important part in the difor
processes, while it is also of the highestsignificance
89.
other
Definition.
"
Under
bodily functions.
this
heading
may
with
be
56
NUTRITION
Table
12.
Percentage
"
between
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
Distribution
Carcass
Ash,
of
and
Protein
and
Fat
Offal
Protein
Ash
(NX
6.25)
Fat
calf
Fat
In
carcass
In offal
.
Half-fatox
In
carcass
In offal
Fat
ox
In
carcass
In offal
lamb
Fat
In
carcass
In offal
Store
sheep
In
carcass
In offal
Half-fatold sheep
In
carcass
In offal
.
sheep
Fat
In
carcass
In offal
.
Extra-fatsheep
In
carcass
In offal
Store pig
In
carcass
In offal
Fat
pig
In
carcass
In offal
Mean
In
of all
carcass
In offal
100.
100.0
1 00.0
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
OF
AND
FEEDING
STUFFS
57
weightsof
and
carcass
respectively,
offal,
may
on
the
the
ash
and
average
23
per
39
cent
per
from
12,
of the
cent
of the
which
it
protein,28 per
the
two
appears
of
cent
was
in the offal.
contained
Epidermal
91.
computed
between
ingredients
be
protein
the
Functions.
The
"
tissues
epidermis,or
outer
the
layers of cells of which those nearer
alive and capable of multiplicationwhile towards
true skin are
to flattened,
surface they are
the outer
gradually transformed
as
a
protectivelayer and gradually
horny scales which serve
slough off. Both the epidermisand the protectivecovering of
animals, hair, wool, feathers,etc., as well as the hoofs
and horns, correspondingto the nails in man, are modified forms
of epidermal tissue,their characteristic
ingredientsbeing the
class of albuminoids
designatedas keratins (51 e).
consists of
numerous
"
"
phur
Except for their high and variable sultion
content, the keratins differ little in elementary composibut they are much
resistant
from the simple proteins,
more
chemical reagents, being,for example, insoluble in alkalies in
92.
to
the
Composition.
cold
and
unattacked
of
by
either
pepsin or
outer
followingtable shows
the more
important epidermal tissues
Table
Epidermis of
13.
man
Hair
.
Nails
Horn
of
Hoof
of horse
Pure
dry
dry
Pure
....
cow
wool
.
wool
.
trypsin.
These
propertiesfit them
The
"
"
Composition
of
"
Epidermal
Tissues
58
OF
NUTRITION
The
Food
93.
storage.
foregoingparagraphsmay
the working machinery
tissues
reserve
classes
The
"
ANIMALS
FARM
be said in
of tissue considered
a
generalway
to
in the
constitute
of the
body as a whole.
cells have
the
(77),many
previouslystated, however
of storingup surplusfood in the form of cell enclosures,
power
especiallyas fat or glycogen, which apparently constitute
serve
no
simply repart of the protoplasm itself but which are
of the
organs
As
This
material.
is
less
or
more
they
this property to
properly be spoken of as
may
of
true
all
cells,but
marked
degree so that
preeminentlythe reserve
a
tissues.
tissue.
Adipose
94.
form
of
of
material
reserve
in the form
Fat
cytoplasmof
adipose tissue,in
tissue is
reserve
which
in the animal
constitutes
most
portant
im-
which
the
the great
body.
dropletsmay
of minute
and
familiar
most
stored material
store
The
"
be
depositedin
the
than minute
all body cellsbut the presence of more
in normal cells of muscles,
amounts
glands,etc.,is unusual,
.g ^^ icularly
in certain cells
nerves,
"".-.Nucleu
ro
op
asm.
-^
of the connective
"
Fat
drop.
'
Cell-membrane.
of
,-rFlG'
" ~~.pckeme
tissue that
the
of visible fat
largeaccumulations
tne
m
body take place. At the
these cells present no special
outset
fat cell,
characters,but in a well-nourished
animal
globules of fat begin to
of Histology.)
in them, the cells enaccumulate
large,
and finally
the globulesof fat coalesce into larger ones
is reduced
to
the cell substance
a
mere
envelope, cytoplasm
(Bohm, Davidorf, Huber, Text
and
being pushed to
the cell occupiedby
nucleus
volume
thus
Book
of
loaded
one
fat.
side and
Masses
almost
the
of connective
adipose tissue.
whole
tissue
COMPOSITION
The
increase of
place in
an
OF
two
ways
in
animal
animal
in
condition
as
1 :
OF
FEEDING
STUFFS
59
cells
in
fx
ameter
di-
emaciated
an
/x in
60
an
ordinary thrifty
to
in
ft
much
as
fat
very
The
corresponding
volumes, therefore,
relative
are
20
and
200
animal.
fat
about
to
AND
increase in the
observed
They
ranging from
ANIMALS
27
There
: 1000.
regionsin
two
are
in which
fat tends
particular
to
accumulate, viz.,in the
subcutaneous
tissue and
tissue
Fig.
connective
in the
connective
ternal
surrounding the inthat
organs, especially
of the
and
mesentery
tum,
omen-
of
looser
connective
tissue,
including,as already noted,
the connective
tissue lying
between
and
within
muscles, may
serve
the
for
the
storage of fat.
Fig.
of
95.
Composition
What
adipose tissue.
is
"
here
called
adipose tissue
is
commonly spoken of as
fat,but it is evident that
only a portion of it is fat
in the strict sense,
the
mainder
re-
nective
consistingof conmade
tissue,
up of
albuminoids, or collagens,
their actogether with
companying
Fig.
Figs.
water.
this
It is
nitrogenous material
1
Proceedings,Soc.
6-8.
"
Successive
of adipose tissue.
The
Prom.
Human
8
tion
stages in the forma-
(Hough
Mechanism.)
pp.
20-24.
and
Sedgwick,
6o
NUTRITION
which
forms
lard
making
It
vary
cells
"
the
OF
"
cracklings
FARM
when
ANIMALS
out
as
in
tallow.
or
filled with
that
the
in the fattened
fat,as
of fat
that
high and
will be
14.
Range
"
of
of
Composition
of
Adipose
Tissue
of
Commercial
Meat
Maximum
Water
Fat
Nitrogenous
matter
Ash
As
illustration of the
an
Table
15.
"
Composition
of
Adipose
composition of
body the following
and Wattenberg for
in the
variations
Tissue
lambs
of
SubcutaFat
neous
%
Water
....
Fat
may
Different
Kidney
Fat
84.49
4-36
93-89
4-5i
i-75
11.00
100.00
100.00
be
sented.
pre-
Regions
Intestinal
Fat
5.82
92.15
2.03
100.00
figuresreported by
for the composition of the kidney fat of a steer
other
the
At
had
received
and
was
in
the
condition
reduced
very
for about
ration
submaintenance
stand
extreme
Protein
storage of
limited
material
reserve
cent
4-59 Per
cent
cent
the
to
of
in the form
occur
may
in
carbohydrateglycogen,especially
the
which
tions
large accumulamore
contains,a much
addition
sometimes
body
the
of fat which
In
"
bridge
Trow-
eleven months
81.42 per
9.60 per
Fat
Glycogen storage.
"
Water
96.
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
AND
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
in the
and
the muscles
liver.
that the liver of the average
man
may
and
the
muscles
of
glycogen
approximately150 grams
estimates
Neumeister
store
and
up
total of about
weight of
the liver of
of
1200
glycogen in
of
body.
800
at
making a
Estimating the
amount,
same
grams
300
of the muscles
cent
approximately the
tissues
other
one
glycogen
and
of
10
in the
body
that
per
cles,
mus-
would
would
but naturallythis amount
grams,
different times accordingto the conditions of
approximately2200
greatly at
vary
exercise.
feedingand
"
3.
97.
Composition
The
of
of individual
the animal
body
Animal
the
of
of many
Whole
In view
"
compounds
chemical
as
them,
any
complete and
tailed
de-
estimate
enumerated
been
made
matter,
as
in
Chapter
Several
different times.
at
well
as
the fat
while sometimes
1
I.
Proc.
Amer.
content
In
investigationshave
and dry
of them
water
such
all
of the latter,have
determinations
Soc. Animal
Nutrition,
of the total
1910,
p. 13.
been
termined
de-
nitrogen
62
or
NUTRITION
of the ash
a
the gross
Table
or
of both
OF
have
FARM
been
ANIMALS
added.
16.
"
Composition
of
Entire
From
of what
Bodies
of
such
might
Animals
gations
investibe called
"
Weight
By difference.
By difference in soft parts.
Includes feathers.
By difference in bones.
Empty
64
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
It appears
case
and
two
that of fat.
as
would
be
Table
18.
the
does
expected,since
"
Composition
of
fat is the
Fat-free
in the
material
reserve
Body
fall below
"
Empty
fat,
of the
Weight
body and
instance
be stored up
may
48 per cent,
or,
on
in
FEEDING
65
STUFFS
reaching in
largequantities,
the other
hand,
be almost
may
one
ing
lack-
fasted animal.
of fat-free
Composition
OF
AND
fed or
insufficiently
in the
98.
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
body.
Since the
"
adipose tissue
a storage of reserve
body represents substantially
material (93,94) temporarily set aside from
the physiological
activities of the organism, a better idea of the composition
of the working machinery of the body is obtained by computing
of the animal
its
compositionfat-free
this is
When
free
body
as
in Table
18.
compositionof
that the
done, it appears
is much
the
in turn
precedingtable
these few
shows.
So
far
as
of the
age
whole,
content,
animal, as
be concluded
can
cases,
as
in the water
body
the fat-
of mature
from
cattle
less water
than
to contain three to four per cent
appear
those of mature
sheep or swine. In the case of geese, the percentage
of water
of the relatively
is probably low on account
would
small
99.
the
in the feathers.
amount
viz.,in
foregoinginvestigations,
hlet's and
three of
Chaniewski's,the
dry
matter.
Lawes
In
"
some
of
Gilbert's,Soxmined
detertotal nitrogenwas
and
the
For
example, in the
are
as
follows
of Lawes
case
figures
"
Per cent
Total
dry
matter
34.9
Ash
3.9
..........
Fat
Fat-
Total
2.537
-1-
15.7
1^3
and
ash-free
dry
matter
19-2
15.7
nitrogen
16.16%
2.537
nitrogen in
ash-
and
fat-free
dry
matter.
The
in
which
Table
results of such
19.
the
of the
are
experiments
contained
in
66
NUTRITION
Table
19.
OF
Nitrogen
"
Fat-
in
ANIMALS
FARM
Ash-free
and
Dry
Matter
Nitrogen
Fat- and
Ash-free
Dry
Matter
in
Half-fat
and
Gilbert
16.30
ox
Fat
ox
16.01
Fat
lamb
16.05
Store
Lawes
16.16
calf
Fat
Half-fat
Fat
16.08
sheep
16.14
sheep
16.04
sheep
Extra-fat
16.15
sheep
Store pig
Fat
16.15
16.05
pig
16. II
Average
Soxhlet
Swine
13.08
Swine
I3-03
Swine
12-44
Average
12.85
Geese
16.06
Geese
16.07
Geese
16.05
Chaniewski
16.06
Average
With
of
the
If account
used
in
be taken
these
does
investigations
not
completely
remove
method
the
that
appears justified
fat contained in the animal body
conclusion
the
tissue,
100.
body,
in the
4.
Groups
the
vast
plant,as
The
of
Composition
ingredients.
"
number
well
of
as
of
As
in the
of many
case
of the animal
compounds found
of accurate
methods
quantitative
of them, renders it practically
single chemical
the lack
Stuffs
Feeding
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
to be content
necessary
plant substances into
AND
in most
OF
FEEDING
with
67
STUFFS
separationof the
few major groups
gredient
a
or
sub-groups of inAs
ordinarilycarried out, feeding stuffs analysis
of these categories,
viz.,water, ash, protein,
recognizesseven
tract.
non-protein,ether extract, crude fiber and nitrogen-freeex101.
Water.
"
The
amount
cases
of
water
in
feeding stuff
is
inferred
from
the loss of
"
this method
103.
Nitrogenous
for the
fails entirelyto
constituents.
"
As
yet
no
methods
exist
68
of
NUTRITION
in
feeding stuffs
determination
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
indirect
general are
based
ones
upon
nitrogen.
the method
of feedingstuffs anal104. Crude
ysis
protein.
of Henneberg and
inherited from the early investigations
of total
Stohmann, the proteinis estimated from the amount
nitrogenupon two assumptions: first,that all the proteins
In
"
contain
16 per
cent
of
On the basis
feedingstuffs exists in the proteinform.
of these assumptions,the proteinis,of course, equal to total
nitrogenmultipliedby 6.25. The proteinas thus determined
is designatedas crude proteinto indicate the approximate nature
of
of the determination.
"
"
"
that
most
An
aqueous
soluble in water.
feeding stuff,therefore,contains
by far the largershare of its non-protein. Such an extract,
however, contains also any water-soluble
proteins existing
in the substance.
in part by coagulation
These are removed
by
the
the
addition
in
heating,i.e.,
by boiling solution,and
part by
of some
reagent with which they form insoluble compounds.
Various
of
are
extract
substances
have
present officialmethod
and
but
the
for this purpose
tigations,
of analysis,
Stutzer's invesbased upon
been
used
hydrate as
copper
feedingstuff is boiled with
uses
the
the soluble
matter
residue is
precipitant.In practice,
added
water, the precipitant
the
filtered off.
The
nitrogen of the
soluble
in-
from
ANIMALS
OF
COMPOSITION
AND
OF
FEEDING
of
conventional
employed in a
probably includes
method
somewhat
is
69
agreed factor)the
other
it
STUFFS
stantiall
determiningprotein is suband that the adjectivetrue
Pickwickian
The
sense.
result
"
solution when
the material
is treated
of
in the
manner
scribed
just de-
protein. The
nitrogen may
in the solution but ordinarilyit is obtained
be determined
by
subtractingthe proteinnitrogen from the total nitrogen. The
conventional
difference,
multipliedby some
factor,equals the
non-protein. Obviously, the non-protein is a heterogeneous
mixture, varying as between different feeding stuffs and even
in the
same
feedingstuff
grown
or
harvested
under
different
conditions.
factor.
Nitrogen
But
factors.
while it is
"
easilyshown
incorrect in many
cases, it is not so
There
in the
is a rather wide range
individual vegetable proteins,while
of the
nitrogen content
most
tain
feeding stuffs contwo
or
more
proteinsin unknown
proportions. Moreover,
the proteins of the majority of feeding stuffs,
especiallyof the
roughages,have
x
not
yet been
separatedand
studied.
has
1Landw.
Vers.
NUTRITION
70
seeds
and
for
lupines,and
rape
various classes of human
proposed the
from
for
6.0
FARM
OF
and
ANIMALS
barley,maize, buckwheat,
other brassicas.
protein nitrogen:
"
Animal
foods
Wheat,
6.25
products
Maize,
products
Dried
seeds of
5.70
their manufactured
6.00
legumes
6.25
5.65
5.80
Vegetables
Fruits
feedingstuffs
For
there
be
to
seems
whose
no
been
studied,
the
present
usage.
With
the
more
non-proteinsthe case is even
perplexingin
view of the greater varietyof substances
included under
this
of their nitrogen content.
and
the wide
term
The
range
writer
has used tentatively
4.7, the factor for asparagin(66),
of the most
one
widely distributed substances of this class,but
the choice of this factor is substantially
arbitrary.
'
108.
Crude
fat.
Ether
extract.
by means
possibleof the
been
used
of feeds
solvent
some
other
which
such
as
methods
based
are
ingredients.A
The
"
for
its
upon
dissolves
as
terminin
de-
tion
extrac-
little
as
most
tetrachlorid,
petroleum ether and the like,but the one
"
commonly employed is ethylether,or the so-called sulphuric
"
ether
commonly
used
more
obtained
an
solvents
besides neutral
less of the
as
other
stances
sub-
fats and
or
fattyacids,includingmore
tract
complex lipoids.In particularthe ether exfrom coarse
fodders contains a varietyof waxes,
tively
well as the chlorophylof the leaves,and a rela-
resins,
etc.,as
small proportion of
to
anaesthetic.
designatethe
extracted
true
fats.
It
is
material
used, as
ordinarily
customary,
"
as
"
crude
ether
fat
fore,
there"
or,
extract."
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
72
ANIMALS
consists to a considerable
extract
nitrogen-free
of carbohydratesof one
sort or another.
extent
Indeed, it has
been designatedby the latter name,
but the use of
sometimes
is misleadingand undesirable.
the word in this sense
includes not only hexose but also
extract
The nitrogen-free
these latter substances being,therefore,
pentose carbohydrates,
divided between
by the ordinarymethod of feeding stuffs analysis,
of
fiber and
Some
extract.
the crude
nitrogen-free
be determined
these various carbohydratescan
separatelywith
tunately
a reasonable
degree of accuracy, while others,includingunforless approxior
starch,can be determined
only more
mately.
is far from consisting
That the nitrogen-free
extract
by
exclusivelyof carbohydrates has been strikinglyshown
but
as
Stone.1
rule the
He
determined
the
of the
content
various
classes of
"
"
Jour. Amer.
Chem.
Soc,
19
(1897),183.
OF
COMPOSITION
and
leaves.
They
either
As
larger
Roots
and
the
tubers.
These
roughages.
that
of
fiber
and
soluble.
Their
the
dry
in
concentrates
They
large
proportion
might
difficultly
this
matter,
be
the
containing
briefly
crude
other
characterized
limits.
feeds
fresh
hand,
relatively
ingredients
fiber,
and
ingredients.
contain
the
age
foracterized
char-
are
bulky
soluble
respect
of
wide
quite
stuffs
on
of
they
are
73
forms
of
within
they
in
resembling
water,
other
percentage
feeding
"
of
and
concentrates
of
STUFFS
Chemically,
varies
proportion
FEEDING
straw
high
naturally
with
OF
dried.
or
relatively
however,
contain
hay,
ensiled
their
compared
AND
include
fresh,
by
which,
ANIMALS
large
or
resembles
little
which
as
centage
per-
ensiled
are
dilute
crude
easily
centrates.
con-
PART
THE
PROCESSES
II
OF
NUTRITION
CHAPTER
AND
DIGESTION
Part
first
The
112.
those
differences
body
which
familiar
before
modification
need
be
not
they
of
which
products
that
profound
into
meat
of
of
digestion,
113.
the
in
ameba
comes
in
forms
its
particle,forming
cavity becomes
the
entrance
the
evolution
matter,
of which
thus
that
canal
Organs
The
surface
outer
cavity
residues
permanent
feed
is the
giving
of the
and
one,
the
provision
of
as
the
the
the
the
is
organs
same
higher animals
is
of
a
in its
seen
ameba.
When
the
reverse
the
cess.
pro-
temporary
serving
opening
exit
sion
depres-
digestive
temporary
The
around
scale, this
separate
form
77
of waste.
typical
the
tion
diges-
finally closes
in
is the
appendages.
rejected by
exit
grain
particle of feed,
serves
are
one
and
hay
digestion
like
which
which
the
convinces
process
its
of
with
with
Digestion
of
process
contact
animals
constituting
with
in
conclusion.
together
slightly higher
a
of
"
this
lowest
animals
animals
In
in
organism.
this
convert
to
unicellular
Undigested
organ.
work,
considerable
them
of
stances
sub-
example,
animal
reach
to
out
the
for
the
way,
ingredients
many
given farm
first step
The
plan.
form
in
necessary
alimentary
i.
General
simplest
this
the
"
used
of
animal
general
undergo
must
feeds
all but
In
for
or
are
The
milk.
apart
set
are
changes
feed.
the
plain that,
manufacture
they
or
it is
be
the
in
contains
can
the
and
are,
chemist, however,
simple comparison
which
in
particulars
of herbivora
cellulose
and
considered
some
former
latter, and
starch
like
One
The
one.
the
in
found
not
nourish
to
show
to
feed
the
facts
The
"
incidentally
serves
every
RESORPTION
nutrition.
between
it
to
in
step
served
have
III
next
for
for
step
the
in
waste
digestive apparatus,
development,
consisting
78
of
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
the
physicalprocesses
confined
to
of domestic
folds and
114.
and
digestion,
of
general description
this section
be
the
diverticula.
enzyms.
"
In
the
ever
ameba, what-
more
may
digestiveorgans
In these animals, the digestive
apparatus
tube
various
as
a
briefly
having
enlargements,
very
animals.
be described
may
of
takes
surface
becomes
of cells
as
takes
produce the
In the higheranimals,
upon the feed.
these cells become
the numerous
secretingglands which are
essential part of the organs
of digestion.The
an
principal
active agents in digestionare certain enzyms
secreted by these
in the higher
glands, the more
important digestiveenzyms
animals being:
The
i.
amylases,ptyalin(in the saliva)and amylopsin (in
the pancreatic
juice),
actingupon starch.
are
set
apart
to
"
see
For
R.
more
Meade
complete
Smith, The
discussion
of the
Physiology of
development
the Domestic
8o
NUTRITION
alimentarycanal.
OF
The
FARM
horse
ANIMALS
and
Fig.
9.
Sheep's stomach.
"
(Hagemann,
Anatomie
und
Physiologieder
Haus-Saugetiere.)
I, Rumen.
Reticulum.
2,
reticulum,the
In
true
5, Duodenum.
manifolds, and
the
6, Esophagus.
abomasum,
or
compound
the
even
while
they
so-called
have
stomachs.
having
domestic
fowls
esophagus at
hog,
In
sense.
In
but
the
similar dilatation
constitutes
singlestomachs
a
singlecavity,are
case
of
the
horse
be
of the true
stomach.
In
of
the crop.
of the horse
in
three
distinguished,
viz.,the left
regionand the pyloricregion,the
the functions
stomach
of the
undergoes a softeningand
while only the
gastric
digestion,
Moreover,
and
or
4, Abomasum.
regarded as dilatations
in the strict
the
omasum,
realitythe
to be
feed
Omasum.
stomach.
true
are
3,
the
or
two
case
reality
quite
cardiac
latter
of the
DIGESTION
Fig.
io.
Stomach
"
and
AND
duodenum
8l
RESORPTION
of horse.
(Hagemann, Anatomie
und
Sch.,Esophagus.
hog the
cardiac
of the
organ
proper.
117.
feeds
Rumination.
may
directly
although
sum,
of
matter
and
liquid
(Hagemann,
Ana-
water
abomaas
fact, they
reach
to
seem
ruminant,
quite
pass
the
to
the
In
"
all four
bulky feeds,
more
however, fail
through
canal
but
This
is
pass
esophageal
the
enter
and
rumen
case
the
to
reticulum.
especiallythe
because
nant
rumi-
the
masticates
its feed
FlG-
imperfectlyat the
time of eating. In the
reticulum and especially
".
"
Stomach
of hog.
very
in
the
capacious
for
some
rumen,
time
in
1-4,
Fundus.
2, Cardiac
portion. 5, Pylorus.
8, Duodenum.
the
contact
partiallymasticated
with
the
saliva
feed
and
mains
re-
such
82
NUTRITION
portionof
softened
and
large
so
material
the drink
that
and
The
liquidor
directlyto the
FARM
ANIMALS
when
feed
new
and
action.
is
thoroughly
The
considerable
swallowed
is
is
rumen
of
amount
more
or
less
completelymixed
action
as
OF
with
omasum,
that
manifolds, and
or
abomasum,
the
but
the
of the feed
manifolds, and
from
this pass
into
the
fourth
or
true
stomach.
The
ruminants
are
animals
on
amounts
of feed and
from
escape
then
in the
wild
state
their enemies.
to
be able to
to
retire to
Hence
hastilylarge
consume
some
depend
safe concealment
digestion.Rumination
also enables these animals
to utilize more
thoroughly coarse
menting
rough fodders,the long stay in the paunch softeningand ferthe material and helpingespecially
solve
to destroyor disthe carbohydratesof the cell walls and thus render the
cell contents
fluids.
accessible to the digestive
118. The
membrane
The mucous
gastricjuice.
liningthe
true stomach
contains numerous
simpleglands(tubularglands)
in appearance
in different portionsof the stomach.
differing
Those of the fundus regioncontain two
kinds of secreting
cells,
The
chief
and
cells.
commonly designatedas
parietal
cells similar to those
chief
glandsof the pyloricend contain
of the fundus
occasional
glands, but only an
parietal
cell. The
their
cells
essential
secrete
as
parietal
product
chief
cells produce the enzym
hydrochloricacid. The
of pepsin called pepsinogen.
pepsin, or rather a precursor
The mixed
secretion of these different glands constitutes the
gastricjuice,which is a thin, clear acid liquid having a
to
remasticate
which
and
prepare
it for
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
gravityof
specific
about
of
of
hydrochloricacid
and
feed
the
to
of
acid
proteins,especiallyproteoses and
into polypeptids.1The
extent
chloric
hydro-
some
also
gastricjuice has
the
likewise
and
action
and
1.01
derived
into
peptones, and
of
containinga maximum
action of the pepsin
The combined
the gastricjuice splitsthe proteins
1.005 to
of solids.
83
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
dissolve
to
serves
septic
anti-
important
an
more
or
less of
addition
its
to
"
independentexistence.
119.
The
of
passage
feed
the
from
stomach.
The
"
lower
muscle
is closed by a sphincter
end of the stomach
posterior
called the pylorus,which prevents the ingestedfeed from passing
or
being
or
forced
in the
When
between
of
course
the acid
by
of
contractions
the
gastricdigestion,however,
reaction
of the stomach
the
stomach.
the difference
and
contents
normally prevailsin
which
the
kaline
the al-
duodenum
certain
it
into
reaction
reaches
division of the
of the stomach
contraction
to
press
istaltic
per-
partialneutralization of
the pylorusto close
the duodenal
which results causes
contents
again until the alkaline reaction is restored,when the cyclemay
be repeated.
into
contents
The
the
mechanism
Cannon
in
animals
is also
proof
of this is
The
duodenum.
of
this process
carnivora,but
it may
true
substantially
be
has
presumed
of
especiallystudied
been
that what
is true
by
of these
herbivora,although experimental
lacking.
both
it is not
believed that
this
occurs
vitro amino
in natural
acids may
digestion.
also be
produced
but
84
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
more
"
Fig.
12.
be described
"
Intestines of cattle.
Die Rindviehzucht.)
(Leisering,
Its average
tube.
long,comparativelynarrow
lengthis,accordingto Colin,about nine times that of the body
in the horse,sixteen times in the ox and sheep and eleven times
in the hog. It is suspended in the abdominal
flection
cavityby a reof the peritoneum called the mesentery, and as shown
in Fig.12 is much
into
It is commonly subdivided
convoluted.
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
121.
the
The
as
coecum.
tract
digestive
ccecum,
which
"
pass,
From
of
the
through the
is a diverticulum
of the
canal,the point
digestive
DIGESTION
from
of entrance
AND
85
RESORPTION
being near
ruminants
and
of
those
not
the
true
stagnating,so
in
speak,
and
ccecum
to
the
going
under-
extensive fermentation
and
putrefaction.The
size of the ccecum,
in a general way,
varies
inverselyas
of
that
the
ach.
stom-
Thus
horse
in the
it
is
very
large,
having about
16 per
of the
cent
total
the
capacity of
canal.
digestive
In
the
other
hand, it has
only about
cent
the
on
ox,
per
in
the
than
2.5
and
sheep less
per cent
of the total
capacityand
hog about
in the
5.5 per
cent.
122.
The
intestine.
large
The
"
Fig.
alimentarycanal
continued
from
ccecum
the
as
13.
"
is
Coecum
comparee
of horse.
(Colin,Physiologie
des Animaux.)
the
implies,is generally
than
of greater diameter
the small intestine but
shorter.
It is subdivided
into the colon and the rectum
serves
rather
as
resorbent than
as
digestive
organ.
The
also
and
colon
86
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
of the feed.
The
lie in part
of the most
pancreas.
"
the
In
entirelyoutside
the
alimentarycanal
proper.
This is
openinginto
and
by
exit with
common
large
its duct
that of the
(cattle,
swine).
like that of the salivary
secretory action of the pancreas,
gastricglands,is intermittent,the gland being active only
bile duct
The
One
(horse,sheep),or somewhat
down
lower
when
reaction due
to
its content
liquid,having
of sodium
salts.
an
kaline
al-
It contains
and
neighborhoodof eightto ten per cent of solid matter
has a specific
gravityof approximately1.030. It differs from
other digestive
juicesin containinga relatively
largeamount
of all the other digestive
the
of protein. As in the case
fluids,
of which the pancreatic
essential active ingredients
are
enzyms,
viz.,a protease, trypsin,
acting
juicecontains three in particular,
the proteins,
an
amylase,amylopsin,actingupon starch,
upon
of
and a lipase,
steapsin,acting upon fats. Small amounts
In the juice
chymosin and of a lactase have also been found.
if not the other
secreted by the pancreas, the trypsinat least,
as
exists in the form of a pro-enzym,
which
trypsinogen,
enzyms,
is converted
into trypsin (" activated ") after the secretion
in the
reaches
124.
located
the duodenum.
The
liver.
"
88
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
neutralization
namely by
prevented from
and
the pepprecipitation,
sin
is
the
of
the
digesting
pancreatic
enzyms
juiceand bile,an action which would otherwise take place,since
these enzyms
to be substantially
protein in their nature.1
appear
two
ways,
the
In
small
intestine,the neutralized
are
subjected to
the
bile and
through
by
the
movements
of
the
bring
of the
movements
peristaltic
also
serve
to
action
pancreatic juice,
the intestinal juice,while they are
moved
along
successive divisions of the small and largeintestines
of the
means
and
the combined
of the stomach
contents
them
mix
to
the
intimate
into
contents
latter.
of
with
contact
These
the
intestines
the
intestinal
walls.
.
The
fats of the
feed, under
the action
of the
steapsinof the
pancreaticjuice, undergo a cleavage into glycerol and fatty
acids and this change is considerablyaccelerated
by the bile,
also aids in emulsifyingthe fats and so exposing vastly
which
surface to the action
of the enzyms.
The
more
fatty acids
thus
free unite
set
to
greater
the
pancreatic juiceand
and
free
fattyacids
carbonate.
The
pointed out
in
are
or
less extent
with
the alkali of
bile,forming
presence
Chapter
of the fats.
are
acted
upon
by
the invertases
juice,yieldingmonosaccharids.
proteins which escape digestionin
Any
likewise
the
proteoses
and
peptones
the
of the intestina
stomach, and
resultingfrom
gestion
peptic di-
more
hydrolyzed by trypsin and erepsin much
than by pepsin and yield not only proteoses and
energetically
series of progressivelysimpler polypeptones, but a whole
peptids and finallyare largelyor wholly split up into their
are
constituent
1
The
mixed
in the
amino
acids.
foregoing statements
in the
laboratory.
intestine is somewhat
The
describe
actual
what
takes
importance
in doubt.
the materials
are
place when
precipitationof the pepsin
of the
"
127.
Chemistry
The
2.
Digestion
chemical
89
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
Digestion
of
process.
The
foregoing paragraphs
facts
ing
regardgeneral
"
have
with
to
the
digestionis
in outline
of feed
conversion
in the
body substances,and specifically
of vegetableinto animal
the conversion
into
animals
standing
under-
time to revert
It is now
processes involved.
at the beginning of the chapter,namely,
made
the chemical
the statement
that
an
stances
sub-
of farm
case
substances.
this
and from
These, however, are chemical transformations
of the digestive
point of view a knowledge of the structure
chieflyas an aid to the understanding
apparatus is of significance
In taking up this aspect of the subject,it
of these processes.
the three chief groups
to consider
will be convenient
of nutrients
separately.
of carbohydrates
digestion
The
animals
consists of
especially
polysaccharids,
Cellulose.
128.
assumed
of this
incorrectness
cellulose of
The
"
Haubner
indigestible.
be
to
consumed.
are
feeding stuffs
was
assumption and
to
was
long
the
that
the
prove
even
substances
considerable
by cattle
proved this
extent
have
as
paper
and
to
sheep,and
be true
not
later
only of ruminants
to
digestingthe
tenderer
forms
of
cellulose
periments
digestionex-
to
herbivora
is
a
and
capable of
considerable
extent.
None
have
of the
digestive
enzyms
been shown
to
have
any
of the
higheranimals,however,
action upon
cellulose and
the small
OF
NUTRITION
90
ANIMALS
FARM
found in some
(cytases)
cellulose-dissolving
enzyms
for its solution,so
feeds appear
quite inadequate to account
vestigat
of its digestion
that the manner
was
long a puzzle. The inthe digestive
in
of Wildt l in 1874 upon
process
sheep,however, showed, as Zuntz 2 subsequentlypointed out,
amounts
that
the
the
of
in
chiefly
occurs
the feed
alimentarycanal where
paunch of the ruminant
stagnates,
"
in the
and
those
ccecum
portionsof
that
and
is,in
colon.
This
series which
to
confirm
combine
fluids.
digestive
The
with
the view
of the saliva
the alkalies
are
or
other
resorbed
tute
and consti-
to the
nutrition of
cellulose makes
to be acetic and
acids formed appear
body. The principal
butyric,although others are also present. In ruminants, the
is the capaciousfirst stomach,
chief seat of this fermentation
while in the horse, with his relatively
small,simple stomach,
and
it takes placeprincipally
ccecum
or wholly in the enormous
the
colon.
1
Jour. Landw.,
(1874),1.
(1884),52.
Biol.,20
Biochem.
Ztschr.,34 (1911), 211 ;
Landw.
Vers. Stat.,53 (1900), 193,
3Ztschr.
4
22
57
Landw.
(1913), 1.
300.
Jahrb.,8 (1879),101.
DIGESTION
AND
The
RESORPTION
91
widely distributed
in the vegetable kingdom and appear
to be contained
chiefly
or
wholly in the cell walls of plants,probably in combination
with
hexosans.
If the ordinary
to
a
greater or less extent
methods
of feeding stuffs analysisare followed,both the crude
contain them
fiber and nitrogen-free
extract
(109,110).
the first to show
that they were
Stone,1 who was
digestible,
129.
Pentosans.
found
"
pentosans
are
Jones,
from
he
48
showed
to
that
per cent
in mixed
rations
while
90
results in
different
samples of roughages
of the pentosans were
digestedby sheep,
the corresponding figureswere
from 46
Weiske3
cent.
to 71 per
in
14
about
the
time obtained
same
similar
with
the
especially
to
are
acids of the
considerable
series.
aliphatic
extent
subject to
That
the pentosans
the methane
tion
fermenta-
in the
to
experiments,the
general
to
way
methane
be
fermentation
has
the
proportionalto
been
total
found
in
digestiblecrude
fiber and
course
but
such
place.
the
process
yet there is
Amer.
3Ztschr.
no
direct evidence
those from
1
takes
as
the
products of
substantiallythe
are
that
same
as
cellulose.
Chem.
Jour., 14 (1892), 9.
Physiol.Chem., 20 (1895),489.
NUTRITION
92
130.
Hemicelluloses.
pentosans
of
whole.
No
hold
animal
enzyms
galactans,levulans,etc., or
ANIMALS
is
true
so-called
the
"
What
"
to
appears
FARM
OF
are
which
of the
specifically
reserve
carbohydrates
(18)
hemicelluloses
known
which
break
up
as
"
hydrolyze the
their
union, if it
more
131.
Starch.
The
"
first agent
to
act
starch
upon
is the
temperature, in
of free acid
or
neutral
solution,while
To
more
than
acids
or
kalies
al-
even
though they show an acid
proteins,
alkaline reaction to ordinaryindicators,
or
ptyalinis much less
sensitive and it is also less sensitive to organicthan to inorganic
acids.
In brief,the action of ptyalinis inhibited by a very low
concentration
of either hydrogen or hydroxyl ions.
The action of ptyalinon starch consists of a succession of
in the formation of the various
cleavagesand hydrationsresulting
With
cooked
dextrins (24)and finallyof sugar.
starch,the
action is fairly
slowly,
rapid; upon raw starch ptyalinacts more
the rate varying somewhat
with the kind of starch and being
apparentlydetermined by the degreeof resistance of the cellulose
gous
envelopeof the starch grains. Chemically,the action is analoto that of acids,but is less vigorousand is not carried so far.
The
action of acids yieldsdextrose
a final product; that of
as
ptyalinis usuallystated to stop with the productionof maltose.1
The
is necessarily
action of ptyalinin the mouth
very brief.
In the stomach
the feed comes
with the gastric
into contact
juice containingfree hydrochloricacid. At first,this acid
with the proteinscontained
in the feed, but as soon
combines
combined
with
DIGESTION
RESORPTION
AND
93
of free acid
more
as
trace
of the stomach
contractions
muscular
some
of
sections
been
animals
given show
which
to
the feed
mix
stomach
the
have
feeds
be
to
to
Frozen
is often assumed.
variously colored
of
the contents
to
serve
distinctly
the
after the
time
of
action
the
continue
ptyalin may
for
siderable
con-
period.
Extensive
investigations,especiallyby Ellenberger and
Hofmeister, upon gastricdigestionin the horse and hog have
demonstrated
the stomach
of the
the starch
upon
the
feed
plays
an
important
dilation of the
reallya
esophagus.
the
In
is lined with
mucous
membrane,
the stomach
peptic glands. When
it is evident that the action of the
is filledwith feed,therefore,
hydrochloric acid will begin along the walls of the fundus of
the stomach
no
tents.
only graduallyspread to the rest of the conIt is true that lactic fermentation
usuallysets in during
this period,aiding to acidifythe stomach
contents
but, as
already stated,ptyalin is less sensitive to organic than to
inorganicacids. It has been found that the solution of starch
may
and
continue
five hours
to
both
are
even
feed remains
in the
more
in contact
time, the
alkaline by
slightly
animals
greater
(115). It
horse
may
less
and
favorable
extent
as
much
as
four
or
ditions
ruminants, the consalivaryaction,since the
hog.
for
for
In
contents
the
or
of this stomach
rumen
for
siderable
con-
being maintained
OF
NUTRITION
94
of
digestion
considerable
ANIMALS
FARM
that
but littleptyalin,
contains
is effected.
starch
the
As
to act* more
energetically.
very similar to it but appears
of ptyalin,
in the case
the final product of its action is maltose.1
the digestion
from
resulting
of starch is more
convenientlyconsidered along with that of
other disaccharids in a succeedingparagraph.
The
of
starch.
132. Fermentation
organisms producing
in the digestive
believed
tract
fermentation
the methane
were
to act
and not
by Tappeiner to attack cellulose specifically
other carbohydrates. As regards ruminants, however,
upon
The
"
this has
shown
been
to be
an
G. Kiihn's
In
error.
extensive
respiration
experimentswith cattle upon the formation of fats
added
of starch were
from carbohydrates,
considerable amounts
to basal rations.
cretion
Invariablythis resulted in an increased exof methane.
the other
hand,
Moreover, there
or
more
no
was
in the
less decrease
fiber
digested,
showing
had
its
starch
in
source
the
increase,but
This
consumed.
of crude
amount
methane
on
must
have
conclusion
is
methane
were
parts of starch
hundred
one
3
have
fully
subsequent investigations
these results,
confirmed
although givinga lower average, viz.,
hundred
parts of digestible
3.07 parts of methane
per one
that
shown
have
starch.
Moreover, Kellner's investigations
digested. Kellner's
the
methane
fermentation
confined
is not
to
cellulose and
As
1
alreadystated (128),the
See footnote
3Landw.
Vers.
on
p. 92.
chief
Kellner;
Stat.,53 (1900),423.
seat
Landw.
of fermentation
Vers. Stat.,44
in the
(1894),257.
96
NUTRITION
the formation
small
fats contain
native
presence
fat.
hand
go
of free
emulsion.
amounts
in the natural
dissolved
ANIMALS
processes
permanent
FARM
OF
in hand.
fattyacids
As
favors
As
there
noted, most
of such
acids
which
Furthermore, there
exist
to
seems
be
fats
acid
the
When
pancreaticjuice,the molecules
and in this way
the
saponified
emulsion.
which
tend
fat
splits
with
the
alkaline
mass
up
into
are
an
into
to aid in the
contact
of the
action
The
in
come
emulsification,
while,on
the other
hand,
the
The
of fat is accomplished
saponification
essentially
by the lipasesteapsinof the pancreaticjuice.
is facilitated by the previous
As justnoted, the saponification
while the presence of the bile is also an important
emulsification,
135.
Saponification.
"
factor.
It is claimed
activate
the
accelerated
by
their calcium
bile aids in
and
some
of
digestionby
fatty acids and
its
of
It appears
also that the
magnesium soaps.
of the fat,but justhow
in the resorption
way
clear.
is not
Fats
do
tract
not
and
have
be fermented
seem
to
when
administered
been
extent
in the
tive
diges-
of emulsions
had
The
digestion
of the proteinsand non-proteins
of methane.
found
to
to any
to
Peptic digestion.
"
In
DIGESTION
AND
RESORPTION
97
longing
usually substances beof derived proteins (58, 59). The
to the group
first
product or products are substances called metaproteins,or,
according to the older terminology,syntonin or acid proteins.
By stillfurther action there is formed a succession of proteoses,
and from these,by subsequent cleavage,peptones.
edly
Undoubtfrom
the products resulting
peptic digestion contain a
The
of chemical
largenumber
also formed
to
some
extent.
Amino
acids
are
not
In
far
to
found
the
nucleoproteins.
In
the
Tryptic digestion.
"
in the pancreas
in the form
of
called
pro-fermentor zymogen,
juicein the duodenum
pancreatic
a
presence of
the glandsof the latter to the
trypsinogen. The
stimulates
testinal
production of the incontain a substance,
has found to
juicewhich Pawlow
which activates the trypsinogen,
or
enterokinase,
in
trypsin,
The
studied
pancreas
action
in
or
unknown
some
of
converts
it into
manner.
like
trypsin,
that of
laboratory experiments
with its secretion
as
pepsin,has
either with
obtained
from
been
largely
extracts
of the
fistulae.
sin,
Tryp-
98
NUTRITION
simple amino
acids out
up.
leaves
most
considerable
but which
found
them
the
Even
on
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
proteinmolecule is built
prolonged action of trypsin,however,
the
of which
residue in which
acids
free amino
no
hydrolysiswith strong
mineral
acids
are
yields
in abundance.
by trypsinin the
much
more
energetically.
of a proteolyticenzym
in
The
138. Erepsin.
presence
cells of the small intestine
the intestinal juiceand in the epithelial
does not act on
has alreadybeen noted (135) This enzym
unaltered proteins,with the exceptionof casein,but it hyyieldingcrystalline
drolyzesproteoses and peptones energetically,
cleavage products. It is of specialinterest to note that,
according to Cohnheim,1 erepsinis capable of effectingthe
tacked
cleavage of that part of the proteinmolecule which is not atby pepsin and trypsin and that in artificial digestion
into comparatively
experiments almost complete conversion
short
productsmay be obtained in a relatively
simplecrystalline
to
Conjugated proteinsseem
as
manner
same
by pepsinbut
be acted
upon
"
time.
139.
Extent
of
protein cleavage in
natural
digestion.
"
that the
by Ktihne and Chittenden
other products
action of trypsinupon
proteinsyieldedamong
substances as leucin and tyrosin,
such simplecrystalline
paratively
comlittle importance was
attached to the fact from the
as
interesting
physiological
standpoint. While the fact was
it
throwing lightupon the chemical structure of the proteins,
the soluble proteoses and
believed that in natural digestion
was
from
the digestive
tract by
promptly removed
peptones were
and that at most
but a small proportionof the feed
resorption
profound cleavage. This belief was
protein underwent
any
the stronger because it was
believed that only proteinsor their
altered derivatives,
the proteoses and peptones, could
slightly
of the organism for proteins. Whatever
supply the demands
into crystalline
broken down
protein was
products was looked
wasted.
With
the progress of investigation,
however,
as
upon
of hyit has become
clear that the processes
increasingly
important
drolyticcleavagego further and play a much more
part than was
formerlysupposed. While it is admitted that
soluble proteins,may be resorbed,the weight
peptones, or even
When
it
was
first shown
Ztschr. Physiol.Chem.
49
(1906),64;
51
(1907),415.
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
99
opinionis that, as
of
matter
testinal
nucleoproteinsare splitby the nucleases of the inthese
and
again by the
juice into mononucleotids
secretion into nucleosids (53). No
nucleotidases of the same
of the
been
that extracts
of the intestinal
membrane
mucous
nucleosids
the
case
phoric
relativelysimple substances,viz.,phossimpleproteins,
acid,pentoses, and purin and pyrimidinbases.
Attention has alreadybeen
of proteins.
140.
Putrefaction
called,in connection with the digestionof the carbohydrates,
The
the bacterial flora of the digestivetract.
to
drates,
carbohywas
as
shown, are acted upon chieflyby the organisms
rivative
Proteins and their defermentation.
producing the methane
the other hand, have been shown
by Kellner to
on
contribute practically
nothing to this fermentation in the case
of cattle. They are, however, especially
subject to the action
action of such
of the organisms producing putrefaction.The
acid
organismsis preventedin the stomach by the hydrochloric
of the gastric
more
juice. In the small intestine they become
the feed reaches the lower portion,while
as
active,especially
testine
lessens again as the lower portionof the largeintheir activity
of water
is reached,owing to the progressive
resorption
of the
"
from
the
The
putrefactionare
derived
The
from
the
aromatic
and
ammonia
characteristic
certain
products of
compounds
proteins(47).
aromatic
heterocyclic
components of the
productsof putrefaction(indolsand
phenols)
contrary, are
poisonous and
are
therefore combined
with
other
which
substances
unite with
are
OF
NUTRITION
IOO
render
sulphatesto
them
innocuous.
The
In
particular,
they
which
ether-sulphates
of these
amount
convenient
ANIMALS
the so-called
form
in the urine.
excreted
FARM
substances
in
of intestinal
putrefaction.
141.
non-proteins.
The
"
As
(61,
ordinarilydetermined
of nitrogenoussubstances
a
group
of which
soluble in water, many
closelyrelated to the final products of
are
identical with
or
digestionof
the
the
is by
assumed
the
there.
In
no
the
least,
of waterresorption
so
readilyattacked
are
more
are
the true
proteinsof
therefore,tends
In the second
matter
means
to
stimulates
and
utilized
the feed.
The
the
of these
a
supply
abundant
these soluble
by
the
presence
place,an
digestive
at
to
compounds
organisms than
of non-proteins,
bacterial decomposition.
of
extensive fermentation
bringsabout a more
the carbohydratesof the feed, as is evidenced
by an increase
hydrates
in the methane
given off and in the proportionof the carboapparentlydigested.
well made
to be fairly
out that the nitrogen
Third, it seems
which
these organisms assimilate is utilized to build up their
protoplasmand thus,by a sort of symbiosis,becomes a source
of proteinto their host.
It has been claimed that this bacterial
but the evidence on
which
this claim
proteinis indigestible,
and there seems
is based is capableof a different interpretation
for believing
be acted on in the
that it may
to be good reason
like other prostomach
and intestines by the digestive
teins
enzyms
of
of proteinto the body. Some
and serve
as
a
source
the evidence in favor of this view is presentedin a subsequent
discussion of the nutritive value of the non-proteins
(786-789).
and
so
AND
DIGESTION
The
RESORPTION
digestionof
IOI
ash
whose
action has been considered
digestiveenzyms
in the foregoing pages
bring about extensive chemical
of
changes in the organic nutrients of feeding stuffs by means
into the nutritive processes
which they are prepared to enter
in the tissues. At the same
time, the so-called " inorganic
gestion
ingredientsof feed are also prepared for resorption,but the di-
various
The
"
of these
than
that of the
142.
Sulphur
substances
its union
from
less
extensivelystudied
organic nutrients.
and
it does
proteins,
the
been
has
with
As
"
tained
proteindigestion. The sulphur of the proteins is confar
in the amino-acid
as
known, is
cystin,which, so
resorbed without further change. As regardsthe phosphorus of
the nucleo-proteins,
opinions stilldiffer as to whether it is split
of digestionor resorbed,still
off as phosphoric acid in the course
in
To
what
extent
organic combination, as a nucleosid.
other ash ingredients
taken up, like sulphurand phosphorus,
are
in organiccombination, it is difficult to say, but that such resorption
of
"
"
takes
143.
placeis
Electrolytes.
"
feeds which
are
present
to
As
as
be
regardedas probable.
those
regards
ash
ingredients of
be assumed
it may
electrolytes,
that
related
the
problems of
considered
up
the
to
ash
The
whole
that it
metabolism
can
be
more
profitably
in that connection.
Solution
of
largerpart
well) are
of the
Summary
144.
or
of changesin digestion
nutrients.
"
The
substances
animals
which
(and of
make
man
of them,
Some
comparatively insoluble in water.
such as cellulose and the fats,may
be regarded as practically
entirelyinsoluble. Others, like starch and the proteins,are
as
OF
NUTRITION
102
FARM
ANIMALS
small amounts
of soluble proteins
While
sparinglyso.
of soluble carbohydratesoccur,
and somewhat
largerquantities
One
play but a subordinate role in nutrition.
they ordinarily
obvious result of the chemical
changes brought about by the
of the digestivetract is to
and organized ferments
enzyms
very
these
convert
insoluble
substances
into
soluble
ones.
Thus
solvents.
digestive
juicesis important,since
the animal, like the plant,absorbs its real food substances
of the
The
solution.
in aqueous
mere
dissolving
substantially
of the feeds,however, is far from being the only or
ingredients
the chief function of the digestive
juices,as is clearly
even
indicated,for example,by the existence of a coagulatingenzym
the soluble casein,or the preslike chymosin,which precipitates
ence
which attack substances already
of the various invertases,
The
solvent
action of the
soluble.
145.
Colloids
converted
into
crystalloids. The
"
principal
called colloids.
belong to the class of substances
Gelatin is a typicalcolloid as are, indeed, all the proteinsand
abundant
the more
carbohydrates,while the sugars, organic
acids,etc.,are classed as crystalloids.
tween
As related to digestion,
the most
important distinction beis the difference in the osmotic
colloids and crystalloids
of which
of their solutions by virtue
crystalloids
pressures
This diffusidiffuse readilythrough permeable membranes.
of the digested
bility
plays an importantpart in the resorption
in the
material into the blood and lymph current, as will appear
the only factor concerned.
next
section,although it is by no means
nutrients
review
of the chemical
changes which
tion
placein digesmolecular simplification.
cleavage by which
take
that
OF
NUTRITION
104
bearing the
same
different individuals
animal
The
and
but
name
of the
FARM
ANIMALS
derived
same
from
different
species,the
speciesor
proteinsof one
often
and
structure
differ in both
respects from
as
to
composition
"
amino
acids.
What
is
"
value
of
feed
"
of the
the nature
and amounts
upon
it yieldsin digestion
rather than upon
which it contains.
depends
cleavageproducts which
the
substances
specific
DIGESTION
"
148.
Resorption
3.
Definition.
AND
As
"
was
RESORPTION
"
stated
The
at
I05
Feces
the
beginning of this
in the alimentary
Epithelium
of villus.
"
Central
vessel
chyleof villus.
Artery of
villus.
Chyle-vessel.
Fig.
14.
"
thelial cells,
more
is
or
closelyunderlaid
lymph vessels. It
Book
of
Histology.)
less resemblingthose
with
is these
agents in resorption.
network
cells which
epithelial
are
the active
106
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
the villi.
as
Those
round
are
surface
of
intestinal
the
intestine.
surface,with the
underlaid
are
club-
or
by
cate
deli-
minute
membrane, beneath which are found numerous
a
cular
muslayer of smooth (involuntary)
capillaryblood-vessels,
fibers and
villus ends
vessel called
considerable
shows
In
nerves.
of each
center
section
longitudinal
and
takes place in
resorption
of water
amount
the
lacteal,
belongingto the lymphatic
villiare
Although some
of
network
Figure 14
system.
The
and
in the
the
more
or
of three
largeintestine.
Mechanism
are
digestion
substances
of
Since
resorption.
"
apparentlydirected
toward
diffusible
villi.
small
the
of
processes
the conversion of feed
forms, it was
quitenatural
In
resorptionshould be regardedas an osmotic process.
cells and other tissues between
this conceptionof it,the epithelial
the cavityof the digestive
organs and the blood and lymph
vessels constituted a membrane
through which osmosis took
the contents
were
place. On the one side of this membrane
of the digestive
tion,
tract, containing the soluble products of digeswhile on the other side were
the blood and lymph, containing
of these products. Under
these conditions,
little or none
osmosis was
assumed
nutrients
to set in and transfer the digested
and lymph.
to the blood
Undoubtedly osmosis plays an important part in resorption,
but its effects are profoundlymodified
by the propertiesof the
resorbingcells of the intestinal epitheliumin ways which as yet
but very partially
are
understood, and resorptioncan
by no
be explainedby a simple analogy with the parchment
means
dialyzingtube of the laboratory.
that
Differences
in the
intercellular substance
dissolved
substances
in the
water
may
be
assumed
to
influence
the
resorp-
however,
chemical
for
which
well
as
as
of salts.
Notable
of the intestinal
towards
among
and
For
There
are
other
07
facts,
to
epitheliumin
the blood
offer any
physicopresent
these is the predominant permeability
it is difficult at
explanation.
intestinal lumen
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
to
direction,
viz.,from
lymph vessels.
one
with
be content
the
the
ment
state-
of the
livingepithelial
cells,
explains nothing but
although such a statement, of course,
that it is impossible
at present to form an adequate
simply means
of the process.
conception of the intimate mechanism
cretion.
seResorption might be characterized brieflyas a reverse
In secretion the active cells of a gland take materials
from
the blood
into the specific
them
or
lymph, transform
and then eject the latter
substances characteristic of the cells,
into the duct of the gland. The
cells of the digestive
epithelial
tract, on the other hand, take up digested materials from the
of the alimentary canal, modify them
less
contents
more
or
chemically and transmit the products to the blood or lymph.
151.
Paths
of
Most
resorption.
"
of the resorbed
substances
to
152.
pass
from
Chemical
the
changes
in
resorption.
"
It
is
somewhat
of
products of digestion,
especially
the proteinsand fats,undergo rather extensive chemical
changes
cells
the
of
in the epithelial
during
resorption.This
process
in Chapter V but may
question is considered more
particularly
be briefly
referred to here for the sake of completeness.
Proteins.
In
digestion the proteins yield comparatively
simple cleavage products. It has been maintained, especially
and his school, that these cleavage products
by Abderhalden
cells into serum
are
resynthesizedin the epithelial
albumin,
which is regarded as the common
of all the body proteins.
source
This view has been based chieflyon the failure to detect amino
acids or other protein cleavage products in the blood coming
generallybelieved
"
that
the
108
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
from
the intestines
even
the circulation.
but
"
that
The
mechanism
any
considerable
of fat
amount
of fat is resorbed
in this
to
are
contain
of
fat,so
that after
filled with
milky
relatively
largeamounts
a
meal
fluid
tirely
en-
containingmuch
and the lymph is
of neutral
fats.
It
is clear,
then,that the resorbed soaps and fattyacids are speedily
synthesizedto fat again. This syntheticpower is stillfurther
and
demonstrated
strikingly
by the fact that free fattyacids
are
readilydigested but are transmitted to the lacteals in the
form
of the corresponding
neutral fats,having evidentlybeen
combined
in the process
of resorption,
with glycerol
although
the source
from which
the body derives its glycerol
is stilluncertain.
Evidently,then, from this point of view, nothing
DIGESTION
in the way
stands
AND
RESORPTION
09
of the
The
153.
forward
feces.
the contents
As
"
through the
small
of the
tract
digestive
move
and
The
(198)and
feces
are
whose
feces
example, feces
feed residues
of
be
to
Even
The
"
obvious
produced
in the
carnivora,
wholly digestible,
meat
diet,for
almost
On
man.
either absent
are
an
also in
continue
only.
remainder
excretory product.
an
it is evident
feces,while
excretory product
an
normal
amounts
as
an
but
both
regarded as
feed residue.
The
154.
be
to
are
pure
in which
undigested
entirelyor present in
minimal
material.
The
unresorbed
among
the
salts of calcium
are
phosphates of
include
155.
inconsiderable
not
The
feces
as
diet of man,
and to
feed of herbivorous
amounts
one
reason
in the feces.
extract," and
which
escape
are
other
The
feces also
organisms.
intestinal micro-
ordinary mixed
degree the ordinary
The
"
marked
more
relativelyconsiderable
either
or
indigestible
digestionand therefore
insoluble
ash
like
which
ingredients,
may
be
for
reappear
lignin,cutin,the
non-fatty ingredients of the
these,some,
Among
the
residue.
animals, contains
another
chlorophyl and
magnesium.
proportion of
feed
much
of materials
or
and
calcium
waxes,
"
ether
regarded
NUTRITION
HO
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
Of more
importance, however, are
wholly indigestible.
such carbohydratesas cellulose and the various hemicelluloses,
the levulans, galactans,mannans,
pentosans, etc., which
be
be
said to
practicallyonly partiallydigestible.
may
By this is not meant, of course, that one molecule of cellulose,
less digestible
per se than another, but only that
e.g., is any
of fact
part of the cellulose of ordinaryfeeds does as a matter
digestion,largelybecause the length of time during
escape
which it is exposed to the action of the organisms which attack
it is insufficient to allow of its complete solution.
The feces of
as
herbivorous
animals, therefore,contain
amounts
of these
verse
di-
crude fiber."
Other
of vegetablefeeding stuffs,
ingredients,
particularly
of any lack of the apaccount
not on
partially
propriat
escape digestion
but
because
are
digestiveenzyms
they
mechanically
from
the
latter.
action
of
the
If
protected
granules of starch,
contained
within a cell which has not been ruptured
e.g., are
during the mastication of the feed,the cell wall tends to protect
them from the action of the digestive
and they may escape
juices,
to
digestionalthough per se entirelydigestible.The extent
which such a nutrient will actuallybe digested,
therefore,will
depend to a considerable degree upon whether the cellulose of
the cell wall is attacked and destroyedby the organisms of the
is true
of starch in this respect is
alimentary canal. What
or
obviouslytrue of all cell enclosures,and explainswhy more
less matter
be rejected
in the feces.
intrinsically
digestible
may
For
like reason,
seeds which
escape
mastication
are
but
perfectl
im-
insoluble
digested,being protectedby the relatively
seed coats.
cellulose itself may
be so impregnated
Similarly,
with ligninand cutin substances that the
crude fiber
may
be attacked only with difficulty
not
at all by the methane
or
"
"
fermentation.
the possibility
of a misFinally,there is to be considered
and resorption.In heavy rations,
proportionbetween digestion
substances
which
are
especially,
actually digestedmay
haps
perthe
insufficient
contact
with
resorptionthrough
escape
NUTRITION
112
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
described
"
and
yet
one
may
be
more
valuable
than
its
Method
of
digestion experiments.
"
The
percentage
If the
matter
feces consisted
would
be very
include
greater or
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
113
of
less
and
excretory
products.
Time
159.
that
Fig.
15.
"
Steer
required
a
for
digestion experiments.
digestionexperiment
in digestion stall.
of
preceded by
(Bailey'sCyclopedia of
nary
for the
be
removing
be
is fed
investigated
the
is
sential
es-
prelimi-
Agriculture.)
in the
same
experiment. This is
digestivetract residues
the actual
from
American
It
"
NUTRITION
114
of
previousfeeds
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
also of
uniform a rate of
as
establishing
excretion of feces as practicable.In the case of ruminants, such
a preliminary
periodshould extend over one or two weeks, while
less. In the succeeding
with swine it may
be made
somewhat
digestionexperiment proper, the same
feeding is continued
and the feces are collected quantitatively
for a number
of days
(sevento ten or more),in order to eliminate the error due to the
of the excretion from
the
irregularity
day to day. From
weightsof feeds and feces and their compositionas determined
the digestibility
is computed as illustrated in the
by analysis,
followingparagraphs.
and
160.
fed 3.7
A steer was
Example of a digestion experiment.
kilograms of clover hay per day for three weeks.
During the last
ten days of this time, the average
weight of the dailyfeces was 5.662
kilograms. Samples of each were
analyzed and found to contain
the followingpercentages of dry matter.
"
Clover
hay
84.97 Per
22.36 per
Feces
The
cent
cent
matter
''
' '
"
Feces
Hay
Water
Ash
Protein
Non-protein
Crude
fiber
Nitrogen-freeextract
Ether
extract
assumption which,
does
not
as
appear
of
assumed
to exist in the
computation.
being
true
of protein,an
(166), but which
form
DIGESTION
These
excreted
AND
RESORPTION
115
eaten
and
feces
"
Table
20.
"
Results
of
161.
Digestion
Experiment
The
method
Digestibilityof concentrates.
just outlined
for determining the digestibility
of a roughage or of a total ration
is in conceptionvery simple. The determination
of the digestibility
is somewhat
of concentrates
more
by herbivora
complicated, since
be made
the sole feed of these animals.
they cannot
They must,
of a roughage whose
amount
therefore,be fed along with a known
animal
is likewise determined
in a preceddigestibility
by the same
ing
the digestibility
of the total ration
or
followingperiod. From
and the known
of the roughage that of the concentrate
digestibility
is obtained
of
second
calculation
a
by means
by difference.
used
the
in
the
steer
same
Thus,
experiment of the preceding paragraph
received per day in a subsequent period the same
amount,
3.7
of
clover
and
in
addition
of
meal.
maize
kilograms,
hay
4 kilograms
The average
excretion
of
feces
this
mixed ration was
on
daily
8.715
kilograms. An analysisof the clover hay used in this periodshowed
but slightvariations from
that of the preceding period. The
position
com"
of
the maize
Water
Ash
Protein
....
Non-protein
Crude
fiber
Nitrogen-freeextract
Ether
extract
.
meal
and
of the feces
was
"
Il6
NUTRITION
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
The
than that of
is less accurate
in this way
feed which
can
be
of the roughage
givenby itself. The assumption that the digestibility
over,
Morecorrect.
is not changed is unproved and probably not strictly
and
in
likewise
all
the
this
source
errors
arisingfrom
any errors
assignedto
weighing and analysisare, by the method of calculation,
The
the concentrate.
thus
writer has
introduced
may
be
shown
very
in the smallest
In
extreme
proportion,such
cases,
absurd
or
negativedigestibility
162.
Laboratory
as
results
are
sometimes
obtained, such
digestibility
greater than
of
determination
100
per
as
cent.
digestibility. Actual
"
Amer.
Jour. Landw.,
28
Table
21.
"
Computation
Digestibility
the
of
117'
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
of
tO
CO
c-i d
W
"
vO
CO
tO
i"-
vO
r~~
OO
co
vO
t-
to
on
o
co
ON
CO
rj-
on
00
vO
t-~
"
g0
Tf
O^
CO
CO
rf
to
vO
00
ON
co
On
to
co
ON
to
"*
"M
to
l"-
On
"*
co
CO
CO
oWni
On
to
co
t"-
00
to
lO
tJ-
CN
to
to
ON
CO
""*"
vd
COO
co
vq
ON
"N
""*" Ov
o
-1-
vO
a
H
lO
..g
to
to
to
Ov
co
s^".
"S
T3
"u
"^
"
co
to
"u
60
bO
.;h
60
co
.NO
+-"
u
60
-t-"
__
"u
-0
el
cu
Concentrate
Il8
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
total
of
nitrogenof the feed represents, of course, the amount
fore,
nitrogenousmatter which has been dissolved and which, thereis regardedas digestible.
G. Kiihn 3 and others between
Comparisons by Kellner,1Pfeiffer,2
the natural and artificialdigestionof protein have shown
that the
of the presence
former method
in the
gives lower results on account
feces of nitrogenousexcretory products (154, 158),but that when a
for the latter in the
correction is made
page
of
the
indicated
manner
two
methods
on
show
quent
subse-
tial
substan-
of artificialdigestion
as
163.
of
excretory products
on
apparent
bility.
digesti-
conducted
digestion
experimentas ordinarily
sults
ignores the presence in the feces of excretory products,the reobtained by its use will necessarily
stances
be too low, since subreckoned
which really
are
are
as
undigestedingredients
such.
affected by this
not
Obviously, the ingredientsmost
Since the
"
will be
error
those
which,
hand,
are
the
on
one
abundant
relativelymost
the
among
excretory
the ordinary
ingredientsare,
scheme
of feedingstuffs analysisis followed,ash, ether
As
and
extract
regards the crude
nitrogenous substances.
is absent, since obviously
fiber,on the other hand, this error
crude fiber is included among
the excretory products,and it
no
the same
seems
probable that substantially
thing is true of
the nitrogen-free
extract.
products in the
164.
feces.
when
These
Digestibility of
ash
ingredients.
"
Certain
ash
gredien
in-
phorus,
iron, calcium, magnesium and phosparticularly
are
largelyor wholly excreted from the body in the
feces (199). Furthermore,the resorption
of the ash ingredients
of the digestive
juicesmay not be complete and these residues
may
be
added
to
the ash
content
of the feces.
The
ordinary
OF
NUTRITION
120
pepsin-insoluble
nitrogenof
FARM
ANIMALS
feeds
the
quantitatively
in the feces,where it may
be regardedas representing
indigestible
feed protein,
while the pepsin-soluble
nitrogenof the feces
is contained in the excretory products,
part of which are protein
(mucus, epithelium,etc.)and part non-protein(residuesof
digestivefluids,etc.). An
approximate correction for the
also be comof nitrogenousexcretory products may
amount
puted
by the use of Pfeiffer's factor of 0.4 gram nitrogenper
100
digesteddry matter.
grams
167.
Apparent
appears
digestibility. When
the
"
results of the
dinary
or-
"
"
168.
Composition
of
digested
crude
fiber.
"
The
crude
fiber
dissolved
rumen
and
with
comparative ease
the ccecum,
1
Rpt. Conn.
and
the
same
by
is
organisms of
probably true of
the
p.
156.
the
the
RESORPTION
AND
DIGESTION
to
1 21
be much
less
readilydigested
of the other
some
a
consequence,
of the crude
of the feces
respectively
shows
digestible
is
the percentage of the former which
the digestedportionto have approximatelythe ultimate sition
compoof cellulose.
and heat of combustion
and
on
This
by
the
be
cannot
in individual
results
and
means
no
fiber consists
crude
the
is
and
case
doubtless
the crude
of
ingredients
other
it is nevertheless
extent, but
fiber
of the
which
it
to
some
of combustion
of the
energy
will
as
supply for the bodily activities,
appear
measure
clearlylater.
more
169.
a
attacked
is the heat
chief constituent
can
are
evident
digested. Neither
digestedportionin any sense
or
more
this
clearly that
Composition
for crude
fiber but
extract.
"
somewhat
shown
has
extract
digestedportionof the nitrogen-free
approximately the composition and heat of combustion
that the
starch
does
or
cellulose.
this fact
serve
less than
Even
to
fix with
any
By
ployed
principlewith that emmore
complicatedin its
identical in
calculation
difference
details and
digested nitrogen-free
of
in the
case
of crude
also
of
fiber
nitrogenstances
of feeding stuffs includes a great variety of subfree extract
of which, like starch,are
digestedin the
(110),some
of the word while many
others,like the hemisense
narrower
value
of the
digestedportion.
know
We
that
digested.
The data as to the compositionof the digestedportionindicate,
but on account
it is true, that it consists chieflyof carbohydrates,
of the small range of ultimate compositionshown by these
afforded of the specific
substances no indications are
drates
carbohycelluloses,
pentosans, etc., are
170.
present.
Digestible carbohydrates.
C6Hi0O5, it
of
the
ultimate
an
values
fermented
has
"
rather
Since
both
than
the
have
extract
digestednitrogen-free
compositioncorrespondingto the
become
feedingstuffs
formula
customary
to
digested
mately
approxi-
in
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
122
"
the
as
designate the sum
digestible
the
early expericarbohydrates." The practice dates from
ments
in
but
the
of HennebergandStohmann,
lightof our present
knowledge has little justification.
in composition
In the first place, as just stated, the agreement
The
essential point,however,
is but approximate and variable.
is that a digestionexperiment can
show
simply that a certain
of a certain ultimate
of material
amount
composition has failed
in the feces of the animal, and
to reappear
by itself affords no
the changes which
it has undergone nor
information
to
as
as
of the products actually resorbed.
As a matter
to the nature
of fact, a large share
of the
digested portion of these two
especiallyin the case of ruminants, has been fermented
groups,
rather than digested. A considerable
proportion of it has been
of these
two
and
groups
to
"
excreted
only
the
in
the
171.
term
crude
of the
fiber have
heat
of
The
products
been
than
presence
of
feces
that
in
the
of
average
per
the
former
Ether
Ether
and
those
few
determinations
of
extract
of ether
the
on
the
reported by
are
soluble
of such
excretory
comparison
approximations.
have
a higher heat
to
heats
were
extract
Digested ether
Landw.
to
ether
The
as
for pure
that
extract
feces
of
of combustion
of the
account
on
hay fed, doubtless
of the indigestiblewaxes,
etc., while
of the digested portion was
combustion
The
of five trials
the accuracy
found
the
gram.
but
regarded
was
computed heat of
distinctlylower than
Cals.
methane
similar
extract
digested
in
be
must
the
9.5
the
of the
and
determinations
No
"
ether
made,
presence
its results
extract
extract.
digested
combustion
Kellner.1
and
ether
Digested
composition
dioxid
carbon
as
Such
being
organic acids has been resorbed.
nomer.
digestiblecarbohydrates is a palpable mis-
of
residue
case,
form
gaseous
"
of
fats, which
of combustion
average
per
gram
"
hay
9.194
....
9.824 Cals.
of feces
extract
.
Vers.
Cals.
....
Stat., 47
8.322 Cals.
(1896), 301.
about
on
the
CHAPTER
CIRCULATION,
RESPIRATION
"
172.
Distribution
which
the
of the
organism
of
that
must
not
the
take
only
distributed
receive
the
in
substances
is the
accomplished
by
by Harvey
173.
The
serves
blood.
it
blood,
into
resorbed
feed
them
the
to
products
be
to
or
The
of their
of
clear
processes
the
which
The
the
they
chief
of
must
cells may
vehicle
resorbed
circulation
of
processes
myriad
the
but
being
of
nutrients
distribution
the
is
covered
blood, dis-
and
be
used
carrier
cells but
and
oxygen
fluid
highly complex
only the
not
the tissues
of the
transmitting
away
the
of the
body
carrying
in other
such
parts
very
proper
reader
X
thickish, somewhat
dark
to
Under
red.
5), and
07
the
the
slightly salt
It is somewhat
it is
suspension
The
corpuscles.
latter
comprehension
is
attempted
is referred
and
XI, and
to
of
of the
the
here.
Hough
for further
For
and
details
123
outlines
phenomena
a
of
The
consist
of
are
functions
as
and
elementary
seems
of the
sion,
discus-
Mechanism,
Human
larger treatises
two
the white
metabolism
complete
more
Sedgwick's
to the
of these
per
number
vast
red
general consideration
21
to
seen
a
and
heavier
about
contains
microscope
in
viscid
taste
corpuscles,or erythrocytes,and
leucocytes.
as
the
peculiar odor,
045-1.
bodies,
of nutrition
Chapters IX,
is
corpuscles, or
for
1.
solids.
kinds, known
Only
of its
In
they
purpose
chapter but
requires.
animals
bright
(sp. gr.
small, solid
to
higher
varying from
essential
(113).
the
by
the
necessary
faint but
of total
body
each
familiar
activity to
of the
water
cent
their
nutrition
excreted.
fluid,having
than
the
proper
indirectly, and
purposes,
ingredients
blood
color
This
equally
for
1621.
"
variety of
body
serve
the
that
of
in
shall
which
means
the
preceding
transferred, directly or
are
of
the
digestive changes by
prepared
are
into
up
through it, so
this distribution
feed
formed
taken
EXCRETION1
The
"
outside
place
resorption described
be
nutrients.
products
be
AND
Circulation
i.
ingredients of the
order
IV
on
physiology.
NUTRITION
124
174.
blood
Red
of the
numerous
but thicker
of
To
In
at
to
by
are
Their
5 J millions
number
more
like
have
diameter
millimeter
coin
is enormous,
cubic
per
far the
round
they are
man
edges than
0.0060-0.0085 millimeter.
estimated
These
"
kinds.
ANIMALS
FARM
corpuscles.
two
the
at
OF
being
of blood.
them
The
their generalcharacteristics
the
are
of most
in all.
same
Those
animalsaresmaller
than those of
corpuscleis
Each
man.
cell,having
but
nucleus
containing
its characteristic ingredient
the conjugatedprotein
which
haemoglobinto
no
as
Haemoglobin is a
substance
and
crystalline
it has
Reichert
by
Fig.
Above
16.
Blood
"
corpuscles.
haemoglobinof
shown
nine red corpuscles,highly magnified;
below, less highly magnified, the appearance
of the blood soon
after being drawn.
(Hough and
Sedgwick, The Human
Mechanism.)
White
blood
colorless,nucleated
blood but which, by
to
through
pass
lymph
the
corpuscles.
"
which
cells
of connective
spaces
of
walls
each
cies
spe-
confined
not
are
the
as
able
are
the
and
vessels
so-called
the
to
movements,
blood
the
tissue
the
form and
crystalline
properties.
white
The
corpusclesare
of ameboid
means
that
of animal
are
175.
recentlybeen shown
"
ing
wander-
cells."
here.
Blood
platelets.
the blood
in
diameter
"
contains
from
In
addition
minute
more
the white
corpusclesand
the coagulationof the blood.
are
the two
nucleated
kinds
are
much
thought to
more
of
puscles,
cor-
cells,ranging
millimeter,called
0.0003-0.0005
or
platelets,
thrombocytes. They
than
to
blood
abundant
be concerned
in
AND
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
EXCRETION
125
sides
complex fluid contains,beof water, a great variety of substances,
about
90 per cent
the most
prominent of which are the proteins,of which two
serum
globulinsand
are
recognized,viz.,two or more
groups
the so-called serum
albumin, which is probably not a single
also
Plasma
individual.
contains
chemical
approximately
of dextrose,from 0.1 to as much
1.0
as
0.1-0.15
per
per cent
form
in
soluble
of fat,usually
cent
(243),a great variety
some
in part waste
of so-called extractives which
are
products of cell
action,and about 1 per cent of mineral ingredients.
177.
Blood
178.
Coagulation.
plasma.
"
This
"
When
very
blood
is drawn
from
the
body
it
The
usually coagulatesor clots within a few minutes.
lating
coagusubstance
and its coagulation
is a globulincalled fibrinogen
is an enzymatic reaction
brought about
bin,
by a ferment, throm-
believed
from
derived
blood
a
very
be
to
the
platelets by
complicated
The
process.
ulated
coag-
protein
stitutes
con-
the so-called
blood
fibrin,which
self
entangles within itthe corpuscles,
iar
producing the familblood clot.
the clot is very
the dry blood
amounts
bulky
fibrin
only 0.2-
to
cent
per
0.3
While
of the
The
Tljeblood
to
the
a
body
most
organ,
Figure
heart."
Fig.
"
of mammalian
Diagram
heart.
uted
is distrib-
all parts of
of
by means
auricle.
ventricle,
b, Right ventricle,
c. Left
a, Left
auricle.
arteries.
Pulmonary
/, Aorta.
d, Right
gg,
veins.
(Smith, Physiology of the Domestic
op.. Pulmonary
Animals.)
interesting
the heart, which
17
17.
shows
is
in
effect
diagrammaticallythe
living force
structure
of the
pump.
mam-
126
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
the
substantially
is
heart, which
malian
FARM
OF
all farm
in
-same
animals.
It is divided
half,and
by
of
each
into
imperviouspartition
these is subdivided
by a cross
an
each
two
the
dividingwall.
are
known
The
left
rightand
the
as
and
upper
other
smaller
rightand left
into
partition
by a valve in
of these
auricles,and
the
divisions
lower
and
with
auricles and
out
the heart
arteries and
and
of
blood
The
"
is
tissue and
in
originate
and
ventricle,
from
strong, elastic
Their
which
the
walls consist
a middle
tissue,
layer
teries
layerof epithelium. The ar(h,Fig.18),which receives the blood
as
they extend farther and farther
and
minute
with
called
are
throw
off branches
of which
called
are
to
the various
arterioles,
finally
the
capillaries.
are
Capillaries. The capillaries
181.
blood
more
body
inner
the aorta
the left
ending in
the
by
an
from
organs,
withstand
to
them
into
tubes
as
of muscular
into the
the blood
conduct
of the
organs
described
be
may
pumped
outer
an
only flow
can
vessels which
the various
to
contractile walls,
blood
the blood
of the ventricles.
Arteries.
180.
from
arranged that
so
"
vessels
form
the
walls
are
which
connectinglink
thin and
exceedinglyminute
tissues of the body and
between
Their
veins.
of the blood pass out into the tissues while the waste
ucts
prodof cell activity
In
the tissues into the blood.
pass from
of the posterior
Fig. 1 8, n represents the capillaries
part of the
t those of the kidneys,
body, o those of the stomach and intestines,
body.
The
vessels,the veins,which
and lungs.
those
the blood
convey
back
to
the heart
g
182.
Veins.
to the arteries
"
veins
but with
of the blood
of the
The
on
are
weaker
them
cross
and
non-elastic
being slight,owing
between
capillaries
them
section
and
similar
walls,the
to
the
tion
interposi-
is greater than
sure
pres-
to
the
that of the
128
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
d, d.
is providedwith
The
to
by
to this blood
entrance
a
which
valve
vessel,like
prevents the
that
of the
others,
of the blood.
return
returns
blood, after passingthrough the lung capillaries,
the left auricle,
/, through the pulmonary veins,represented
sends
contracting,
auricle then
The
e.
the
blood
into
the^
powerfullyand
ventricle,
g, which, in its turn, contracts
expelsthe blood into one -largevessel,the aorta, h. The aorta,
after leavingthe heart,divides into two branches, i and j,
soon
left
The
of the
appearance
the
in
blood
and
veins
arteries is
dark, cherry-red
color,but after it has passed through the lungs and is sent out
the heart
by
former
the
In
different.
strikingly
to
the
is called venous,
it has
veins
brightscarlet
arterial blood.
latter,
The
color.
An
exception
to
to, and
the vessels
the former
conduct
to
speak of
a
reality
the
constitutes
hose
The
pumped
it is not
it.
uncommon
to
into
hose
powerful
is driven
were
While
toward
teries
Ar-
"
water
hose.
of circulation.
analogy
an
the blood
Mechanics
184.
are
left open
the water
contraction
muscular
The
heart
force pump.
the arteries correspondto the
by
and
by
of
by
the
would
of
successive
pump.
issue in
the
ventricle
impulses,as
If the
a
end
the
of the
series of spurts
EXCRETION
AND
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
correspondingto
nozzle
is converted
outflow
into
steady
129
By the addition
this intermittent
resistance of
The
stream.
of
of the water
gives rise to a pressure
the passage
stretches the walls of the hose, and their elastic force
the nozzle
which
to
between
the flow
maintains
Substantiallythe
same
are
may
resistance
caused
channels
tends
arteries
which,
to
the immediate
to
be
compared
and
which
by
these
minute
pressure
in the
steady
In other words,
through the capillaries.
of the blood through the
of the motion
cause
weakened
The
produces a
in the
of
is the elasticity
capillaries
become
to
in
capillaries
hold it back
of blood
movement
the
elastic while
The
and
hose, causes
If the
arterial walls.
the
or
become
hardened
latter
as
in
therefore,
pressure in the arteries,
tem.
important indicator of the activityof the circulatorysysThe
veins serve
system, the
substantiallyas a return
arterial pressure.
is
an
blood
The
blood
pressure
185.
The
but
lymph.
are
"
imbedded
more
spaces
lymph
which
or
between
body
The
gether
closelypacked tosue
tisless looselyin connective
them
spaces).
(intercellular
cells are
not
branes
of osmosis through their outer memit,by means
and perhaps in other ways, the cells derive the substances
requiredfor their vital activities and into it they discharge
live.
From
the
waste
The
which
the minute
to
capillaries
penetrate all
body,
it should
be understood
convey
blood
NUTRITION
13"
is
culatoryapparatus
delicate walls
OF
of the
FARM
closed
ANIMALS
Even
the
very
continuous
and
the blood
system.
are
capillaries
with
thin
the
livingcells,except,
of course, those liningthe blood
vessels. The accompanying
lations
rediagram (Fig.19) illustrates schematicallythe anatomical
of the cells,intercellular spaces, capillaries
and lymphatics
minute
A representing
viding
subdia
artery, or arteriole,
reunited
into capillaries
which
the small
to form
are
walls the nutritive substances
vein V.
Through the capillary
contained in the blood pass, partlyby osmosis
and partlyby
does
not
come
Fig. 19.
"
Relation
of cells to blood
Sedgwick, The
and
are
carried
Lymphatics.
another
set
"
of
vessels and
Human
maintain
in the
its
stock,while the
oppositedirection
waste
into the
off.
In
the
minute
to form
capillaries
largerones (L in Fig. 19) and
finallyform two main lymphatic trunks, the thoracic duct
and the small lymphatictrunk,which empty into the great veins
the heart. The lacteals of the intestinal villi,
near
throughwhich
the fats are chieflyresorbed,belong to the lymphaticsystem.
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
In the
lymph
lymphaticsthere
from
is
AND
continuous
the main
EXCRETION
slow
131
of the
movement
trunks,the lymphatics,
like the
of
general movement
the
lymph itself over
a
tends
the
surface
facilitate
to
exchangesbetween
of
it and
the
protoplasm.
187.
"
The
of
activity
tissues varies
the various
different times.
at
at
tion.
circula-
of
Adjustment
and
rest
is
sometimes
actively contracting.
a
greater
or
times
some-
less
quently,
Conse-
supply
supply needs to be
regulatedaccordingly.
This
regulation is effected in
two
First,
substantially
ways.
when
the cells of any particular
tissue increase their activitythey
and
consume
more
give
oxygen
Fig. 20.
off more
waste
products than be- (in white).
fore,tending to produce a relative The Human
and
the blood
"
1^11
rr
of
deficiency
the
of the other
bring about
of
by means
an
a
one
and
in the
increase
nerve
an
lymphatic
and
trunks
Sedgwick,
Mechanism.)
cess
ex-
lymph
in
Main
(Hough
and
blood.
the heart
stimulus, so
action
that
These
conditions
(194),probably
the amount
of blood
OF
NUTRITION
132
or
muscular
allow
ANIMALS
is increased
active
the
is
and
tissues.
blood
abundant
more
Second, there
supply
of organs
set
one
from
or
of the
When
nerves.
may
region
one
another
accomplishedthrough the
coat
FARM
calls
agency
controlled by
arterioles,
a
largersupplyof
blood
the arterioles to
offered
the blood
to
force blood
into the
upon
contraction
of the abdominal
minishe
especially
resultingin a diorgans,
blood supply. The effect of the performance of work
discussed in Chapter XVI
(721),is possibly
digestion,
connected
with
On
the other
hand, after a
digestivetract
blood vessels tend to contract
and
relax,while the superficial
the blood supply is partially
diverted from the surface tissues
This power
of the body to regulate
to the internal organs.
the supply of blood to different regionsis of special
importance,
will appear
later (321),
in connection with the regulation
of
as
the body temperature.
"
188.
The
described
from
and
are
"
By
means
precedingsection
lacteals
Respiration
supply.
oxygen
in the
2.
taken
distributed
the nutritive
by
the
the
processes
materials derived
the intestinal
various
189.
blood
blood
capillaries
tissues and
Equally necessary
with
to
up
of
the
cells.
living
set of
gans,
or-
the blood
the
cells.
lungs.
"
The
ity
vessels,fillthe cavityof the thorax,or chest. This cavis enclosed on
the sides by the ribs and their connections,
forming the chest walls,and is separatedfrom the abdominal
cavity,
containingthe digestive
organs, by a strong, arched,mus-
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
AND
EXCRETION
133
cular
toward
the
convex
partition,
chest, the diaphragm. The air
the lungs through the
enters
trachea, or windpipe, from the
mouth
and nostrils. The trachea,
after reaching the chest,divides
into two
branches, or bronchi,
one
leading to the right and one
to the left lung. Each
bronchus
subdivides
repeatedly into a
of
multitude
fine
tubes, the
smallest of which
called bronchioles
are
(little
bronchi), each of
finallyends in an alveolus,
which
Fig.
is much
21.
ckens, Form
increased
the
of
form
the
In
by being arranged
Fig.
pits
represents
21,
air cells.
scale
Fig.
Figure
section of
cross
22.
or
"
air
Section of two
22
two
in
"
Alveoli of lung.
und
wirthschaftlichen
Leben
der
(WilLand-
Hausthiere.)
cells.
bronchiolus,aa
shows
two
alveoli and
diagrammaticallyon
alveoli.
alveoli.
(Hough
Mechanism.)
and
Sedgwick, The
Human
bb
large
NUTRITION
134
The
rings which
and
bronchi
from
and
surrounded
are
consist of
cavities of the
lungs are
tissue
this connective
direct
covers
diaphragm, the
with a liquid.
190.
of
Mechanics
themselves
out
of the chest
and
found
larger branches
pulmonary vein, connected
by
are
air
the
of
a
In
the
work
net-
are
breathing.
In
"
breathing,the
lungs
of
essentially
passiverole,the movement
of them
being effected by changes in the capacity
about
the
of
the
phragm
diamovements
brought
by
play
extensible and
so
is enclosed
of which
cartilaginous
tissue
lung
FARM
prevent them
bronchioles
ANIMALS
OF
an
ribs.
Since the
tion
toward
the chest its contracdiaphragm is convex
tends to pull the apex of the dome
toward
the abdomen,
of the chest cavityand by pressure
thus increasing
the volume
walls.
When
the digestive
on
organs distendingthe abdominal
the diaphragm relaxes again the volume
of the chest is reduced
and the abdominal
walls return
to their former
position. This
type of breathingis what is called abdominal
breathing.
The ribs pass obliquelyaround
the chest from
the spine to
of
the breast bone
the intercostal
(sternum). By means
muscles, located
between
from
chest
front
cavity.
breathing.
The
to
This
back
and
type of
the
them,
to
the
the
chest
ribs
can
spine and
both
from
be
elevated,
sternum,
thus
side
side
to
By
ordinarilycombined.
their jointaction the size of the closed pleuralcavity containing
forces
the lungs is increased and the atmospheric pressure
air into the extensible
alveoli of the lungs,so that the
more
latter expand along with the chest cavity,the whole constituting
the act of inspiration,
the diaphragm
or
breathing in. When
and the intercostal muscles relax,the elasticity
of the
two
136
NUTRITION
converted
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
color is due
of
venous
and
the
marked
difference in appearance
tween
be-
arterial blood.
The
is very
respiration
of breathing
commonly applied to the mechanical
processes
just described or to the exchange of gases in the lungs. In
which
realityall these are preliminaryto the real respiration,
takes place in the tissues. The
vital processes
in the body
cells consist,broadly speaking,as will appear
in detail in the
next
chapter,of a series of oxidations. The requisite
oxygen
is necessarily
drawn from the lymph in which
the cellsexist (185),
while
the carbon dioxid produced by oxidation is discharged
into it. The
lymph, therefore,tends continuallyto become
192.
of
Respiration
richer in carbon
justdescribed
tissues.
dioxid and
the blood
"
term
in oxygen.
poorer
takes up
In
the
manner
in the
lymph
time the
same
in the
from
as
to
greater
less extent
of carbon
the
or
oxygen
neighborhood of
and
passes
dioxid in the
the blood
oxygen
and
lymph
is thus
passes
removed
sumption
con-
and
of oxygen
elimination of carbon dioxid by the
cells which
while the
constitutes the real act of respiration,
of
lungs and the elaborate mechanism
for
breathingand of the blood corpusclesare simply means
providingoxygen to the cells and taking away carbon dioxid.
That the movements
of breathingare not an essential part of
is strikingly
shown
respiration
by the fact that it is perfectly
possible
by suitable devices to maintain oxygenationof the blood
complex
In
these
exchanges, as
of the
structure
are
no
in other
doubt
similar
modified
ones,
by
while
the
diffusion
doubtless
plays a
living
specialpropertiesof the
of
of oxygen
the
consumed
of this element
relativelyinactive
they
lymph
but
little. As
take
the
apparent
When
the
by
up
the
upon
cells.
body
amount
they
are
little oxygen
correspondingly
up
ered
in the latter is low-
and
the
by
ever.
what-
It is
taken
lungs depends
137
movements
respiratory
"
blood in the
from
of any
EXCRETION
193.
from
in the absence
animal
an
AND
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
is less dissociation
there
consequence
of
and
arterial pressure
therefore
the
of blood
amount
passing
if it
than
tissues
the
the
can
194.
tration
no
be affected
handle.
more
stream
just used
of
from
the
which
rhythm
is true, of course,
carries
at
the
by increasingthe ventilation of
is by
of water
delivered by a pump
the amount
of the
of
respiration
frequently.The
more
Regulation
stream
returns
lungs than
the volume
the
in
capillaries
least
amount
as
much
the
of
water
is taken.
breathing.
only
on
The
condition
the pump
available in the
water
of oxygen
the
"
as
illusr
that
can
lungs
138
must
a
least
at
equal
with
true
the
that the
varying
rate
the tissues.
It is
of ventilation of the
lungs
activityof the
but is
activities,
which, as everyone
of all these
work
ANIMALS
requiredby
the amount
familiar observation
varies
FA*RM
OF
NUTRITION
body
This
cells.
familiar in the
most
case
is
of
the
of
breathing mechanism.
already stated
(190),the muscles which are used in breathingare ordinarily
controlled from the so-called
and it is
center
respiratory
that
the regulationis effected.
through this center
If, for
example, an animal be suppliedwith air largelydiluted with
indifferent gas, such as nitrogenor hydrogen, the partial
some
As
"
of the oxygen
pressure
in the alveoli is
of the blood
Such
and
"
is
so
reduced
moglobin
that the hae-
with oxygen.
saturated
only partially
stimulates
of oxygen
center
the respiratory
deficiency
crease
active breathingand a correspondinginproduces more
in the rapidity
with which the air in the alveoli (residual
a
air)is
renewed.
Under
to
tissues
increase
the
of the
by
which
lungs. Any
carbon
more
dioxid
of this substance
content
in the
increase
tivity
ac-
produced
is
in the
blood.
very
greater amount
It is
of carbon
plain,however,
alone
dioxid.
that
gases between
simpleincrease
in the
lung
tilation
ven-
is not
sufficient,
except in a limited degree,to carry
carbon dioxid from
the tissues.
Along with the
more
away
increased ventilation there
of the blood
current
the
which
lungsand
must
be
an
rapidity
is the medium
the
increase in the
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
find that
we
substantiallythe
EXCRETION
139
stimuli which
same
breathingalso stimulate
active
AND
the heart
cause
action and
more
vice
Lack
of oxygen
of carbon dioxid are
the two
excess
or
factors in regulatingthe breathingrhythm but by no
the
only
They
ones.
the
however,
are,
of
ones
versa.
cipal
prinmeans
tance
impor-
most
195.
the
exchange
exchange
of gases
the
through
between
skin.
addition
In
"
the
blood
to
which
in the
on
in accurate
account
experimentalwork.
" 3. Excretion
196.
Excretory products.
activities of the
which
must
with
products and
formed.
For
oxidations
from
the
with
already implied,
the formation
to
dischargedfrom
will be concerned
these
cells lead
body
be removed
ultimately be
As
"
the
of
nature
some
the
The
more
of the steps
to
say
of
by
vital
products
of which
some
body.
the
must
chapter
important of
next
which
that
they are
the
gradual
of
or
197.
of carbon
section,the carbon
dioxid
also
ingredients
dioxid.
"
As
produced by
tissue
respiration
passes
the blood
the carbon
dioxid is carried
OF
NUTRITION
140
the
with
alkalies.
in the
As
ANIMALS
of oxygen,
case
the amount
in the blood
dioxid contained
carbon
FARM
depends
surroundingmedium.
upon
the
of
partial
pressure
the blood
alveolar
of the
the
capillaries,
the former..
carbon
If the air
dioxid
passes
stationarythe
continue
until an
reached.
would
equilibriumwas
process
Since the air is being continuallyrenewed
by breathing,the
tension of carbon dioxid in it is kept permanently lower than
from
the latter
to
and
dioxid from
carbon
there
were
is,therefore,a continual
the blood
to
the alveolar
of
passage
air.
of this
anism
tendency to equilibriumthat the mechcreased
Infor the regulationof breathing is set in motion.
tissue respiration
carbon dioxid into the
more
discharges
a
more
blood, where its tension increases. This causes
rapid
It is
by
means
lung ventilation
carbon
would
dioxid
level
be raised.
Even
to
raise its
unchanged
of both
rate
of
the alveolar
slightrise in
dioxid tension in the blood, however, as already
the carbon
and stimulates
center
stated,acts promptly upon the respiratory
in an
increased lung
the muscles of breathing,resulting
ventilation and consequently a more
rapid excretion. At the
time the rapidityof circulation is increased and in these
same
air and
the blood
the
tends
very
falls below
be
so
the normal
increased,as
artificially
by
of oxygen,
the carbon dioxid
use
by
facilitated that the amount
in the blood
artificial respiration
or
excretion
be
the
and
the movements
of
breathingmay
be
temporarilysuspended (apncea).
198.
Excretion
of
nitrogenous products.
other
"
The
urea
and
whence
it is voided
at
intervals.
RESPIRATION
CIRCULATION,
The
chief stimulus
is the water
EXCRETION
141
to
by the kidneys
blood, the kidneys acting as regulators
of the
content
AND
of this
there
exists
which
it begins to pass
the normal
excretory
For
foreignsubstances,this
minute
very
certain minimum
minimum
the
blood.
per
dextrose
For
products,as
substances
limit is
the
chlorid
o-6
in
approaches
of these
amounts
concentration
that
zero,
be
can
retained
So
etc.
for
as
is,only
approximately
cent,
per
well
in
0-2-0-3
long
as
kidneys. On
the
an
of the
kidneys
on
hand,
causes
valve
other
has
tank.
has its
been
likened
It should
to
concerned.
the
be added
minimum,. independent to
own
This
working of
that each
a
this limit
an
function
overflow
substance
particular
largedegree of
so
functions
of the
simpleas
those of
the concentration
urine
work
of
than
in the blood.
In
is not
and
the other
can
be detected
addition
pressure
and
inconsiderable.
nitrogenouswaste
substances
other
substances
by transferring
this work
In
overflow
an
of the excreted
higher osmotic
kidneys,however,
words,
from
is greater in the
the kidney does its
fluid of lower
to
fluid
the
expenditure of energy in
This is notably true of urea
products,of which only traces
in the blood.
the
"
NUTRITION
142
urine
the intestines
accordingas
of
path
excretion,although they
also in the
The
ANIMALS
kidneys form
or
contained
are
the normal
to
small
tent
ex-
perspiration.
intestines
mineral
FARM
OF
usual
the
are
of excretion
path
substances,notably iron,calcium
in
and
the
for certain
to
extent
some
of the
case
her-
ordinary conditions,is
excreted in the feces. The urine of herbivora,especially
when
in more
or
they consume
roughage freely,
generalterms when
the basic predominate over
the acid ingredients
of the ash, is
of phosphoricacid.
alkaline and contains but minute
amounts
On the other hand, during fastingor upon
ration having an
a
acid
ash,the urine
have
may
The
urine
sulphur,chlorin
200.
Excretion
omnivora,
or
normal
is the
and
an
contain
may
vehicle
for the
phosphoric
excretion
of
the alkalies.
of water.
The
"
motions
of air in and
of
out
the
channel
being
form
of the
"
of water
from
stances
perspiration."Under certain circumis so rapid as to give rise to the
the excretion of water
formation of visible drops (sweating).
The
than
ox
in
amounts
insensible
of water
sometimes
are
in these two
excreted
realized.
For
of
upon
and
water
in the
case
larger
are
ways
of herbivorous
of the
movement
of
large percentage
animals
thus
the amount
eliminated
is very considerable.
is excreted in the
water
Finally,
for the
urine,servingas
which
nitrogenousproductsof cell activity
through this
in
channel.
part upon
The
amount
the amount
of
water
consumed,
thus
are
solvent
removed
excreted
in part upon
pends
dethe
CHAPTER
METABOLISM
"
201.
Assimilation
defined
(73)
of
the
the
such
Every
from
these
to
which
cell
direct
of
are
the
blood
consisting
feed
and
is
the
for
from
202.
Definition
that
the
removal
of
the
are
so
the
blood
of
and
is the
simple
supplied
cesses
protained
con-
series
"
of
It
molecular
blood
the
of
is clear
extensive
culation
cir-
cell oxygen
digestive tract
cell
them
puscles
cor-
of
mechanism
from
remove
the
to
tissue and
each
products
144
by
mals
ani-
material
resorptive
material
seat
the
materials
solution
metabolism.
higher
In
lymph.
into
of
qualitativelyuniform
is
which
the
nutritive
that
products
waste
in
the
transmit
oxygen
of excretion
body
the
comparatively
waste
life of
organs
the
that
current
the
of
and
water
replace
to
fulfilled
are
nutritive
and
away
organs
seldom
continued
without
continually distributingto
carrying
plasm
proto-
mation
transfor-
is essential
dioxid,
the
heterogeneous
substances
lungs
their
they
appear,
gradually brought
lymph
through
various
the
structure
from
are
cleavages,
of
the
of oxygen
carbon
to
necessary
of
digestion, the
of molecular
of
and
rived
de-
energy,
simple compounds.
circulation
in the
and
will
as
conditions
Both
the
solutes
presence
oxidized
and, second,
by
multifarious
of
constituents
and
its activities.
living protoplasm
the
of
seat
been
ultimately
consumed
to
of
The
while,
and
things, then,
already
It is the
expenditure
an
down
forms.
comparatively
Two
cell has
life.
is the
of cell enclosures
other
are
other
cells which
breaking
changes
primarily
The
"
of
activity requires
or
into
excretion.
organism.
the
itself
Conception
biologicalunit
body
of
activities
and
the
as
General
i.
action
from
to
the
from
chemical
the
the
body.
going
foretrans-
METABOLISM
formations.
products.
excretory
The
On
the
HS
is
metabolism
term
of the chemical
commonly
changes
used
which
the
to
designatethe
constituents
of
tality
to-
the
feed
of their conversion
into
undergo in the course
the corresponding excretory products. Similarly,one
may
restricted
of
in
the
of
metabolism
sense
a
more
speak
single
ingredientsof the feed, as of the proteins,carbohydrates or
the chemical
fats,protein metabolism, for example, signifying
changes undergone by the digestionproducts of the proteins
of the feed during their assimilation and subsequent transformation
into excretory products. The
adjective metabolic is
resorbed
also used
203.
to
Anabolism
and
katabolism.
changes.
The
metabolism,
as
just defined,includes processes of two distinct kinds, viz.,
molecules of sugars, organic acids,amino
those by which
acids,
into
built
in
the
more
complex compounds
body
etc., are
up
and those by which these complex compounds are broken down
again into simpler substances and finallyinto the excretory
"
term
products.
The buildingup metabolism
has received the name
anabolism,
while the breakingdown
oxidative phase is called katabolism.
or
Any change in the direction of greater molecular complexity
is spoken of as an anabolic change, while one
in the direction of
greater molecular simplicityis a katabolic change.
It must
always
be
inferred
from
precedes katabolism.
constituents
On
not
by
any
what
Neither
has been
is the
of
process
instances are known
means
said
that
anabolism
of cell
breaking
uninterrupted katabolism.
in which
it is interrupted
down
While
changes of one sort or another.
the general direction of the change is towards
there
simplification,
eddies in the current.
are
Moreover, it is by no means
probable that
all the resorbed
substances
are
actuallybuilt up into protoplasm
before being katabolized.
It is true that,to the best of our
edge,
knowlthe metabolic
take place within
the cells but it approcesses
pears
that
the
of material
unlikely
relatively
somelarge amounts
146
times katabolized
firstbecome
must
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
integralparts
of the
protoplasm.
them.
The foregoing
conception
Synthetic processes in the body.
of metabolism
impliesthat the body has power to carry out extensive
that the course
chemical syntheses,contrary to the idea stillcurrent
the buildingup of
of chemical change in the organic world is toward
complex compounds in the plant and their breaking down to simpler
in the animal.
Synthethicchemical changes were
long regarded
ones
in the animal
while
the
reactions
as
peculiarto the vegetablekingdom,
supposed to be exclusivelyanalytic. The first synbody were
thetic
of
the formation
action to be recognized in the animal was
hippuricacid from benzoic acid,discovered by Keller and Wohler in
attention.
attracted
wide
More
recent
logical
physio1824, and which
isolated
have shown that this is by no means
an
investigations
executed in the animal
case, but that synthesesin great variety are
animal
and vegetable
body. No such sharp distinction between
laws
formerly supposed. The fundamental
organisms exists as was
for both and both execute
the same
of metabolism
are
syntheticas
It is only the specialsyntheticactivity
well as analyticprocesses.
of the chlorophylin green
mental
plants which tends to obscure this fundalikeness. The conception,then, that the digestivecleavages
supply to the body cells comparatively simple "building stones"
which are synthesized to produce the complex ingredientsof cells
and tissues is quite in harmony with our
generalknowledge of the
204.
nature
"
of metabolism.
205.
Metabolism
as
whole
Oxygen
blood
and
reacts
productsof
are
and
and
oxidative
may
"
be characterized
is introduced
with
analytic.
into
the feed
or
the
Metabolism
garded
re-
chemicallyas an
system through
tissue materials
or
with
dation.
oxithe
the
their
urea, etc.
From
a
contains
24
atoms
and
fats, respectively,
155,
molecules
of carbon
dioxid and
167
water
and
173
most
atoms,
from
resulting
mon
com-
while
their
me
the
tab-
METABOLISM
147
olism contain
each.
Even
but 3 atoms
of protein which are resorbed from
the
exceptions,much
few
result from
which
cleavageproducts
digestivetract
complex than
more
the
final
with
are,
products
their metabolism.
Metabolism
206.
the
gradual
process.
While
"
metabolism
Metabolism
is the
of the chemical
through which
the life of the cells is manifested.
These
reactions,however,
and even
in the
differ from tissue to tissue and from cell to cell,
time
cell from
to time, and
the resultingproducts are
same
sum
numerous
correspondingly
supplied
the cells
to
metabolism
excreted
as
varied.
and
the
by
reactions
blood
from
the
Between
and
the final
there
body
the nutrients
products of
innumerable
are
intermediate
thus
able
are
to
of the
changes,but
the so-called intermediarymetabolism
in the changes,we
tissues concerned
know
that they are numerous.
we
sum
of oxygen
step processes of which
of partial oxidations.
with
as
measure,
as
well
of the
as
though
largelyignorant, al-
are
results in the
does
not
feed
it is made
specific
consist
formation
of
primarilyin
the
materials,i.e.,the step by
up
do
not
consist of
series
The
cells and
not,
fire,
by the supply of
notion
increased
voluntaryincrease
in the rate
material
except
so
far
exertion.
to be oxidized
as
increased
in the
case
(193)
oxygen
an
more
that
as
The
somewhat
proportionof
and
of direct oxidation
in the air or
oxygen
depth of breathingmay
in the
body is without
breathing involves
mon
coma
cause
foundation,
increased
cular
mus-
148
NUTRITION
207.
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
As
Purpose
the transformation
the substances
the
metabolism.
of
broken
of the chemical
This
process.
will be
occasion
but
detail,
conceptionthat the final end
matter
is the
least its
at
in
being indeed
is familiarly,
if not
that
statement
the
consider
aim
and
of metabolism
is to supply
factor
controlling
transformations
are
to
energy
contained
in
later
fact
the
altogetheraccurately,expressed in
feed is the fuel of the body.
There
energy
of the whole
essence
"
of energy
for
ergy
en-
It is these
with
life,
objectivemanifestation.
But
ception
generalconof metabolism, it is also importantto understand
clearly
that the processes by which this end is reached are exceedingly
cussion
complex. A volume would be requiredfor any adequate disof existing
even
knowledge regardingthe details of the
metabolic
processes.
Such
discussion
the scope
in this chapteris
lies outside
stances
of feed sub-
subsequent consideration of
their values as sources
and energy
of matter
to the body, to
indicate the functions which
they perform in the buildingup
and maintenance
ities.
of the organism and the support of its activand,
"
or
as
2.
preliminaryto
Enzyms
of
views
seems
208.
metabolism
are
been
seen
to
in
that
in
Metabolism
called for.
Extracellular
tract
Agents
as
those which
enzyms.
are
most
"
of the digestive
enzyms
familiar in physiology. As has
(114),the digestionof
The
all three of
METABOLISM
149
of feed
agency
and
effected
is often
Thus
maltose
while
in successive
different enzyms
the saliva converts
by
ptyalin of
the
stages.
their
largelyor wholly by
starch
into
is effected
well
as
in the
even
germinating seeds,the
of the diastase of
produce them
from
as
familiar
more
act
enzyms
and
at
case
tance
dis-
have, therefore,
been
Intracellular
209.
obvious
acted
enzyms.
"
From
the
most
of enzym
action were
those in which the ferment
to
distance from the cells producingit,enzyms
came
cases
at
belonged in a different
that of living cells. A sharp distinction was
category from
drawn
between
unorganized substances,acting substantially
chemical reagents,and organisms producing chemical
changes
as
whose
substances
be
regardedas
by
afforded
typicalexample
action
which
was
(invertase)
capableof
independentlyof the action of the yeast cell,,
an
enzym
invertingsucrose
while, on the other hand, the alcoholic
saccharids
held
was
be
to
of
fermentation
of the
vital function
mono-
livingyeast
cells.
Buchner, however,
could
there
which
be
enzym.
monosaccharids
zymase.
1897, showed
from
extracted
yeast
that
a
by suitable
means
(zymase)
substance
fermented
absence
in
The
the
only
it is alive but
because
not
because
it contains
true
of the
caused
yeast fermentation
by the lactic
acid
which
can
is true
bacillus.
to
an
cellular
intra-
be
NUTRITION
150
act
at
while
OF
considerable
others
ANIMALS
FARM
distance
from
their
point
normally produce
of
origin,
the secreting
cell.
210.
Intracellular
in the
enzyms
body.
"
Still more
recently
considerable
in the
body
action of extracts
also be
brought about
are
known
outside the
under
organs
take
place
body by the
to
conditions
sequently
apparentlyexcludingthe action of any livingorganisms. Conthey have been ascribed to the action of enzyms
originally
present in the cells,and the reactions in the body
have
been
The
regarded as due to these same
enzyms.
idea of intracellular enzyms
has thus been extended to account
for the metabolic
activities of the organism,and this explanation
has been very generally
According
acceptedby physiologists.
metabolic
to this view, the body cells bring about
changes
in
substantially
the lactic acid
enzyms
This
which
phase of
unanimity
the
same
way
as
viz.,by
bacillus,
act
the
the
upon
subject
cells of yeast or of
the formation
of appropriate
do
the
substances
is
to
be
metabolized.
one
comparatively new
been
and
has by no means
to individual cases
as
reached,but of the value of the generalconceptionas a working
hypothesisthere can be littlequestion.
The word explanationis used above, of course, in a limited
It is not known
how the cell producesenzyms,
with
sense.
nor
acts.
degree of certaintyhow an enzym
Nevertheless,
any
if confirmed, is a real explanationas far as it
this hypothesis,
gether
goes, in that it enables related phenomena to be grouped tofrom a broader standpoint,
will be apparent from the
as
followingparagraphs.
211.
Enzym
reactions
reversible.
accordingto
the conditions.
it may
"
progress
chemical
reaction
is
in either direction
gen
example,if a mixture of hydroand iodin in molecular
proportionsbe heated to 448"C.
hydrogen iodid is produced. If, however, hydrogen iodid be
heated to the same
temperature it yieldshydrogen and iodin.
The reaction between
these two elements,then, is represented
by the equation
H2 + I2 ^
(HI)2
For
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
152
Reversibilityof metabolic
212.
ANIMALS
reactions.
It would
"
appear,
be conceived
may
The
of
as
accelerated
now
state
of
idea
complex
and
that
retarded
now
each
of reversible chemical
changes,is an
and
simplicity,
of
one
the
attractive
there
another
or
and
comparative
that it contains
little doubt
be
to
seems
in its domain
substance
its breadth
in
one
zyms.1
by appropriateen-
cell of
chemical
constantly shifting
the concentration
tions,
reac-
elements
As
rather than
"
3.
as
The
fullyestablished
Metabolism
The
213.
Glycogenic
of
hexose
function
fact.
the
Carbohydrates
carbohydrates
of
liver.
the
The
"
monosac-
it passes
the cells of that organ and from whence
by way of the hepaticvein into the posteriorvena
cava, thus
enteringthe generalcirculation (182).
contact
with
viz.,in the
1
that
For
That
enzym
muscles
syntheses can
reactions
and
be eSected
in
general are
by the
into dextrose.
on
a
function
of enzyms
agency
reversible
isomaltose
The
in the liver.
is
seems
of the liver
established,but
questioned by good
dextrose, is stated
different enzym
is
to
authorities.
produce
requiredto
not
tose
mal-
reconvert
METABOLISM
the
in this respect was
considered
appropriately
earliest
be discovered
to
and
may
53
be
first.
dextrose
When
glycogenicfunction
214.
be likened
has other
to
is controlled.
of
Mechanism
this function
drates
later,as respects the digestedcarbohy-
While
of the liver.
regulation.
"
It is of interest
to
note
illustrates two of
carbohydrate metabolism
the general conceptions formulated
on
precedingpages.
First,the formation of glycogen is a syntheticreaction. The
porarily
comparatively simple molecules of dextrose are built up teminto the more
complex molecules of the polysaccharid.
In other words, almost the first step in carbohydratemetabolism
is an anabolic change (203).
cogen
Second, the process of the formation and destruction of glyaction
reis susceptibleof explanationas a reversible enzym
that the conversion of glycogen into
(212). It is known
be exwhich may
tracted
dextrose is effected by an enzym
or
enzyms
be similar
must
from the liver and which, it would seem,
of the latter,
The action of one
to those of the digestivetract.
maltase, however, is claimed to be reversible (211),and one is
cogen
naturallytempted to infer that the synthesisof the liver glyage,
which bringsabout its cleavis effected by the same
enzym
although experimentalproofthat such is the case is lacking.
According to this hypothesis,the changes taking place in the
be representedby the equation
liver would
that
this
phase
of
n(C6Hi206)^_
An
excess
of dextrose
C6nHi0nO5n + n(H20)
in the
blood
would
have
the
effect of
NUTRITION
154
mation
of
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
glycogen,while
the actual
of the
be
may
215.
facts,it
manner
appliedto
Muscle
in which
metabolic
glycogen.
the
from
at
may
"
While
least
the
serve
as
concrete
conceptionof
enzym
lustra
iltion
ac-
processes.
the
glycogenicfunction of
extensive
investigation,
subjectof very
of glycogenis by no means
the presence
confined to this organ.
constituent of animal
to be a normal
Indeed, glycogen seems
in practiprotoplasm. It is found in greater or less amounts
cally
all tissues,
abundant
where
being particularly
rapid cell
is taking place,as in embryonic tissues or in
multiplication
It is estimated
that in an animal in
rapidlygrowing tumors.
condition roughly one-half of the glycogen of the body
normal
is contained in the liver. Of the other half by far the larger
proportionis found in the muscles (96).
The glycogen of the muscles
(and other organs)is not simply
glycogenwhich has been formed in the liver and transportedto
the muscles, but is produced independentlyfrom the dextrose
of the blood,apparently in much
in the
the same
manner
as
liver. That this is true is shown
by the fact that glycogen is
still formed
in the
muscles
when, by surgicalinterference
the blood is prevented from passingthrough the
(Eck fistula),
liver. In fact,the formation
of glycogen in the muscles, etc.,
to be the primary process, while the liver serves
rather
appears
be eliminated
without
as
a
secondary reservoir which may
With
the generalcarbohydratemetabolism.
seriously
affecting
from
the
the dextrose
circulation,
resorbed
the
animal
without
Even
sugar
the appearance
in the normal
is not
the conversion
of sugar
in the urine.
plus
animal,however, the power to disposeof surIf largequantities
unlimited.
of sugar are consumed,
into glycogen,togetherwith the normal katabolism,
METABOLISM
excretion
an
pace with the resorptionand there occurs
"
the so-called
in the urine
alimentaryglycosuria." The
keep
not
may
of sugar
"
which
of sugar
amount
without
be resorbed
can
carbohydrates of
the
has been
sugar
in
Carbohydrates formed
216.
seen,
supply
from
varies
"
the
body.
and
muscles
feed, the
their relation
In
"
liver act,
as
sort
the
in the
the
(220)
feed, however, by
these
from
body
other materials.
on
exclusively
meat
or
fat,shows
normal
bohydrates
car-
of metabolism
tured
manufac-
carnivorous
the
The
body.
the
from
substances
in
results
means
no
course
appear to be essential to the normal
if they are absent from the feed,they are
and
with
disappearance of
e.g., fed
the
producing alimentary
for sugar
"
to
55
animal,
percentage
in its
with
the
of
quantities
dextrose
which
there is
to
reason
are
the fats.
be
thus
utilized will be
the metabolism
217.
of the two
Which
is the
source
considered
of
fat.
The
"
both
whether
can
with
in connection
later
(235,253).
of those substances
Formation
or
of
transformations
mutual
of the
glycogen tend to keep the dextrose content
blood approximately constant, while holding a supply of readily
available carbohydrate material at hand to meet
promptly any
be
sudden
demand.
of carbohydrates which can
The amount
it is
disposed of in this way is,however, limited. For man
sugar
and
estimated
at
(96).
excess
about
300
and
grams
of
carbohydratesover
the needs
is
may
appliedby
stored up
be
tissue
immediatelybeneath
the
through
soon
of the
grams
kilo-
2
a
body
manent
per-
the
be exhausted.
which
organism
can
to
be disposed
the
duction
pro-
about
the abdominal
156
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
organs,
later if need
mobilized
Of
FARM
OF
well
fats,as
of the
as
tissue
which
stitutes
con-
be
may
arises.
chemistry of
the
This
the
of
conversion
or
organ
organs
carbohydratesinto
where
it is
effected,
"
of the dextrose
muscles
not
and
liver appears
in the lightof a more
in the
body, but
Of
rather
as
of the blood
and
the
clearlywhen
most
glycogen of the
regarded,
they are
or
temporary storage of matter
carriers of energy for the physiological
less
these
which
the most
processes,
vastly predominatesover all others,is the
performanceof
by
what
processes.
the
muscles, external
work
is in the main
and
internal,but
obvious
one,
is true
true
of
work
cular
mus-
forms
of
animal
an
It should
to
very
low
limit.
be
mechanism
of the process.
METABOLISM
219.
Intermediary
of
katabolism
katabolism.
57
"
the
is known.
carbohydrates, not very much
It appears
probable,however, that dextrose undergoes preliminary
of
with
the
formation
cleavage
glyceric aldehyde,
pyruvic aldehyde (methyl glyoxal)and either lactic or pyruvic
acid,which is then further oxidized to acetic acid,carbon dioxid
and
water.
facts,including especiallythose derived
Many
from a study of the fermentation
of sugar, seem
to point to the
tributed
Lactic acid is also widely dispossibilityof such reactions.
in the body, although its presence
is also susceptible
of explanation as arisingin the katabolism
of protein (233),
it has been shown
that lactic acid may
and, moreover,
give rise
to
body. Accordingly,
glycogen or dextrose in the animal
transformations
of glycogen and
these changes, like the mutual
be conceived
of as constituting
series of rea
versible
dextrose,may
reactions.
(Dextrose)
^ CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO
Glycogen
(Glycericaldehyde)
^t 2CH2OH
CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO
CHOH
"
"
CHO
(Pyruvic aldehyde)
CH2OH
CHOH
"
CHO-H20
"
CH3
"
CO
"
CHO
(Lactic acid)
CH3
CO
"
CHO
"
H20
CH3CHOH
COOH
"
or
(Pyruvic acid)
CH
"
The
CO
"
CHO
conversion
"
of dextrose
CH3CO
"
COOH
is
nearly iso-
the
process, the resultinglactic acid containing almost
the dextrose.
of chemical
amount
as
If, then,
energy
thermic
same
these
cleavagesoccur in
obviously preparatory
portion of the
principal
the katabolism
to
energy
The
The
the
man,
the
actual
and
of the
The
amounts
oxidation
which
in
the
pentosecarbohydrates
treated
feed of
carbohydratesthey are
is liberated.
foregoingparagraphs have
hexoses,which
of
so
far
as
of
carbohydrate supply of
the latter
herbivora,however,
of various
of the metabolism
hydrates.
carbo-
consume
contains
which
pentose carbohydrates
erable
also considare
in
part
158
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
cause
excretion
an
of
sugar
in the urine.
The
smaller
have found
Most, although not all,investigators
same
quantities,
increase
an
the ingestion
the liver consequent upon
of
pentoses, but in every case it has been the ordinaryC6 glycogen,
in the
glycogen of
that
indicating
221.
the effect is an
Pentosans.
pentose sugars
or
"
indirect
one.
The
their
investigationsupon
derivatives justreferred
the
soluble
to have
shown
that
fact,however, there is no
direct evidence
(129)afford reason
are
largelyfermented
along with cellulose,yielding,besides
products,chieflyorganic acids. If this is the case,
gaseous
farm animals do not acquirefrom
their feed any considerable
of pentoses and conclusions drawn
from experiments
amounts
with the pentose sugars regardingthe nutritive value of these
substances
are
inapplicableto ordinary stock feeds. Their
true value in the latter would
be simply that of the productsof
their fermentation.
The
222.
Formation
in
organicacids
digestion.
"
As
was
shown
in
Chapter
160
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
of the feed.
and
man
of the carnivora
these
or
chiefly
wholly such as might
of proteins(phenolsand other
be derived from the katabolism
and
their amount
is comparatively
compounds of the aromatic series),
In the urine of herbivora,particularly
of
small.
erable,
considruminants, however, their quantity is relatively
very
and it seems
impossibleto regard any largeportionof
them as products of proteinkatabolism.
225. Origin.
Apparently these non-nitrogenousorganic
in some
substances originate
from the roughages. Their
way
sists
proportionin the urine is relatively
largewhen the ration conof roughage,and the addition of such feeding
exclusively
substances
non-nitrogenous
are
"
stuffs to
basal ration
causes
marked
the other
hand, such
do not produce this effect to any very considerable
fixed
extent.
to bear no
seems
Furthermore, their amount
relation to the proteinof the feed.
of the
When
the amount
latter ingredient
is small, the total organicmatter
of the urine
has in some
exceeded the digested
cases
proteinof the feed,thus
demonstratingthat a portion at least of the non-nitrogenous
As
have had some
other source.
urinary constituents must
of
the proportionof proteinin the feed increases,the amount
nitrogenousproductsin the urine likewise increases,while that
of the non-nitrogenous
constant,
products appears to be more
The
that the ratio of urinarynitrogento carbon increases.
so
most
to be that the
plausibleexplanationof these facts seems
of the non-nitrogesubstances in questionare derived from some
nous
ingredientsof the roughages,but from what ones, or
what is the nature
of the products,we are stillignorant.
while, on
"
4.
The
Metabolism
of
the
Simple
Proteins
Anabolism
226.
Synthesis
of
proteins from
digestive products.
"
The
paratively
simple proteins are resorbed (139, 152) in the form of comsimple cleavageproducts; largelyas amino acids
but in part perhaps as more
less complex polypeptids. Out
or
161
METABOLISM
body builds
specific
proteinswhich are peculiarto
of these substances
the
chemical
of the
227.
from
structure
the
cleavage.
digestive
of
Seat
As
protein synthesis.
"
"
"
buildingstones
the
of
proteinsare
that
to
serve
nourishment
as
Various
of greater or
with the aid of more
Denis1
and Van
that
less
in amounts
amino
acids
that
to
may
seem
pass
be found
methods
be doubled
have
to
through
shown
the
tissues
that
was
likewise
acids in
of amino
amounts
blood of
of the
has
acids from
The evidence
livinganimals.
in favor of the
seems
therefore,
decisively
into which
and
beyond
resorbing
and
all
practically
body.
Folin
secure
of the
in the blood
for
account
the blood
to
on
reportedthe presence in
of non-proteinnitrogen
chemical
Slykeand Meyer2
sufficient
administered
amounts
refined
question
epithelium unchanged and
shown
proteintissues
investigators,
however, have
the blood
and
the
to
passed
are
"
synthesizedin the
the resulting
proteins
portalvein
been
able
ing
the circulat-
the present
view that the
at
to
time,
ments
frag-
the
in its
own
measure,
has
(1914),
275.
62
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
Katabolism
228.
Nitrogenous end
products.
"
The
total katabolism
of
or
earlier schematic
some
statements
have
sometimes
been
taken
to
is ammonium
antecedent of urea
carbonate,
imply. The immediate
which undergoes a dehydration in the liver or elsewhere, while there
is brought to the
is evidence in favor of the view that the ammonia
liver in the form of ammonium
lactate. At any rate it is an accepted
of the nitrogen of the simpleproteinspasses
fact that most, if not all,
That
to excretion as urea.1
through the ammonia
stage on its way
from ammonia
the formation of urea
function of
is not exclusively
a
the liver is shown by the fact that it stillcontinues
when
this organ
is excluded from the circulation by means
of an Eck fistula.
1
which
splitsoff the
163
METABOLISM
Hippuric
urine
acid
in small
of mammals
but
is
amounts
normal
constituent
of
the
is
in that of herbivora.
especiallyabundant
is the result of a synthesis(204). When
Its formation
benzoic acid
other
or
compounds
containing the benzoyl radicle are introduced
into the circulation they are
paired with glycin,one of the cleavage
the
of
in
products
proteins, the kidneys and excreted
as
hippuric
is
acid, which, chemically, benzoyl-glycin,or benzamidoacetic
acid,
COOH.
The
normal
of
small quan(C6H5 CO)NHCH2
presence
tities
of hippuricacid in the urine arises from the fact that the putrefaction
of the proteinsin the intestines yieldscompounds containing
the benzoyl radicle which
resorbed
and
combine
with glycin to
are
form hippuricacid.
But a small proportionof the hippuric acid produced
however.
of
Most
it
by herbivora can be thus accounted
for;
its originto the roughages consumed
to owe
by these animals,
appears
especiallythose derived from plants of the gramineae,while, on the
other hand, concentrates
do not seem
its amount.
to increase
parentl
Apits formation
bears some
relation to some
of the ingredients
of the cell walls,but to what
in particularis not clear.
ones
"
"
229.
The
non-nitrogenous
nitrogenous products
of the
oxidation
residue.
eliminated
protein molecule
of considerable
amounts
of carbon
in
In
"
the
gives
addition
urine,
rise to
dioxid
and
the
the
water,
to
the
complete
production
which
are
excreted
as
follows
"
Proteins
Carbon
.
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Urea
Residue
53-o
6.86
46.16
7.0
2.29
4.71
24.0
9.14
14.86
26.0
16.00
100.
34-29
65-7I
64
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
siderably
abstractingthe elements of urea, there remains conhalf the hydrogen and oxygen
of the proteinand
over
A substantially
the largerpart of its carbon.
similar result is
of the other nitrogenous metabolic
reached in case
products.
off of these products from the proteinsleaves a
The splitting
After
non-nitrogenous residue.
Two
generalstages
be distinguished.
in the katabolism
of the proteinsmay
The
firstis a hydrolysis
by which the proteinsare splitup into their
230.
Two
constituent
the amino
amino
acids.
second
The
acids in which
the
"
is
nitrogenof
deaminization
these acids is
of
splitoff
ammonia.
as
231.
of the
Protein
The
hydrolysis.
"
body proteinsis
less
or
hydrolyticcleavage, more
similar to that effected in digestion
and like the latter brought
about by enzyms,
contained in the body
which in this case
are
cells
the intracellular enzyms
(209).
The truth of this view is attested by the facts that the presence
a
"
of proteases in almost
body has been demonstrated
and
that under
of the
organs
proper
conditions
Is
katabolism
of the tissue
protein hydrolysis
"
reversible
process
"
If the
of
age
body proteinsis initiated by an enzymatic cleavin the body cells,
the reverse
this is precisely
of the synthetic
is
action by which
believed
it
that body proteinsare
built up out of the products of digestive
cleavage(226),and
the
question at
reversible enzym
once
arises whether
Protein
the
be
have
reaction,analogous to
It
we
freelyadmitted
that
to
do here with
which
has
been
carbohydrates(214),
representedby the formula
of the
be
Amino
acids
of
proof of the reversibility
action of proteolytic
is as yet lacking,
such phenomena
enzyms
the formation
of the plasteins
discovered by Okunew
as
must
that
165
METABOLISM
and
teristic
as
a
regard reversibility
general characof enzym
action and mere
negative evidence cannot, of
disprovethis belief. At any rate the conception of
course,
a
inclined
are
to
the amino
and
the
blood
would
stream
undergo synthesisto
proteinsbut
broadly,of
there
amino
are
233.
as
the amino
related
seems
reactions
as
acids concerned.
Deaminization.
katabolism
independent reversible
many
"
second
The
to be the
generalstage
of
protein
group
from
or
acids,the productsbeing the corresponding
closely
non-nitrogenousorganic acids
the
on
hand
one
and
the other.
on
acids is believed
which
it is
resorbed
excess
In this way
the
of the immediate
of urea,
not
into
exclusively
nitrogenof
demands
cretory
promptly converted into exdisposedof, while the larger part of
their
antecedent
rapidlyconverted, chieflyalthough
(228).
for
be the immediate
to
in the liver
in
This
products and so
carbon and hydrogen
1
2
Compare
Rohonyi
Compare Bayliss;
Biochem.
The
Nature
is
remains
in
series of substances
66
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
gether
less close relation to the fatty acids and toor
bearinga more
of the
non-nitrogenousresidue
constitutingthe
proteins(229).
It is important to note that these non-nitrogenous
products
of the original
contain the largershare of the chemical
energy
gestive
the ammonia
carryingoff but little and both the diproteins,
cleavageand the deaminization being nearly isothermic
of proteins,
therefore,
The cleavage and deaminization
processes.
"
"
necessarilyinvolve
do not
destruction
of their nutritive
of nitrogen in the
given amount
the total destruction
urine is not to be regarded as indicating
of protein. It has ceased to exist as
amount
of a corresponding
residue is made
but its non-nitrogenous
protein,
up of substances
which are closelyrelated chemicallyto both the carbohydrates
be katabolized to supply
and fats,and which, like these,may
and
value
excretion
the
of
energy.
234.
body
reversible.
Deaminization
appears
to be
whether
in this
an
reversible
So
far
in the
evidence
is any
is
one.
direct
as
such
concerned, no
andEmbden
Since deaminization
quire
enzymatic reaction,it is natural to incase, as in the other enzymatic reactions
already considered,there
a
"
and
are
experimentswith deaminizingenzyms
evidence has been produced, but Knoop
demonstrated
have
Schmitz2
mental
fact of funda-
acids may
in metabolism, viz.,that amino
significance
monium
be formed in the body from ketonic or hydroxy acids and amture
manufacsalts. In other words, the animal body can
of the proteins,
at least of the
some
buildingstones
and from the latter presumably the proteinsthemselves
(226),
salts of the correspondingketonic or
of the ammonium
out
of this comparatively
hydroxy acids. The full significance
recent
discoveryis not yet fullyapparent. The questionof the
"
"
considered
salts will be
utilization of ammonium
later.
In
the
"
_.._...
Proteins
1
Ztschr.
[ Organic acids
j
_"
acids
\
Zt.
^
"
^ Ammo
Physiol.Chem.,
67
(1910),489.
{ Ammonia
Biochem.
68
OF
metabolism
may
carbohydrate
thus
FARM
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
schematicallyexpressed
be
"
Glycogen$
Dextrose
"^\
Lower
Proteins
Amino
acids
"$"
fattyacids
-"
"
I NH3
Formation
236.
of fat from
""
proteins.
"
Urea
Since the
non-nitrogenous
consist largely
may
a
discussion
of the
present, it may
proteinseems
the
of animal
sources
suffice
to
say
that
fat
fat thus
formed
in connection
that
under
with
(247-249). For
the formation
probable,but
altogether
of
amount
conveniently considered
more
on
normal
the
of fat from
is
usuallyunimportant.
5. The
Metabolism
metabolism
of the
"
The
of
the
Nucleoproteins
Anabolism
237.
Fate
extensive
of
digestiveproducts.
"
The
nucleic acids
undergo
products
169
METABOLISM
phosphoricacid,
being essentially
By analogy with
pentoses, and purin and pyrimidin bases.
the simple proteins,
one
might expect, therefore,to find that
the circulation
passinginto
fragments
these
acid molecule
nucleic
of the
rebuilt into
are
"
Preciselythe
the
serving
without
excreted
and
katabolized
from
derived
to
simply
feed,are
nucleic
rebuild
same
their
of the simpleproteinsfrom
however, against the synthesis
cleavageproducts,since in this
prompt
causes
of the end
238.
differs from
rather than
of
feed
increase in the
It is true
"
of the
that
in the
that
simple proteinsin
from
its
cretion
ex-
proteins
of nucleo-
of the molecule
supply
the
fragments l
synthesisin
that
demonstrated
an
almost
reconstruction
also
quantitativeincrease
(402).
product, urea
and
Autogenesis.
latter is
case
the
supply containing
purins,pyrimidins nor
neither
pentoses.
seen
The
eggs
One
contain
of
the
none
practically
most
of the
of nucleic acid.
of the substances
young
animals
tioned,
justmen-
contain
is the
Equally significant
case
normal
of the
The
of the formation
possibility
of proteinsfrom
of nutrition.
Publication
ammonia
No.
nificanc
(234) is of littlesig-
156, p. 85.
OF
NUTRITION
170
ANIMALS
FARM
the
absence
entire
may
the
when
in
recombined
be
cleavage products.
view
In
"
of
body
of their
supposed that
be
from
Regeneration
239.
to
"
the
"
cells somewhat
as
the
are
amino
acids of the
No
seem,
simpleproteins?
be given to
can
positiveanswer
question. It would
the autogenesisof the
this
of pentoses and
of the
be the formation
must
nucleoproteins
purin and pyrimidin bases, i.e.,of preciselythose substances
the digestive
which result from
cleavages. Even though it be
assumed
that,in the former case, they are produced within the
cells where
they are further synthesizedto nucleic acid, it is
substances
not
brought to the
altogetherclear why the same
should not be available for the same
cell by the blood current
at least,it seems
perfectlypossibleto
Provisionally,
purpose.
contained
buildingstones
regard the entire stock of these
derived from the feed or produced by the
in the body, whether
body cells,as potentiallyavailable for the regenerationof
From
this point of view, the increased excretion
nucleic acids.
be conresults from
their ingestionwould
sidered
of purins which
"
as
the blood
which
acids
and
follows
consequence
"
of their increased
concentration
in
as
(402).
Katabolism
240.
Cleavages.
"
The
katabolism
of
the
nucleic
of the
acids
simple proteins.
of the latter,
As in the case
the firstgeneralstage of the
consists of a series of enzymatic cleavages. These
process
cleavagesare quite analogous to those of the simple proteins
and yieldas final products the comparativelysimple building
of the nucleic acids.
Since it is to be supposed that
stones
the autogenesis(238) of these compounds is via these same
bears
close
generalresemblance
to
that
"
"
METABOLISM
"
"
buildingstones
of
case
it would
that
appear
the
have
we
of
here,as
reversible
71
in the
enzym
reactions.
Phosphoric acid
Nucleic
acid
Pentose
Purin
Deaminization.
241.
the nucleic
off from
phosphoric acid
is,of
acids
of this substance
stock
The
"
in the
added
course,
The
body.
which
is
split
the general
to
pentose may
be presumed
NH2
be
are
groups
or
splitoff
ammonia
as
and
converted
into urea,
while
end
katabolized
pyrimidin bases
or
the
allantoin
other
in most
pyrimidin bases
mammals.
little is known.
242.
along with
Synthesis
acid is the
of
the end
uric
The
and
Of
the katabolism
deaminization
pyrimidin
bases
of the
is
never
appearing in
products of katabolism.
acid.
birds
In
"
principalnitrogenous constituent
and
uric
reptiles,
of the semi-solid
acid and
Since
no
considerable
urea.
"
6.
Metabolism
The
of
the
Fats
Anabolism
Resynthesis
of
feed
fat.
"
In
of
lipasehas
been
to the blood
of
and
sometimes
processes
the material
case
(211).
of the process
of the metabolic
one
cases
of
is
transmitted
of fats.
substantially
contained in the lymph in the
are
in this state
from
pass
vein.
subclavian
the
some
consists
current
digestedfats
The
as
In either
of indifference.
matter
be reversible in
to
be classed
resorptionor
form
shown
ANIMALS
be regarded as part
resynthesis
this
Whether
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
172
The
much
containingas
as
itself,
however, although
of fat, does not
per cent
be well established
to
sort
and
244.
from
may
Storage
which
of combination
which
fats,and
the fat
globulesenteringit
of the
from the thoracic duct do not long persist. The nature
change is stilluncertain ; by some, it has been regarded as a
cleavageinto fattyacids and glyceroland by others as a union
the nature
of the change it seems
.with proteins. But whatever
normally carry
emulsified
emulsified
in
fat.
"
liberal
and
water
"
exists in
some
diffusible
soluble fat."
supply of
the
"
"
"
246.
serve
Manufacture
as
source
dependent upon
"
of
of
the
fats.
"
But
while
the
feed
fats
may
METABOLISM
but
the
to
facture
already been indicated (217,236), manufats from other ingredientsof its feed.
view, first propounded by Liebig in 1843, was
contrary
has
as
may,
This
73
led
and
opinionthen prevailing
to
livelycontroversy
lief.
beresolved in favor of the newer
which, however, was definitely
mals,
aniin case of herbivorous
Indeed, the feed fats,especially
of body fat,
are
usuallyof subordinate importance as sources
in the body.
a large share of the latter being produced de now
The
247.
of animal fat
sources
evidence.
Experimental
The
"
of animal
sources
fat
feed fat
already indicated. Aside from whatever
the body can
be stored up in the adipose tissues,
produce
may
the carbohydratesof the feed (217) and in all probfat from
ability
from
the non-nitrogenous residue of the proteins(236).
In view of the historic interest attachingto the long controversy
this question,however, as well as of its intrinsic importance,
over
have
been
appropriate.
experimentalevidence seems
of body fat was
never
That the feed fat is a source
seriously
of Liebig's
contention that
the correctness
questioned. When
outline of the
an
the animal
it
body
was
fat had
also manufacture
can
assumed
that
the
source
been
strated,
demon-
of this new-formed
fat
was
to
in the
be found
"
"
248.
Fat
from
facts
the animal
protein.
"
pointing
body, but
1
to
Several
the formation
Carl Voit
Ztschr.
was
earlier
served
investigatorsob-
proteinin
addistinctly
of fat from
the first to
Biol.,5 (1869),79-169.
OF
NUTRITION
174
FARM
ANIMALS
of the carbon
It
of both
be
scarcelyneed
fat is not
formed
feed and
visible
excreta.
not
prove
that
from
the
of
subject,a
small
number
seem
to
show
clearlythe
mation
for-
of fat from
after every
protein,even
allowance
has been made
for the objections
raised by Pfliiger
in his criticisms of the experiments. A number
of negative
results have, it is true, also been reported,
but naturallynegative
results are of much
less value than positive
ones.
Moreover, the indirect evidence in favor of the possibility
of the formation
of fat from
sive.
concluproteinseems
practically
As alreadystated (235),it has been established beyond
reasonable
doubt
that carbohydratesmay
be produced from
sarily
proteinin the body. If this is true, however, it almost necesinvolves the possibility
of the formation of fats from protein,
since carbohydratesare undoubtedly a source
of fat.
249.
Fat
went
formation
from
amount
carbohydrates.
further
than
to
Pettenkofer
"
and
ever,
Voit,2how-
the
demonstrate, as they believed,
of fat from
Arch.
51 (1892),229.
Physiol.(Pfliiger),
Landw.
Vers. Stat.,10
(1868),455.
176
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
the case
it came
to be more
as
particularly
clearlyrecognizedthat Henneberg's estimate of a production
in all probof proteinwas
of fat from 100 grams
of 51.4 grams
ability
after it was
shown
that what
too high,and especially
had been regardedas digestedproteinin many
of these experiments
N
X
consisted
in
of
much
6.25)
(i.e.,
digestible
part
of
simpler nitrogenous compounds. The
ready formation
fat by the hog rendered this animal
suitable subjectfor
a very
this
on
experiment,and the great majority of investigations
animal
have
supported the view that fat is produced from
but similar results upon other species
have not
carbohydrates,
been lacking,
while respirationexperiments upon
swine, geese,
t
he
and
extensive
especially
dogs,
investigations
by G. Kiihn l
cattle have completed the demonstration.2
upon
In the lightof all these results,
of fat from
the formation
admitted,
carbohydratesin the animal body is now
universally
from
its
while
production
proteinis still questionedby a few
and in any case
is of little economic
that we
so
significance,
have come
back by a curious reversal of views almost to Liebig'sclassification of the nutrients into plasticand respiratory.
This conclusion appliesspecifically
hexose carbohydrates,
to the pure
In many
starch.
of the experiments
particularly
cited,however, the non-nitrogenousmaterial digestedby the
the feed.
animal
This
was
consisted
to
of uncertain
crude
fiber
present any
it may
and
suffice
as
chemical
nature
included
nitrogen-freeextract.
to
say
here
that both of
of those
extent
in
the
Postponing
show
particular
serve
inconsiderable
not
stances
subterms
for
the
of these groups,
3
in
investigations
the pentosans, may
them, including
that
Kellner's
of fat.
sources
Katabolism
250.
Body fat
aside from
reserve.
"
The
its mechanical
of
Kellner
Compare
Landw.
Landw.
Vers.
the author's
Vers.
Stat. ; 44
in the
body.
observation
the
shows
Nutrition,
great
In the lack of
that this
(1894),257.
Principles of Animal
Stat.;51 (1900).
sues,
adiposetis-
functions,constitutes
material
energy-yielding
adequate feed supply,common
reserve
an
pp.
165-184.
METABOLISM
is drawn
reserve
as
77
upon
body and
of the
external work.
of
Mobilization
251.
fat.
reserve
In order
"
of the body it
be used for the general metabolism
fat may
first be transferred from the adipose tissue cells to the
must
it is needed.
localitieswhere
"
soluble fat
"
and
its passage
through
reversal of
laid down.
Since the transfer of
the process by which it was
fat through the epithelial
cells in resorptionis effected by a
at the
Oxidation
p carbon
atom.
"
The
oxidation of the
fattyacids,either
saturated
carbon
the COOH
from
atom
off of two
carbon
atoms
and
dioxid, water
at
or
group)and
a
time.
The
results in the
products
splitting
are
carbon
less carbon
atoms
contain
This
lower
an
the
even
scheme
number
does
acids of the
I7-47N
atoms.
Dakin, Oxidations
Compare,
of carbon
and
Reductions
in the Animal
Body,
191 2, pp.
178
NUTRITION
body,
253.
the chemical
Formation
FARM
OF
known
are
mechanism
of
ANIMALS
to
be
freelyoxidized
of the process
in the
is little understood.
In
discussing
the probability
of the formation
of carbohydratesfrom proteins
it
often
that
their
out
be
(235), was pointed
originmight
It was
ascribed to either proteinsor fats or both.
there shown
that in many
the probabilities
tion
cases
stronglyfavored a formafrom proteins. In other instances,however, the probabilities
that
fats giverise to carbohydrates.
seem
equallystrong
In particular,
experiments upon phloridzindiabetes of the
than could be
dog have shown the productionof more
sugar
formed
from the quantity of protein katabolized
during the
same
time, while the stock of glycogen in the animals experimented
and muscular
had been so exhausted by fasting
work
on
that it seems
wise
scarcelypossibleto interpretthe results otherthan as showing the formation of sugar from fat. It should
be added, however, that it has been seriously
questionedwhether
the conditions of the experiments were
controlled
sufficiently
carbohydrates
from
fats.
"
'
to
the conclusions
warrant
The
have
also
from
respiratory
quotient(296)which
been reported in some
for hibernating
animals have
cases
been interpreted
of carbohydrates
as indicating
a production
very
fat.
be
In
an
the conversion
of carbon
the
drawn.
respiratory
quotient. The
oxidation
of
fat
low
as
figures
fastinganimal
demonstrate
In
is 0.7.
0.3 have been
as
increased.
be
to
lower
While
the formation
would
these
of sugar
and
to indicate a
seem
interpretation
ing
The more
recent
experimentson hibernatstorage of oxygen.
animals,however, have failed to give such low quotientsas
obtained by earlier observers.
were
compatible with
"
254.
are
7. Metabolism
Certain
found
that
chemical
wholly or
of
elements
Ash
Ingredients
of the
body
and
of the feed
these materials
METABOLISM
79
though,
spoken of as ash ingredients,alas
already pointed out (3,5), this does not necessarily
"
inorganic
imply that they existed in the originalmaterial in
and
burned
are
therefore
are
"
elements
of these
Most
combination.
are
as
essential
to
the
gen,
carbon, nitroorganiccompounds,"
hydrogen and oxygen of the so-called
although unfortunately the laws regulating their metabolism
ments
less extensively studied.
these elehave been
much
Among
sulphur and phosphorus are of specialimportance in
vital processes
the
as
abundant
more
elements
"
this connection.
Sulphur
contain
small
feeding stuffs may
of sulphur in the form of sulphates,by far the greater
amounts
part of this element in the feed of animals exists in organic
Such, for instance,are the allylsulphid(CsHs^S,
compounds.
of the genus allium,and
contained in garlicand other members
the allyl
sulphocyanat,C3H5
CNS, found in mustard and other
of the cruciferse.
riers
Ordinarily,however, the chief cargenera
in feeding stuffs and
of organic sulphur, both
animals,
255.
Sources.
While
"
"
the
are
contain
which
proteins,
acid
di-amino
the element
in the form
of the
cystin (47).
Katabolism.
The
katabolism
"
of
The
the
cystin component
of
proteinspresumably
"
from
and
the
same
"
"
exists in
the
combination
in
part with
aromatic
radicles derived
in part
with
bases.
In
human
urine
about
intestine
one-fifth
of
l8o
NUTRITION
"
the
FARM
sulphur exists in a
neutral sulphur,the
total
known
OF
as
ANIMALS
less
obscure.
Phosphorus
The
phosphorussupply of
the
body
in the four forms indicated in Chapter
is received substantially
I (5),viz.,as phosphates,as
phosphatids,as phospho- and
and as phytin. Of these the various
nucleo-proteins
organic
forms usuallypredominate.
It appears
probable,however, that all these various forms of
phosphorus are resorbed into the blood stream in the form of
phosphoric acid. Of the phosphates ingestedas such this is
for believing
There seems
that the
certainlytrue.
good reason
phosphoric acid radicle contained in the nucleic acid of the
nucleoproteinsis quite completely splitoff by the digestive
and reaches the blood as phosphoric acid (139),
and
enzyms
the same
thing is presumably true of the phosphoproteins.
The phosphatidsare probably acted on by the lipasesof the
acid resulting
digestive
tract,but whether the glycerophosphoric
from their cleavageis further split
The ready
up is unknown.
cleavageof phytin in seeds would suggest that probably its
phosphorus also is resorbed as phosphoricacid.
258. Anabolism
The animal body contains
and katabolism.
a largestore of phosphorus in the
inorganic form, especially
257.
Forms
ingested.
"
"
"
"
"
in the skeleton.
the resorbed
The
body
For
the maintenance
phosphoricacid
also
"
or
increase
of this store
is
naturallyavailable.
pounds,
contains,however, organicphosphorus com-
in
amount
than
the
inorganic,
of the
lief
for the vital functions. The behighestsignificance
that the phosphorus supply of the body is resorbed chiefly
in the form
of phosphoric acid necessarily
implies,therefore,
that the organism is able to utilize inorganic
phosphorusfor the
synthesisof nucleic acids,phosphoproteins,
phosphatids,etc.,
are
and
the
belief
power
experimental
(497).
of
the
In
evidence
this respect,as
organism
appears
supposed.
Little is known
in the
regardingthe
katabolism
of the
by the phosphorus
phosphatids,
nucleoproteins,
course
followed
181
METABOLISM
Other elements
important
than the two justconsidered,littleis known
regardingtheir
in the ordinary sense, i.e.,
of the chemical changes
katabolism
exist in
which
they may
they undergo in the body. That
feedingstuffs in organicas well as in inorganicforms is probable.
in the animal body is
That they enter into organiccombination
likewise
to
be assumed
iodin of the
and
of
to
serves
the
only
haemoglobin
and
sodium
Both
"
animals
few
and
the
potassium
in
considerable
extent
as
inconsiderable
not
consume
and
condiment
is often
is less than
this
probablethat
salt,althoughit appears
common
actuallynecessary
amount
in
farm
and
man
amounts
of
iron
less
no
positivelyknown
potassium.
in the
contained
addition
are
ingredients
thyroidglands.
Sodium
259.
is
but
of the
like that
instances
are
so-called ash
the other
While
that
the
Bab-
supposed.
without access
for over
a year
cock, e.g., was able to keep cows
to salt,
except that contained in their feed,without any obvious
illconsequences.
potassium and
Both
with
sodium,
well
as
of
as
salt,are
the
chlorin
excreted
bined
com-
in the
urine.
Calcium
260.
magnesium.
"
maintenance
in
in
elements,calcium
These
especiallyimportant
particular,are
growth and
and
their relations
to
the
of the
also,where
As noted
little is known.
intermediarymetabolism
in Chapter IV (199),the normal
path of excretion of calcium,
testine,
and
of magnesium, is through the lower into some
extent
is
of these elements
that the apparent digestibility
so
Of
no
their
measure
body
of the
amount
in the
processes.
whether
Iron.
it can
"
synthesisof
the
over
if
so
haemoglobins
l82
NUTRITION
OF
and
in the
ANIMALS
FARM
Both
body.
however,
questions,
is
regarded as settled in the affirmative. The matter
of importance in its relations to the use of iron in medicine but
in stock feeding.
is of no special
significance
The
excretion of iron takes place almost
exclusively
through
may
be
inorganiciron
262.
General
metabolism
Functions
8.
scheme
found
Fig.
in each
23.
"
of
the
of metabolism.
of the several
paragraphs,it was
that
be resorbed.
cannot
"
classes
Nutrients
"
In
of nutrients
Diagrammatic scheme
consideringthe
in the foregoing
of metabolism.
case
serve
to
show
the
interrelations between
the
metabolism
84
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
plantstransform
energy
yieldedup by
of metabolism.
emphasis has
Second,
laid upon
been
the
and
much
it in recent
years.
materials
specific
requiredfor
of the
buildingand maintaining all the complex structures
it is the source
i.e.,
functioning,
body and for their harmonious
of structural and repairmaterial.
which make
fats and mineral ingredients
That the proteins,
of the body (99,280)
up by far the largerpart of the dry matter
stration,
derived ultimatelyfrom the feed needs no specialdemonare
substances present in the
but the importanceof many
For
tends to be overlooked.
amounts
body in only minute
example,the enzyms of the body, both extra- and intra-cellular,
form no considerable portionof its mass,
yet they are essential
to
So, too,
the
various
hormones
and
cretions
se-
of the ductless
of metabolism
Clearly,the
these and
material will
energy-yielding
substances
suffice to support lifein the absence of those specific
in order that the machinery of conversion
which are necessary
of coal under the
shall operate properly,much
amount
as
no
In
other
words,
no
electric
an
of
amount
plant to furnish
normal
amount
of
if the insulation
current
internal
essential
secretion,a
diet
lacking that
For
some
substance,
much
from
energy
it
other substances.
The animal
is a very importantone.
qualification
in its feed
the presence
is very far from being dependent upon
of all the varied chemical compounds requiredfor its operation.
is the case.
As has appeared in preIndeed, quite the reverse
vious
t
he
actual
resorbed
substances
are
sections,
comparatively
The
latter
is necessary
upon
them
the animal
body
executes
and synthetic.
changes,both analytic
sub-
185
METABOLISM
which
the
body
can
manufacture
the
compounds
it requires.
of
Functions
264.
the
once
of which
out
stances
the
familiar
most
The
proteins furnish at
strikingexample of this
proteins.
"
and
the most
of the feed.
dual function
Since the
formation
either
that found
available
no
energy
but
or
fraction of
small
in the
proteinas
But
of energy.
source
also
proteins serve
water, the
but
as
also
causes
only
perplexityis
serve
as
structural
yield energy
that the
so
same
material
that in estimating
disappears,however,
portion of proteindoes
time.
If
it is remembered
perform both
not
that
any
these functions
given
at
the
and
the
yields substantially
have
been
available
been katabolized
has been
some
from
instead.
may
as
its store
of energy,
the katabolic process but at
itself be
of energy
would
as
of feed protein had that
amount
the gram
The latter,
with
later time
amount
same
The
of energy.
illustration.
an
in
repairingof
The
old wood
wooden
taken
out
building may
to
make
way
86
NUTRITION
well as
as
material,
immediately required, may
for
FARM
OF
new
ANIMALS
wood over
that
surplusof new
used
fuel for
as
indifferently
any
be
of the young
animal, in which
plex
comproteinis permanentlyset aside for growth,is a triflemore
but
Functions
265.
of fats.
"
case
considerations
same
In
the
case
is the
hold
good.
predominant
form
of fuel,containingmuch
concentrated
more
are
a
energy
unit
of
other
nutrients.
than
the
They supply much
any
per
well adapted for the
in a small bulk and are, therefore,
energy
storage of reserve
energy in the body.
The fats and closelyrelated bodies (the lipoids),
however,
also important and
are
apparently essential constituents of
important
protoplasm (75). The
lipoids,therefore, have
structural functions and an
adequate supply of them in the
interest
body is indispensable.From this point of view, some
of investigators
attaches to the results obtained by a number
that a certain minimum
who
claim to have shown
supply of
for growing animals.
especially
lipoidsin the feed is essential,
The evidence,however, is negativeevidence,i. e., experimental
diet.
In view
animals failed to grow normally on a lipoid-free
of the positive
results obtained by Osborne and Mendel,1 as well
of the fact that both the simplefats and the phosphatids,
at
as
least,can be synthesized
freelyin the organism,and takinginto
consideration
of the body in
the extensive syntheticpower
general,it is difficult to believe that the presence of lipoidsin
and more
have
recent
the feed is indispensable,
investigations
of the observed facts (498) On
afforded a different explanation
bearing function
the other
growth
favor
266.
more
While
the
and
Functions
of
other
hand,
be
consumed
certain
limits,to
The
carbohydrateseven
carriers of energy.
serve
as
chiefly
per unit than fats,they can, on
in largerquantities
and they
carbohydrates.
within
"
of the energy
in the diet of
the presence of carbohydrates
practically
supply the greater part
man
and of farm
on
chiefly
While
animals.
of
account
1
this appears
to
lymph is essential,
their ready availability
as fuel material.
and
12
(1912),81.
METABOLISM
The
carbohydratesseem,
in relation
to
fastingor
to
however,
the katabolism
have
to
of fats.
function
specific
the
When
87
is
body
pelled
com-
draw
its energy
supply chieflyfrom the fats,as in
in diabetes (inwhich the power
of katabolizing
carbohydrates
is
lost),or
diet,the katabolism
when
amounts
katabolic
carbohydratesare
be
to
beta-oxybutyricacid
product
aceton
from
complete
well
as
excreted
are
absent
and
as
the
siderable
con-
normal
the ab-
unoxidized
in the
urine.
267.
Non-nitrogenous
that both
appears
the fats
in
specialpurposes
serve
nutrients
ordinary rations
functions
they
as
are
carriers
in the
is to
of
general.
While
"
it thus
supply energy.
abundant
so
in
energy
that
any
amounts
in
body
of the insoluble
are
carbohydratesare
available
as
sources
of
energy.
268.
Functions
of ash
ingredients.
"
While
the
nous
non-nitroge-
and
for
the
conditions
indispensableto
the
performance
of
the
bodilyfunctions.
The
structural
88
NUTRITION
providingthe
in
OF
necessary
269.
pressure.
membranes.
in the
lymph,
order
In
protoplasm of
various
tissues
to
normal
tions
condi-
and
cal
physi-
the
separatedby
cells of the
The
"
nutritive environment
immediate
and
tissues.
from
their nourishment
draw
ANIMALS
FARM
pressure of the
which it is derived,
from
maintained
be
The
osmotic
approximately constant.
of the blood is stated to be approximately about
8
pressure
contained in
atmospheres, due largelyto the ash ingredients
solution.
With
an
tration
adequate supply in the feed the concenof mineral matter
in the blood is regulatedchiefly
by
of
the excretory activityof the kidneys. Thus, in the case
sodium
chlorid,for example, it is estimated that the blood of
contains approximately30 grams
of this substance,
an
man
average
of which
hardly half a gram is excreted daily when
must
is consumed.
none
is
excess
promptly
four hours.
What
other diffusible
270.
in the
Ionic
true
concentration.
course
of salt in this
of
ingredients
"
diet,the
of the next
twenty-
respect is
also of
true
the blood.
The
variqus salts
are
contained
body largelyin
however,
in the
the
to
example,containingin
addition
salt,
common
unchanged NaCl
of calcium sulphatethe ions Ca and
the ions Na and CI, one
SO4, etc. Acids are similarlydissociated,
yieldinghydrogen
alkalies
ions
ions
+ SO4), while
(H2SO4 ^H
yield OH
of these ions have been shown
to
Some
(KOH ^ K + OH)
effects on certain cellular activities.
For example,
have specific
bility
a frogmuscle
kept in 0.7 per cent NaCl solution retains its irritafor one
two
or
days. In a solution of a non-electrolyte,
to
some
like sugar,
muscle
asparagin,etc.,having the
soon
solution
loses its
same
but
irritability,
other
it
apparent that
hand,
Na
the
effect is due
ions alone
cause
to
of other
of other
the
pressure,
be added
if NaCl
osmotic
Na
long continued
to
sodium
metals
ions.
the
the
salts
do not,
On the
rhythmic con-
189
METABOLISM
approximately the
salts in
same
proportionsas
found
are
in
water.
sea
"
in
is neutral
of H
excess
no
Closely connected
neutrality.
of
Maintenance
271.
the
ions.
of OH
excess
nor
the
chemical
of OH
ions,an
equivalentto acidityand
It has
been
shown
neutralityin
that
an
specialcase of it,
the body fluids. A
a
it
when
sense
the blood
serum,
contains
being
alkalinity.
of the former
excess
of the latter to
excess
with
as
of
representative
NaOH
The
per
liter.1
body
katabolism
is
continuallyproducing acids,especially
Blood
is
commonly
ordinary indicators,such as
of the true alkalinityor
measure
Such
acidity.
it gives
an
alkaline reaction to
no
definite
NUTRITION
190
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
"
us
overlook
the
strikingnature
of
If
water.
life as
we
know
protoplasm may
be
respects and
readily,if indeed
water
dependent
upon
is not
in which
it
chemical
takes
ever
shown
that
commonly
the presence
action
place in
seems
to
occur
reactions,at least,in
regarded as concerned, are
some
"of minute
amounts
of this sub-
CHAPTER
THE
BALANCE
"
The
274.
power
which
may
c
lose
fairly
what
a
Conception
prime
motor.
"
The
livinganimal
prime motor
; that is,it generates
for its own
operationand is able to produce a surplus
be applied to do external
In particular,
work.
a
analogy may be drawn between the animal body and
known
are
is known
what
constitutes
as
NUTRITION
OF
General
i.
animal
VI
as
internal combustion
as
In such motors,
motors.
alcohol,etc.)is burned in
(gas,gasoline,
engineitselfand its available chemical energy
fuel
the
in part into
similar manner
by
the
and
motion
the
processes
work
noted
cylinderof
is transformed
In
somewhat
cells of the
body
circulation
are
the oxygen
introduced
through the
for the various activities of the organism.
with
lungs,and yieldenergy
be
katabolized,combine
It should
in
the
ternal
merely exdone by the animal but likewise a varietyof internal
that of circulation,
as
digestion,
respiration,
resorption,
work, such
secretion,etc.
In
always in operation,even
other
when
not
performing no
When
in
machine
is
external work.
chanical
operation,a me(a gasolineengine,for example) consumes
prime motor
two
things. First,the material of which the working parts are
that ultimatelyrepairs
so
composed is graduallyworn
away
in amount
and second, fuel is consumed
are
ing
dependnecessary,
the work done.
the same
Substantially
thing is true
upon
of the animal body.
be regarded as
The
working machinery of the body may
of water, ash and
chinery,
composed essentially
protein. This malike that of the engine,is continually
wearingout ; that
katabolized and
is being continually
is,the proteinin particular
275.
IQ2
"
THE
BALANCE
OF
NUTRITION
193
ties
products of its oxidation excreted. In addition,the activiof the body, like those of the engine,require a supply of
fuel material
containing available chemical energy equivalent
For this purpose
the body utilizes
to be done.
to the work
the
tissues.
of
the
As
body
"
the
substances
contained
in its
shown
in
"
and
katabolism, giving rise to carbon dioxid,water
simple nitrogenous products,accompanied by
into other forms.
energy
storehouse
of chemical energy as
of their chemical
cells
own
is
tively
comparaformation
trans-
In
other
well
as
is contained
of the
body
particularlyin its fat,and to a minor degree in its glycogen,
while the body protein,although it likewise yieldsenergy when
enous
katabolized,especiallythrough the oxidation of its non-nitrogresidue (229),usually plays a small part quantitatively.
The
The fat of the body constitutes its great reserve
of energy.
be compared, for the
material in the body may
store of reserve
sake of illustration,
to the gasolinein the tank of an
automobile,
with the difference,
or
however, that the body derives more
mechanism.
This
stored-upenergy
of the material
less energy
from the combustion
the engineitself.
276.
The
feed.
Neither
"
Sooner
or
the automobile
its
later it must
own
stock
obtain
nor
(protein)of
the animal
of material
can
without
side.
suppliesfrom the outare
obviously of two
ing
gasolinetank must be filledat intervals and the workof the animal
The case
be suitablylubricated.
parts must
be suppliedin
is preciselysimilar. In the first place,it must
its feed with materials from which, by the processes of digestion
while the
atomic groupings
it can
the particular
secure
resorption,
etc.)which will exactly
(amino acids,peptids,ash ingredients,
and
fitinto its
NUTRITION
194
at
(katabolize)
down
as
up
to
the
carry
such
analogy
the
build
and
sets
In
do
We
with
broad
not
generalway, of
need
material.
course,
do work
to
Similarly,we
of
maintenance
is needed
than
namely,
various
the
in
mere
the
as
functions
2.
body
is evident
exhibits
two
prime
nutrition,tendingto
tained
body gains,is mainas
these
between
us
the horse
or
cow
to
calls for
an
expenditureof feed.
nutrition is something
study of
general knowledge of
or
It
"
the balance
scientific
feedingstuffs
"
of
osmotic
of the
quantitative measure
the nutritive
278.
animal
an
of
familiar with
are
more
its feed
ingredients
its actions
the
teach
or
make
to
in
Whether
to
physiologist
the
those
falls away
depends upon
of activities.
sufficient feed
What
from
several ash
that
concerned
it.
increase
long continue
cannot
the
expenditure.
foregoingconsiderations
up
or
two
and
income
tendingto destroyit,and
motor,
obtain
must
Finally,
working conditions of
and the like,somewhat
necessary
those
activities,
of
sets
of
Balance
the
from
step further,it
store
or
be lubricated.
enginemust
277.
of their energy
(fat,glycogen)for future use.
ionic concentration
pressure,
ANIMALS
proportionsof
and
amounts
will maintain
as
once
of energy
reserve
FARM
OF
facts ;
which
the
these familiar
extent
to
their
of the
Methods
contribute
singleingredients
body under varyingconditions.
Investigation
of
Investigation of details
to
of
metabolism.
"
One
method
by investigatingthe
details of the metabolic
In the study of metabolism
processes.
(includingthe chemical changes in digestionand resorption)
of the feed
to follow the various
the attempt is made
ingredients
through the body and to trace in detail how, where and to what
extent
or
they contribute to the maintenance
growth of tissue
or
supply energy for the use of the organism. Such studies are
of fundamental
importance. They reveal to us how the animal
mechanism
operates.
When
carried
is
to
their ultimate
con-
THE
NUTRITION
OF
BALANCE
95
complete knowledge of
the chemical ingredientsfound in feeding stuffs,they will make
of nutrition as a physicoaccount
it possible
to give an exhaustive
zation
to say that the realiIt is hardly necessary
chemical process.
when
elusion,and
accompanied by
effect.
nutritive
Total
future.
students
Meanwhile,
"
of
stock
different aspect
plex
of the subject,
viz.,in the aggregate effect of the varied and com-
feeding are
interested
metabolic
the stock of
any
due
in
processes
somewhat
energy
in the
increasing
body.
Is the
growth, or
other productsat the expense
a questionof balance.
to
reducing,maintainingor
and of chemical
matter
body under
primarily in
of its
own
This
tissues?
of the
Is the income
dently
is evi-
body equal
its outgo?
280.
The
schematic
dependent upon
body.
balance
"
between
The
idea
of the
constructive
and
organism
as
destructive
of the conception
by means
specific
of the schematic body,which
regards the body of the animal,
of ash, protein and
aside from water, as consistingessentially
for
of glycogen so small that it may
fat,togetherwith an amount
activities may
be made
more
be neglected.
purposes
many
for this conceptionis found
The justification
in the data
tained
con-
be considered
to consist essentially
negligibleand the latter may
of protein.
this point of view, it is evident that the effect of any
From
feedingstuff or ration in causing a gain or preventing a loss of
tive
ash, proteinand fat (and glycogen)shows its aggregate nutribe
of the body may
effect. Or, since the organic matter
196
NUTRITION
looked
OF
ANIMALS
Experiments directed
of
FARM
and
the store
to
of
proteinand
the determination
of chemical
of the
gain or
loss
of energy
Live
281.
weight
as
measure
of nutritive
effect.
"
the
At
very
To
make
to show
maintained
the
demonstration
that
and
the stock
that
absolutelycomplete, of course,
different kind of proteinin
of each
it would
the
from
body
the
be
sary
neces-
had
feed
been
was
BALANCE
THE
OF
NUTRITION
197
reaches
For
the
in ruminants.
extreme
example,
which
had
been
uniform
steer
ration
"
February
February
February
February
February
February
February
February
February
February
Kgs.
431.6 Kgs.
Kgs.
431.0
440.6 Kgs.
Kgs.
431.2
444.8 Kgs.
427.6 Kgs.
19
419.0
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
March
Kgs.
437.8 Kgs.
436.0 Kgs.
437.2 Kgs.
March
443.0
March
March
March
March
It is evident
427.9
27
28
that conclusions
Kgs.
428.4 Kgs.
433.4 Kgs.
436.8 Kgs.
418.6 Kgs.
based
comparison of single
weighings would have been entirelyuntrustworthy. Thus
a
parison
comof the live weight of February
6 would
19 with that of March
have led to the conclusion that the animal
tained.
mainwas
being practically
on
If,however, the initial weight had chanced
to be taken
shown
6 would have
February 20, a comparison with that of March
the
a loss of 13 Kgs., while
other hand, a comparison of February
on
with
March
would
shown
have
Even
aver19
a gain of 17.8 Kgs.
5
upon
198
aging two
or
it reduces the
of the average
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
three successive
error
of
does
not
February
with
19-21
if each
that of March
be
3-5
shows
a
day later,viz.,
gain of 8.7 Kgs., while
average
March
the
and
shows
a loss of 4.8
4-6,
comparison
February 20-22
of singleweighings averaged, the
Kgs. By increasingthe number
nated,
uncertaintymay, of course, be further reduced but not entirelyelimieven
varying materially,as is illustrated
ten-day averages
by the followingfigures.
February
February
February
February
A
24-March
inclusive,
435.3 Kgs.
25-March 6, inclusive,432.7 Kgs.
26-March
432.6 Kgs.
7, inclusive,
27-March 8, inclusive,
Kgs.
434.2
similar reduction
number
of animals
of the
combined
the fluctuations
each
taken
5,
error
into
in the
be obtained
may
a
group
which
singleanimals
by the
is treated
tending to
of
use
as
an
dividual
in-
balance
other.
These
gain in
fluctuations
are
such
to
as
preclude the
use
of the
live
considerable
of
animals,
which
number
"
NUTRITION
200
care
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
and
animal.
The
sumed
as-
285.
test
balance
The
attempts
contained
to
in
experiment,on
and
experiment.
determine
the
body
the
outgo and
at
the
two
"
The
weightsof
comparativeslaughter
the several
different times.
ingredients
The
balance
come
contrary, consists of a comparison of inthe original
does not attempt to determine
THE
be determined.
described
are
The
BALANCE
OF
methods
specific
in the two
NUTRITION
201
used
for such
comparisons
followingsections.
time
which
"
286.
The
"
used
balance
as
of nutrition.
body
"
income
and
"
The
phrase
chapter refers in
outgo of
matter
"
balance
of
generalway
and
energy
determined
trition
nu-
to
in the
heads
as
and
the balance
of energy.
OF
NUTRITION
202
" 3.
Balance
The
The
gain
or
ANIMALS
FARM
of
loss
Matter
of protein
nitrogen balance.
The
"
Feed
"
the
metabolic
processes
or
the
fermentations
of
the
feed
in
in
outgo
which
of combined
substantial
nitrogen
equality
between
been
observed
has
income
under
and
tions
condi-
which
demonstration
that
nitrogen
Determination
289.
NUTRITION
leaves
203
the
body
of
balance.
nitrogen
There
"
balance
nitrogen,a determination
of the
requiressimply a determination
element
contained
excretion
only
in
the
form
combined
OF
BALANCE
THE
of gaseous
is
this end
in the
being no
of the
amounts
visible excreta.
attained
alreadypartially
in
nitrogen
of this
dently
Evi-
periment
digestionexin addition
to provide
(158). It is only necessary
collection and analysisof the urine and, in
for the quantitative
experiments, of the perspirationand of the epidermal
very accurate
excreta, in order to obtain data for a comparison of the
the same
income
and outgo of nitrogen,and
precautions as to
length of period,uniformity of feeding,etc.,which are necessary
in a digestionexperiment, suffice also to render the results of a
balance experiment representative.
a
The digestion
nitrogen balance experiment.
clover hay used as an example in Chapter III (160)
also to illustrate the nature
of a nitrogen balance
serve
ment.
experimay
contained
In that experiment the hay consumed
daily
3.144
of
and
the
feces
while
the
1.267 Kgs.,
dry matter
daily
Kgs.
average
of
the
urine
for
dailyweight
Analysis showed
5.449 Kgs.
9 days was
the followingpercentages of nitrogen:
290.
of
Example
experiment with
"
"
In
In
dry
dry
matter
of
matter
of feces
%
2.240%
1.074%
hay
2.271
In fresh urine
found
to contain
(hair,dandruff,etc.)were
balance
of
The
daily nitrogen
1.87 grams
nitrogen per day.
be
accordingly computed as follows,showing a loss from the body
may
which, of course, must be placed in the income column to complete the
The
brushings of
the steer
balance.
Table
22.
Example
"
of
Nitrogen
Balance
Otttgo
Grms.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen
in
hay
in feces
in urine
in
brushings
lost from body
.
28.40
58.50
1.87
88.77
NUTRITION
204
291.
of
Computation
FARM
OF
protein.
"
ANIMALS
The
matic
conceptionof the scheexperimentsare based
the animal
as
consisting
From
In Lawes
and
Gilbert's
experiments
experiments
Chaniewski's
In
It is
probable that
still contained
extraction
some
in both
16.11%
16.06 %
the
cases
remove
of it from
mal
ani-
tissues.
varianalyses (88)of the fat- and ash-free lean meat of ous
after correction for the glycogencontent
of the horse flesh,
species,
Kohler's
show
an
of Lawes
non-nitrogenoussubstance,and
body is contained in the
it appears
muscular tissues,
to regard Kohler's
justifiable
figuresas
with
substantial
the
representing
position
elementary comaverage
accuracy
of body protein as a whole,especially
since they are the results
of direct analysiswhile the others are derived from slaughterexperiments
some
since the
largershare of the
in which
the limits of
other
proteinof the
error
are
somewhat
wide.
in
the
since
and
body
OF
BALANCE
THE
NUTRITION
all the
not
205
animal
proteins contain
this
basis,the
daily17.37
6.0
the results of
can
be
income
between
the balance
an
and
grams
experiment in
The
gain
same
way.
offat and
loss
or
question of
outgo.
the
precisely
in
computed
the
to
is
in the
steer
104.22
involved
error
glycogen
By a method
quite similar in
to that just described for protein,it is possibleto compute
principle
bined
approximatelythe gain or loss of body fat from the comincome
and outgo of nitrogenand carbon, while if the
292.
The
balance
of
balance.
carbon
"
of oxygen
also be determined
can
made
and
exact
considerablymore
hydrogen and
computation
be
may
the
may
include
excreta, it is necessary
in
contained
the
determine
to
included,the hydrogen
the
of
of the
hydrogen
feed,the
and
is
it
outset
given in
and
is to be
oxygen
and
the
also be ascertained.
seems
dioxid
excreted
water
of oxygen
taken up from the air must
outline of the experimental methods
purposes
of this element
amount
amount
An
of the visible
feed and
gaseous
if the balance
methane, while
of the
the carbon
to
to
the
principles
involved.
293.
Computation
of
gain
or
loss of fat.
-*-
According to
the
shows
of
of
the
the
schematic
amount
protein is known.
of
protein gained
If the carbon
and
the
of the
carbon
tent
con-
protein gained
206
NUTRITION
subtracted
be
have
can
steer
on
is
as
Table
gain
of
complete
follows
23.
the
of
statement
Carbon
and
respirationexperiment
and
carbon
nitrogen
Balances
of
400
16619
4357
timothy hay
grms.
linseed
grms.
feces
grms.
urine
37 grms.
56.4
21.9
Grms.
4730
grms.
142
grms.
methan
Outgo
Grms.
33-5
1428.7
32.4
124.2
8.0
i-3
dioxid
.
by body
Income
Grms.
2831.7
172.6
brushings
carbon
Gain
meal
Steer
Carbon
Outgo
Income
Grms.
grms.
sponding
corre-
Nitrogen
6988
the
readilycomputed.
In
"
remainder
"
Nitrogen
"
of fat and
be
can
balance.
carbon
carbon, the
of
in the form
of this substance
Example
balances
total
gained only
been
amount
294.
the
from
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
1290.2
106.6
11.
....
78.3
46.6
78.3
3004.3
The
3004.3
"
Total
gain of carbon
in proteingained
Carbon
35-Q grams
Carbon
The
46.6 grams
gained as fat
elementary composition of
animal
fat
1.6 grams
shown
in
Chapter
A
(34) to be very uniform, averaging 76.5 per cent of carbon.
gain of 0.765 gram of carbon in the form of fat,therefore,is equivalent
of
of
to a gain of one
of
fat
carbon
to
or
a
one
gain
gram
gram
of fat, and accordinglythe gain of 11.6 grams
of carbon
1. 3 1 grams
in the form
of fat shows
a
gain by the animal of 11.6 -"" 0.765, or
the same
of
of fat. Substantially
method
11. 6 X
1. 31
15.2 grams
I
was
208
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
dioxid.
it may
be computed that
Similarly,
if proteinof average
compositionbe oxidized to urea, carbon
dioxid and water, the respiratory
quotient will be approximately
0.8, although in realitythe quotientfor protein varies
accordingto the nature of the nitrogenousproductsformed and
of carbon
from
the amount
oxidation to
thereby withdrawn
dioxid.
carbon
Ordinarily,however, the proportion of the
exchange of the body due to the katabolism of protein
gaseous
is comparativelysmall,so that if,for example, the respiratory
quotientcloselyapproaches 1.0, it is clear that the katabolism
be chiefly
that of carbohydrates,
must
while if,on
the other
hand, its value approaches 0.7, it is equallyevident that the
katabolism
be chiefly
that of fat. Values for the respiramust
tory
quotientintermediate between these extremes
imply that
the katabolism
is in part that of fats (orproteins)
and in part
that of carbohydrates.
The respiratory
affords no
information
quotient of course
mination
regardingthe balance between income and outgo but its deterof the
gives valuable information as to the nature
material which is being katabolized in the body, particularly
in short periods.
297.
The
respiration apparatus.
"
determination
of the
gaseous
be broken
is made
while
Two
no
under
very
obvious
off before
fatal results
to
the animal
of
to
ensue,
it
conditions,
at
once
avoiding this difficulty
absorb the products of respira-
BALANCE
THE
NUTRITION
OF
209
or
from
the
closed
the
as
of the
names
circuit and
who
investigators
practicable
appliances,as
into
Pettenkofer apparatus.
into
of
animal
an
Each
intended
those
open
the
and
Regnault-Reiset
of these two
to
types may
be
the
divided
sub-
determine
those which
and
circuit apparatus,
first developedthem
pulmonary exchange.
In the closed
298. The
Regnault-Reisetapparatus.
cuit,
cirtakes place in
or
Regnault-Reiset
apparatus, respiration
.
"
RESPIRATION
CHAMBER
0 used
M,0
",
N
0
deficient
^produced
introduced
CO0
ab"orbed
/Na OH
deficient
"
24
"
HjO
ROTARY
absorbed bu.
014
\
\Ca[OHl,)
"1
Fig
BLOWER
h.scu
respiration
(Atwater and Benedict,
apparatus.
Institution
Publication
No. 42.)
of
Washington,
Carnegie
Scheme
confined
of closed circuit
of any
tween
exchange beair,the possibility
it and the outside atmosphere being carefullyguarded
(a blower, for instance)
against. By suitable mechanical means
the confined air is kept in circulation over
suitable absorbents
which
dioxid given off, while
and carbon
take up the water
a
volume
of
consumed
the oxygen
is
of the compressedgas.
is shown
plus any
in
replacedfrom a gasometer
The
generalscheme for
Fig. 24.
The
increase
in
or
such
weight
of carbon
cylinder
an
paratus
ap-
sorbents
of the ab-
dioxid and
NUTRITION
2IO
water
minus
any
methane
and
air at
the
contained
or
may
close
in the
the amounts
the amount
of fresh oxygen
contained in the air
of the oxygen
the quantityof this element
increase
Any
apparatus shows
produced,while
of these substances
ANIMALS
FARM
contained
admitted
OF
hydrogen
excreted
accumulates
absorbed.
in
the
be determined
paratus
apof
contained
the
analysis
of the
The
by an
experiment.
amount
if the apparatus is
working properly.
of
nitrogen
unchanged
THE
BALANCE
OF
NUTRITION
211
"
:3
J3
3
G
CuO
o
P4
fa
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
212
ANIMALS
If the entire
respiratory
exchange is to be determined, the
representedin the
subjectis placed in the respirationchamber
gation,
diagram. If only the pulmonary exchange is under investichamber
is replacedby a mask
piece
mouththe respiration
or
or
even
by a suitable cannula inserted in the trachea.
Regnault-Reisetapparatus 1 is shown in
investigators
subsequently devised a largerone
Fig. 25. The same
of experimentsupon
in which they made
animals of various
a number
speciesincludingsheep, calves,swine and fowls. In theory this is
the most
nical
techperfectform of respirationapparatus, but numerous
The
of the
originalform
difficultiesarise in its
but Atwater
size suitable for
and
Benedict
which
man
was
later forms
Various
use.
2
have
were
capable of
been
one
vised
deof
has constructed
a
Quite recently Zuntz
domestic
this type for experiments on
animals, a section of which
in Fig. 26, while for the determination
of the pulmonary
is shown
4
has devised a so-called "Universal"
exchange,Benedict
respiration
apparatus.
299.
open
The
Pettenkofer
the
In
"
Pettenkofer, or
continuous
measured
of water, carbon
after passingthe
much
apparatus.
current
dioxid and
of
atmosphericair
is determined
methane
of
animal, the difference,
subjecthas
whose
added.
in
content
before and
of carbon
dioxid
and
in the
mined,
be deterincoming and outgoingair current
may
but in the largerforms it is necessary
the air
to measure
and make
current
small samples,so that
analysesupon relatively
the analytical
terminat
errors
are
multiplied
by a largefactor,while a dewater
of the
oxygen
balance
has
not
Ann.
Carnegie Institution
Landw.
4Deut.
de Chem.
et de
Physique,3"me Series,26,
of Washington,
Publication
Jahrb.,44 (1913),776.
Arch. Klin. Med., 107 (1912), 156.
299.
No.
42
(1905).
BALANCE
THE
The
first
form
practicable
1
by Pettenkofer
shown
for
Fig. 28.
in
OF
of open
NUTRITION
circuit apparatus
"
CHAMBER
9
"
COz
27.
Henneberg
G.
Kiihn
in
use
and
and
ABSORBED
of Pettenkofer
respirationapparatus.
METER
ME1
J^OSCO^
CH+
OXIDJZED
Scheme
"
"
J"
NzO"5COz
ABSORBED
METEP.
PRODUCED
METER.
Fig.
devised
was
is
Its generalappearance
experiments on man.
The
comparative simplicityof its operationand
RESPIRATION
"
213
be
later Kellner
Fig.
28.
"
at
Pettenkofer
Explanatory sketch.
(Atwater, U.
Stations,Bulletin No. 21.)
1
Ann.
Mockern.
Chem.
S.
respirationapparatus.
Department
of
1.
NUTRITION
214
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
The
Fig.
are
of oxygen
the amount
given
much
consumed
when
case
sharper
and
as
not
are
gases
as
many
respirationchamber
it is
well
diluted with
possibleto
that
is
determine
of carbon
dioxid
off.
29.
300.
"
The
can
respiration
(Bailey'sCyclopedia of Ameriapparatus.
Agriculture.)
Mockern
Investigation of pulmonary
a
determination
either with
of the
exchange.
gaseous
"
For
exchange
the
in
many
the
poses
pur-
lungs,
"
"
2l6
of the excretion
account
no
OF
NUTRITION
of
ANIMALS
through the
skin and
the
alimentary
pute
possibleto comcarbon, hydrogen and oxygen by its
that
methods
indirect
canal, it is only by
FARM
it is
use.
301.
of ash
and
of water
Balance
the
by
vapor
The
ingredients.
"
to
serves
determine
well
subjectas
piration
res-
the
cretion
ex-
that of carbon
as
with
dioxid and
the
sary
neces-
establish the
to
less difficulty
more
or
hydrogen. Unfortunately,
is experiencedin determining accurately the hydrogen balance
of water
in the
to condensation
owing in part to the liability
of organic
apparatus and in part to the fact that the amount
of the animal
hydrogen actuallyenteringinto the metabolism
and
of water
consumed
is small as compared with the amounts
simply evaporatedagain.
of course, with the possibleexception
The
ash ingredients,
of sulphur,
in the visible
all leave the animal
of minute
amounts
gain or
loss of
of these
the balance
and
excreta
determined
the
accordingto
same
elements
therefore
may
as
principles
the balance
be
of
nitrogen.
" 4.
302.
animal
of
nutrition
Energy
of
includes
energy.
the
Since
but
matter
"
of energy
(207),the
with the income
and
is
the
(263),with
study
Balance
transformer
a
essentially
nutrition is not only concerned
body
outgo of
feed
of
Balance
balance
The
loss of energy
by the body. The
is a method
of investigating
of energy
gain
of the balance
or
some
however,
brief review
related
as
energetics
superfluous.
to
of
some
of the
elementary concepts of
physiological
processes
may
not
prove
Elementaryprinciples
303.
used
Energy.
without
"
any
Up
to
this
point the
precisedefinition.
In
word
a
energy
has
been
study of
specific
the
NUTRITION
OF
BALANCE
THE
217
balance
and
of bodies
to
the
be
to
power
however,
For
it is
however,
readilyapprehended from
more
such
produce
changes."
may
from
nitions.
defi-
be
subject may
body possesses
energy
in the form
or
energy
of motion.
of kinetic
certain amount
something which
other
was
the
which
energy,
virtue of its position,
may
of
form
with
which
not
was
energy
generatedduring
This
of motion.
body possessedprevious to
be called
gravitation
energy.
ing
relation is illustrated by a swinging pendulum. Dursame
which it posthe downward
swing, the gravitation
sessed
energy
when at its highestpoint is converted into kinetic energy,
its fall by
The
energy
while
when
of
conscious
energy,
to
up
as
when
gravitation
the weight
falls.
304.
motion
accurate
Forms
of
the rate of
general,whenever
familiar if less
body is increased (or,to use a more
of energy.
"
whenever
expression,
1
General
In
motion
is
produced)it
is
to
be
2l8
NUTRITION
in
as
inferred,
the
OF
of the
case
FARM
ANIMALS
falling
body
or
the
pendulum, that
however, this is
cylinderof
the motion
the
the
not
steam
of the
case.
The
familiar
expanding
instances,
in the
steam
of the motor
armature
In many
gravitation
energy.
was
in revolution.
The
The
manifestations
but
its forms
Of
"
Magnetic
energy
7.
Chemical
energy
3.
Cohesion
8.
Heat
4.
Volume
9.
Radiant
5.
Electrical energy
energy
energy
most
in the animal
305.
energy,
chemical
energy
energy
and
in
of energy.
speakingof
various forms
may
in turn
of energy
be converted
is converted
heat
energy
of
ergy
en-
body.
Transformations
assumed
energy
As
is illustrated
Heat
is inferred.
energy
2.
those of
are
chemical
6.
these, kinetic
action
Kinetic energy
Gravitation energy
i.
of the
may
generalheads
and
of
combustion
changes in the
capableof mutual
energy
are
into motion
as
animal
by
has
the
been
body, the
transformations.
in the heat
engine. Motion
a moving body is retarded
with another body. When
either
energy
to
as
OF
BALANCE
THE
form
NUTRITION
and
intensity,
or
to identifythe concepts, of
physicists
maintain
Without
the latter.
it will be convenient
familiar
can
be
follow
for
matter
into
this debated
present purpose
our
and energy
regarding matter
entities.
although indissolublyconnected
The
306.
of
course
conservation
of energy.
"
employed
heat
be
in
it is found
no
effectingthe conversion.
question,
the
more
distinct
two
unit
of
of kinetic
that the
amount
what
the process
Similarly,if a unit of
matter
the
quantity of kinetic
heat is produced.
What
When
as
to
converted
obtained
of
some
energy and
fullyinterpretedin terms
entering here
to
219
energy
which
disappearswhen
unit
one
is true
in the conversion.
When
changes of
That
the law
form
but neither
of the conservation
created
nor
of energy
destroyed.
applies to the
was
exceedingly
experimentally
the
1
body
is obvious.
Nutrition,pp.
263-268 and
Penna.
OF
NUTRITION
2 20
Heat
307.
unique.
energy
FARM
ANIMALS
In
"
respect heat
one
Other
energy
forms
of energy
in
are
into heat but there is
occupies peculiarposition.
generalreadilyand completelytransformed
known
method
no
by which heat can be completelytransformed
a
into other
kinetic energy.
Whatever
portion of
the heat is thus transformed
obeys the law of the conservation
of energy
308.
forms, such
but
Units
as
energy.
Quantities of
"
Since
of heat.1
in the form
form
form
measured
are
energy
and
comparing them
of energy
sumed
asarbitrarily
unit.
of
quantities
kinetic energy
time, a unit based
unit
of
can
on
energy.
be
expressedin
terms
is the calorie,
which
unit for this purpose
quantityof heat requiredto raise the temperature of one
of water
one
degree centigrade.2
most
common
The
foregoingis known
largerquantitiesof
Where
as
the
heat
small,or
are
to
gram
calorie
the
be measured
is the
gram
(cal.).
large,
of the amount
of heat
required to
Practice
it is measured.
calorie,which
of
is
one
one
gram
one-
of
THE
BALANCE
NUTRITION
OF
equal to
kilogramcalorie (Cal.),
221
thousand
small
calories,
is employed, while for still largerquantitiesthe Therm, equal
In the following
be used.
thousand
to one
largecalories,
may
the large,or kilogram,calorie,
calorie signifies
the term
pages
or
one
expresslystated.
are
gravitation
energy
Certain
of
frequentlyused,
important ones
being the
the
especiallyin
also
more
mechanics,
and
the foot pound.
The
meter, the kilogram meter
gram
is the energy
meter
required to raise a weight of one gram
gram
gram
verticallythrough one meter in oppositionto gravity,the kilogram
kilometer
is the energy required to raise a weight of one
quired
through one meter, and the foot pound is the energy reto raise a weight of one
pound through one foot. Since
the earth's
the force of gravity varies at different points on
surface these units as thus defined are not invariable.
Taking the
force of gravity at sea level,
however, as equal to 980.5
average
dynes,the
these various
relations between
OF
EQUIVALENCE
UNITS
OF
units
are
as
follows
ENERGY
Kilogram
Calories
meter
gram
1
1
kilogram meter
foot pound
calorie
Calorie
309.
io-6
0.002344
0.000324
O.OOI
Measurement
measured
are
0.2344
of
in
chiefly
the temperature
of
heat
two
some
energy.
"
Quantities of heat
be transferred
can
the
the most
without
may,
loss to
of course,
is
usually
NUTRITION
222
ries.
calorimeter
Such
calorimeter.
varietyof forms
two
essential
or
OF
FARM
constructed
after this
calorimeters
according
requirements are
radiation
have
the
to
ANIMALS
been
that any
calorimeter
is one
used
extensively
simple form of
of heat
water
great
in view.
of heat
escape
The
by
duction
con-
preventableor measurable
be accurately
determined.
is caused to expend itself in
"
in
shall be either
31.
devised
special
purpose
and
Fig.
is
principle
for certain
volatile
ice calorimeter
used
by
ice
of Physiology.)
of calorimeter
classes of work.
example,
liquid. The
Book
(Schaefer,Text
as, for
substance
Figure 31
shows
The
Lavoisier.
source
is
preventedby
the outside
In Lavoisier's calorimeter
by collectingand
accurate
ice
method
jacketof
ice.
the amount
of ice melted
undergoes when
converted
is based
into water.
upon
but
was
a
determined
much
the contraction
more
which
NUTRITION
224
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
l..,.".
i:":i,i.n:,
""
"
,.
f'iG. 32.
"
Section
of bomb
calorimeter.
;"i
"'";
(Atwater, U.
S. Department
21.)
of Agriculture,
THE
is transformed
OF
BALANCE
into heat
by its
NUTRITION
almost
225
instantaneous
The
in oxygen.
to this question is found
answer
called the law of initialand final states.
This
law
solelyupon
at all upon
is
is that in any
of
independentsystem the amount
during a change in the system depends
transformed
energy
burning
in what
rapidityof
final states
the
of the
system and
not
the kind
upon
number
of the intermediate stages through which it passes.
or
Although this law is true in the generalform here stated,it was
originally
propounded
with
start
starch and
quantitiesof carbon
energy
converted
whether
oxygen
of
related
as
oxygen
whether
to
and
dioxid and
into heat
end
reactions.
with
water, the
the
through
energy
it be
subjectedto
intermediate
necessary
between
obtain
the
we
of chemical
amount
or
to
and
dextrose,lactic acid,etc.,etc., as
simply
If
corresponding
passes
to
chemical
plantburied
are
is
nor
the starch
or
transformation
determine
in the
the
body
water
the starch
glycogen,
of the animal.
It
difference in chemical
change.
313.
method
animal
Measurement
of
measuring the
motion
as
into
of kinetic
energy
energy
energy.
"
liberated
The
by
most
common
machine
is its conversion,actuallyor
or
an
virtually,
226
NUTRITION
method
convertingit
into
for
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
of this apparatus
horses.
measuring
electrical energy
used
kinetic
by
for
Zuntz
consists in
energy
work
of
magnetic
The
of current
amount
thus erated
genin
measured
be
can
electrical
be converted into
energy may
in calories.
heat and measured
The
body'sincome
Gross
"
314.
can
of energy.
energy
Only chemical
be
utilized.
in
stated
energy
As
"
was
the
introductory
this chapter,
paragraphs
the animal body resembles an
of
internal combustion
motor
in
mechanism
for
the
being
conversion
of
of certain
energy
chemical
the
compounds
T3
in
contained
the
kinetic energy.
the balance
feed
into
In considering
come
in-
between
outgo of energy,
and
is essential
to
it
recognize a
pointof resemblance,
further
the
other
than
There
is no
animal
way
motor
chemical
energy.
evidence
that the
body
can
of the
any
of energy,
or
utilize
can
such
use
other
as
solar
in any
forms
tricity
heat,elecradiation
reach it from
which
engine can
energy
Gross
energy.
NUTRITION
environment, any
of
is not
body
can
than the
of
or
gasoline
electric current.
an
but the
derive its
only source
supply.
of energy
income
The
"
227
more
fallingwater
merely a source
the animal
which
315.
its
the energy
use
Chemical
from
OF
BALANCE
THE
be
may
tained,
ascer-
tained
contherefore,by determining the chemical
energy
in the various
compounds present in the feed in the
manner
already indicated (309),viz.,by convertingit into heat
of a suitable
of the latter by means
and measuring the amount
of chemical energy is
calorimeter.
In other words, the income
In order to
of the feed.
measured
by the heat of combustion
of energy
avoid the implicationthat this is the total amount
the
to use
with the feed (311),it will be convenient
associated
term
the feed is
heat when
as
that this is
chemical
simply
of
energy
It is
the
does
anthracite
coal, with
would
gram,
gas, with
the
upon
utilize.
Heats
and
not
the heat
of
of combustion
combustion.
it is the
produced by
7.9 Cals.
some
most
of
more
than
"
The
feed value
Obviously,the
that
to the animal.
stand
but
heat
outrank
pressed
usuallyex-
measure
a
into
point out
to
heat of combustion
substance
316.
not
use
fested
mani-
understood,however,
clearly
is
its amount
of convenience
matter
scarcelynecessary
feed
would
which
their combustion
of
of
energy
of energy
amount
completely oxidized.
a feeding stuff is converted
of measurement,
for purposes
in heat units. It should be
heat
per
the
equivalentto
as
gross energy
heats
of gross energy
the
body
of combustion
can
of
determined.
been
organic substances have
a
Atwater 1 in 1895 published a compilation of results upon
of compounds of importance in nutrition,Fries 2
largenumber
and
Benedict
extensive list,and
has prepared a rather more
great
Osborne
variety
have
of
determined
of nineteen
vegetableproteins.
S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas.,Bull.
S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim.
Indus., Bui.
U.
U.
(1907),
119.
21
94
(1895).
(1907).
228
OF
NUTRITION
The
followingtabulation
FARM
ANIMALS
give a generalidea of
the gross energy
of some
of the more
important substances
concerned
in nutrition.
It should
be specially
noted that the
figuresgiven are in most instances simplyapproximate averages.
Table
Animal
protein
Vegetable protein
24.
"
may
serve
to
Gross
Approximate
Energy
....
Carbohydrates
....
Sucrose
Animal
fats
Butter
fat
Vegetable fats
....
Ether
extracts
of seeds
Ether
extracts
of
roughages
Table
Roughage
Timothy
25.
hay
hay
Mixed
hay
Alfalfa hay
Meadow
hay
Red
clover
Corn
Oat
stover
straw
Wheat
straw
Straw
pulp
"
Gross
Energy
of
Feeding
Stuffs
THE
BALANCE
OF
NUTRITION
229
Concentrates
meal
Corn
Hominy
Wheat
....
chop
bran
.
Grain
mixture
No.
ia
Grain
mixture
No.
2b
molasses
Beet
Starch
oil
Peanut
Wheat
gluten
a. Wheat
bran, 14.28 per
meal, 42.86 per cent.
b. Corn
meal, 60 per cent
10
per
cent;
meal, 42.86
corn
crushed
oats, 30
per
cent
old process
cent;
per
old process
linseed
linseed meal,
cent.
Some
data
also available
are
chieflyfrom
derived
Table
26.
Gross
"
energy
gross
of the
of
digestednutrients
regardingthe
Energy
of
are
Nutrients
Digested
Per
100
Pounds
Therms.
Protein
Crude
gluten
of wheat
Protein
"
assumed
average
193.O
of
extract
Nitrogen-free
of starch
Peanut
Total
extract
of
hay
192.O
189.8
hay
377-5
....
oil
400.I
organicmatter
In the
used
258.6
fiber
Nitrogen-freeextract
Ether
271.O
are,
of
roughage
202.9
energy
outgo of chemical
suppliedin
reasons:
the
the
energy
feed
first,the
for
may
escape
substances
unused
carrying it
NUTRITION
230
may
be
FARM
OF
fail to be
incorporatedinto
incompletelykatabolized.
The
317.
feces.
Since
"
ANIMALS
the
greater
of most
feedingstuffs
organicmatter
by farm animals and so does
(148),a considerable amount
proper
in the
escapes
feces,while
(154) contain
carry
conversion
of farm
animals
fails of
suitable
sorption
digestionand reinto the body
enter
not
of unused
feed
energy
body.
constitutes
very
chemical
in
precautions,
be
they
plete
com-
of the feces
energy
considerable
Its amount
total outgo of energy.
can
of feeding stuffs by burning a
the case
with
proportion of the
the
chemical
in the
less
or
item
in their
determined
as
in
heat evolved.
Combustible
318.
gases.
"
The
combustible
gases
also carry off
matter
These
in
the
produced
relatively
loss in
this
the
undigested
invisible products.
cannot
be
may
be
gases
of
being known, the amount
off can
be readilycomputed.
carry
319.
calculated.
Products
of
of
The
heats
of combustion
chemical
incomplete katabolism.
of both
energy
which
The
heat of
"
these
they
bustion
com-
of heat
substance,as alreadydefined,is the amount
evolved when
it is completelyoxidized,that is,in the case
of
substances
it is
ordinarilyoccurringin feeding stuffs,when
burned
to C02, H20, N2, and
in the
S03. If the katabolism
a
of these end
transformed
is
substance
the
by an amount
equal to the
incompletelyoxidized products.
The
and
heat
part of its
All
the
of combustion
most
nitrogenof the
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
of
stance
important indigestedprotein
are
excreted
in
OF
NUTRITION
232
FARM
ANIMALS
and
measured
as
by their heats of combustion.
If,
gaseous,
be subtracted
from
then, the gross energy of the total excreta
the gross energy
of the feed, the remainder
shows
how
much
of the chemical
converted
metabolizable
the term
Metabolizable
energy
in the
has
energy
energy
of the feed minus
be
been
applied.
brieflydefined
may
the gross energy
follows
as
were
Energy offeed
6988 grms.
400
and
excreta
the
:
metabolizable
illustrate the
content
energy
of
energy
the
"
timothy hay
Cals.
27,727
linseed meal
grms.
gross
Thus
of the excreta.
method
the
as
181
Cals.
29,538 Cals.
Energy of excreta
16,619 grms.
4357
142
grms.
feces
*4j243
Cals.
urine
12
Cals.
methane
grms.
10
1896 Cals.
....
Total
Metabolizable
It should
assertion
12,189 Cals.
energy
be observed
whatever
Cals.
17,349
as
to
that
the
foregoingdefinition
into which
the forms
makes
no
the metabolizable
energy
constitutes
transformed
nor
as
to
the
On the other
energy.
tion
substance
capable of oxida-
some
in the
was
value
body but of no physiological
simply burned to get rid of it. The heat
might
would
be
entirely useless
to
the
to
thus
animal, yet
energy
it and
generated
this
of the feed.
which
energy
what
Some-
methane
energy,
Metab-
BALANCE
THE
OF
NUTRITION
233
the
to
changes
energy
the method
from
apparent
the
nutritive
necessarilymeasure
not
in
organism. That
is indeed
value
it
ciently
suffi-
used
As
the excreta.
323.
for
Synonyms
metabolizable
energy.
Two
"
other
are
energy.
Fuel
value.
The
"
metabolizable
capable of conversion
all of it is actually thus
considerable portion and sometimes
is usuallyexpressedas a matter
converted,and since its amount
of convenience in heat units,the term fuel value (or physiological
heat value) has come
into use as synonymous
with metabolizable
energy.
The
case.
due
has the
term
to
in relation
"
The
its value
the
The
less
it
can
is used
"
fuel value
of
furnish when
energy,
as
different
sense
of
boiler
feedingstuff,on
oxidized
confusion
coal,for example,
it liberates when
burned,
fuel under
as
of
in
of its metabolizable
sense
which
if used
danger of
some
of heat which
amount
fuel value
be
term
same
to
therefore,
corresponds,
to
i.e.,
plant.
or
fuels.
the total
means
and
to
to
or
feedingstuff,
in a heating
the other
hand,
is the amount
it is in the
in
of heat
more
body,i.e.,
incompletely.
Available
energy.
"
much
more
available
employment of the term
German
Nutzwert"
Physiologischer
"
metabolizable
This
unfortunate
energy,
in the
usage
is the
equivalent to the
here assigned
sense
dates back
to Rubner's
usage
of the replacement values of nutrients in 1882investigations
to
energy.
NUTRITION
234
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
In the
1885 and to his isodynamic values based upon them.
lightof the knowledge available at that time, this use of the
but as will appear
later (369),
it has
term
was
perhaps justified,
since been
feed is
that
shown
virtuallyavailable
of the
energy
alone,while only
for heat
production
the remainder
be used for general body purposes.
If the
can
of the term
is to be continued,therefore,
available energy
use
it becomes
ability,
to
distinguish two
degrees of availnecessary
using,for instance,the term gross available energy as
and net available energy
equivalent to metabolizable
energy
able
which is availto signifythat part of the metabolizable
energy
for other
In
will be
of tion
concept
he
discontinuing
altogether use of the
promoted by
available
and
metabolizable
employing the term
energy
perhaps fuel value provided the latter is understood
term
energy, or
with
the proper
of the feed
gross energy
the animal
organism.
for
Factors
324.
the
have
metabolizable
with
computed
Table
27.
capableof
energy.
of
diet
the
the
by
of
man
in
and
Rubner,
"
factors
use
of
be
may
degreeof accuracy.1
Metabolizable
for
transformation
proposed
energy
considerable
Factors
"
is
metabolizable
subsequentlyAtwater,
which
which
the
Energy
of
Human
Atwater
Rubner
Per
gram
Food
digested
nutrients
Per
total
gram
nutrients
Cals.
Protein
4.0
Carbohydrates
4.0
Fats
8.9
The
use
of these
the
factors
same
They
nutrients
digestible
have
yieldsapproximatelycorrect
been appliedalso
sometimes
but
without
sufficient warrant.
1
Compare
the writer's
Principlesof
Animal
Nutrition,
pp.
272-281.
THE
The
325.
of
kinetic
and
combustion
energy.
been met,
his
the whole
although on
at
each
described
in
in
work
and
drawing a load,
simply lifting
or
successive
step, a portion,
may
maining
re-
of chemical
converted
energy
body
own
The
to
the metabolizable
i.e.,
carrying a
the weight of
losses due
of the fuel.
animal
an
income
tible
feces,urine,combusoff chiefly unused
carry
comparable with
are
be converted
energy, may
in part into heat.
to
recur
235
The
"
leakage or incompletecombustion
When
heat
excreta
they
motor,
NUTRITION
and
cutaneous
energy.1 To
chemical
OF
outgo of work
Outgo
gases
BALANCE
kinetic energy
thus produced
with the generalmethods
of
Outgo
heat.
experience teaches
of
and
men
the
total
that
be
outgo of heat
represents
of chemical
income
which
continuallytakingplace from
of animals
very
the bodies
considerable
It has
energy.
common
been
share of
computed
if the heat
prevented
day
raise it to
of
month
is
The
"
pasteurizing
temperature,
the
at
approximatelyto
327.
Animal
the heat
that of
meltingcast
The
"
single
course
be raised
iron.
have
be
may
same
calorimeters.
calorimeters which
while in the
could
are
and
designatedas
emission
those
water
calorimeters,
calorimeters.
in which
the heat
is
imparted
known
The
heat
which
in the next
they also
paragraph.
carry
off is included
of heat
sidered
con-
236
NUTRITION
measuring heat
be
may
to
subdivided
heat
into
those
which
it is taken
of the
physicalstate
employed an
which
the
in
and
it to
calorimetric
ice calorimeter
effect
in his
has
been
but
calorimeters
at
be
heat
to
in
the
walls
not
to be
in
walls
remains
keepingthe
when
same
in the
first case,
as
is
is the
same
producing heat
unit of time
be
conditions
that the
so
resistance,
in
If, now,
external
radiation
animal
it is introduced
at
the
of the
them
with
between
for
heat
of
source
the
creasing
in-
the
of
temperature
second
heat,
first
one,
the
to
To
at
same
The
apparatus.
remove
water
vapor
as
the so-called
"
rate
same
as
the
that
that
and
was
rate
the
of
the
electric
the animal
produced by
measured.
indirectly
prevent
the
and
first case,
of heat
All
animal
must
calorimeters
used
necessarilybe provided
loss of heat
temperature
that
at
which
it
the
in the
amount
is thus
ventilation.
tends
from
it is concluded
"
leaves
closed receptacle
established
the same,
respirationcalorimeter.
experiments of any length
with
of heat
source
temperature
substituted
as
The
for
measure
if it appears
that,
equilibriumis reached,the temperature of the walls is
an
heat
the
As
will be radiated
example,
sense
constant
container.
constant.
for
animal,
lations
re-
type of
strict
directlyto
serve
rapidityuntil a balance is
and
heat
production and
radiation
the
of the
the
kept at
room
rises,however, heat
walls
an
Lavoisier
experimentswith
to
be illustrated as follows :
If a known
may
for example)be placedin
(an electric resistance,
located
the
to
quantities. The
measure
Thus
of
in
change
upon
production. This
said not
do
all,i.e.,
they
method
little used.
calorimeters may
Emission
called flow
experiments
and heat
respiration
calorimeter,however, is not well suited
and
is imparted
of water.
substance.
between
animals
heat
those
current
eters
calorim-
of the second
use
viz.,causing
measurement,
Water
by
up
calorimeters make
heat
(309).
of water
stationarymass
ANIMALS
FARM
previouslydescribed
in
calorimeters,
Latent
OF
latent
the chamber
absorbs
heat of
and
the evaporation
correspondingamount
evaporation of water.
"
BALANCE
THE
OF
Either, therefore,evaporation
air in the chamber
the
more
course
also
include
combustible
34.
Dulong's
"
The
may
mass
thus
water,
introducing
carbon
animal
dioxid
of
perhaps
(Schaefer, Text
becomes
then
and
the
the
Book
and
Physiology).
combination
calorimeter
and
con-
oxygen
of
the
of
hence
piration
res-
has been
respirationcalorimeter.
of animal
to
serve
of water
various
calorimeter
apparatus
apparatus
source
excreted, and
water
apparatus
called
of
determinations
gases
The
sumed.
with
saturated
prevented by keeping
of water
conditions,or the amount
be determined.
must
ventilatingair current
is followed,it is a relatively
simple matter
in the
If the latter
Fig.
be
must
237
less abnormal
or
carried away
to
NUTRITION
used
by Dulong
heat, the
construction
This
modifications,
notably
1
Smithsonian
2N.
Y. Med.
in 1822
in his
of which
of calorimeter
type
of
investigation
is shown
in which
of calorimeter
in the
United
Contributions
to Knowledge,
Jour., 49 (1889), 342.
has
States
No.
23
in
a
Fig. 34,
stationary
been
used
by Wood,1
(1
the
Ott
in
2
238
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
240
pensation
interestingform of emission calorimeter is the so-called comcalorimeter,in which the heat produced by the subjectis
balanced
against that produced, for example, by burning pure hydrogen
An
by
or
electrical resistance in
an
Calorimeters
have
of this type
been
preciselysimilar chamber.
described by Haldane, ' Bohr
a
recently by Tangl.3
and
328.
in the
Summary.
followingtabular
income
and
outgo
contained
energy
329.
upon
The
"
steer
the
energy
computed
also
may
balance.
In
work,
so
Table
28.
as
energy
for which
the metabolizable
energy
external
an
this
no
well
the
as
balance.
particularform
The
"
same
of
experiment
balance
and
nitrogen and carbon
(290,294, 322) have already been
to
serve
that
be summarized
may
showing the several items of
statement
of energy
in each.
of
Example
foregoing facts
experiment
the
energy
had
Energy
Balance
to
animal
be
of the
performed no
measured
in that
form.
1
2
"
Daily
of
Biochem.
Steer
Ztschr., 53 (1913),21.
BALANCE
THE
NUTRITION
OF
241
In fat
66.6
9.5 Cals. X
15.2
Total
Found
from
balance
energy
found
by
that in this
appears
a direct determination
computed
within
It
carbon
524
Cals.
608
Cals.
experiment
the
gain of
energy
of energy
of the total amount
per cent
of the nitrogen
that determinations
is evident
0.3
balance
on
from
Cals.
balance
the
84 Cals.,or
involved.
and
from
144
84 Cals.
Difference
It thus
380 Cals.
the
on
serve
an
determinations
as
and
hand
one
mutual
be
computed quiteaccurately
of the nitrogen and carbon balances (indirect
animal
may
calorimetry.)
" 5.
Significance
of
Results
nent
played a very promiand agricultural
role in both physiological
investigation.
Having considered in the foregoingpages the generalmethods
of the balance
cance
experiment, a brief consideration of the signifiof the results obtained by their use as compared with those
Studies of the balance
reached
330.
of nutrition have
by other methods
Comparison
with
seems
called for.
metabolism
investigations.
"
The
used as an
with a steer
experiments like the one
illustration in previous paragraphs show, within the limits of
experimental error, the loss or the storage of chemical energy
results
of
NUTRITION
242
from the
resulting
in what
lost
energy
or
is
therefore,
OF
of
use
FARM
certain feed
contained.
gainedwas
or
ration and
mately
approxi-
fat,glycogen)the
(protein,
of material
kind
ANIMALS
adapted to determine
The
balance
experiment,
if the
given substance,while
comparativeslaughtertest be
regardedas a form of balance experiment(284)the particular
mined.
organs or tissues in which gain or loss took placecan be detera
balance
The
into the
however,affords no insight
experiment,
which
the
observed
tritive
nuby
is broughtabout.
For example,balance experiments
have
fat and
demonstrated
have
shown
as
source
of
of fat formed
from
formation,either in the
processes
of
or metabolism.
resorption
digestion,
On the other
of the intermediary
olism,
metabhand,investigations
main
Chapter V,
They have demonstrated
various
not
anabolisms
attemptedto
results have
been
necessarily
and
deal
to a
of the
some
katabolisms
been
outlined
in
largeextent qualitative.
steps through which the
occur,
but
as
rule have
with quantitative
directly
questions.1
Naturallythe foregoing
comparisonis neither comprehensivenor
exclusive. It aims simply to pointout a broad generaldistinction
which in reality
shade
between two types of nutrition investigation
into each other.
Balance
experimentshave
sometimes
been
characterized,
"
certain half contemptuous implication,
as
with the body." The characterization is a good
with
is unwarranted.
implication
of the balance
accurate
finished
of the
conduct
It is perfectly
true,as
experimentpointout, that,for
productswould
operationsof
of such
an
of
raw
bookkeeping
but
one
critics
some
example,the most
materials
outgo of
and
enterprise
requiresas
intimate
of the more
of some
For a summary
important of these methods
Dakin, Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body, Chapter III.
1
the
knowlcompare
THE
edge
and
BALANCE
NUTRITION
OF
243
its action.
even
fairlybe presumed, however, that these critics,
of
such a
fullest knowledge of the technical details
it as
conduct
business
to
a
factory,would hardly undertake
of the stock purchased and
enterprisewithout keeping account
the output realized,
i.e.,
exactly the sort of bookkeeping which
the balance experiment attempts for the animal
body. The
truth is that both types of investigation
are
equally necessary
of the other.
The balance
and each aids in the interpretation
experiment has been especiallyprominent in the past, while at
vestiga
to inpresent attention is being directed to a greater extent
of the intermediary metabolism, but neither can
It may
with the
The
331.
"
"
the other
to
say
balance
I have
no
experiment
alreadyindicated,the
As
need
of thee."
in
methods
agriculturalinvestigations.
of the balance
experiment
in
agriculturalinvestigations.
quite largelyapplied
have been made, in the majority of cases,
Such investigations
with single chemical
not
compounds, but with feeding stuffs
in such an
rations as a whole, and the effect observed
periment
exor
is obviously a summation
of the effects of all the
The
fore,
ingredientscontained in the feed consumed.
result,therethe total nutritive
while entirelyadequate to determine
material experimented with is less capable
effect of the particular
obtained
of generalizationthan
with a single chemical
one
compound like starch or fat,and from this point of view may
be regarded as being in a sense
even
empirical. A comprehensive
plies,
knowledge of the nutritive value of a feeding stuff imof the kinds and amounts
of chemical
a determination
first,
compounds contained in it and, second, a determination of the
exact
physiologicalfunctions of each. Obviously, however,
such a complete determination
of the nutritive value of any
of feeding stuffs is a work requiringa vast
considerable number
for
therefore,
expenditureof time and labor. One justification,
the
ance
of determiningsummarily by a balmethod
short-cut
experiment the effect of a feeding stuff or ration is that it
have
been
"
"
appears
data
possibleto
which
secure
in this way
be put to
feedingstuffs and rations.
can
within
practicaluse
Moreover,
in the
it is to
reasonable
time
comparison of
be anticipated
OF
NUTRITION
244
the conclusions
that
drawn
from
the
even
The
of
value
is far
feeding,however,
of
determination
although
the
from
logical
physioand
firmed
con-
experiment.
being
nutritive
of
stock
to
the
to
values
summary
feeding stuffs,
in that field.
III, the
in Part
relation
limited
service
important
material
checked
experiment in
total
rendered
it has
will become
As
balance
the
be
finallyto
of the balance
the methods
of any
chemical
and
elaborate
most
will need
investigations
by
ANIMALS
to
as
FARM
feed
requirements
for animals for various purposes,
well as the generalphysioas
logical
of maintenance, growth,
laws governing the processes
milk production,the performance of work, etc., can
fattening,
be successfully
the aid of balance
studied only with
ments,
experiapparent
experiments are of
general scientific value independent of the particularfeeding
stuff used.
A strikingillustration of the importance of such
tained
is afforded
farm animals
on
investigations
by the results oband
the
results
and
Zuntz
by
energy
(365-370). The
of the feed
these animals
and
man
or
of the
marked
have
investigations
yielded important
physiology.
332.
should
Comparison
with
be
that
observed
based
do
energy
so-called
not
on
regards the
work
of
the
methods
determination
lation
assimibetween
to
make
"
digestion
subjects and
thus
contributions
to
the
parative
com-
Finally, it
feeding experiments
of exact
of the
garding
re-
character
served
have
"
practical experiments.
"
differences
as
lattei
others
digestionand
of the so-called
the
and
Kellner
in the
carnivora
inconspicuous in
were
such
digestiveprocesses
factors
certain
prominent
which
and
in
associates,
by
expenditureof
the
of the feed
his
obtained
balance
"
and
of matter
from
logicalbasis
those
of
"
ure
practical experiments. In both cases, the measof the nutritive value of a feeding stuff,of the influence of
of the animal
as
a food
changed conditions,or of the efficiency
producer,is
the
in the
accuracy
determined.
The
as
measure
effect upon
the animal.
and
degree of detail with
reasons
of nutritive
(281-283),while
the
by changes in
weight of
effect is
the live
weight
than
more
the
considered
50
to measure
animal
lies
that
already been
effect have
difference
which
inadequacy of
experience of
demonstrated
sufficiently
effects
for the
The
or
by
has
years
nutritive
the gross
BALANCE
THE
yielded
product
each
other
or
Only
or
upon
the
fails
which
the
to
practice
laborious
of
those
of
give
permit
refinements
reveal
to
OF
stock
results
of
the
methods
NUTRITION
which
245
are
formulation
of
the
of
investigation
fundamental
laws
depends.
upon
with
general
balance
physiological
feeding
consistent
ciples.
prin-
experiment
can
which
be
the
relied
cessful
suc-
VII
CHAPTER
Significance.
333.
of feed
and
for
is liberated
energy
(201, 207)
animal
in
study
the
of
demands
fasting
opportunity
an
vital
digestion and
of
The
protoplasm.
pairment
im-
or
to
complicated
un-
processes
resorption
or
by
the
A
of energy
and
matter
important
an
of the
Fat.
is
fact
It
"
is
is
the
familiar
of
equally
active
and
familiar.
fail
lives
from
in which
the
as
well
nature
exact
material.
The
fasting
to
feed
nents
compo-
for the
or
perform
analysis of the
by the
of the
this
fed
insufficiently
mal
ani-
outgo
These
fully
been
firmed
con-
of well-fed
of balance
from
Obviously,
of fat.
reserve
carcasses
results
fore
be-
emaciation
have
observation
as
of
converse
extreme
its
body
the
that
their functions.
upon
is the
formation
and
The
stage of
largely
common
by comparative
animals
fuel
reach
may
tissues
of fasted
fat
that
conception
reserve
fasting animal
conclusions
of
supply
principal
yield energy
fat, and
loses
the
All
"
katabolized
be
may
of
store
obviously
fasting organism.
method
body's
fat
katabolized.
body
of the
support
ascertaining the
is
purposes.
Substances
334.
the
by
towards
step
for various
necessary
the
the
fundamental
the
by the functions
of
which
of material
lack
by
state
of
integrity
the
water
by
processes
the
at
ultimately halted
are
of
metabolic
time
If sufficient
itself.
body
for
absence
the
continue
may
they
course,
of the
in the
that
supported
be
can
supplied, those
be
oxygen
fact
familiar
animal
materials
of the
expense
It is
"
life of the
the
KATABOLISM
FASTING
THE
the
and
experiments
body
been
has
determined.
Carbohydrates.
or
less
"
In
non-nitrogenous
addition
matter
to
fat
in the
249
the
body
form
of
contains
glycogen
more
in
the
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
25"
this
days of fasting,
is indicated by
as
store of carbohydratesis also drawn
upon,
the fact that the respiratoryquotient tends to approach unity,
becomes
of glycogen katabolized
while later the amount
very
the
During
muscles.
liver and
first few
small.
Protein.
Balance
"
that
conclusion
the
chieflyof
is also
fat
togetherwith
continual
show
carbohydrates,
of body proteinand
some
katabolism
sponding
corre-
the
urinary nitrogen. While
energy
expended by the fasting animal is derived chieflyfrom the
of non-nitrogenous material, the functional
breaking down
of a
the katabolism
activities of the body necessarilyinvolve
of
excretion
minimum
certain
of
amount
protein.
"
fastinganimal.
The foregoingfacts
well illustrated
are
Table
The
29.
results of a
average
fasted for from
two
to
No.
Omitting
one
"
follows
Average
of Inanition
Influence
Publication
as
were
77
number
seven
Katabolism
of
Fasting
in which
small
of
secutive
con-
Carnegie Institution
Men
of
(1907),pp. 456-464.
case
tigations
inves-
"
Metabolism
on
Benedict's
The
inanition.
upon
experiments in which men
days
by
gain of glycogen
was
observed.
Washington,
"
of the
functions
structural
Fasting
in
normally small.
katabolism
Protein
335.
251
Katabolism
Protein
The
i.
KATABOLISM
FASTING
THE
In
"
view
is of
proteins(264), it
of the
portance
im-
some
ment
inquirewhat proportion of the total energy requireis suppliedby these substances.
This aspect of the subject has been considered especially
by
to
E.
has
Voit,1 who
compiled and
the results of
discussed
siderable
con-
of
experiments upon fasting. While some
based on estimates,they are
his computations are
sufficiently
features of the fasting
the main
to outline definitely
accurate
katabolism.
They show that in what may be spoken of as the
normal
fastinganimal, in which the influence of the previous
feeding has disappearedand in which, on the other hand, the
has not been exhausted, the proteinkatabolism
fat reserve
plies
suptotal
of
the
small
transformed,
a rather
proportion
energy
in
the
the percentage with dogs, e.g., ranging
majorityof cases
of
number
between
and
10
17.
It is not
variable.
true,
Fasting protein katabolism
been looselystated on the basis of
however, as has sometimes
336.
"
C. Voit's
fastinganimal
tends
its amount
to
of
of
diminish
an
Benedict's
in
the total
urinarynitrogen upon
was
Table
30.
one
adequate
short time.
of
amount
of
On
body fat,
the progress
of
"
"
Katabolism
Protein
the
fasting. For
fastingexperiments (Table 29),
the several days of the experiment
with
example,
protein katabolism
within
constant
the
Ztschr. Biol.,41
of
Fasting
(1901),167.
Man
"
Benedict
NUTRITION
252
Influence
337.
likewise showed
olism in
of
FARM
OF
body
ANIMALS
compilation (335)
protein to total katabindividuals,
considerablyas between
fat.
"
E.
Voit's
fastingmay
vary
the relative amount
of fat contained
in the body.
depending
available as fuel,the amount
of
So long as body fat is readily
small,but if the animal is
proteinkatabolized remains relatively
of fat becomes
much
deficient in fat,or if its content
originally
reduced
more
proteinis katabolized to make up
during fasting,
on
for the
deficiency.
store
of fat in the
runs
use
more
of the
protein of
its tissues
as
source
limit.
Table
If the
31.
"
animal
Fasting
was
Protein
Katabolism
of
Fat,
Animals
Ztschr.
Medium
and
Thin
338.
Influence
KATABOLISM
FASTING
THE
253
of
"
The
classic
upon
that
vary
consumed.
of proteinpreviously
whatever
same
well illustrated
by the
32.
"
Protein
initial ration.
the
following results,all
fully confirmed by
Katabolism
of
Fasting
behavior
This
the
upon
"
same
sequent
sub-
numerous
Dog
is
Voit
Ztschr.
Computed
from
Voit's figuresfor
urea.
Table
33.
Total
"
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
254
ANIMALS
Katabolism
Fasting
oe
Dog
Protein
Urinary
Nitrogen
Fat
Grams
Second
day
Fifth day
Eighth day
Katabolism
Per
Total
Cent
of
Katabolism
Katabo-
lized
in
Grams
1.6
86
26.2
5-7
103
12.7
4-7
99
11.
of what
takes place in
Obviously, we have here the reverse
of fat for
the later days of fasting,viz.,a gradual substitution
the
proteinas
readilyavailable supply of
is reduced.
Doubtless
be
marked
stillmore
katabolism
339.
was
the
effect
equivalentto
Physiological
would
on
minimum
28.1
of
have
been
when
fasting,
of
grams
body
found
to
the protein
nitrogen.
The
protein.
"
facts
corded
re-
in the
rise to twice
may
this amount
cent
from
on
of the
energy
metabolized
energy,
be called
are
at
latter
normal
The
amount
energy,
normal
amounts
katabolized
in what
of the
condition
average
all the vital
least sufficient to maintain
a
proceeding
or
for
considerable
time
in
may
animal
fasting
functions,the
substantially
manner.
protein katabolism
being so dependent on the
of
non-nitrogenous material available as a source
question naturallyarises whether by supplyingan
level of
of
the
256
be
NUTRITION
the
synthesizedby
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
fore,
very well be, therein the
protein katabolism
might
It
organism.
unavoidable
for certain
nitrogenousfeed is due to such a demand
acids or other groupings,and only in part or not at all
amino
of cell proteinsas a condition
of
to a necessary
breaking down
protoplasmic activity.Moreover, it is quite conceivable that
absence
both
of these views
be
may
true
; that
part of the
minimum
destruction
of cell
protein katabolism
represents a necessary
protoplasm in the performance of its functions,while the other
down
for the sake of securing
part represents protein broken
certain constituents
for specific
purposes.
There
will be occasion
these possibilities
further
to consider
in discussing
the proteinrequirement for maintenance
(398).
" 2.
341.
feed
Internal
and
variety
the
Of
Energy
work.
doing
former,
342.
the
is still
(632),while
various glandsare
existence
in the term
Measure
of
fastinganimal,
in the
mechanical
the
all the
in
are
undergo
may
s
ince
it
does
work
no
ultimately,
furnishes
or
of what
343.
recorded
in
measure
is often
Relative
in
"
and
fasting,
form
of internal
of heat.
The
determination
in
of the
expended
constancy
of energy
regardingthe
the way
nature
in which
dicated
in-
chemical
surroundings of
fastinganimal
energy
called the basal
work
In
energy
transformations,but
A
a
"
of
performed by means
the fats,carbohydrates
the
upon
work.
internal
forms
numerous
the
These
work.
previous paragraph
animal, it assumes
heat produced by
excretory
performance is essential
animal, may be conveniently
various
utilized
maintenance
due
of
work
muscular
secretory and
expended
energy
chemical.
and
the
great
of the
internal
receivingno
carrying on
most
whose
bodily activities,
summarized
animal
an
prominent is the
respiration,together with
the continued
to
work
Fasting
in
of
body
tonus
activities of the
various
The
"
both
activities,
the
and
muscular
Katabolism
external
no
of internal
circulation
of
The
state
the
of the
of rest, therefore,
internal
in
work,
metabolism.
katabolism.
"
of the material
The
results
katabolized
mutually replaceeach
may
one
other is
the
or
KATABOLISM
FASTING
THE
other
fuel material
as
available,render
most
according as
it evident
of the
in the katabolism
controllingfactor
257
that the
fastingbody is the
demand
can
constant
relatively
in the
That
number
individual under
same
has been
maintained
to
day
for the
more
seems
or
from
derived
The
constant.
requiresapproximatelythe
like conditions.
demonstrated
be
by a large
mathematically invariable,
case
of
conditions
and
same
quantityof
tends
of energy,
experimental
fasting organism
the
from
energy
day
of its necessary
internal work, but
less indifferent as
this energy
is
to whether
performance
the katabolism
of
fats,carbohydratesor proteins.
Table
34.
"
Energy
Katabolism
Live
Weight
Second
day
Fifth day
Eighth day
The
katabolism
likewise
344.
Fasting
Energy
Energy
from
from
Protein
Fat
proteinkatabolism
of Benedict's
Dog
Total
Energy
Cals.
Cals.
Cals.
32.87
31.67
289.3
816.9
1106.2
142.2
978.5
1120.7
33-66
35-38
3Q-54
117.
942.4
1059.6
34-70
have
been
fastingmen
results
fasting
as
gards
re-
(337)and
(334).
Cals.
of the
alreadyconsidered
investigations
upon
"
Total
Energy
Kg.
per
Live
Weight
Kgs.
same
the
of
of
a
tenance
main-
state
of
258
NUTRITION
complete rest
and
activities
evidentlyreduced
with
are
animal
an
of life.
continuance
the
is
external
moderate
at
performed at
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
the
to
the
minimum
Since
the
internal
of the
expense
compatible
work
of such
chemical
energy-
stored
is to be maintained.
of the
total katabolism
The
constant
relatively
fastinganimal, as expressed in
its heat
of the amount
of energy
production, is therefore the measure
vital activities of
expended in carrying on the fundamental
of the minimum
the body, and consequently
quantitywhich must
suppliedin
be
" 3.
Affecting
Conditions
Size
345.
and
matter
animal.
of
ration.
maintenance
produce
That
"
heat
more
Fasting
the
Katabolism
largeanimals
than
smaller
katabolize
ones,
and
more
therefore
periment
maintenance, needs no specialproof. Exshows, however, that the difference is not proportional
to size or
weight, but that small animals have a more
than
intense katabolism
large ones, its amount
being approximately
the
of
to
proportional
body surface,which,
course, is
relatively
greater in the smaller animal.
feed for
requiremore
The
relation
body surface
(citedby Rubner)
by Bergmann
2
Rubner
but
of the
to
seems
to
have
made
question,determining
the
fastingkatabolism
of six
dogs whose
kilograms.
the fasting
While not mathematically constant, the ratio between
and surface showed
katabolism
a close approximation to uniformity,
number
of investigat
and the same
fact has been verified by a considerable
cepted.
exceptions, and is now
generallyacalthough with some
Moreover, it has been shown 3 to be approximately true not
only of animals of the same
speciesbut of animals ranging in size
weights ranged
from
to
man
346.
is
Ann.
3E.
3 to
domestic
Computation
familiar
from
24
fowls
of
and
katabolism
surfaces
per
unit
of
of solids of the
2
Ztschr.
animals.
surface.
same
"
It
shape,
Biol.,19 (1883),535.
of those which
i.e.,
material
the
that
error
it
slightly,
varies but
be
may
of animals
surfaces
body
tional
propor-
Since
their volumes.
of
powers
specificgravity of animals
without
259
similar figures,
are
geometrically
are
two-thirds
the
to
KATABOLISM
FASTING
THE
the
said
of the
which
The
of
value
the
factor
shape.
same
kWl
horse
the
for
constant
Moulton
Trowbridge,
is 9.02.
Hecker
of the
is constant
k is
centimeters, and
in square
surface
the
grams,
as
reportedby
Haigh
and
termined
de-
have
cattle of
for 35 Hereford-Shorthorn
of fatness,
various ages from birth up and in various conditions
using the empty weight as a basis. Dividing the animals into
the
they found
groups
Table
Animals
animals
two
Values
"
of
"
Cattle
Beef
for
'
.
9.92
condition
old
18 months
years
values
followingaverage
in medium
animals
Fat
Fat
35.
thin animals
and
Young
of
value
the
old
or
or
9.41
less
8.57
7.65
more
to
these
"
Table
36.
the
aid
Live
92~94
Weight
per cent
91
89-90
87-89
foregoing factors
of the
cattle,and
reasonable
be
accuracy.
perhaps of
computed
It is
other
types,
unit
per
total katabolism
the
of
as
determined
body surface
Ztschr.
live
by
with
of
cattle
experiment may
be
Percentage
cattle
Thin
upon
as
cattle
Fat
Medium
of beef
Weight
cattle
Show
With
Empty
"
speciesof
2
farm
Mo.
also
No
animals.
Bui.
18.
260
NUTRITION
The
be the
variation
shown
has
for k
cattle is somewhat
more
the two-thirds
to
five-ninths
values
347.
gives the
of
Computation
desirable
is often
weights
be made
the
been
and
the katabolism
surface
determinations
of
none
of
the
of different
to
some
rather
the
than
body
with
of
dently
evi-
body
surface
of
exception of
farm animals, so that it is
on
the
the
katabolism
of the
of
comparison
type, however,
species and
same
results
It
"
comparisons should
in many
to express
cases
impracticable
latter per unit of surface.
For purposes
individuals
weight.
of animals
experimental
weight. Such
basis of body
cattle
corresponding
standard
to
made, howTever,and
of beef
the
13.40.
katabolism
compute
actual
and
the horse
to
on
Few
have
animals
closest agreement,
compare
standard
convenient
weight.
to
or
the
by making
weight,while
11.86
being respectively
of k
eliminated
basis of
of the empty
power
power
if this be
likewise
He
observed.
in the
that
weight the
gives results
fat-free empty
10.34
ANIMALS
principalcause
to
appears
and Moulton
FARM
OF
between
least
at
of their
result to
other
to
between
the surfaces
and
1000*:
1283%
would
therefore
this way
have
is often
weight
of
pounds,
katabolism
in proportion
1000
For
weights.
matter
pounds.
1000
thingsbeingequal,would
to
of the two
its smaller
animals
the
fastingkatabolism
be
8671
it is easy
to
individuals
Cals.
the
compute
without
the
be
steer
have
surface.
would
to
pute
com-
ing
weighsmaller
ratio
The
approximately
of the smaller
(f!nrf)!7345
=
relative katabolism
animal
Cals.
In
ferent
of dif-
necessity of expressingit
per
unit of surface.
Of course,
as
particular,
not
of the
same
such
24
(1916),299.
FASTING
THE
tion from
the older
beef
and
steer
similar.
e.g.,
are
and
thin
and
one
the
being geometrically
of the
species,types
be of much
the
far from
determinations
in different
would
of
dairy cow,
Additional
weight
to
and
one
261
KATABOLISM
relation
ages
of
surface
of domestic
mals
ani-
the method
to give
probably be assumed
and is certainlymore
accurate
a
than a simple computation in proportion to weight.
Muscular
348.
activity. As was implied in the introductory
in greater detail
section of Chapter VI (274),and as will appear
in Chapter XIV, muscular
work is done at the expense of energy
derived from the katabolism
of body substance, and
other
no
The
singlefactor so largelyinfluences the total katabolism.
may
fair approximationto the truth
"
minimum
which
fastingkatabolism
life processes
is
indispensable
the
complete muscular
when
animal, even
more
or
rest.
at
rest
of
only in a state of
It is rarelythe case, however, that an
in the ordinary sense, does not
tain
main-
less muscular
exhibited
tension
or
execute
more
or
less
tions
mo-
of various
when
parts of the body, all of which, even
penditure
apparently slight,involve in the aggregate considerable exof energy.
Zuntz
and
Hagemann,1
in which
horse
a
upon
flies in the
in the
chamber
for
example, report
the uneasiness
of the
metabolism.
caused
experiment
respiration
of a few
the
by
presence
a
caused
apparatus
2
found
an
increase
the
of
10
excretion
per
of
hourly
Johansson
when
man
fasting
simply lying in bed (awake)
by
to be 24.94 grams
as
compared with 20.72 grams when all the muscles
relaxed as possible. Benedict
and Carpenter 3 have
as perfectly
were
of men
during sleepwith that of the same
compared the metabolism
subjectslyingquietlyin bed immediately after waking. In the three
which
cases
they regard as strictly
comparable the increase in the
heat production during the waking period ranged from
5.8 to 15.2
Benedict
and Talbot,4in experiments
per cent, averaging11. 4 per cent.
muscular
f
ound
that
noticeable
even
infants,
activity
scarcely
upon
marked
effect
the
dioxid
carbon
on
produced a most
excretion,and
Benedict
and Pratt 5 have noted
similar results with dogs.
cent
dioxid
carbon
1
2
3
4
Landw.
Jahrb., 23 (1894),161.
Skand.
Arch. Physiol.,8 (1898), 85.
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication
Amer.
Jour. Diseases of Children, 4 (1912), 129.
Jour. Biol. Chem., 15 (1913), 1.
No.
126
(1910),p.
241.
262
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
have
such
movements
a
comparatively insignificant
strikingeffect upon the total katabolism, it is evident that the
be an
of muscular
amount
activitymust
important factor in
determining the relative energy requirements of two animals
katabolism
in a state of absolute
even
though their minimum
be identical.
In experiments of any
considerable
rest may
duration
normal
or
on
animals, it is impossible to avoid more
in this incidental muscular
less expenditureof energy
work,
Since
periodsof
349.
is
the
to make
difficulty
experimentcomparable in this respect.
it is often
while
an
and
Standing
the
Considerable
lying.
"
the
requiredduring
position of
of
matter
hours
waking
members
different
to
of
muscular
maintain
the
different
exertion
the
relative
This
body.
is
pecially
es-
or
an
standing. It has been shown that a man
carbon
when
dioxid
animal
notably more
standing excretes
than when
restingor lyingdown and produces correspondingly
true
observed
of
Differences
heat.
more
of
in
and
man
much
as
of 30 to 40
as
25
per
have
cent
been
It
per cent, in cattle.
lies down
for twelve hours
or
more
for actual
350.
than
maintenance
External
the latter.
temperature.
"
Farm
animals
belong to
that
nearly constant
ture
tempera-
surroundings. The
heat
is being continuallygeneratedby the
animal
so-called
katabolism
going on in the body, while on the other hand the
animal
is continuallyimpartingheat to its surroundings in four
principal
tion
ways : viz.,by conduction, by radiation,by evaporawhich
"
"
of water, and
Since
the
is higherthan
as
the animal
maintenance
the existence
of
some
the sensible
heat
of the excreta.
ally,
producing and losingheat continuof a constant
body temperature implies
of which
regulativemechanism
by means
is both
the
264
NUTRITION
of the
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
be effected
can
entirelyclosed,nothing more
toward
in this manner
maintaining its temperature, and if the
weather
continues
be
to grow
must
colder,the fire in the room
increased.
Similarly,if the external cooling effect upon the
animal
becomes
the limits of physical adjustment,
to exceed
so great as
fuel material
is katabolized,that is,more
heat
more
of maintaining the body temperature
is produced. This method
is commonly called chemical
regulation.
are
room
Mechanism
353.
of
chemical
The
regulation.
"
chemical
other
to
Above
animals.
be
the
in
slightincrease
risingtemperature, probably due
to
appears
in the various
354.
Critical temperature.
Above
of
temperature
for
50 C.
3o"-35",and
; for the
about
and
of Von
man
for
the
der Heide
varied
production with
additional
energy
pended
ex-
physicalregulation.
or
temperature
begins to
be
at
which
the
supplemented
the
regulationis
productionis
there
been
this temperature
is varied to meet
body surface
it,this method
the heat
to
heat
the
The
"
physicalregulationgives way
by the chemical regulationhas
the
to
of
processes
critical temperature,
to
the
meet
need.
The
critical
wearing ordinaryclothingappears to be
dog it is about 200 C, for the guinea pig
hog, accordingto the results of Tangl 2
and Klein,3about 2o"-23"C.
tate
Any conditions tendingto facilithe escape of heat from the body will obviously act like a fall of
Wind, for example, by removing the layerof partially
temperature.
warmed
air next
heat more
to remove
to the skin, tends
rapidlyfrom
the body, so that the cold is felt more
severelyon a windy day, while,
is modified
the other hand, the effect of a high temperature
on
by
wind.
A high percentage humidity of the air on a warm
day hinders
355.
Other
the removal
than
that
2
The
term
of heat
dry
heat.
refers,of
of the animal
Biochem.
thermal
conditions.
"
by evaporation, so that a
Cold moist air,on
the
course,
to
the
moist
other
heat
is
more
ing
tryfacilitates
hand,
itself.
Ibid.,55 (1913),195.
not
to
FASTING
THE
of heat
the escape
clothing,hair
of the
a
dry
The
cold.
direct
thermal
that
cold is
damp
of the
rays
sun
more
impart
may
than
severe
a
considerable
peratures
temmoderating
those
of
hand, increasing
and, on
high temperatures.
of
should
critical
be strictly
one
a
then,
speak
accurate,
body,
the
To
fur,so
or
to the
of heat
amount
the
from
265
KATABOLISM
thus
other
of the
environment
animal
than
rather
simply
of
critical
temperature.
Influence
356.
is apparent from
the
katabolism of the fastinganimal
katabolism.
on
It
"
increased
an
for
production,
; that
should
is,we
fact that
external
the katabolism
have
life without
the
the
case
verse
con-
the
productionof
heat
it either remains
unchanged
determined
by
is not
temperature
would
was
be reduced
katabolism,which
in terms.
minimum
extent
the
that
is a contradiction
The
were
animal
finally,when
equivalentto that of the body,
to zero
if this
in the
arlso be
temperature would
so
katabolism
or
animal
that above
increases
the needs
an
reaches
that
shows
slightly
of the
point
that its
organism for
heat
the form
which
the chemical
energy
of the katabolized
material
takes after it has served its purposes in the vital processes, and
the nearly constant
heat production above
the critical temperature
is
simply
requiredfor
constant
and
temperature.
of.
due
to
Heat
of the
be reduced
is
Incidentally,in warm-blooded
maintain
the
body temperature
of the vital
quantityof energy
body is approximately
the
animals, it
necessary
serves
also
to
formance
per-
266
described.
already
lation
sinks
therefore,
energy
requirement.
body
within
At
low
it
as
actual
is
of
the
animal
body
At
the
the
heat
stimulate
very
overcome
to
low
high
rises.
perature
tem-
processes
below
only
this
the
influence
The
of
regulation
"
foregoing
is
paragraph
temperatures
possible
heat.
and
which
which
case
of
about
the
as
fall.
to
An
the
sity
inten-
cold-blooded
fall
further
heat
in
production,
cold.
from
reverse
the
heat
reduces
diminishes
process
are
however,
therefore
is
begins
bringing
rise,
regulation
produce
to
the
in
regulation
slight
very
and
does
perishes
physical
unable
however,
further
temperatures
circle"
it
the
chemical
of
temperature
sinks,
speedily
is
body
as
again
of
possibilities
temperature,
production
katabolism
"vicious
the
exactly
possibilities
by
and
temperature
animal
the
body
which
the
the
animal
temperature
external
katabolic
produced,
the
the
and
katabolism
very
When
rise
of
temperature
that
the
temperature.
in
that
so
abstracted
the
of
temperatures
lowering
that
the
limits.
exhausted,
be
may
when
external
described
certain
very
the
is
ANIMALS
only
point
extremes
temperature
only
fast
more
of
Effects
is
heat
does
point,
357.
this
and
FARM
It
below
stimulated
are
so
OF
NUTRITION
the
speedily
has
leads
production,
that
to
the
body
shown
been
of
place.
the
exhausted,
heat
converse
take
may
to
giving
occurring
animal
at
being
CHAPTER
MAINTENANCE
materials
him
by
But
for human
the
REQUIREMENTS
"
Feed
is
they
may
yield products
food
and
clothingor
performance
much
ENERGY
of maintenance.
that
either
animals
THE
"
Definition
358.
VIII
of mechanical
that
supplied to farm
useful
they
to
may
man
as
serve
work.
first be
as
factory must
animal
ration
receivingpreciselya maintenance
reveal an
would
exact
and outgo of
equalitybetween income
ash, nitrogen,carbon, hydrogen and energy, showing that the
body was neither gaining nor losingprotein,fat,carbohydrates
an
mineral
elements.
this
From
of
view, maintenance
of labile equilibrium between
as
a state
might be characterized
of metabolism
the anabolic and katabolic processes
(203).
nor
The
word
example, by
signifythe
means
total
horse in order
the idea
is sometimes
maintenance
to
sense
normal
to
minimum
used
of
amount
perform his
growth.
the
point
sense,
requiredsimply
other
popularlyin anfeed required,for
dailywork or by a
It is important to grasp
the
to
maintenance
maintain
ration
life. The
calf
267
268
NUTRITION
done
growth
or
the
running,
to
made.
To
while
the
the finished
out
Significance of
might
to
first
at
seem
the
to
recur
additional
ANIMALS
FARM
ration
maintenance
turn
359.
It
OF
keeps
feed
the
machinery
empty
furnishes
the
sary
neces-
power
product.
maintenance
thought
of
determination
that
the
ration
not
much
in
practice.
"
importance
maintenance
ration.
taches
at-
The
return
kept on such a ration yieldsno direct economic
and hence
simple maintenance
feedingis to be avoided, so far
while if it appears
desirable to practiceit the observatio
as
possible,
of the skilled stockman, especially
if supplemented
by occasional weighings,will usuallysuffice to determine whether
the end is being attained.
not
or
Nevertheless,the subjecthas
both for practiceand for science.
much
significance
fraction of the feed actually consumed
A very considerable
the average
on
by farm animals
probably fully one-half
animal
"
"
requiredsimply for
feed bill is expended
is
for
its
maintenance.
But
for
maintenance, it is clearlyimportant
how
him
to know
something of the laws of maintenance,
different animals, how
requirements vary as between
they
"
affected
are
how
different
etc.,
"
as
by
the
conditions
under
which
animals
are
kept,
feeding stuffs
well
as
to
or
work
from
the
other
half of his
feed.
360.
Bearing
on
interpretation of
feeding
experiments.
"
the
while
MAINTENANCE
that in
REQUIREMENTS
ENERGY
-THE
of
fatteningexperiment the quantities
rations consumed
and
gainsmade
the
were
First
Daily
Ration
21.0
i.olb.
gain
:-
Second
18.0 lb.
Feedeaten
different
two
follows
as
269
Ration
lb.
1.5 lb-
or
animal, a
the
comparisonis obtained,viz.
different
very
Second
Fikst
Ration
Ration
Lb.
Lb.
Feedeaten
Expended in maintenance
"
pound
have
been
the
second
to
the
was
to
of
more
has
in
to
principle
applies
recentlybeen shown in a
experiments upon dairy
for
Mo.
of
and
the side
obtained,not with
all
very
any
more
than
efficiently
Clearly,a
maintenance.
advantage :
be added
that
feeding as
productive
strikingmanner
cows.
the
of
cases
on
show
by Eckles
knowledge of
logical
interpretation
-
""j;""
tr"
to
Corresponding
to
not
Requirements
on
different animals
the maintenance
361.
6.0
two
kind of
same
6.0
been
with
but
i'"
have
the economic
simply demonstrates
largerconsumption of feed. It scarcelyneed
the
I2
"
is thus shown
but
the first,
a
I20
does
feed,the experiment
assimilatedhis feed
animal digested
or
same
2I-0
any
supposedto
different rations
pound
economic advantage
due
not
be
rations per
two
The
same.
oregoingresults
two
of gain
simply
18.0
"""""""
Surplusfeed per
The
Bui. No.
2.
requirements of
the animal
rations
purpose
view:
for that
and
the values
be
may
ANIMALS
of
considered
feedingstuffs
from
and
points of
two
"
First,we
the
feeds and
may
Second,
of each
due
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
270
ask what
may
be suppliedin the feed
we
continual
the
which
to be considered
need
to
of
katabolism
rather
the proteins,
or
particularly
and
them, and the ash ingredients
mines
port
supvarious
must
to
to
necessary
of it the
make
the
good
losses
substances.
body
acids
the amino
perhaps the
composing
so-called
vita-
body
other
of
is
It
parently
ap-
manufacturing
possessinglargepowers
from
those
suppliedin ordinaryfeeding stuffs.
ingredients
these two
It will be convenient
to consider
generalclasses of
maintenance
requirements in the order named, the present
chapter dealingwith the energy requirements.
362.
Mutual
replacement
cussion$in Chapter V,
of
organic
of the functions
nutrients.
of the
sary
neces-
The
"
dis-
principalgroups
that such
Fats
is indeed
fed
the loss of
to
the
case.
diminish
previouslyfastinganimal
a
similar
result.
As
has
suspend
be substituted
or
for
shown
alreadybeen
On
the
other
hand,
an
excess
of feed
the
protein above
by
requirementcan be replacedby fats or particularly
and likewise by organicacids.
carbohydrates,
minimum
the
In
of
brief,the
animal
organism manifests
of the
as
regards the nature
flexibility
remarkable
material
degree
which
the small
utilize for its energy
Aside
from
metabolism.
of protein required,
activities of the
the metabolic
it
can
imum
min-
body
OF
NUTRITION
272
olizable
of the
energy
determined
in the manner
were
follows
as
Table
37.
and
hay
ANIMALS
the
illustrated
Net
of
Hay
Period
LIZABLE
Eaten
Energy
Pro-
Gain
duced
Energy
of Period
of the
this amount
animal
9812
6.17
5768
8064
-2296
4.04
3776
1748
2028
433
502
2028
hay, therefore,computed
in
dog
exactlyas
that
to
energy
The
in
of the
energy
steer.
Only
268
hay
502
could
Cals.
were
no
be
means
energy
from
the
effect of the
supposed
2028
added
-s- 4.04
hay
case
of
502
contained
=
utilized
used
the insufficient
net
the
of 935
the amount
Clearly,therefore,
by
matter.
Cals.
is,they contributed
the
per
metabolizable
to
loss of
Cals.
by the
place
the
Cals. ;
its maintenance.
by
towards
9544
diminished
III
of
Cals.
added
hay (water-free),
of
Hay
of
matter
pounds
4.04
ration
dry
Heat
935
The
Timothy
of
Cals.
hay
the
Value
Metabo-
10.21
Difference
body
in
of
Pounds
Energy
ter
Mat-
Dry
Period
heat
"
Determination
"
FARM
for
for
maintenance
this purpose,
in
from
the katabolism
of
previously derived
the fat and protein of the body, while the remaining 433 Cals.
in the body, but resulted simply in
indeed, metabolized
were,
The
increasingthe heat production by this amount.2
tion
proporof the metabolizable
which
available
of
this
was
hay
energy
for maintenance, then, was
The
going
fore502 -r 935 =53-7%result is typicalof a large number
have
of others which
reached
in experiments on
various
been
species of animals.
1
Since
of
energy
of course
fed, the gains were
negative,
chemical
lost from the body.
was
i.e.,
energy
2 Since
and
income
gains of energy
are
computed from the difference between
of the table necessarily agree with those of the
outgo, the figuresof the last column
facts.
two
preceding ones.
They simply present a different aspect of the same
submaintenance
rations
were
MAINTENANCE
Even
ora,
ENERGY
THE
"
REQUIREMENTS
273
case
metabolizable
energy.
Feed
365.
heat
increases
consumption
From
production.
"
different point
slightly
of
view,
the
is due.
of
example, Zuntz and Hageman,2 on the average of a number
experiments in which the respiratoryexchange of a horse shortly
hours
and some
before feedingin the morning, shortlyafter feeding,
of the Zuntz
form of the Pettenkofer
determined
later was
by means
gram
the followingresults,
computed per kiloapparatus (299),obtained
live weight per minute.
For
Table
38.
Heat
"
Production
by
Horse
Computed
Heat
Pro-
Oxygen
duction
Consumed
Cubic
Centimeters
Gram-calories
Fasting
3-339
16.929
after feeding
23 minutes
3^ hours after feeding
3.648
18.510
18.787
3-704
The
same
by Armsby
directlyby
1
means
Fries
in which
of the
the heat
with
cattle in
production
calorimeter.
respiration
Compare
2Landw.
3
and
invariablyobserved
pp.
was
Thus
ments
experimined
deterin
377_385-
an
to
the
in different
steer
same
Table
39.
periodsthe results
Production
Heat
"
of alfalfa
different amounts
three
experiment in which
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
274
by
as
were
Dry
of
hay
fed
were
follows
"
Steer
Heat
Matter
Feed
per
Day
duced
Proper
Day
Cals.
Period
11272
10388
Period 3
Period 5
7754
as
follows
Table
40.
Heat
"
Production
by
Ox
an
Dry
of
Heat
Matter
Feed
per
Day
duced
Proper
Day
Cals.
Period
1, Basal
Period 4, Same
I934I
24007
gluten
taught,in
"isodynamic replacement," that
For
of
ration
it was
years
many
the nutrients
with man,
of metabolizable
energy.
as
well
(367e),have
horses and
as
were
Rubner's
recent
of
true
there is in each
the metabolizable
Thus
was
the average
fed gave the
1
Landw.
Die
case
an
in
own
ones
is true
that what
cattle is also
with
of value
still more
shown
accordance
with
Rubner's
carnivora, and
theory
presumably
of the
nearlypure
Lusk
and
his
feedingstuffs
nutrients
associates
consumed
fed to
by
dogs, viz.,
is
Vers.
Gesetze
Stat.,53 (1900),130-131.
des Energieverbrauchs
1902.
MAINTENANCE
"
Table
41.
"
THE
ENERGY
Heat
Production
REQUIREMENTS
by
275
Dog
Daily
Heat
Production
gram
Kiloper
Live
Weight
Cals.
Fasting
5I-50
Fed
70.55
Proteins
are
The
366.
specificdynamic action.
"
The
Causes
367.
of feed
sets
manifested
not
a.
Mechanical
heat
can
production.
"
be
The
utilized for
tion
consump-
Work.
"
not
inconsiderable
amount
of
1
2
p. 105.
276
OF
NUTRITION
in cattle does
not
contribute
FARM
ANIMALS
heat
production consequent on
b. Glandular
required
activity. The increased metabolism
and
for
fluids
the
excretion of
for the secretion of the digestive
"
metabolic
productsis also to be
productionconsequent
reckoned
among
the
of
causes
the
ingestionof feed.
The
extensive
Fermentations.
fermentations,especially
c.
the methane
fermentation,occurring in the digestivetract of
evolution of
herbivora
(128-130, 132) result in a considerable
determinations
of its amount
heat.
No
entirelysatisfactory
*
but Von
der Heide, Klein and Zuntz
have yet been reported,
Markoff's
mentation
ferfrom
experiments that the methane
compute
of 4.374 Cals. of
in cattle gives rise to the evolution
heat per cubic centimeter of methane, equivalentto 6.07 Cals.
the heat
on
"
per gram.
d. Intermediary metabolism.
chemical
The
"
changes which
the
protein,but
of
of these reactions
Direct
e.
Lusk
and
apparently without
seeming
stimulus
to
be
Recent
"
the
upon
action, togetherwith earlier
have
gone
Lusk, the
far towards
most
substantiallyisothermic.
to metabolism.
his associates
sufficient warrant,
clearingup
by
investigations
the
cause
specificdynamic
experiments by Gigon,3
the
of
subject. According
to
(233), act
nitrogenous matter
acids
as
direct
stimuli
to
the
katabolism
of
non-
body cells.
mechanical
That
these actions play their part, along with
heat
work
and fermentations,in bringing about the increased
1
Landw.
in the
Jahrb.,44 (1913).
795-
MAINTENANCE
ENERGY
THE
"
REQUIREMENTS
277
productionresultingfrom
Fries
stimuli
as
acting specifically
muscular
the minor
to
these
that among
indicate
to
seem
the
be
may
pounds
com-
to
or
animal.
of the
movements
there
Among the
notably true of
"
"
"
"
"
and
render
it evident
mechanical
one,
part.
In
sense.
while with
that
similar difference is
subordinate
play a
369.
no
this
carnivora
it
are
all work
means
factor
is
in the
important
apparently plays a small
shown
strikingly
digestivefermentations,which
but
by
herbivora
and
man
it is
"
in the
extensive
very
an
case
of the
in ruminants
Significance of
of
expenditure
energy
in
feed
sumption.
con-
Whatever
is
fullyestablished
the consequent
fact which has
Recurring
with
has
an
to
once
internal
obtain
it is
level,
more
as
to
source
supply
evident
1
of energy.
the
combustion
its
an
heat
production
important bearing upon
augmented
of
(1915), 479.
diminishes
278
to
just that
can
deliver
other
in
same
delivered
forms
the
of
if the
as
at
FARM
ANIMALS
quantity of
the
extent
virtuallythe
as
OF
NUTRITION
which
energy
work,
that
so
the
of
content
energy
diminished
cylinderwere
the
effect
the
by
engine
is
gasoline
the
same
amount.
In
"
similar
precisely
"
of
work
digestion
of the
general purposes
energy,
part
at least is
be eaten
be hoisted.
The
bolizable energy
of energy
which
Net
which
(364),the
of
towards
The
the
the
or
its
cited
The
use.
was
net
By
waste
of
amount
net
external work
or
the
of balance
illustration in
result
value
pound
the meta-
experiments
a previousparagraph
the heat production
upon
of energy
which
it contributes
the body may
be determined.
the net
be
the
to
feedingstuff
energy
from
the
obtain
to
means
an
amount
to
the
be made
must
performanceof
as
maintenance
because
by
effect of
animal
an
said
the
serve
performance of the
to its maintenance)
body (i.e.,
the
"
used
steer
not
engine must
tutes
doing, however, consti-
so
contribute
can
values.
energy
be
for
gasoline
spent in
internal work
of
necessary
the
to such processes
or
as
fat.
or
storage of meat
370.
the
does
the so-called
energy
deduction
a
virtually
heat
It cannot
body.
expended
assimilated,
justas
and
expended in
of
of
dry
be
regardsenergy obtained
the hay in the illustration
as
energy might
minus
the work
of
Net
matter.
as metabolizable
defined,therefore,
digestion,the latter term, of course,
energy
in the
being understood
as
general sense
equivalent to the
already indicated
very
additional
heat production caused
by the consumption of
the feed.
Stated
in
feedingstuff
in the
energy
the processes
have been
deductions
One
various
excreta
incident
deducted
to
value of a
energy
losses of chemical
the
expended in
and
the
material
of these
its gross energy.
The amount
different feeding stuffs.
naturallyvaries as between
containingmuch
from
digestiblematter, readilymasticated
exertinglittle stimulatingeffect
on
the
metabolic
and
processes
280
"
2.
of
maintenance
preservationof
animal
an
the
in the
contained
pages, however,
the maintenance
of
store
body,
ANIMALS
and
of
much
live
weight
in the
strict
and
only a
ration
the
recorded
ration is derived
Animals
maintenance.
of
from
"
the
signifies
sense
potentialenergy
which
effects this is
in
appear
information
will
As
Farm
of
matter
ration.
maintenance
really a
and
maintenance
True
FARM
Requirements
Maintenance
The
372.
The
OF
NUTRITION
subsequent
regarding
in which
experiments
its effect in
sufficiencyof the ration was
In experiments on
maintaining the live weight of the animal.
considerable period of
and
animals
mature
a
extending over
is involved, especially
time, it is unlikelythat any gross error
of
if determinations
be
supply to
the
the
other
animals,the live
in experiments on young
especially
is a notoriously untrustworthy guide.
but in young
animals
for this are familiar,
and
factor
tendency
to
into
enters
of young
animals.
increase of tissue is
over
is
growth
consideration.
Waters
marked
so
the demand
for
rations
15
immature
cattle
just sufficient
to
impulse to
apparentlytake precedence
maintenance,
weight and continue
time
on
characteristics
this
that
it may
important
known, the
very
is well
marked
shown
that
maintain
its
even
may
of skeleton for a considerable
Some
has
and
to
that
an
increase
maintain
their
live weight.
animal
in size
ration.
sub-maintenance
were
hand,
weight
general reasons
another
As
of the most
one
The
protein
periods on
Under
these
Soc. Prom.
to
disappeared.
Agr. Sci.,Proc.
grow
In
in
other
29th Annual
words
Meeting
the
rations
(1908), p.
71.
were
MAINTENANCE
THE
"
ENERGY
281
REQUIREMENTS
rations.
It
reallybut only apparently maintenance
hardly correct to say that in these experiments growth
is
not
the
at
of the
of the
expense
would
case
fat of the
be
that
the
tissues.
increase
A
of
more
perhaps
was
tained
main-
exact
ment
state-
water
Methods
373.
The
"
of
obvious
most
for
method
less
be
and
other
requirement.
determining the
maintenance
of trial. It consists of
requirement of an animal is the method
of feed until constancy
of live weight is
varying the amount
tween
attained or until a balance experiment shows
equilibrium beThis method,
and outgo of matter
and energy.
income
considerable
if extended
over
a
length of time, is particularly
of the live weight maintenance.
adapted to the determination
When
tested by the more
refined method
of the balance
periment,
exdent
however, such a ration will only rarely and by accibe found
to
be
exactlya
correction
more
be
must
maintenance
true
less
or
ration.
ally
Usu-
applied.
comparison, like that used
in
of
A second
method
consists of
of the
Such
the
same
comparison
net
value
energy
determine
in the
feedingstuff
case
Table
the energy
cited were
42.
"
not
ration upon
the balance
of
only affords the means
of the feed
consumed
but
follows
Determination
of
Maintenance
Pounds
Period
of
hay
to
serves
The
results
Metabolizable
Energy
Cals.
Heat
Gain
of
Pro-
duced Energy
Cals.
Cals.
9544
9812
-268
6.17
5768
8064
-2296
4.04
3776
1748
2028
10.21
Difference
also
Requirement
Dry
computing
"
Matter
Hay
of
Eaten
Period
of energy.
or
935
433
502
282
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
of the
hay
The
permitteda
502 Cals.
the animal
loss from
loss to
would
Each
pound
from
the
of
dry matter
body by
zero
lb. and
0.53
would
have
=
an
exact
been
10.21
for maintenance
0.53
fashion
Cals.
ration
reduce
To
of 268
this
-r
502
regards energy
as
pounds
the metabolizable
lb. still
10.21
addition
10.74
of
of
energy
the
hay.
required
was
268
9544
374.
of 268
maintenance
ration
obviouslyrequirethe
preciselysimilar
In
decreased
of
Computation
Cal.
-f-g-Jf10042
=
fasting katabolism.
the
Another
"
since it
comparison,however, is of greater significance,
affords results of more
to bring out
generalvalue and also serves
the net energy
values of feeding
clearlythe relations between
and the maintenance
the fastingkatabolism
requirement.
stuffs,
In the foregoingexperimentseach pound of hay withdrawn
of
method
from
ration
the
caused
heat
the
production to
decrease
by
withdrawn
from Period 3
If,then, all the hay were
and the animal reduced to the fastingstate,the heat production,
in other words the fastingkatabolism,would be
or
433
Cals.
8064
The
(433 X 6.17)
5392 Cals.
energy
of hay
increased
this
loss
by
502
Cals.
The
withdrawal
increase
6.17 pounds of Period 3, therefore,would
the loss by 502 X 6.17
3096 Cals., making a total loss
In other
of 5392
Cals.,equal to the fasting katabolism.
words, by such a comparison as the foregoingit is possibleto
it is scarcely
the fastingkatabolism,which
determine
indirectly
to determine
directly.
practicable
ing
in Chapter VII
It was
shown
(344),however, that the fastof the maintenance
katabolism
is the measure
requirement.
of all the
To
to
supply in
losses in the
equal
additional
which
of energy,
of metabolizable
amount
amount
an
(i.e.,
fastingkatabolism,
amount
to
offset
consumption of the
work of digestion.
the
the
i.e.,
an
excreta
the
to
his feed
be necessary
after deducting the
the steer
maintain
the
5372
Cals.,plus a
additional
feed would
heat
energy),
sufficient
production
inevitablyoccasion,
MAINTENANCE
of
the work
the
between
difference
the
But
digestionis
the
net
283
REQUIREMENTS
ENERGY
THE
"
metabolizable
energy
energy
and
(370). Consequently
tenance
saying that the main-
is equivalent to
foregoingstatement
requirement of the steer was
5392 Cals. of net energy.
Each
pound of this particularhay had a net energy value of
there would be
the animal, therefore,
To maintain
502 Cals.
required5392 -5- 502
10.74 lb.,as previouslycomputed.
the
of
Manner
375.
stating
requirement.
maintenance
the
"
ration
It
of net energy.
in terms
in
shown
was
Chapter VII
under uniform
constant
might be regarded as practically
conditions.
requirement for
Consequently the net
energy
is equally constant, and in the foregoingexample
maintenance
of 5392 Cals. would
value
energy
any ration having a net
lism
been
have
since
But
as
can
well
as
ration.
maintenance
the
the
net
values
energy
proportionof
of different
their metabolizable
energy
which
will suffice
to
6.0 Therms
results of
Armsby
of net
and
which
energy
through
able
consider-
of metabolizable
maintain
For
feedingstuffs,
energy
an
animal
thousand-pound
for maintenance.
Fries' determinations
of
net
requires
steer
From
the
values
energy
in timothy
(760),it is easy to compute that to supply this amount
hay with a net energy value of 48.63 Therms
per 100
would
pounds of dry matter
require 6.0 -f- 0.4863
12.34
pounds of dry matter, but that if mixed hay with a net energy
of
value of 43.37 Therms
pounds were used,the amount
per 1000
would
be 6.0 -f- 0.4337
13.83 pounds.
dry matter
necessary
The quantitiesof metabolizable energy contained in these main=
284
OF
NUTRITION
rations would
tenance
followingstatement,
mixed
two
Table
43.
likewise be
in which
rations
Examples
"
FARM
of
used
ANIMALS
is shown
as
different,
included
are
the
by
experimenters.
same
Maintenance
in the
Rations
for
iooo-Pound
Steer
Net
Energy
Material
Therms
Timothy hay
Mixed
hay
6.0
and
meal
Corn
Mixed
6.0
mixed
hay, 2 : 1
hay, 2 :
alfalfa
grain and
6.0
6.0
in
feed must
also
of
terms
of weight of
or
energy
particularkind of feed to which it
metabolizable
specify the
the net
be estimated
of
of
the
former
is evident.
To
method
the
extent
combinations
which
will furnish
the amount
followed
far
all be
will
maintenance
for
or
to
can
variety
rations,i.e.,
few
have
Modified
of the
practicable,
although unfortunatelycomparatively
determinations
maintenance
376.
as
requirementsfor
energy
reportedexcept in the case of cattle.
of the
yet been
conception of
energy
requirement.
state
work,
study
which
conceptionof the
Chapter VII requiressome
the actual feedingof animals.
As was
there shown
(344),the
in
"
of the
the
animal
net
as
conditions,especially
regardsmuscular
of net
of absolute
heat
muscular
MAINTENANCE
"
THE
ENERGY
285
REQUIREMENTS
of which
particular,
it was
various
of incidental muscular
forms
but
physiologically
unnecessary
Moreover,
less variable
individual
between
as
at
and
to
unavoidable
are
in
are
and
sense
practically.
different individuals
is
more
in the
or
same
tenance
times, the energy requirement for mainfixed,constant
quantity whose exact value can
determined, but
is
which
different
is not
be
the amount
since
work
show
variable
the range
to determine
one.
of variation
general average
The
purpose
which
value
may
of
investigation
be expected
of
ordinarypractice.
The
377.
Net
carnivora
maintenance
energy
requirementof
requirement.
swine, having
"
With
swine
animals
such
as
man,
or
therefore of the
net
energy
requirement
for maintenance.
286
NUTRITION
Such
experimentmust,
an
of course,
ANIMALS
be made
(354) for
above
FARM
OF
at
temperature
the
wise
animal, since otherthe heat produced would
be greater than that corresponding
internal work
to the necessary
by the additional amount
the body temperature.
to maintain
necessary
determinations
of the fastingkatabolism
Numerous
of man
of
the
smaller
such
and
the dog, cat, rabbit,guinea
as
animals,
pig,etc.,are on record,but the only experiments of this sort
farm animals
those of Meissl,Strohmer
and Lorenz l
are
upon
and of Tangl 2 upon
swine.
Meissl's determinations
200 C, a ternmade
at about
were
is well above
perature which, accordingto Tangl's later results,
the critical temperature for mature
swine.
In Tangl's experiments
the animals
no
paper
statements
Excluding
below
the
live
Table
44.
critical
in
pounds
weight,were
too
per
of
made
as
"
lying; in
temperature,
follows
Meissl's
this
on
proportion
Net
time
point.
Tangl's experiments which
are
those
of the
most
spent
to
the
were
ently
appar-
results,computed
the two-thirds
of the
power
"
Energy
Maintenance
for
of
Swine
Energy
Net
per
100
Live
per
MeissVs
Swine
H1
Swine
H2
Pounds
Weight
Day
Therms
experiments.
1.283
1.244
Average
I.266
TangVs experiments.
Two
mature
animals
at
i6"-i7"C
at
220 C
I.220
I.224
growing animals
Two
at
200 C
at
230 C
I.307
1.226
at26"C
I.270
Average
Ztschr.
1.249
Biochem.
288
NUTRITION
Table
45.
OF
ANIMALS
Maintenance
Daily
"
FARM
Metabolizable
energy
100
per
Rations
of
lb. live
weight
2.558 Therms
0.897 Therm
Maximum
Minimum
Average of all
Average omitting lowest
Average omittinglowest
the
with
Comparison
379.
and
highest
two
highest
.
and
net
energy.
Therms
1.5
Therms
10
Therms
1.474
the average
On
"
1-534
of all
corded
respirationexperiments on fattening swine which are rein Chapter XVII
olizable
(761), 78.14 per cent of the metabbe computed to have
been
lized
utisupplied may
energy
for maintenance
be assumed
to
plus gain. If this may
available
amounts
of net
for
46.
Daily
"
Computed
net
"
Maintenance
energy
Rations
differ
on
1.998 Therms
of all
for
fastinganimals
(377),but
the
380.
Net
maintenance
energy
requirementof
requirement.
In
"
the
of
katabolism
range
in
manner
striking
cattle
of
case
the
directly
to determine
it is hardlypracticable
by measuring the
enormous
in
singleexperimentsshows
further investigation.
The
Therms
i-x99
the need
Therm
0.701
Average
not
Swine
of
100
per
Minimum
averarge
metabolizable
the
Maximum
The
the
foregoingmaintenance
pounds live weight, the following
100
energy
of
percentage
maintenance,
contained, per
Table
does
Swine
the
ruminants,
net
energy
quirement
re-
fastinganimal.
questionablewhether
regarded
as
normal.
the results
on
such
an
animal
could
be
MAINTENANCE
Table
47.
Net
"
"
Energy
ENERGY
THE
Requirement
Corrected
to
12
hours
for
Maintenance
standing
Year
1902
1903
1904
1905
1905
1906
1906
1907
1907
1908
1909
1911
1912
Average of all
Average,omitting alfalfa meal
Average of expts. with roughage
.......
only x
Average
of
expts. with
mixed
rations
.
Omitting experiment on
U
289
REQUIREMENTS
alfalfa meal.
of
Cattle
NUTRITION
290
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
of such
animal
an
fastingkatabolism
be computed in the manner
already described
comparison of two periods on different amounts
The
however,
a
(374) from
may,
of the
same
for maintenance.
ration,both being less than that necessary
nine
Twenty-three experiments of this sort, on
of which
tive
different steers, only one
was
fat,in which the relametabolism
of the animals
when
standing and when lying
puted
was
determined, have been made by Armsby and Fries.1 Comof
lb.,in proportionto the two- thirds power
per iooo
the live weight (347) and corrected 2 to a uniform
period of 12
hours standing out of the 24, the net energy requirements were
feed, or
shown
as
plan
in Table
have
other
No
47.
this
precisely
experimentson
yet been
reported.
if a few seemingly extreme
Even
results,like those of 1902
and
The
wide
a
191 2 be excluded, the figures show
range.
show
rations
of roughage and
trials with mixed
concentrates
the whole
somewhat
on
higher results than those with roughage
only,but the experiments are hardly numerous
enough to
show
whether
this difference is significant.
381.
Net
in
energy
of earlier
number
of net
amounts
experiments
based
have
by
4
small
The
in which
by
corrected
approximate
of
means
for upon
metabolizable
Eight
Buls.
2
3
4
74,
of them
ioi,
In the
for maintenance
number
of
Of
those
important are
respirationexperiments
the
less accuracy.
or
interest.
and
energy
have
been
the
on
by
G.
rations
were
the animals
fed;
were
respirationapparatus
required for
S.
rent,
long cur-
investigations,
Kiihn and by
productive rations,and
U.
which
the later
reported.
on
subsequent ones,3
maintenance
Pettenkofer
the
rations
maintenance
determined
and
historic
in which
considerable
chieflyan
now
Kellner
as
more
considerable
"
record
on
in actual
feeding standard
Wolff's
well
as
also
are
contained
energy
be computed with
of cattle may
The earlyexperiments of
was
rations.
maintenance
maintenance
Dept.
Agr.,
Bur.
128.
described
in Jour. Agr. Research, 3 (1915), 454.
manner
Compare Penna. Expt. Sta., Bui. 42 (1898),pp. 8-21.
Landw.
Vers. Sta., 53 (1900), pp. 6-16,
Reported by Kellner:
in
other
in this way
was
Anim.
puted.
com-
Indus,,
MAINTENANCE
In
addition
the live
upon
ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
291
these
respirationexperiments, investigations
of cattle made
weight maintenance
by the writer,1
to
by Haecker,2and
by
THE
"
by
Evvard
have
been
discussed
elsewhere
the writer.
Table
48.
"
Net
Energy
in
Daily
Maintenance
the purpose
of computing
values of these rations it seems
For
that the
1
Penna.
Thesis
same
the
Rations
approximate
permissibleto
of
Cattle
net
energy
assume
2 Minn.
Expt. Sta., Bui. 42 (1898).
Expt. Sta., Bui.
degree of M. S., University of Missouri, 1909.
4U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim.
Indus., Bui. 143, 44-46.
5
Omitting the experiment on alfalfa meal.
6
Giving each experiment equal weight.
for
sionally
provienergy
79.
NUTRITION
292
available
was
for maintenance
of alfalfa
ANIMALS
in the
as
rations
mixed
of the
case
of 55
percentage
hays
sive
exclu-
Fries,1viz.,52.8 per
and
investigatedby Armsby
the
For
cent.
FARM
OF
has
been
sumed.
as-
by
that
the
net
values
energy
estimated
from
the
of
medium
Kellner's
and
although if
be
the
It
in the
that
6000
medium
with
the
(375) and
of
is indeed
The
382.
metabolizable
kinds
of
the
is
is
rations
The
of the
Cals.,
viz.,6 181
state
61 13 Cals.
but
the data
feeds
are
too
trustworthy average.
maintenance
must
the actual
maintenance
energy
used
has
by
The
evidentlydistinctly
ration
of
mature
the
supply,on
age,
aver-
pounds live
this average
of feedingstuffs
weight
ration,as
contained
in
already been
well
the
as
it,will
vary
pointed out
obvious.
sufficiently
maintenance
requirementofsheep
in maintenance
energy
ration of sheep are
regardingthe maintenance
those
two
Cals.
5934
to
Metabolizable
than
Fries'
results of the
net
That
constitute
quantitiesof
energy
than
the
and
Armsby
per thousand
energy
considerable
variations
from
cases.
to
cattle
condition
Cals. of
weight,although with
in individual
is reduced
unfattened
statement
then,
to
net
one
the
permit
48,
ment
require-
energy
net
that
required
in
animals,
greater than
about
found
different
omitted, the
appears,
cattle in thin
were
Table
less
distinctly
individual
average
requirement of fat
to
net
the
of
maintenance
few
is
requirement
16
the
in the maintenance
energy
experiments is somewhat
greater,
weight
Evvard
rations
mean
estimated
average
consumed
comparison.
thin animals, the estimated
maintenance
experiments. The
experimenters, on
live
for
maintenance
average
of
determinations
being included
For
rations
computed averages.3
in
computations are shown
the
Fries'
and
Armsby
mixed
the
the writer's
results of
The
of
no
rations.
much
experiments have
15.
"
Data
dant
less abunbeen
re-
MAINTENANCE
THE
"
ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
293
experimentsthere are
foregoingrespiration
in which
the
number
of digestion experiments by Wolff
a
live weight of the animals
was
approximatelymaintained,5and
In addition
Henry
to
the
Klein-
with
Table
49.
Net
383.
stated, no
for
direct
of
unsatisfactorydata
metabolizable
energy
are
sheep
available
for
of maintenance
are
on
energy
record and
rations.
ready
al-
As
"
net
computing
sheep.
of the
determinations
the maintenance
of
rations
in maintenance
energy
quired
re-
only
it from
the
the
fore-
For
Neue
Feeds
and
p.
482.
143
(1912), pp.
49~5i-
however,
going experiments,
of cattle,that
in the case
as
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
294
it may
about
be
permissibleto assume,
52.8 per cent of the metab-
of roughage and
55 per
energy
available for maintenance.
was
olizable
rations
cent
of that
The
results
of mixed
of
putation
com-
of the
this basis are contained in the last column
upon
following table. They possess a certain degree of interest,
although obviously they are of uncertain value.
Table
49.
"
Energy
Rations
Maintenance
Daily
in
Per
Sheep
of
Lb.
100
Live
Metabolizable
Weight
Net
Energy
Energy
Respirationexperiments
Ffenneberg and Stohmann
Henneberg, Fleischer and
Therms
Therms
.
1-475
Muller
"779
I.420
.781
Kellner
I. no
.611
Hagemann
1.282
.705
1.322
.719
1.634
.863
1.72s
.863
1.513
.832
1.624
.853
1.368
.791
Average
Live weight experiments
Average
Average
384.
cattle.
of all
Comparison
to compare
of
the maintenance
Since
"
requirement
It is of
of
some
sheep
with
interest
that
of
the
little more
than
60
per
cent
of that of cattle.
296
NUTRITION
rations is
the various
on
FARM
OF
computed
ANIMALS
from
similar rations
experimentson
requirementfor
energy
Table
51.
In
the
Energy
Net
"
while
of 3.97 Therms
weight.
Zuntz
represents
1
For
of Animal
maintenance.
Requirement
more
in
for
standard
Maintenance
ration
of
Horse
of 6
kgs. of oats,
computed
average
six
fastingkatabolism
Therms,
the
experiments with
of straw, and
one
for
shows
51
per
and
approximatelythe
complete
account
of
minimum
the
method,
pounds live
per 1000
that the latter amount
requirement for
compare
the writer's
the inPrinciples
MAINTENANCE
ENERGY
THE
"
REQUIREMENTS
297
ternal work
(fastingkatabolism),was
work
internal
body temperature.
be confessed that,in view
It must
of the horse as compared
low figurefor the fastingkatabolism
the fact should
the results of
of
of total
applicableto
that
ration
may
various
the
to
seems
on
are
record
requiredfor
"
in which
the maintenance
mined
sheep may be deterby varying the quantity
and
income
outgo
stancy
con-
or
is
exert
case
with
considerable
excess
consumed
be
the
by
of
income
appear
and
an
in
show
may
that
maintenance
expended
Chapter VII
outgo
to
actual
and
horse
his muscular
phlegmaticruminants,
more
over
activities noted
loss,i.e.,
may
nor
rations.
is not fully
attained,but this method
active ment,
the horse.
Owing to his more
tempera-
minor
balance
it with
compare
determined.
has been
weight
activitythan is the
so
experiments
of live
feed
to
was
maintenance
of feed
short
maintenance
with
from
unusually
nearly the physiological
tenance,
required for mainenergy
matter
digestible
of the horse
The
animal
interest
in
energy
number
considerable
amount
more
24-hour experiments.
Metabolizable
386.
perament
active,temwith cattle this relatively
is rather surprising,
and
the
net
be of much
it would
and
of
minimum
the economic
of the
that it is derived
be overlooked
not
the
to
the
maintain
than
insufficient
show
in
the
(348), while
neither gain
the ration
is
tenance
main-
ration.
of avoiding this
method
One
Wolffs determinations.
and determining the true maintenance
ration is that
difficulty
*
work
employed by Wolff in his extensive investigations
upon
productionby the horse (670,779). In these experimentsthe
a.
"
Animal
298
NUTRITION
horse
performed
adjusted
OF
measured
in different
the
feed
when
the
live
case
for
unchanged
urinary nitrogen did
of the
performed
heavier
feed
on
one,
consumed
basal
the
This
of the
show
done
animal
of
work
within
so
as
to
stantially
sub-
when
the
consequence
comparing the work
that which
the
remained
period and
(637). By
with
was
considered
was
increase
an
} which
nearly as possiblein
as
considerable
established
was
be
to
weight
ration
ratio
of work
consumed.
not
work
additional
ANIMALS
amount
periodsas
equilibriumwith
be the
FARM
could
done
to
be done
with
the additional
the limits of
error
of the
amount
while
ration
of feed
correspondingto
evidentlywas
the
the maintenance
the
total work
latter and
ration.
From
the
performed,
total
the total
tenance,
(inclusiveof crude fiber)requiredfor mainthus computed by Wolff, the equivalentamounts
of
as
metabolizable
also be
required for maintenance
energy
may
computed approximatelyby the use of Zuntz and Hagemann's
factor of 3.96 Cals. per gram
(776).
In Wolff's earlier experiments and
in those
later ones
in
which
approximately equal proportions of hay and grain were
ration was
found
be approxito
consumed, the maintenance
mately
total nutrients
4200
grams
per 500 kgs. live weight,
In those later experiments (including
equivalentto 16.63 Therms.
the results of similar investigations
as
computed
reby Grandeau
by Wolff) in which a largerproportion of grainwas
fed, the total nutrients required for maintenance
ranged from
3600 to 3800 grams, equivalent to from 14.26 to 15.05 Therms.
In other words, the amount
of metabolizable
required
energy
for maintenance
varied with the proportion of roughage present,
would
be anticipatedfrom
the results with cattle reas
corded
on
previous pages.
b. Zuntz
and
From
a respiration
periment
exHagemann's results.
at the GottingenExperiment Station,
and HageZuntz
nutrients
digestible
"
mann
1
compute
Wolff's
the
metabolizable
energy
of
the
maintenance
made
with a sweep-power
also as a
experiments were
arranged to serve
The actual measurements
of the work performed, except in the later
dynamometer.
experiments, proved to be too low, but Wolff believes them to be relatively correct,
that the ratio between
the work
measured
and the additional feed required to
so
as
the basis of computation.
still serve
produce it may
as
MAINTENANCE
of
ration
by subtracting from
horse
the
REQUIREMENTS
ENERGY
THE
"
carbohydrateequivalentof
.gainedby the animal, disregardingthe
nutrients
the
total
digested
the proteinand fat
possiblestimulating
In
ration 2955.4
the
299
grams
Therms
Therms
to 11.70
or 1 2.1
pounds live weight,
per 1000
This difference is ascribed
result notablv lower than Wolff's.
and
Zuntz
by
Hagemann
Wolff's
the
to
digestionof
of
fiber in
as
ingredient
this
timated
es-
(777)very
by them
of crude
largercontent
ence.
*
1878-1879 attempted to
ration of the horse by startingwith
determine the maintenance
insufficientration and gradually
increasingit until an equiliban
rium
feed and live weight was
between
secured, seeking in this
feed (392).
to eliminate the stimulatingeffect of excess
manner
Muntz's
c.
experiments."Miintz
made
trials were
The
their work
found
He
which
that
may
ration
equal to A
estimated
be
in
addition
Wolff's
weight was
to
ration
and LeClerc,2
in connection
experimentsmentioned
the
than
more
slightly
Grandeau
"
and
ration
of metabohz-
Therms
12.1
Grandeau
d.
work
of the
contain
to
pany,
Com-
previousexperiments.
from
being known
ration
the horses
on
in
with
kgs. of hay
of 8
was
results per
Total
determined.
On
were
at
"
the
periods,
of all the
the average
follows
as
"
2783-7 grams
"
"
3.96 Cals.
per
gram
11.03
393 -6
The
than
"-*9
maintenance
metabolizable
1
Annales
L'alimentation
per
1000
de l'Institut National
du Cheval
de
kg.
kgs.
evidently somewhat
ration, is equivalentto
energy
was
Therms
pounds
Agronomique,
live
Tome
13.
more
Therms
weight. This
3,
1876-1879.
of
is
3""
NUTRITION
materiallyless
with hay and
than
and
Zuntz
The
OF
obtained
was
about
the
same
followingsummary
by
as
regardingthe
metaboliz-
the
shows
maintenance
of variation
range
the
experiments
that found
by him and by
containingmuch grain.
of the data
required for
energy
considerable
ANIMALS
in Wolff's earlier
for rations
Hagemann
able
FARM
by
which
varying proportions of
horse
is
only partiallyexplicable
tained
grain and roughage con-
in the rations.
Table
52.
Maintenance
"
Rations
of
Horse
the
Experimenter
Wolff
Wolff
and
Grandeau
and
LeClerc
and Hagemann
Zuntz
Muntz
Grandeau
and
LeClerc
.
Wolff
387.
Metabolizable
The
"
net
requiredfor
energy
equals of course
Hagemann
compute,
in the
be
thousand
there
the
Therms
4.1
the
per
temperature
net
maintenance, as
other
with
This Zuntz
already described
manner
live
pounds
those
of their
lower
was
requirement.
energy
fastingkatabolism.
with
compared
or
weight.
twelve
Therms
2.5 of
the
l
on
and
(385) to
As
was
experiments in which
the amount
of feed less
mals,
ani-
in
upon
hay.
ration
consistingof
Computed
in
the
3.5
same
Kgs.
manner
and
of oats, 0.5 of straw
in Table
as
51, the
Landw.
the
remainder
Jahrb.,18,
MAINTENANCE
ENERGY
THE
"
REQUIREMENTS
301
the amount
of
conclude, therefore,that when
is small the lack is comheat liberated by the digestivework
pensated
of body tissue.
for by an increased katabolism
Their
final result is that their animal
requiredper head at least 11.00
his body temperature.
In other
of heat to maintain
Therms
which
of metabolizable
words, this is the minimum
energy
be contained
in a maintenance
must
ration,since if less be
although the ration supply the requisiteamount
present, even
of net energy,
body tissue would still be katabolized for the
authors
The
Net
energy
Additional
for internal
work
requiredfor
heat
Total
metabolizable
In
computing
horse
energy
ration
7.8 Therms
production
required
for the
11.9
of the
maintenance
actual
Therms
rest, it is necessary,
at
only
not
energy
the other
hand
computing work
but
no
such
need
allowance
rations.
production.
heat
ordinarilybe made
horse when
The
olizable
sufficient metab-
it contains
also whether
to
of heat
excess
to consider
according to these figures,
fastit suppliesnet energy equal to the ing
whether
katabolism
an
4.1 Therms
at
in
is producing
work
and
On
ing
during the work-
no
hours
388.
of
maintenance
during the
demand
of rest.
The
the
the
over
energy
Net
maintenance
requirementof fowls
requirements.
energy
"
Gerhartz
has
measured
of a number
requirement of fowls by means
of respiration
experiments with the Regnault-Reisettype
has also comHe
puted
two
fastinghens.
apparatus (298) upon
the fastingkatabolism
of respiration
from a number
periments
exnet
energy
in which
the animals
that
1
Landw.
were
computed
fed
to
by subtracting from
have
Jahrb.,46 (1914),797.
been
due
to
the
NUTRITION
3"2
of the
OF
feed
FARM
ANIMALS
i.e.,
by substantiallythe same
eral
genmethods
used by Zuntz
and Hagemann
for the horse (385).
of body
His results,computed per thousand
square centimeters
surface and also per 5 pounds live weight in proportion to the
follows :
as
" power of the latter,were
consumption
"
"
Table
53.
Net
"
Energy
Maintenance
for
Hens
of
Per
s
Pounds
Live
Weight
In
fastingexperiments
Minimum
when
not
laying
Average when not laying
Average when laying
.
from
Computed
Minimum
Average when
when
It would
57-oi
experimentswith
when
Average
Cals.
laying
not laying
laying
76.75
91-45
feed
not
from
55-13
66.58
93-91
the
tenance
mainfigures that the average
requirement of a 5-pound hen may be estimated at approximate
while
in
of
minimum
muscular
tivity
acperiods
72 Cals.,
fall as low as 56 Cals.
it may
The
much
higher figure
in the periods when
the hen
was
(93 Cals.) obtained
laying
does
represent maintenance
not
energy
appear
expended
in the formation
of the egg.
of the hen per unit
hartz
Metabolizable
also
determined
the live
amounts
cm.
body
simply,but
weight
surface
in
energy
the
of metabolizable
also the
with
all small
is
high,but
As
weight
it does
differ
not
maintenance
rations.
and
energy
to
have
Rest
period
Molting period
f
Average
"
Ger-
tain
requiredto mainthe corresponding
computes
been
per
surface.
Brooding period
greatly
of feed
amount
of his fowls
includes
102
Cals.
107
Cals.
'"
Cals
Cals!
95 Cals.
iooo
sq.
OF
NUTRITION
3"4
used
indiscriminatelyor
Affecting
Factors
ANIMALS
computations of
for exact
cases.
Maintenance
the
which
conditions
Certain
basis
ill individual
" 3.
as
FARM
affect
the
Requirement
expenditure of
energy
of net
fastinganimal, and therefore the amount
energy
been
discussed
in Chapter
requiredfor maintenance, have already
be more
VII (345-357) while a few others may
conveniently
considered at this point.
the
391.
Temperament.
expending
The
"
in
may
very
his
maintenance
for
as
of different animals
vaguely
"
to
of muscular
amounts
in
Thus
"
individuality are
Armsby
between
which
due
There
the
to
maintenance
ascribed
are
be little
can
quirements
re-
somewhat
largeextent
to
ing
vary-
activity.
*
Fries' determinations
of the maintenance
requirement of
and
and
tinually
con-
ments
moveunnecessary
the amount
of energy
compared with that required
phlegmaticanimal.
differences
is
of
variety
materiallyincrease
energy
which
needed
restless animal
nervous,
latter
more
cattle
in the
requirements of
comparison, may
the
two
be
reasonably ascribed
animals,as
shown
by
to
the following
this difference
in temperament.
Table
55.
"
Net
Energy
Requirement
for
Maintenance
Scrub
Steer
B
Year
Therms
1905
"
"
1906
6.052
6.305
6.067
1907
Average
6. 141
U.
Anim.
MAINTENANCE
Like
the
ENERGY
THE
"
conditions
external
temperament,
affect the
REQUIREMENTS
any
of muscular
305
tending to
maintenance.
392.
The
plane of nutrition.
It is somewhat
"
lieved
generallybe-
with
the
plane
this is meant
that
some
time will
than
similar
an
animal
which
has
has been
for
month
or
equilibrium will
animal
may
later
increase
which
requirea largeramount'
animal
been
there is
more
be
in
loss in
small
established
weight,an
subsequentlythe
and
quality of
the feed
Thus
ration that was
ficient
insufa
remaining the same.
to sustain live weight at first may
be capable later of
maintaining the animal at a stationarybody weight,and still
later of causing an increase in weight. Digestion experiments
with
the
number
of animals
indicate that
there
in the
does
degree to
not
which
seem
to
been
have
to
low
gressed
pro-
sufficient increase
digestedto
account
(722).
306
NUTRITION
ments
dogs by
on
hauser2
OF
Kleinert
FARM
and
ANIMALS
by
Schlossmann
Mursch-
and
direction.
point in the same
made
Observations
by Zuntz and Hagemann 3 on the horse
In a series of respiration
suggestivein this connection.
appear
the common
observation that
experiments they have confirmed
lates
a
surplus of feed above the maintenance
requirement stimuthe muscular
activityand restlessness of this animal, so
that
ration
may
animal
the
give rise
A
to
seem
similar
to
no
be
more
considerably
than
sufficient to maintain
when
effect of
stimulating
movements
muscular
to
dicated
be in-
seems
as
in Miintz's
and
Armsby
reduction
393.
of
the
experiments on
Fries
on
cattle
horse
(374)rather
(386 c) and
than
by
the
those
of
gradual
supermaintenance ration.
That
fat animals
have
relatively
greater
maintenance
than
thin
be
to
ones
seems
fairly
requirement
well established for cattle by the experiments of Kellner
and
of Evvard, the results of which are recorded
in Table
48 (381).
One
obvious reason
why the maintenance
requirement per
head
animal
in
Fattening.
"
should
standing,due
and
to
the greater
weight to
experiments upon the
be
supported.
Zuntz
horse carryingweight
Hagemann, in
its back, found that this increase was
on
proportionalto the
of weight added
amount
(665). If this be true generally,then
that portion of the metabolism
due to standing will increase
Fries'
and
In Armsby
more
rapidly than the body surface.
experimentson unfatted cattle,however, the energy expendi1
Ztschr.
3Landw.
s Biochem.
Biol.,61 (1913),346.
Jahrb. 27 (1898),Ergzbd. Ill, 211, 236.
Ztschr., 53 (1013),265.
MAINTENANCE
ENERGY
THE
"
REQUIREMENTS
307
to only about
standing 12 hours amounted
15 per
The
increase in the maintenance
of the total daily metabolism.
cent
requirement per unit of surface which is indicated by
Kellner's results is considerablygreater than would be computed
due
ture
to
the
on
becoming greater
difference
394.
Age.
is
naturallysmaller
the
of
account
on
the animals
head
per
fatter.
grew
of
requirement
maintenance
The
"
as
of Evvard's
is true
same
that of
than
an
there
Whether
difference in size.
mal
aniyoung
older animal
is any
ment
requirement, that is,in the requirecomputed to uniform weight or surface,is not altogether
farm
animals
results on
being on record.
clear,few specific
results on
Evvard's
higher than
yearlings(381) are somewhat
the
difference in
with
obtained
been
have
which
of those
most
relative
tle,
cat-
mature
in three
these
successive
decrease
marked
course,
steer
yearling
as
power
hand,
of
the
scrub
steer,
on
the
other
requirementwas
of the maintenance
distinct decrease
no
the
With
weight.
observed.
extensive data
Somewhat
of
man
at different ages.
are
on
regardingthe metabolism
these by Tigerstedt2 seems
record
of
summary
to
show
If it be
animal
true
that
the maintenance
relatively
greater than
is
requirement of
that of
an
young
this may
to the
extent
older one,
U.
Nagel's Handbuch
Anim.
I, 469.
308
"
NUTRITION
The
4.
Relation
of
one
other
factors
to warrant
which
is
(350-357) it
shown
relations
quirement,
re-
involved
seem
critical temperature.
the
In
"
the fasting
katabupon
for the fasting
animal
there
that
thermal
(or more
strictly,
critical temperature," at which
"
the
to
the unavoidable
justbalances
that
vironment),
en-
the
the necessary
fastingkatabolism
loss by radiation,
conduction and
the
evaporation,so
this
heat which
the
Below
is but
temperature
production incidental
Above
exposed
of temperature
was
called
heat
is
complicated
influence
certain external
animal
an
may
consumption lowers
the
discussing
olism
which
separate discussion.
Feed
395.
Requirement
Temperature
to
the somewhat
ANIMALS
Maintenance
the
the temperature
among
FARM
External
to
While
OF
critical temperature,
the other
on
hand,
its katabolism
is increased
of the
the
i.e.,
has
As
energy
been
results in
the
increasing
is
animal
an
in
body
in the
the necessary
addition
productionof
it has
fed,therefore,
fastingstate, the
to
heat
heat
two
of heat
sources
from
resulting
internal work
of the
obvious
of its
that
the
maintain
to
critical
greater the
which
the animal
as
the
its
of feed
external
critical point,so
"
is
lowered.
consumed
temperature
that
animals
can
of
definite amount
which, togetherwith
the
dent
inci-
work
of
being
consumption,it is
more
heat
greater coolingeffect
katabolize
body
In other words,
Furthermore, the
is the
the lower
fall without
receivingheavy
"
so-called
beingcompelledto
body temperature.
temperature
amount
withstand
can
surroundingswithout
substance
"
body
as
first,
When
the katabolism
to
produced in
animal.
an
cold than
point to
reaching the
rations
those
on
in productive
simple
particulartemperature
of any given feed the consumption
katabolism
requiredfor the internal
MAINTENANCE
THE
"
just sufficient
to
the
balance
to
ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
production of
the
unavoidable
309
of heat
amount
an
loss of heat
the
to
surroundings.
influence
This
the
of the
quantity of feed
following tabulation
different
temperatures
of
Rubner's
and
is well
results
illustrated
by
dog
at
upon
different
consuming
of
amounts
meat.
Table
56.
Influence
"
External
of
Temperature
Heat
on
Production
The
of feed
proportionof
the
as
amount
its metabolizable
energy
which
is
dissipated
heat.
For
example,
feeds necessary
in
for
of different
discussingthe relative amounts
maintenance
(375) it was stated that either
hay or 9.07 lb. of mixed grain and alfalfa
therefore
pound
steer.
The
in these two
gain
nor
are
be
be
of
net
energy,
for
ration
alfalfa
and
viz. :
different,
rations,the animal
finallyconverted
1000-
"
Therms
10.69 Therms
hay
all the
and
contained
energy
12.01
maintenance
lose energy
feed would
of metabolizable
amounts
hay
grain and
lb. mixed
Since both
maintenance
rations,however, would
constitute
Therms
metabolizable
into
heat
would
neither
energy
of the
in both
cases.
The
animal
his
the exclusive
on
Therms
disposal1.32
could
his
Net
energy
critical temperature
and
than
heat
the other
and
temperature without
lower
have
at
ingly
accord-
drawing on
for fuel.
body
396.
hay ration,therefore,would
more
withstand
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
310
below
critical
which
correspondsto
temperature.
the
kind
out
in
able
energy
to
serves
maintain
animal.
the
Down
"
particularamount
the facts
of
the
brought
metaboliz-
remainder
The
"
the
to
is
"
work
of digestion and converted
virtuallyexpended in the
comes
into heat, and this heat, since not needed
by the animal, beand is gotten rid of.
excretum
ternal
an
If,however, the ex-
the critical
point the
is dif-.
case
ferent.
Heat
resultingfrom
of feed
may
be
have
be
to
external
the
substituted
obtained
the
digestivework
the
metabolizable
the
by
falls
temperature
for
heat
required for
this purpose,
of the ration is of use
is
energy
to prevent loss of energy
all of it appears
to be net
energy.
in
are
kept
6.0 Therms
support
from
at
of net
the
energy
internal work
falls to
10.69 Therms
for the
ration
and
is necessary
tration
illus-
ings
surround-
supplieswill
which
of the
be
used
of the
maintain
internal work
an
as
the
point at
to
therefore
fastinganimal, the
to
will be expended in
energy
that the external temperature
now,
fasting katabolism
this
instead of 6.0 Therms, i.e.,at which
a
directly
in-
or
directly
which
necessary
body
the
When
obviously all
of mixed
will be
heat
the
otherwise
produced by
if the ration
Thus,
of tissue.
katabolism
low
so
would
which
the
would
amount
be
of
The
body temperature.
body stillyields6.0 Therms, as before,
the
normal
NUTRITION
312
To
the
put
when
that
critical
external
in
summer
be
may
insufficient
available
less
for
for
swine
the
(377)
be
is
less
when
fed
than
that
therefore,
of
reported
fattening
wide
for
it contains
to
the
meet
mand
de-
the
temperature
experiments
the
the
of
animals
supplying
as
U.
source
S.
Dept.
much
are
net
digestion
so
that,
energy
"
63
"
is
gains
of the
very
due
feed
for
at
the
sufficient
somewhat
No
exact
of
of heat
ently,
Appar-
rather
a
and
for maintenance
low,
relatively
of feeding,
therefore
is also
of heat.
Agr., Bur.
Anim.
Indus.,
Bui.
108
of
sake
olism,
katab-
ordinary conditions
surplus
out
with-
in the
is
source
be
may
the
reported.
ruminants
that
ration
maintenance.
been
made.
were
F., the
ferences
dif-
to
shown
increase
no
by
energy
be
have
comparisons
have
under
producing
part
maintenance
below
of
tenance
main-
the
on
may
Fries
of
showed
also
tures,
tempera-
confirmed
experiments
and
of
temperature
heat,
(378)
likely
actual
exposure
katabolism
series
is
of metabolizable
the
temperatures
of
work
amount
these
(560 F.)
critical
"
single
lower
at
of
the
increased
animals,
low
be
to
seems
of swine
an
rations
on
the
neighborhood
of
A
increase
amount
below
these
to
possible that
which
ture
tempera-
(68"-73"F.),
high
Exposure
belief
seems
at
critical
concentrates,
on
to
by Armsby
cattle
the
digestion by
influence
in the
considerably
lower
ample
It also
indication
even
this
the
upon
in
very
ration
the
for maintenance
it fails
wholly
expected
swine, and
on
production.
be
temperature
heat
large
ration
because
not
that
in
or
maintenance
the
temperatures
while
because
energy
observed
Experiments
any
winter,
sider
con-
comparatively high,
is sufficient
of ruminants.
swine.1
in the
reduced
is
comparatively
chiefly
results
variations
required
at
of
may
of
ration
the
maintenance
horse
showed
likewise
expenditure
especially
to
Hagemann
heat.
Tangl's experiments
while
in
but
energy
the
which
ration
and
Zuntz
ordinary
for
temperature
ANIMALS
way,
the
receiving
so
any
another
in
matter
FARM
OF
(1908),
pp.
84-86.
CHAPTER
IX
{Continued)
MAINTENANCE
"
THE
OF
REQUIREMENTS
MATTER
As
pointed out
was
in the introduction
the
in
presence
previous Chapter
requirement is a twofold
(361),the maintenance
for the
to the
feed
of
one,
adequate amounts
an
adequate supply
of
calling
certain
of energy.
specificsubstances as well as for
in some
The former phase of maintenance
of its broader aspects
stances
forms the subject of the present Chapter. These
specificsubof this discussion as
be grouped for the purpose
may
proteins or their constituents,ash ingredientsand accessory
constituents.
"
The
i.
Nature
398.
of
Requirements
protein
"
Maintenance
As
was
shown
in
VII
of
molecule
the
requirement.
for
Chapter
suffers
Protein
certain
may
body, so
protein may
atomic
of cell activity
accompaniment
quota). Second, it may be supposed
in
the
contained
protein
groupings
"
functioningof
indispensablefor the normal
that, if they are not contained in the feed, body
be katabolized
for the sake of obtainingthem.
be
strictly
speaking,protein as such, but materials whose digestive
and proportions of the constituent
cleavagewill yield certain amounts
the requirements
amino
acids.
On the first hypothesis,
stantially
subfor the different
be determined
would
buildingstones
in the body tissues
by the quantitiesof each existing
"
"
313
OF
NUTRITION
314
ANIMALS
FARM
"
established
well
manufactured
that
of the
some
the
in
it becomes
even
clear
more
called,is reallyan
amino
399.
required for
so
Amino
acids
knowledge
of the
still meager,
but
and
amino
acid
amino
acids
be
can
certainlytrue of
arginin. If such be the
that the protein requirement,
requirement.
body. This
perhaps of prolin and
glycin and
case,
least
at
"
is almost
maintenance.
actual
Our
"
is
requirement for maintenance
shown
that a supply of tryptophan
acid
it has been
of
of
probably
Willcock
and
Hopkins, *
for
example,
maize, which contains neither tryptophan
supporting neither growth nor maintenance
that
found
mice,
zein
of
capable of
lysin,was
nor
in
the
while
tion
the addi-
of
tryptophan diminished
although it did not altogether stop
the loss of nitrogen from
the body.
similar
Henriques 2 obtained
It is to the
although less strikingresults in experiments with rats.
work
of Osborne
of
showed
the
better
results
a
similar results
mice.
was
the most
tryptophan
as
the
while
and
secured.
Furthermore,
conclusive demonstration
maintenance.
They
capable
inprotein was
the addition
of tryptophan
tenance
in two
cases
complete main4
has reported
Miss Wheeler
sole
with
for
Osborne
source
and
of
Mendel
have
shown
the deficiencies
the ration
to
zein
owe
we
obtained
were
long time
on
that
necessity of
maintaining rats,
for
that
Mendel
conclusivelythat
of
much
and
of zein may
be compensated for by the addition
of other proteins containing the lacking amino
acids.
2Ztschr.
No.
MAINTENANCE
"
REQUIREMENTS
OF
MATTER
315
the other
On
to
for
which
long periodson rations containingas their sole proteingliadin,
contains no lysinbut does contain tryptophan.
What
has been
shown
Relative
values
of
facts
proteins for
maintenance.
in the constitution
"
The
of the different
have
likewise shown
in
of
"
the
22
(1915),241.
316
have
for maintenance
value
in many
to
cases
known
differences
be
ANITvL\LS
different
proteinsfrom
mixed
between
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
been
less than
shown
in their chemical
so
greatly to
to be
to
desired,the only
follow
established
but
so
great
to
as
such
anticipatedfrom
the
further
As
the
matter
investigations
of
regards their
exist,they appear
as
constitution.
necessity,then, pending
practical
seems
to
be
might
of
be
sources
value
differences
in different
in all
not
are
materials
probability
results.
proteinkatabolism
Influenceoffeed supply on
401.
minimum
The
(339)
minimum
fastinganimal
below
cannot
feed
of
which
be
The
protein.
"
physiological
protein katabolism
evidentlyconstitutes
of
the
reduced
protein,but what
suppliedin order
the
lower
surplus,
to
secure
than
that
consumed
katabolized
when
abundance
of
will suffice.
Fats
to be distinctly
less efficient than
appear
at the minimum.
keeping the protein katabolism
is the
case
advanced
to
amount
of
carbohydratesis
has
the
carbohydrates in
Preciselywhy this
not
been
the chemical
is not
producing carbohydrates,
with
the
result
that
is increased.
32
(1903), 685.
on
low
protein
MAINTENANCE
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
MATTER
317
The
in
"
Table
The
57.
fact
Protein
"
demonstrated
was
in collaboration
tenkofer
the
at first with
more
Sheep
of
than
Bischoff
in
animals
numerous
Gesetze
Published
der
but
of
man
and
on
investigations
Day
per
Head
and
by C.
ago
later alone and with
fiftyyears
and
experiments on carnivorous
have
subsequent investigations
only of these
Of
Katabolism
that
of herbivorous
herbivora
Pet-
almost
merable
innu-
it is true
not
animals, and
shown
Voit
animals
in which
the
as
well.
nitro-
i860.
Ernahrung des Fleischfressers,
der Chemie
und Pharmacie
and the Zeitschrift
chieflyin the Annalen
See also Voit, "Physiologie des Stoffwechsels," in Hermann's
Handfur Biologic
buch der Physiologie.
318
gen
NUTRITION
excretion
OF
has been
sheep were
To
barleymeal.
hay
periodsvarying amounts
glutin (of lupins)or of
from
digested
the
latter increased
of
of
flesh
with
protein cannot
obvious
sufficiently
the weakling cannot
feeding him upon a
size
by
of the
very
mature
animal
basal
an
ample.1
ex-
ration
of
converted
abundant
as
in the intermediate
That
"
the
mere
from
meat
added
large storingup of
daily experience. The
cause
be
were
protein limited.
of
serve
57 may
and 7
nearly pure
diminished
Utilization
403.
this ration
ration
and
ANIMALS
determined, Table
fed in periods
Two
and
FARM
those
into
the former.
tion
consumpit is indeed
muscles
of
of the athlete
by
increased
in
diet,nor the small man
protein supply. The proteintissues
have
reached
their natural
limit
of size
and
these
While
animals
able
are
to
utilize
erable
consid-
of feed
what
over
be
can
used
Protein
of
as
of
source
protein,however,
for
this
purpose
small
very
the
is katabolized
of the
demand
is not
to
"
be
This
increased
regarded as
and
olism
katab-
the
total
surplus of
acids
protein, the amino
digestion are in
(233), their nitrogen being excreted
large part deaminized
chieflyas urea, while a non-nitrogenous residue is left which
contains the largerportion of the chemical
energy of the protein
loss of
so
which
it represents and
much
feed
Henneberg
material.
the presence
resultingfrom its
and
In
is in condition
Pfeiffer;Jour. Landw.,
to
38
be
of
oxidized
(1890), 215.
as
fuel
OF
NUTRITION
320
FARM
ANIMALS
of
amount
"
407.
The
Effect
prime
of
deficiency of
demand
of the
of its vital
its own
upon
the laws of
non-nitrogenous
organism
functions,and
is for energy
if necessary
into consideration
the energy
No
nutrients.
"
for
the formance
perit will draw
conception of
without
taking
clear
reached
relations.
of
is available
a
source
as
non-nitrogenous residue which
however, the proportion of energy derived
Ordinarily,
energy.
from
the katabolism
of protein is relativelysmall, the nonsource.
nitrogenous nutrients constitutingits principal
But if,with an
of protein in the feed just sufficient
amount
the non-nitrogenousnutrients,
to sustain nitrogen equilibrium,
that
especiallythe carbohydrates, be so reduced in amount
the
total
The
which
loss of
previously adequate
body protein occurs.
effect is
nutrients
was
naturallymost
marked
when
became
not
the
this
insufficient
the non-nitrogenous
withdrawn
^tschr.
Biol.,32 (1895),67.
MAINTENANCE
Table
three
it
times
the
32
nutrients
of
shows
MATTER
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
proved
as
much
followingtable
"
58.
"
Effect
Supply
Protein
of
on
Katabolism
Protein
of
Dog
Feed
Nothing
Extracted
(grams)
meat
100
140
165
185
200
230
360
......
410
360
The
results furnish
between
also
proteinkatabolism
proteinsupply and
demonstrated
than
more
of BischorT and
Voit
of the
strikingillustration
30
years
earlier
by
which
classic
the
rendering it evident
(402),while
relations
interesting
had
been
experiments
quantity
that the
of
What
is
so
nutrients
holds
good
relative deficiency.If a portion
are
of
true
strikingly
withdrawn
from
of
mixed
is
enous
non-nitrog-
case
of their
trients
non-nitrogenous nuolism
ration,the protein katab-
the
usuallyincreases.
408.
on
the
Effect
of
surplus
non-nitrogenous
converse
diminish
deficient
of the statement
of
the katabolism
in energy,
of the
nutrients.
be
ration,they tend to
As regards rations
the
of
this
If,
"
added
to
protein.
is,of
course,
precedingparagraph
only
that
and
katabolism,
rations
the
of
addition
a
ration
experiments
cattle
on
which
rations
Table
ration
59.
"
in
with
Effect
of
to
Starch
the
proteintends
level.
The
of Kellner's
starch
cause
effect
respiration
added
was
basal
to
fattening.
some
the
augmented
on
of
lower
those
the
the
upon
that
found
the minimum
sufficient to
compares
that
been
in the
even
of carbohydrates,
particular,
which
themselves
were
following table
basal
than
proteinkatabolism
for example,by
illustrated,
is well
The
or, in
protein
submaintenance
or
it has
the
reduce
to
surplus of fat
containingmore
a
increase the
to
equivalent. But
are
supermaintenance rations
of
case
statements
two
tends
maintenance
regards
as
ANIMALS
FARM
materials
of these
the withdrawal
to
OF
NUTRITION
322
Protein
ration
"
Cattle
Katabolism
of
Daily
Nitrogen
Urinary
OxD
OxF
OxG
OxH
Ox
It has
only by
likewise
the
been
shown
fats and
the
this effect is
soluble
produced
not
hexose
carbohydrates,
but likewise by the pentoses and,
as
in the case
of herbivorous
animals,by those ill-known ingredients
of feedingstuffs,
especiallyof the crude fiber and the nitrogenfree extract, which
disappear in the passage of the feed through
the alimentary canal
which
and
are
commonly spoken of as
also the organic acids,
being digested. This statement
covers
whether
resultingfrom the fermentation of the carbohydrates
such
or
starch
contained
409.
should
true
and
the sugars,
in the feed.
Protein
be
by
that
katabolism
depends
clearlyunderstood
surplus of fat
or
that
even
chiefly
in
on
the
Landw.
Vers.
Stat.,53 (1900).
supply.
"
It
of a
presence
of the protein
MAINTENANCE
katabolism
the
most
323
upon
and
splitting-off
prevent the
proteinwhich
reduces
MATTER
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
below
it somewhat
cannot
of the
nitrogenof surplus
previousparagraphs,but simply
excretion
illustrated in
was
Even
it would
otherwise
reach.
to
To
a higher plane of
upon
the
It is clear from
is
be
to
protein nutrition.
that
foregoingstatements
of between
conceived
tinction
sharp dis-
no
and
insufficiency
an
of non-nitrogenousnutrients,but
sufficiency
rather
tendency
diminish the protein katabolism,a
on
in
less marked
or
accordingto their abundance
tendency more
that no
It is not
to be understood
the ration.
nitrogenous
for
fuel
is
katabolized
material
as
long as sufficient
purposes
non-nitrogenousnutrients are present to supply the demands
a
for energy,
prevent
can
that
nor
the
Protein
410.
Minimum
use
by
the
body.
requirementsoffarm animals
and
optimum
protein requirements
it is
of
katabolism
possibleconstructive
the
even
of
protein.
"
of the different
between
important to distinguish
In
the
considering
be sought to determine
the least amount
hand, it may
of feed protein upon
which the protein tissues of the animal can
be to
be maintained.
On the other hand, the endeavor
may
of protein to supply
the most
formulate
advantageous amount
the
one
when
an
amount
may
minimum.
fundamental
one
determined
be
a
is
animal
and
should
the lower
limit of
ing
Hav-
surplus.
In considering
the
determination
individual
or
results of
of the minimum
species,it
is essential to
bear
in mind
the facts
NUTRITION
324
katabolism
which
The
411.
of
influence
the
regarding
OF
have
plane
FARM
the
feed
just been
of
protein
ANIMALS
supply
upon
the
has
been
protein
considered.
nutrition.
"
It
shown
the
in its feed
by
necessary
for the
protein katabolism
adjusts
the supply in the feed.
A surplus
the minimum
above
requirement, while causing a small storage
in raisingthe plane of proteinnutrition
of protein,results chiefly
until income
and
and
so
increasingthe katabolism
outgo of
into equilibrium. The
mere
fact, therefore,
nitrogen come
is in equilibriumwith a certain supply of protein
that an animal
in
livingupon
412.
also been
supply
shown
depends
the
body,
proves
maintenance
but
that
not
of
non-nitrogenous
the
of
sufficiency
only
upon
within
also,
non-nitrogenous nutrients
abundant
an
supply of the
the fastingkatabolism, or
sufficient minimum
to
be
of it is diverted
more
for
former
amount
an
perhaps
reach
use
"
It
has
supplied with
is reduced
required to
nutrients.
of progiven amount
tein
the plane of protein nutrition
of
certain limits,upon
the amount
of
for maintenance.
nitrogenousmaterials
seems
of the
an
The
means
no
as
of
the
of
protein. With
proteinequalto
less,appears
even
to
be
the
and
more
equilibrium because
fuel,so that in the total absence
of protein must
a
large excess
non-nitrogenous nutrients
be fed before equilibrium between
and outgo of nitrogen
income
is reached.
In interpretingexperiments or formulating a
maintenance
ration,therefore,it is not sufficient to consider
of protein,but account
also be taken of
must
simply the amount
the supply of non-nitrogenous materials,and
only when the
of the ration is ample for maintenance
content
net energy
can
the protein
that a loss of body protein shows
it be concluded
supply to
413.
of
Value
of
non-protein.
"
The
crude
proteinof
the feed
farm
be insufficient.
true
animals
includes
proteinshould
be
not
only
true
the basis of
comparison or
whether
MAINTENANCE
the
REQUIREMENTS
"
non-proteinhas
tissues of the
body.
It appears
to have
value
some
OF
for
MATTER
325
been demonstrated
by recent experimental
results,
tory
especiallyby
Kellner,Morgen, and the Laborafor AgriculturalResearch
in Copenhagen, that the nonprotein
of ordinary feedingstuffs is available for the maintenance
of ruminants, probably indirectlythrough a
conversion
to
of
protein by means
micro-organismsin the digestive tract
have
(141). On the other hand, investigations
thus far failed
to demonstrate
that non-protein has any
material
value for
other species or for production purposes
(786-789). In the
computation of rations for productive feeding, therefore,it
those
appears
the
desirable
for
digestibletrue
implies,however,
of
the present
to
consider
protein,ignoring
that
the
results
of
non-protein. This
the
experiments upon
will have
ordinarilyonly
the
the
same
manner.
effects :
smaller
than
it
on
succeedingpages,
both
the crude
Computation
to unit
weight.
"
It
was
shown
in
these
ter
Chap-
is
(345) that the energy requirement for maintenance
substantially
proportional to the body surface of the animal.
VII
326
comparisons of
similar
No
does
certain
of the
the
made.
been
have
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
not
represent
quirement
re-
for
but
for
energy
normal
functioning
demand
to
will
its amount
depend rather
proportionto
the
the
live
weight
and
that
course
cattle.
For
is followed
in
succeedingparagraphs.
Protein
415.
requirement
it is impracticable
to ascertain
of
the
"
obvious
reasons
of ruminants
fasting katabolism
basis
for
occurs.
tenance
the energy
requirement for maininvestigations
upon
in Chapter VIII (381)only those of Kellner
summarized
and
the live weight experiments of the writer,together with
the early results of Henneberg and
Stohmann, afford data
protein requirement. While protein
regarding the minimum
maintenance
was
probably secured in the remaining instances
that a surplus of protein
there is no sufficient evidence
to show
not being consumed
was
(402,411). In addition to the foregoing,
the investigations
by the Laboratory for AgriculturalResearch
in Copenhagen 1 upon
the proteinrequirements for milk production
data
the
tenance
mainafford
also
to
as
(586)
approximate
the
in experiments upon
requirement,and Fingerling,2
esting
protein requirements of growing calves (471),obtained intertenance.
indications regarding the quantity requiredfor main-
Of the
The
upon
lowest
which
recorded
amounts
per
nitrogenequilibriumwas
1000
pounds
reached
were
live
0.21
weight
pound
for landokonomiske
328
NUTRITION
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
quirement of sheep
for
1.
lb. of
0-1.6
for the
digestiblecrude
protein
per
pounds live
Stohmann's
early
1000
requirement.
digestionand metabolism
experimentsby Schulze
and Marcker,1 decidedlysmaller amounts
of protein proved sufficient
of 6 experiments in
to maintain
nitrogen equilibrium, the average
which
observed
loss of body proteinwas
no
being 0.653 lb. digestible
crude proteinper 1000
is
It
live
weight.
evident, then,
pounds
much
be reduced
that the protein supply of sheep can
below
the
fed in Henneberg and Stohmann's
ing
amount
experiments without leadto a loss of body protein.
In
series of
20
The
most
which
added
protein,consistingof
The proteinin every case
hay, oat straw, starch and cane sugar.
of starch,so that
substituted for a corresponding amount
was
the total energy of the ration remained
substantially
unchanged.
On the average
of two animals, 0.41 lb. digestible
true
protein
the
sufficient to maintain
pounds live weight was
per 1000
nitrogen balance.
Since, however, the growth of wool must
have gone on, with a corresponding storage of nitrogen,there
were
to
been
have
must
tissues of the
If to
per
that
an
ration
very
in
poor
equivalentloss
of
proteinby
the
active
body.
the minimum
lb.
of 0.41 pound there be added
0.14
live weight for the growth of wool, it appears
of
protein requirement for the maintenance
pounds
1000
the minimum
sheep
mature
to
the
basal
body
note
is in the
that
tissues
is
neighborhood
the
actual
of
0.55
maintenance
apparently quite
as
low
lb.
It
esting
is inter-
requirement
as
relatively
cattle.
1
Wolff
Landw.
; Die
Ernahrung
Vers.
der landwirtschaftlichen
Nutztiere,
p. 300,
for
for
MAINTENANCE
Protein
417.
of the
an
the
OF
REQUIREMENTS
requirement
fastingkatabolism
(377)gave
weight for
with
"
of
swine.
of swine
MATTER
The
"
recorded
329
determinations
in
Chapter VIII
of 0.48 lb. per
thousand
pounds live
average
of swine, although
fastingprotein katabolism
considerable
range
in the individual
results.
McCollum
olism
figuresfor the protein katabof
of swine receivingno protein but fed liberal amounts
of twelve
experiments being 0.26 lb. per
starch,the mean
1000
pounds live weight with a range of 0.14 lb. -0.33 lb.
these are sufficient
as
Whether, however, such small amounts
above
them
is
for actual maintenance, or if not, what
excess
has not been certainlydetermined.
necessary,
has
reportedconsiderablylower
the
"
ration of swine
Dietrich,2 in his experiments upon maintenance
found
that
(378),
proteinper thousand
0.70 to 0.84 lb. of digestible
live
pounds
weight sufficed to produce nitrogenequilibriumin two
periodsfollowingan eight-dayfastingperiod,but that about the same
amounts
(0.80 to 0.90)previousto the fastingperiodwere
insufficient,
and
while in two trials in which
lb.
.06
sumed
con1
were
respectively
0.94
reached.
was
proteinmaintenance
418.
by
Protein
Grandeau
LeClerc
1
2
described
in
In
the
experiments
Chapter VIII (386 d),
"
OF
NUTRITION
33"
of the
nitrogen balance
the
FARM
horses
ANIMALS
determined
was
during six
of
periods. The following table shows the amounts
proteinand of non-protein nitrogen digested in each period,
the small losses in epithelial
tissue
the urinary nitrogen,and
hoofs,hair,etc.):
(epidermis,
of
the
"
6i.
Table
Balance
Nitrogen
"
of
Horses
an
average
crude
average
,1b.per
true
1000
pounds
live
weight,equivalentto
about
while
0.59
0.50 lb.
protein.
419.
The
optimum of protein.
"
The
data of the
foregoing
paragraphs
to
be
animal
be
to
the
reduced
indicate
below
amount
eventual
without
body, however,
proteinsupply above
the
which
the
proteinsupply
protein starvation.
adjust itself to
minimum, using some
may
not
can-
The
of
range
of it to increase
wide
MAINTENANCE
the stock of
proteinin
fuel material.
An
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
the
body
and
MATTER
the
katabolizing
331
remainder
increase of the
On
the whole
it cannot
be
said
that
considerable
surplus
the minimum
protein over
requirement for maintenance
that is,the maintenance
of protein nutrition on a high plane
has been proved to be of any
material advantage in the
of
"
"
maintenance
either
of
men
covering several
or
of
domestic
animals
during
low
periods
a
proteindiet through years or generationswould show a different
result is at present largelya matter
of speculation. It is to be
remarked, however, that the particularpoint under discussion
is the protein requirement of the mature
organism. That a
of protein in the diet of a growing animal
have
deficiency
may
disastrous results is clear.
If,however, the habitual food supply
of a race
of men
of animals is low in protein,the
or
a
group
with the mature, and
are
likelyto share this deficiency
young
it seems
not
impossible that this is an important factor in the
of certain races
of men
allegedphysicalinferiority
livingon a
low protein diet. This consideration warns
to exercise care
us
in this
420.
months.
Whether
continued
of the breedingherd.
respect in the management
In the
Digestibilityof low protein rations.
"
maintenance
of the
feedingof
ration
farm
must
animals, the
also
be
matter
considered.
of the
It
has
actual
ibility
digestbeen
of protein in the
(723, 724) that a relative deficiency
ration tends to depress the apparent digestibility
of both the
protein and non-nitrogenousnutrients,especiallyin the case of
ruminants.
A maintenance
ration for these animals
containing
the minimum
of
amount
protein together with the quantity
of non-nitrogenous nutrients required to maintain
the energy
supply,would have a nutritive ratio (709)computed in the ordishown
Economy
Physiological
in Nutrition.
NUTRITION
332
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
there
nary
an
crease
in-
" 2.
421.
The
Ash
Ash
Requirements
Maintenance
for
ingredients indispensable.
That
"
supply of
of protein
ash
ingredients,as well as
and of energy yieldingmaterials,is necessary for the growth and
maintenance
of animals
has been fullyrecognized since the
time of Liebig, and
was
strikinglydemonstrated
by the well*
and
of Lunin,2 which
known
showed
experiments of Forster
that animals
suppliedonly with ash-free feed perished even
than
sooner
deprivedof
when
of the
Some
or
for these
reasons
of the functions
where
it
for both
all feed.
facts
of the nutrients
that, besides
was
shown
the
skeleton
and
the
indicated
were
in
their
soft
structural
tissues,the
of
singleelements, such
of the
and
pressure
of the various
the
422.
Ash
and
appear
at
than
ingredients
example,
content
causes
of the
relativelypoor
1
of feed
content
Ztschr.
an
as
large.
"
mixed
particularlythe
what
ash
ions,and,
neutrality.
preservationof
from
body
of
the
relative
Most
in ash
specific
rations
contain
rations
much
*
of the
latter,
tain
animals, conof
largeramounts
made
production,for
the ash
upon
up of materials
than
larger amounts
Ztschr.
tration
concen-
of farm
sightto be much
body requires. Milk
even
tissues
however,
feedingstuffs,
exceptionallylarge drain
body, yet
the
fluids and
case
specific
first
the
of ash
presence
the maintenance
iron,fluorin,iodin,etc., three
there
ingredientsas a whole were
in the
osmotic
(268-272),
importance
as
Chapter
in the discussion
Physiol. Chem.,
are
(1881),31.
MAINTENANCE
in the milk
found
of
Kellner
for
62.
cow
"
Zuntz
MATTER
333
parison
gives the followingcomration recommended
by
ingredientsin a
producing 22 pounds of milk dailywith
of the milk
ash content
Table
produced.
ash
the
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
Comparison
yield:
of
Ash
the
"
Content
of
Ration
and
of
Milk
by-products,or
423.
Ash
stimulated
to
ingredients digestible.
"
tion.
high degree of produc-
It is true
in ordinary rations,
a very
largesupply of mineral matter
of certain elements, is found
considerable fraction,especially
in the feces,and this fact has led to their being regarded as
stated in Chapters III and
relativelyindigestible.As was
arises
IV (164, 199),however, this apparentlylow digestibility
from
path
of excretion
constitutes
the normal
elements,notably, in the
case
of
has
Forster
herbivora, for calcium and phosphorus. Thus
shown that in the dog the calcium of the feed is largelyresorbed
1
Jahrb. Deut.
Landw.
Gesell.,1912,
570.
NUTRITION
334
in the
while
OF
FARM
upper
more
where
less of it is excreted
or
ANIMALS
the contents
again in
acid,
are
the lower
intestine.
it is
While
of the
impossible,therefore,to determine
by means
much
of such ingredients
ordinary digestion experiment how
have
and
excreted
actually been resorbed
again and what
proportionhas escaped digestion,it appears safe to conclude
that at least
in the
resorbed
upper
rations as
of certain
the
considerable
Contrast
There
is
The
nutrients.
has been
and
that
dissolved and
the
insufficiency
is
ingredients
not
due
to
latter.
between
obvious
an
of them
digestivetract
regards mineral
of the
indigestibility
424.
share
organic
and
inorganic nutrients.
distinction between
former
be
may
said
"
organic and
to
inorganic
destroyed in the
be
of dextrose or of
performance of their functions. A molecule
for example, can
stearin,
yieldenergy to the body only by being
splitup and oxidized step by step to carbon dioxid and water.
The
is similar with protein so far as it is used for fuel purcase
poses
and even
its specific
functions seem
the cleavage
to involve
and oxidation
of its molecules.
With the electrolytes
contained
in the body the case
is different. A
of disodium
molecule
phosphate,for example (or its ions),is not destroyedby the
performance of its functions in maintainingneutralityno matter
how
long
chlorid
blood
it
that
serves
contributes
serum
as
it escapes
arise.
its quota
long
from
as
purpose
it remains
as
the
body
Losses
425.
Causes
of mature
will
which
the
be
various
course,
"
the
osmotic
dissolved
will the
of the
pressure
in that fluid. Only
need
for
fresh
supply
of ash
are
organs.
In
the demand
for
eliminated
is determined
in
the
from
body
requirement
of sodium
molecule
So
elements
the
of loss.
animals
to
and
largedegree by
and
the
the
to
total
rate
of
less
ash
cretion.
ex-
336
NUTRITION
of the
cells and
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
the
body
to
"
which
A
is meant
well-known
diabetes.
relative
example
The
of
perverted
katabolism
certain
of
metabolism
by
extent
an
insoluble calcium
salts of the
ingredientsin
of ammonia
means
of acid
sources
accumulation
example
is the form
fatty acids
the feces.
are
be consumed
may
in fermented
materials
neutralized
juice,which
by
in the
milk
as
is
tralized
neu-
from
the
results
finally
of infantile acidosis
intestines and
It has been
in
in the
suggested
so
that
exceptionallyrich
First, acids
products or
results
derived
gradual
failure of young
animals
to thrive on
in
be due
cause.
part to the same
may
Several
is that observed
of this disease
excess
radicles.
Another
coma.
in which
basic
of
proteinbut whose
in the diabetic
basic
over
pathologicalacidosis
of acid
excess
of
moves
re-
the
in fat
organism.
or
of the
pancreatic
thus
from
the body
temporarily withdrawn
fluids.
After resorption,however, the resultingalkali salts of
the more
acids are
common
readilyoxidized,yielding carbon
dioxid
and
and
water
restoring to the body fluids the bases
of some
Small
amounts
previously withdrawn.
acids,such as
tartaric and malic,however, tend to escape oxidization
and to be
excreted
in the urine,carrying a corresponding amount
of base
with them.
Oxalic acid and its salts are oxidized with difficulty
and
tend to impoverish the body in calcium
by the formation
of the
are
insoluble
calcium
injuriousto
while in
mature
fermentation
oxalate.
horses
ruminants
and
it
This
swine
seems
acid
and
to be
to
is liable to be
young
pecially
es-
ruminants,
largelydestroyed by
a
are
Second, the fermentations in the paunch of ruminants
of large amounts
of organic acids which, like those consource
tained
in the feed,may
withdrawal
from the
cause
a temporary
body fluids of alkali which is later restored when the salts are
katabolized.
MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
"
by
herbivora
makes
very
of
amount
OF
MATTER
337
hippuricacid produced
considerable
Thus, in four
of
equivalent to from J to | of the total excess
Zuntz, it was
bases over
inorganicacids in the urine.
of the proteins,nucleo-proteins
Fourth, in the katabolism
other compounds
and
containing sulphur and phosphorus,
and phosphoric
these elements are largelyoxidized to sulphuric
acids. The sulphur of one
position
pound of protein having the comof serum
albumin, for example, if fullyoxidized,would
ounce
centrated
yield the equivalent of nearly one
by weight of consulphuric acid. High protein rations, therefore,
for bases.
tend to
bringabout
b. Neutralization
is
of acids.
"
In
body.
ways
there
which
constant
is
tendency
produced
to
from
disturb
the
the
the amino
of
into urea
in the
protein (233) and is subsequentlyconverted
liver. A
be diverted
part of this ammonia, however, may
from this course
and utilized to neutralize acids,the resulting
ammonium
salts being excreted in the urine in place of a corresponding
amount
of
the lower
in
putrefactions
The
urea.
ammonia
arisingfrom
the
the same
(140) may serve
A small quantity of ammonium
salts,
arisingfrom the
purpose.
neutralization of the acids produced especiallyin the protein
katabolism, is normally found in the urine,while the feeding
of inorganicacids or their injectioninto the blood stream, or a
acidosis,
pathological
greatlyincrease their amount.
]
may
On
the basis of
that the
to
intestines
carnivora
and
omnivora
and
is present to
very
limited extent
in
338
herbivora.
metabolic
It
seems
is
species. It should
is often
on
consequentlyrelativelyless ammonia
that
case
phase
the
shown
various
that the
available than
be
may
in
animals.
of carnivorous
Another
difference in the
olism
proteinmetablow plane,and
relatively
remembered, however,
animals
distinction between
fundamental
be
of herbivorous
ANIMALS
later investigationshave
should exist,and
such
no
FARM
prioriunlikelythat such
processes
there
that
the
OF
NUTRITION
of the
which
matter,
has
tion,
received littleconsidera-
long-continuedpresence of ammonium
of
have
salts in the body may
an
injuriouseffect. The possibility
injury through acid rations in this way could hardly be determined
of experiments,covering,if possible,
the whole life
except by means
cycleof the animal.
that
is the possibility
Second, an
with
the
has
blood
and
that
shown
disposedof by
bases
firstinstance,those
of the
be
of acid may
excess
fixed
the
contained
other
these
salts
These
Henderson,
phosphates
already noted,
as
are
in the
are,
and
in the carbonates
fluids.
combination
in
serum
of acids may
be
proportionsthat relativelylargeamounts
the reaction
disposedof in this way without materiallyaltering
such
of the blood.
c.
Excretion
in the
of
an
urine
body
of acids.
does
possess
shows
of Henderson
or
less of the
it
as
of base.
considerable
that
the
It is
of acids
The
skeleton
of bases
in the
of bases
as
familiar
produced
the excretion
fact that
kidneys
are
able
the bases
urine
and
to
separate
of the
the
work
phosphoricacid from
acid phosphates in the
amount
428.
neutralization
involve
not, however,necessarily
equivalentamount
may
The
"
more
creting
blood, ex-
retaininga
responding
cor-
in the blood.
reserve
of ash
ingredients.
"
The
The larger
body fluids,
however, is limited.
part of the ash of the body is contained in the skeleton,which
constitutes
of basic phosphates and
a
large reserve
relatively
be drawn
carbonates which may
to supplement the supply
upon
in the blood.
This fact has an important bearing on the question
likewise
of the necessary ash supply in the feed,while it must
in experimental work.
be taken into account
Long-continued
maintenance
abnormal
feeds or under
conditions favoring
on
the
acid production in the body may
result in extractingfrom
to
of mineral
matter
even
body comparatively large amounts
store
MAINTENANCE
the
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
MATTER
339
extent, apparently, of
while
the other
on
enable
may
such
point which
The
conditions,
bringingabout pathological
hand, normal feedingand conditions
as
whole.
was
found
by
Chapter
that the
Aron
Maintenance
429.
Relation
indicate
that
chieflyon
for
in
by
one
excess
the
of the
the
reason
of
the
ash
the
"
The
of the various
amounts
or
balance
foregoingparagraphs clearly
requirements for maintenance
depend
feed.
to
of ash
another,
body's
excretory organs,
thrown
are
and
needs
and
ash
ingredientswhich,
into
are
the
circulation
therefore
furthermore, that
removed
the
nature
feed
losses.
430.
Deficiencies
in
ash
ingredients.
"
Some
feedingstuffs
especiallydeficient
in particularelements.
and familiar example
The most
striking
of this is maize.
According to Henry and Morrison * average
maize contains about 1.8 per cent of total ash,while its lime content
is only 0.02
per cent and that of soda only 0.04 per cent.
Some
dients.
by-productfeeds are similarly
poor in particularingreObviouslysuch feeds are not by themselves well adapted
contain
little total
relatively
Feeds
ash
and
are
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
34-0
ANIMALS
which
however,
the small
whether
body. If
containing no
the
amount
the rate
maintenance
whether
far
so
whatever
as
how
largelyon
Acid
431.
and
is that which
of that
It is
"
is
is concerned.
to be
In
general,
containing
regardedas
body
for maintenance
pends
de-
functions
termine
de-
which
element.
usually considered
that the
form
it bears
body
the
ash.
to
seem
it affects those
basic
imals,
an-
important relation
most
the
lime
ash element
some
of excretion
the rate
would
ration is
or
of
insufficient amount
an
which
that substance
feedingstuff
at
mature
the question
topicunder discussion,
of lime present, for example, is adequate
is the
depends upon
of ash in the
fluids.
the bases
tend
to have
the
oppositeeffect.
The
relation of acid
an
has,therefore,
importantbearingupon the
of a feedingstuff for ash maintenance.1
suitability
Feeding stuffs differ widely in this respect. In generalit
to basic
elements
be
may
said
phosphorus
amounts
and
low
that
the
concentrates
and
these differences
as
relativelymuch
and
only moderate
the roughages, especially
contain
calcium
definite
of
and
alkalies
of
measure
neutralityin
body
contains
in
the
1
is obtained
in
one
kilogram the
first column
of
amounts
the
in such
comparisons
as
well
as
shown
ingredients
followingstatement.
included
of ash
the elements
in organic combination
Dividing
must
In the older ash analyses the sulphuric acid represents only that part
sulphur remaining after the material has been ashed, which, as is now
known,
a
small
2
part of the
Feeds
and
total sulphur.
Feeding, 15th Ed., p. 672.
be
lytes.
of electroof the
is but
MAINTENANCE
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
MATTER
341
the amount
by
its
base.
The
results of
Forbes
by
sort
equivalentsof
considerable
number
contained
in Table
are
bases
and
of
X
computationsof this
of the Appendix, the
meters
being expressed in cubic centisolution.
of normal
The table shows clearlythat some
like the hays, for example, contain a considerable
feedingstuffs,
of basic
excess
which
is
considerable
432.
laid
on
while
ingredients,
elements.
forming
The
specialcase
ratio of
others have
excess
an
phosphorus
to
to
of acid-
calcium, too,
bases, shows
variations.
Significanceof acidityin
this distinction
acids
between
as
ash.
"
Much
stress
feeding stuffs
neutralized when
two
with
of its hydrogen
had
been
acid
atoms
or
are
OF
NUTRITION
342
of domestic
that
all
regardsmaintenance.
extent
providedwith a
through its abilityto
and through the power
fact
point is
neutralize
and
that
important
an
basic
over
one
elements
hardlywarranted, especially
that the body is to a certain
of defense
means
them
of ammonia
by means
kidneys to separate acids and
of acid-formingelements
an
excess
of the
that
show
is sufficient to
bases
seems
The
as
nutrition
of acid
excess
be avoided
human
the
Doubtless
animals.
assumption
the
but
of both
in discussions
alkaline ash
ANIMALS
FARM
of
ratio
Alkali
433.
is not
ash.
to sodium
the ratio of
have
It
potassium
important bearing on
an
was
sorbed
there
stated
into
the
blood
is
so
that
ration
effects if continued
in the
sodium
carry
in the
of
in other
well
rickets
to
sodium.
of normal
with
the
the
the stock
of
it has
been
be
that fodders
that
greater ratio of
somewhat
injurioushays
alkali
on
indirect
impoverished
phosphoricacid,as
would
found
as
less
fact
malnutrition
cause
serious
draft
and
In
or
tend
may
loss of sodium
have
sodium.
as
Such
cause
of the
ash
more
Such
skeleton.
it
in the former
might
to
with
along
latter.
appear,
long enough
the solution
involves
rich
relatively
previousparagraphs,
stuff
a feeding
may
the body.
ash from
in
may
to
in
the losses of
while
that
indicated
As
"
ratio, as
show
appears
Jahrb. Deut.
calcium,
milk
have
"
to
for
correspondingfigures
comparison :
phosphoricacid
Landw.
Gesell.,1912,
p. 577.
been
added
for
NUTRITION
344
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
to say, since
to determine
how
of any
in the
consists of
how
and
undigested material
is to be
feces
much
regardedas
an
cretory
ex-
and
and
to losses of calcium
to
considerable
the
the ash
phosphoricacid,thus possiblyaffecting
extent
Adding
excreta.
proportionsof
and
nature
their excretion.
For
ample,
exupon
and this in turn
to a loss of sodium
lead
may
is necessary
discussed in previous
the influence
consideration
into
take
to
Moreover, it
"
to
ratio of acid
the
facts that
this the
basic
to
more
or
elements
in
less of the
of the ash
435.
The
that
and
balance.
balance.
ash
the value
of conclusions
must
feedingstuffs concerned
as
particularly
regards farm
or
less
from
the
more
or
be
animals.
probable deductions
previousparagraphsregardingthe
and
need
effect of
herbivora
to
a
be
checked
feeding
can
be
stuff
by
or
with
render
composition
less
conclusions
the
of ash in the
ash
are
outlined
experiments. The
on
of the
problematical,
the facts
functions
it evident
of income
balance
Such
from
direct
ration
determined
the
to
as
drawn
more
considerations
These
"
body
actual
maintenance
certaintyonly by
in
means
of
of
direct
Data
some
of this sort
tentative
for
conclusions
mature
may
animals
be
drawn
are
from
very
scanty
but
experiments by
MAINTENANCE
Diakow
Cochrane,2each
and
the
345
Diakow's
singlesteer.
periments
ex-
contained
Under
those
urine
showed
which
instance
every
an
in
rather constant
of
getting rid
in
retained
was
of
excess
the
considerable
total ration
of bases.
excess
conditions,not
engaged
Accordingly,the
being consumed.
rations
tenance
was
on
MATTER
four
include
much
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
bases.
excess
body
composition even
The
residue
net
case
of Diakow's
of
nearly
animal.
mature
clusion
then,these experimentsconfirm the conthat with rations containing a large proportion of
of
to fear losses either specifically
roughage,there is no reason
fixed bases or in generalof total ash.
Such would almost always
be the case
with the ordinary maintenance
rations of cattle,
sheep and horses. Swine, on the other hand, if maintained
entirelyon grain, might very well receive rations not well
So far
balanced
as
which
that
if it
they
go,
to indicate
Chapter XI (492-496)seem
for maintenance
the ordinarygrain ration,especially
even
consists largelyof maize, should have its ash composition
are
discussed
of in the
stillto be
body without
investigated.In
experiments, it
excess
of acid
the stock
acid ash
an
the extent
herbivora,and
on
in
effect of
The
corrected.
care
observations
experiments and
as
to
which
drawing
would
elements
seem
likelythat
even
and
a
ash, has
of
largeamounts
surplus
Cochrane's
considerable
drawing
body.
lb. calcium
of
its reserves
on
be taken
aciditycan
In Diakow's
such
view of the
rations of
in the mixed
quantitiesof 0.115
pounds
gains by the
1000
body.
Landw.
In Cochrane's
2 Penna.
Inst, of An. Nutr., unpublished results.
Jahrb.,44 (1913),833.
1
Beitrage,etc., Heft, 1 (i860),p. 113.
346
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
material
to
effective. It is necessary
of the defects to be made
use
would
be liable to
cause
On
to
attempt
by
only
the
use
chalk
precipitated
suppliesadditional
which
leads to
demonstrated
in the
calcium
numerous
or
wood
bonate,
car-
ashes,not
the acid
dition
con-
element,
has been
well
as
on
growing swine
experiments
referred to in
compositionof
those
of
remedies
but
loss of that
in the form
"
Landw.
Jahrb.,9 (1880),290.
MAINTENANCE
Table
64.
"
OF
REQUIREMENTS
"
Ash
Hay
of
Causing
MATTER
Rickets
Gram
Per
347
Equivalents
Cent
Acid
CaO
Base
MgO
0.693
0.308
K20
1.762
0-3737
Na20
0.082
O.0264
SO3
(Estimated
from
protein)
0.2470
O.1526
2.650
0.0668
P205
0.380
0-0535
CI
0.722
0.2037
0.7997
0.3240
Such
and
would
hay
is
deficient
relatively
presumably
be
improved by
acid
over
ingredients. In
in calcium
and
in calcium
of
and
phosphorus
the addition
calcium
carbonate
the
hay contains an
addition,however,
phosphorus,it
shows
of calcium
would
excess
to
of
ficiency
its de-
misproportion
of potassium to sodium, which, as already explained,would
tend to increase the excretion of calcium
phosphate unless
sodium salts,particularly
the chlorid,
added.
were
In
the mixed
rations
are
made
of
(435) it
is
hardly possibleto
state
with
any
348
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
definiteness what
required in
wide
field for
investigation.
" 3.
Leaving
Accessory
of account
out
of
and
energy
matter, the proteinsand
source
Substances
proteinsare a minor
consideringonly the requirements for
ash
of the feed
elements
substantiallyfor
required
are
make
losses of the
to
maintenance, i.e.,
good
of the body, especiallyif the ash content
structural
elements
of the body fluids be included
under
this designation. Recent
however, have revealed the presence in the feed
investigations,
of minute
of substances
amounts
different relation
nutrition
to
Vitamins.
substances
the
diet of so-called
seed coats
the
known
nutritional
have
been
that many
sense
on
rice.
by
the excessive
which
was
It has
been
use
the
Substantially
bear
to
may
as
beri
beri.
It has
the
these
been
rice and
shown
"
disease
same
experiments on these
imperfectknowledge of the subjectis
by
the
of
been
use
of
rough
shown
a
animals
on
rice until
that
rational
rice
or
that
disease,resultingfrom a preponderancein
"
rice from
which
the
polished rice,i.e.,
It is a tropicaldisease onlyin
removed.
inhabitants of the tropicssubsist largely
shown
that it can
be produced in Europe
of this grain.
it is to
It has
sory
acces-
of the
cause
(polyneuritis)
may
in
animals, especially fowls,by an exclusive diet
in
quite
called for
be
first called to
through investigationsinto
tropicaldisease
this is
Attention
"
and
appear
substances.
convenience,accessory
437.
which
in
that
shown
of
most
polished
of
our
due.
and especially
dietary,
by
of other
have
man
animals
be induced
be
prevented
the substitution
ments
grains for polished rice. Experithat a subject fed on
polished
the
nearly at
substance
of the
or
substances
body,
the
lack
tioning
funcfor the normal
necessary
of which
in polishedrice gives
MAINTENANCE
rise
disease.
the
to
notably yeast,
themselves
has
has
who
Funk,1
as
well
to
the
the
the
as
notably by
character
have
to
certain
and
Hart
fats, such
growth.
That
vitamins
of
this
Funk
maintenance
and
of
is
thought
and
scurvy
pellagra,
likewise
are
absence
and
of
Mendel.
permanently
from
the
secured
supporting
fact
the
from
that
norma]
from
rations
on
liver
otherwise
ration
It
with
cod
yolks,
egg
apparent
what
some-
associated
are
from
of
be
due
regarding growth,
there
substance
but
investigation,
It
by Osborne
that
apparently
may
as
observed
incapable
seems
isolated
vitamins.
been
butter
it
line
effects.
"
whose
renders
adequate
in these
have
been
yet
such
demonstrated
as
curative
same
this
substances,
of vitamins.
name
McCollum,
been
in
349
other
poisoning of swine,
substances.
similar
the
not
diseases,
cotton-seed
Growth
seems
general
of diets deficient
use
438.
have
MATTER
of
extracts
prominent
nutritional
other
that
been
them
given
Aqueous
OF
capable of producing
are
substances
The
REQUIREMENTS
"
which
it is absent.
The
interesting results
very
Steenbock
and
balanced
the
to
the
play
when
in
maintenance
discussion
deferred
directed
of
to
their
until
that
Ergeb.
Wis.
McCollum,
rations
properly
made
from
up
these
their
Physiol.,
of farm
nutrition
two
nutritive
functions
Expt.
for
of live
subject
the
all of them
investigations upon
been
in
continued
reproduction, although
for the
have
fed
cows
important part
an
rations
Most
with
by Hart,
of
specific differences
and
obtained
substances
These
Humphrey
according
products
may
three
or
effect
as
seemed
fested
mani-
regards growth
to
accessory
be
quate
fairlyade-
in
to
substances, however,
growth
nutrition
may
is considered.
13
years
weight.
relation
(1913),
Sta., Research
animals.
125.
Bui., No.
17
(191 1).
and
further
therefore
be
CHAPTER
feed
in
of
excess
of
stored
are
and
in the
up
have
which
however,
well
as
of
can
studied
purpose
of the
of the
fattening
feed
the
440.
with
and
first
instance,
maintenance
the
from
Fattening,
part
of the
and
while
feed
the
general
The
nature
it makes
which
upon
for discussion
aspects
it is
requirements
animal.
mature
duction
pro-
in
the
Just
for
maintenance
from
lost
amounts
must
the
support
quantities of
depend, in the
the
body during
the
as
be
fattening
supplied
in
excess
will
process
of
depend
gain made.
obvious
first step in considering the feed
requirements of
fatteninganimal, therefore, is a study of the composition of
primarily
The
to
its
consider
"
quantities which
the
fasting, so
is derived
meat,
in the
its economic
required
upon
of
demands
requirements.
energy
since
maturity.
animals
the
importance,
essential
grades
duction
pro-
Such
animals.
supply
an
of such
production.
meat
Fattening
matter
and
process
which
katabolized
examples
full
is to
be
duction
pro-
formed
trans-
of work.
economic
advantage
supply, leaving
connection
forms
Chapter
present
be
may
of mature
meat
immature
on
better
to
of great
better
feed
it may
familiar
yet reached
the
maintenance,
performance
world's
the
consumes
fattening
growth,
least
at
for
surplus
as
most
the
not
as
practiced largely
be
in the
animal
an
secreted, or
or
and
by
of
share
larger
animals
body
it is true, is not
fattening,
the
products
simplest
is afforded
The
results.
expended
of the
When
"
required simply
material
its energy
One
that
sort
some
into
surplus feed.
of
Disposal
439.
ANIMALS
MATURE
OF
FATTENING
THE
on
the
and
amount
the
of
composition
the increase.
"
441.
i.
Composition
Increase
chapters
have
chiefly
rendered
of
Increase
the
fat.
"
The
it evident
350
Fattening
in
discussions
that
the
chief
in
previous
function
of
weights
to
of the
were
approximately
compute
exclusive
offal parts
the
of the
of the contents
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
352
recorded, so
weight of
with
the
it is
possible
fat-free
body,
comparisonsbased on
swine were
reportedby Soxhlet
Similar
that
in 1881
and
the
results
and
Wattenberg.
Table
65.
Composition
"
Increase
of
Live
in
Composition
Average
Age
of
Animal
Weight
of
in
Fattening
Energy
Content
Increase
of
Increase,
Water
Ash
Protein
Fat
Calories
Lb.
per
Cattle
Lawes
Gilbert
and
4 years
24.64
1.47
7.69
66.20
3051
20.13
2-34
7-13
70.40
3218
25.80
6.64
67.56
3083
20.30
5-23
1.68
74-47
3344
91.87
4002
Sheep
Lawes
Gilbert
and
years
and
Kern
Henneberg,
Wattenberg
Fat
2 j
Very
fat
Last
stage of fattening
Friske
Pfeiffer and
Friske
.
years
2! years
2 I years
6-45
15-07
4 years
12.03
32 years
64.33
72.90
3531
7.11
28.56
1415
6.44
71.50
3247
24-45
1401
53-59
2485
58.39
61.46
2602
Swine
Lawes
and
Gilbert (Average)
......
Soxhlet
"
Swine
No.
Swine
No.
2
.
16^
i6|
mos.
mos.
22.00
0.06
58.96
3-i7
13.42
35-99
3.62
6.80
37.06
1. 21
3-34
24.15
i-37
3.02
Geese
Schulze
mos.
Chaniewski
2Landw.
Ztschr.
Landw.
2726
Biol.,20 (1884),179.
Vers. Stat.,71 (1909),441.
THE
The
they
FATTENING
results
OF
MATURE
ANIMALS
353
of these
relate to the
in Table
of the increase.
443.
Respiration experiments.
animals
mature
tests
as
from
appears
the summary
Respirationexperiments on
the results of slaughter
proteinto fat in the increase,
fully confirmed
'regardsthe proportionof
as
By
have
"
of Table
66.
extensive
respiration
experimentsare those made
x
Station
Experiment
by G. Kiihn and by Kellner
on
mature
fatteningcattle. Of the 60 reported experiments in
which
there was
a
gain of both protein and fat,only 3 show less
than 70 per cent of fat in the total organic matter
gained and only
mainder
Rejecting these 6 and grouping the re3, a percentage above
95.
the
of
fat
according to
givesthe results shown
percentage
at
the Moeckern
these
To
earlier experimentsby
Henneberg, Fleischer
and by Meissl
The
swine.
on
gains of ash
in these experiments.
determined
and
Table
66.
Proportions
"
Protein
of
and
Fat
and
added
are
in
Range
of
Percentage
Fat
in
of
Organic
Matter
Gained
Kellner
Experiments on
"
cattle
the results of
Miiller
of water
Fattening
sheep
on
not
were
Increase
Average
Composition
Organic
of
Matter
Gain
of
Total
Protein
Fat
Group
70-74.99
26.25
73-75
Group
Group
II
75-79-99
23-30
III
17.17
Group
IV
80-84.99
85-89.99
76.70
82.83
87-45
Group
90-94.99
"
Lorenz
"
91.94
periments
Ex-
sheep
and
Meissl, Strohmer
Miiller
12-55
8.06
4.26
9r-74
90.25
ments
Experi-
swine
on
Animal
No.
9-75
Animal
No.
Animal
No.
10.67
16.39
89-33
83.61
Animal
No.
15.16
84.84
1
2
Landw.
the
Both
slaughter tests
animal
is, as its
is
adipose
ANIMALS
and
respiration experiments
that
demonstrate
which
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
354
the
the
comparative
fatteningof
mature
tissue and
to
limited
also in the
extent
muscles.
of the
"
Table
67.
Average
"
Composition
of
Organic
Gained
Matter
in
Fattening
Minimum
64-57%
4-26%
Fat
.
Protein
444.
however,
chieflyof
small
This
that while
fat there
actual
which
the
It is
of mineral
matter.
gain of proteinin
from
appears
metabolism
over
"
amounts
The
gain of protein.
The
Table
not
was
includes both
68, which
experiments,most
composition of the
cases
some
of which
increase
are
has
inconsiderable.
slaughtertests
identical with
been
those
and
from
calculated.
of these
experiments
considerable
the feed contained
a
surplus of protein
that necessary
for maintenance.
Such a surplusof protein,
probably safe
shown
to
that
assume
in most
may
or
was
in
represent in part
in the soluble
small
Chapter
actual
an
is
tively
body, while in addition,a relaaccounted
for by the growth of hoof,
protein of
amount
IX
of
the
the
cattle
and
swine.
Moreover,
FATTENING
THE
OF
ANIMALS
MATURE
355
of fat is
laying on
Table
68.
Gain
"
of
Protein
Animals
Mature
by
AverCharacter
Experiment
age
of
Live
Weight
Cattle
Kiihn
and
Metabolism
Kellner
Sheep
and
Weiske
Pfeiffer and
and
Kern
and
Kgs.
Grams
667
82.0
Per
Live
1000
Wt.
O.123
Mul-
ler
Henneberg,
berg
Henneberg
Per
Head
of
Fleischer
Henneberg,
Daily
Gain
Protein
Metabolism
34-2
8.50
O.248
Metabolism
54-8
9.24
O.169
36.45
9.346
Watten-
Pfeiffer
Slaughter
48.3
Metabolism
43-5
Metabolism
Kalb
38.5
Friske
Metabolism
Slaughter
35-2
Pfeiffer and
Metabolism
36.7
Slaughter
36.7
Friske
35-2
Swine
Soxhlet
Slaughter
"7-5
70.0
Meissl
Metabolism
104.0
125.0
{ 140.0
Geese
Schulze
Slaughter
1
The
The
same
animals
were
is not
used
included
3-9
in the gain.
356
NUTRITION
Influence
445.
meat.
ANIMALS
the
fattening on
pose
fatteningconsists largelyin an increase of adiin the ordinary sense, it has an
important effect
the composition of lean meat
in the commercial
of the muscle
tissue proper
that
(fat-free
upon
tissue
upon
and
sense
FARM
While
"
both
of
OF
meat).
Percentage of fat.
is by no means
meat
fibers
only muscular
lean
What
"
Fig.
which
37.
The
"
themselves
Porterhouse
steak from
marbling of meat.
(Illinois
Experiment Station.)
degrees of magnitude
the
the
found
of intramuscular
in the so-called
cause
between
prime
the
steer.
tissue of all
bundles
muscle
and
tensive
(86). Fattening, especiallyinmarked
of connective
masses
separate muscles
fattening,
may
Such
free from
they contain,but
between
is
meat,
increase
as
in the
is evident
to
storage
the
eye
marbling."
analyses of lean
meat
as
are
recorded
confirm
the
dence
evi-
U.
S.
publication may
serve
33.
to
THE
Table
FATTENING
69.
Fat
"
OF
Fresh
in
MATURE
Lean
ANIMALS
Meat
Leyder
"
357
and
Pyro
Very
Fat
Cow
Neck
Leg
2.8
5-8
Flank
8.8
Tenderloin
12.9
Similarly,Braman
in lean
from
meat
found
medium
the
fat
following percentages
(common)
and
of fat
well-fattened
(prime)steer.
Table
70.
Fat
"
in
Fresh
Lean
Meat
Braman
"
Porterhouse
12.71
6.66
Round
.
in making such
practicaldifficulty
comparisons arises in the
of
the
fat sursample. Obviously, the subcutaneous
preparation
rounding
A
the
should
meat
of fat found
be
discarded
between
the
and
the
same
is true
of the
largemasses
just what part of
of a fat animal
the adipose tissue scattered through the meat
should
be regarded as mechanicallyseparableand what part should be regarded
is
difficult
ferences
Difto
as
decide.
belonging to the meat
proper
in the trimming of the piecesmay
for some
of the
account
irregularresults found by recent experimenters.
Extractives.
increases
"
It
the
be
to
appears
muscles,but
extractives
established
of
that
fattening
well as
as
nitrogenous
For example,
causes
a
deposition of fat in and about them.
and Wattenberg's experiments on
in Henneberg, Kern
sheep,
included in Table 65, the composition of the meat
from
the lean
and
from
the very
tissue)computed
fat animal
the muscles
freed
(partially
to the fat-free
state, was
"
from
connective
358
OF
NUTRITION
Table
71.
Composition
"
ANIMALS
FARM
Meat
Fat-free
of
Thin
of
Sheep
Sheep
Very
Fat
Sheep
Water
79.41
79.02
Insoluble
15.85
15-73
protein
Extractives
Soluble
protein
Non-protein
.
I.29
i-93
2.18
2.17
1.27
1.
Ash
15
extractives
Total
5-25
100.00
It is
computed
that
were
as
the actual
follows
"
38.7 Grms.
protein
Extractives
Protein
Non-protein
Ash
82.0
Grms.
4.2
Grms.
"9.2
Grms.
77.0
Total
Somewhat
similar
results
obtained
were
later
by
Grms.
15.7 Grms.
the
same
Evidently this
experiments on fattening lambs.
increase in the soluble nitrogenous compounds of the muscles
of the factors going to make
is one
gain of
up the observed
proteinby fatteninganimals.
authors
in
fatteningof animals as a
commercial
is a practice based
on
experience,which
process
has shown
that the tenderness and palatability
of the meat
are
is willing
to
materiallyincreased thereby,so that the consumer
pay a higher price for it. It is to this improvement in quality
in the first instance,and only secondarily
to the gain in weight,
446.
that
Object of fattening.
"
for his
The
profit.
as
composition of the increase in fattening
what
recorded in the foregoingparagraphs serve
to show
are
the principalfactors in this improvement in the qualityof the
meat.
They are, first,the deposition of the intermuscular
The
facts
to the
36"
NUTRITION
Net
storage of energy
in
the feed
that
energy
in
Chapter VIII.
fatteningrations.
The
same
Just
as
is measured
maintenance
prevents,
its net
so
storage of
body
energy
brought
by
be illustrated
may
Kellner upon
a mature
to
of
mixed
basal
second
column
determining
ration
the
fourth
Determination
"
the
This
the net
well
value
for fattening,
followingrespirationexperiment
already
the
to
conception, as
energy
ox, in which
third
extended
meadow
sufficient to
column
energy
hay
computed
contained
gain.
some
cause
the metabolizable
the
added
was
in the
energy
heat production,
observed
fat.
gain of proteinand
72.
by
be
considered
about.
"
rations,the
and
Table
the
by
been
of a feed for
value
energy
which
loss of body energy
it
for fattening
is measured
by
value
the method
two
the net
of determination.
Method
of the
deducted, has
conception may
energy
as
The
been
losses have
various
449.
is not
reason
or
escapes utilization for one
The
of
the
value
net
as
conception
energy
ing
expressavailable after
part of the feed energy which remains
another.
the
"
loss.
accomplished without some
feeding,so in fattening,a considerable
maintenance
portion of
these
for fattening
needs.
its immediate
As
ANIMALS
values
energy
conception.
fatteningmay be
a
possiblefuture
This
FARM
the process
of
Physiologically,
regarded as a storingup by the animal,against
of
scarcity,of feed energy supplied in excess
General
448.
OF
of
Net
Energy
Value
for
Fattening
Energy
Fat
and
Protein
Gained
Body
of
by
Therms
Basal
ration +
Basal
ration
hay
4.24
2.02
Difference
Difference
Each
gain
of
2.22
per lb. of
0.288
hay
ration
Therm
resulted
in
of energy.
FATTENING
THE
This
its net
was
Table
with
37
in
MATURE
OF
for
fattening.A comparison
(364),showing the results of a
value
energy
Chapter VIII
of the
361
ANIMALS
value for
maintenance, renders
evident the identityof the method
employed in the two cases,
the only difference being that in one
the comparison between
case
determination
the two
energy
rations is made
in the other
and
net
above
case
in maintenance
the
below
it.
point of
It is evident
feeding,there
is
maintenance
that in
fattening,
considerable
expenditure
the consumption of feed, so that
of energy
consequent upon
is actually stored up in
only part of the metabolizable
energy
the gain by the body.
In the experiment given as an
tration,
illusTherm
of
one
pound of the hay contained
0.714
metabolizable
of which only 0.288 Therm
or
40.7 per
energy,
in
the
recovered
cent
was
gain.
as
450.
The
Relative
values
causes
which
same
of
are
course
of energy
for
result
and
considered
the
heavier
in the formation
would
maintenance
were
addition, it would
In
in
appear
less
fattening.
"
rations of the
that
of fat from
or
more
for
the
fatteninganimal.
chemical
volved
changes in-
proteinsand carbohydrates
evolution
of
heat.
Whatever
Energy
of
content
gain.
"
Since
the
net
energy
value
as
feeding stuff or ration for fattening,
explained in the
foregoingparagraphs, is that part of its total energy which can
in the increase,it follows that the
be stored up by the animal
of
Compare Armsby
and
(1915), 435.
362
NUTRITION
of such
ration
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
of net energy
supply an amount
equal to the maintenance
requirement plus the quantity of
contained
in the gain made.
The
latter quantity,however,
energy
be computed approximately from
the data given in
may
" 1 regardingthe chemical composition of the increase in live
of
weight during fattening.Estimating the energy content
protein at 2586 Cals. per pound (5.7Cals. per gram) and that
of fat at 4309 Cals. per pound (9.5Cals. per gram), the energy
of one
in the last column
shown
content
as
pound of increase was
animal
an
must
65 (442).
of Table
the range
apparently questionable results,1
and average
of the remainder
follows.
are
as
what
Although somevariable
indicate
that
the
of
entire
an
on
they
average
fattening period a pound of increase in live weight in cattle,
sheep and swine is equivalent to about 3.25 Therms.
Excluding
Table
"
Energy
per
Pound
Increase
in
Live
Weight
Therms
Maximum
4.002
2.485 Therms
Average
3-245
in
be
can
73.
Minimum
452.
are
two
Influence
The
Therms
just cited
those of an
entire fatteningperiod. There
most
cases
little doubt, however, that the composition of the increase
and its energy
content
vary materiallyas the fattening
of
stage of fattening.
"
results
advances.
This appears
upon
regarded
was
as
animal
had
weight
occurred.
fat"
animal
and
Wattenberg's
fed for
10
weeks
sults
re-
and
The
according to local standards.
"very fat"
fed for 29 weeks, or until no
further gain in live
As the table shows, the total gain by the "very
fat
been
"
Pfeiffer and
an
swine
No.
has
also been
omitted
for
similar
reason.
FATTENING
THE
OF
MATURE
363
ANIMALS
with thin
earlier stages of fattening,especially
animals, the storage of fat is accompanied by a considerable
During
the
will
net energy
Evidently, then, more
be requiredin a fatteningration to produce a pound of increase
in live weight toward the close of the fatteningprocess than at
is entirely
in harmony with the exits beginning,a fact which
perience
of feeders that gains become
increasinglyexpensiveas
the animals
So far
as
become
fatter.
definite conclusions
are
warranted
that
seem
from
the rather
to
maintenance)
about
a
requirementmay
Protein
453.
Protein
or
perhaps even
more.
requirementsfor fattening
unnecessary
for
fat
production.
"
It
was
in the
Chapter V (247-249) that body fat,especially
of farm animals,.is derived
case
chieflyfrom the non-nitrogenous
nutrients of the feed,proteinplaying but a subordinate
role in its production, and Kellner
has shown
(769) that the
proportion of the energy of protein which can be stored up by
less than the correspondmature
ing
fatteninganimals is distinctly
So far as
the
nutrients.
for
non-nitrogenous
percentage
simple fat productionis concerned, therefore,it would appear
that a surplus of protein over
that required for maintenance
shown
in
would
be unnecessary
and
possiblydisadvantageouson
account
364
NUTRITION
of its
tendency
(365).
the actual
found
to
of
consumed
in mature
in the
increase
storage of
with, of
material,so
is aware,
proteinas
it has
ever,
(444),how-
in most
variable
been
tion
propor-
epidermaltissue,
or
organs?).
all instances
was
abundant
shown
for maintenance,
So far
that
enous
non-nitrog-
favorable
were
It is to
the rations
necessary
supply of
justmentioned.
for such
the writer
as
the mature
surplusof
animal
has
cells,and in part
nitrogenous extractives
in the internal
yet been
not
of
body
of fat
the conditions
that
rather
growth
number
an
course,
that
and
proteinthan
more
"
of the
fatteninganimals
proteinand
(and
tissue
in
appeared
in part to the
contained
storage of
As
"
be
generalmetabolism
small
relatively
protein,due
in the muscular
the
increase.
increase
contain
in part to an
actual
to an
FARM
to stimulate
in
Protein
454.
ANIMALS
OF
fattening
the amount
actuallyrequires
proteinover
any
it
for maintenance, although
can
apparently utilize
necessary
at least to
excess,
in its
some
extent,
to increase
the stock
of
an
protein
body.
requirementof
the
ured
fatteninganimal as measby the observed storage of proteinis relativelysmall,one
pound of increase in live weight containing in round numbers
from 0.02
lb. to 0.08 lb. of protein.
most, the
At
455.
gain
of
Utilization
of feed
proteinby
the
protein.
"
Assuming
fatteninganimal
to
observed
the
represent
real
quirement,
re-
fatteningration must
supply, in addition to the proteinnecessary for maintenance,
after undergoing the various
additional
amount
an
sufficient,
of
of digestionand metabolism, to yield the amount
processes
in the increase of body weight. As
body protein contained
will appear
more
particularlyin considering the subject of
of feed
growth (470,471), little is known
regarding the amount
protein required to yield a unit of body protein. Doubtless
this will differ as between
different individual proteins,depending,
for one
thing,upon the proportionsof the different amino
data are
acids which
they contain,but adequate quantitative
it is evident
that
sufficient
yet unavailable.
as
456.
Protein
in
fatteningrations.
"
In the absence
of definite
of the proteinof
knowledge regarding the availability
the
question of the
amount
of this nutrient
which
the
feed,
should
be
FATTENING
THE
365
ANIMALS
MATURE
OF
of
digestible
proteinwhich, along with sufficient non-nitrogenousnutrients,
of fattening. If it
rate
has sufficed to support a satisfactory
that of two similar animals or lots of animals receiving
appears
of feed, the one
consuming the smaller amount
equal amounts
of proteingave equallysatisfactory
gains,both as judged by
be concluded
that
the live weight and by the block test,it may
of protein was
at least sufficient,
the smaller amount
although
whether
it cannot
be determined
than
actuallynecessary.
was
it may
not
have
Unquestionably,the proteinrequirements of
been
mature
greater
ing
fatten-
for
been
have
rations
fattening
of
amounts
ing
follow-
"
Cattle
2.5-3.0
lb.
Sheep
3-Q-3-5
lb.
2.7-5.0
lb.
Swine
.
Substantiallythese same
figureshave been repeated more
with a few
from publication
to publication,
less uncritically
or
It is clear,however,
even
exceptions,
up to the present time.
the
based upon
from Wolff's writingsthat his standards were
then prevailing
views of Voit and Pettenkofer
(248)regarding
of animal fat rather than
the importance of protein as a source
actual experimentalresults.
Subsequent investigations,
upon
cattle
the
notably
respirationexperiments of Kellner upon
of
that such large amounts
(p.367),have fullydemonstrated
advantageous for
proteinare neither necessary nor especially
fattening.
that his protein
Indeed, Wolff himself has- demonstrated
l
standard
for sheep was
unnecessarilyhigh. In 1890, he published
in 188 5- 1886 of maize and beans as
the results of a comparison made
feed for fatteningsheep, using two lots of two mature
sheep each.
After a preliminaryfeeding,the followingresults were
obtained in
107 days'feeding:
Sheep.
"
"
Landw.
Jahrb.,19 (1890),823.
366
NUTRITION
Table
74.
Influence
"
OF
of
FARM
ANIMALS
Supply
Protein
Gain
on
by
Mature
i, Fed
Lot
tening
Fat-
Sheep
Lot
on
and
Hay
Beans
and
Kgs.
Weight
Weight
at
beginning
ii8-75
98.61
118.56
18.82
19-95
Gain
Digestible matter
eaten
per
kilograms
1000
live weight
Protein
Total
Lot
Kgs.
99-93
at close
digestible(fat X 2.4)
Fed
Hay
Maize
2,
on
3.26
18.19
s
.
1.
Si
19.20
"
Table
75.
"
Influence
of
Protein
Supply
on
Gain
Sheep
Landw.
Jahrb., 25 (1896),175.
by
Mature
tening
Fat-
368
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
day.
Loges
to
test Kellner's
conclusions,in
which
cattle
as
mature
on
Such
"
record
but
most
are
of
one
as
not
ratio of
stated
10.3 gave
of
fattening cattle.
Swine.
are
nutritive
Pomritz
at
show
experiments on
that these
the
fatteningof
swine
as
sheep, need
at
mature
for maintenance.
necessary
The
experiments
respiration
by Meissl,Strohmer
and
the
amount
Lorenz
upon
of fat
sources
Table
77.
"
by
Influence
swine
of
Supply
Protein
on
Gain
by
tening
Fat-
Mature
Swine
Rations
per
100
Live
Weight
Pounds
Digestible
Protein
Metabolizable
Energy
Lb.
I
.
II
IV
16
of
Live
Weight
Animal
III
Gain
140
0.074
70
0.161
Therms
5-n
IO.02
125
0.098
4.10
104
0.410
3-94
Per
Live
100
Lb.
Weight
Energy
Per Therm
Metabolizable
Energy
Therms
Therms
2-54
O.50
5-96
1.48
2.56
O.58
O.36
0.43
(1902),646.
FATTENING
THE
OF
MATURE
369
ANIMALS
of rice
experiment,a low proteinration consisting
exclusively
for 75 and 82 days, respectively.The protein content
of the ration
and the average
lows
folas
daily gain in live weight per head were
of the
"
Table
78.
Influence
"
Supply
Protein
of
Gain
on
Mature
by
tening
Fat-
Swine
(N X 6.25)
Protein
Digestible
Daily
Live
Initial
Weight
in
Per
Day
Per
and
100
Head
Lb.
II
These
few
results upon
of
possibility considerable
the results
are
Lb.
O.265
O.269
213
mature
swine
Weight
Head
and
Live
per
Weight
Lb.
220
III
Day
Lb.
Gain
Live
are
Lb.
O.I2I
I-
O.I26
1.04
of interest
as
15
showing the
of
fatteningof
animal.
The
recorded
of
supply. Even
these
proteinwas
consumed
amounts,
whether
it is
non-nitrogenousnutrients
2
to
maintenance
ration
furnish
might
and
yet
not
economic
in
XII),
of
aspects
connection
the
physiological
it
convert
with
present
aspects
for
material
ample
into
the
the
of
practicable
subject
the
dealing
fattening
meat
more
process.
will
body
ration.
fattening
however,
of
of
production
the
question,
chapter
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
370
be
production
especially
fat
The
considered
(Chapter
with
the
CHAPTER
XI
GROWTH
"
Cell
457.
microscopic
General
i.
Nature
The
multiplication.
"
cell.
germ
animal
advance
Its
Growth
of
in a single
originates
from
this insignificant
in
so
increase
Composition of
study of
the
increase.
feed
As
"
with
requirements
factor to be considered
prime
during growth
of
growing animals, a
is the amount
and
made
The
nature
at different ages.
either
be investigated
growth may
of the
gain
made
during
comparative slaughtertests
Of the former
there
by
or
are
means
on
record
on
fatteninganimals,
between
of
a
composition
of the
gain
of
by means
ments.
experirespiration
l
Wilson
study by
after
tigation
inves-
birth,an
the ages of
and
growth of lambs
by Jordan 4 upon the
the
are
on
record in
by
investigations
Amer.
Thomas
2 Landw.
Jour. Physiol.,8 (igo3), 197.
Jour. Landw., 28 (1880), 289.
4 Maine
Expt. Sta.,Rpt. 1895, Vol. 2, pp. 36-77.
5 Landw.
Jahrb., 46 (1914), 499.
6 Arch.
(Anat. u.) Physiol., 191 1, p. 9.
7 Arch.
Physiol. (Pfluger),
135 (1910),163.
371
and
Vers.
by Gerhartz.7
Stat.,29 (1883),317-
NUTRITION
372
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
calves
Respiration experiments by Soxhlet1 on three young
of the gain or loss of ash, while
the
included determinations
The
feed being
live weights of the animals
also recorded.
are
of the digestive
exclusivelymilk, the variations in the contents
tract were
probably slightand a computation of the composition
the live weights seems
of the increase based
justified.
upon
The results of both the slaughterand respiration
experiments
contained
in the followingtable,the energy
content
are
being
from
the
fat
and
computed
protein.
Table
1
3
5
6
79.
ier Ber.
Fat- and
"
Composition
Versuchs-Station
of
Wien,
Increase
pp.
or
Live
Weight
101-155.
in
Growth
By difference.
Two
periods.
GROWTH
and
spiteof irregularities
In
373
gaps
in the
table two
general
in
that the percentage of water
first,
increases with advancing
the gain decreases and that of dry matter
age of the animal, and second, that of the dry matter
gained, an increasingproportionis fat as the animal matures.
clear if the composition of
The latter fact becomes
especially
of the ash-free gain be computed.
the dry matter
and Trowbridge
The result of investigations
by Waters, Mumford
x
are
as
quite in accord
reportedby Henry and Morrison
with the teaching of Table
79, the percentage composition of
the first and the second 500 pounds gainedby young
fattening
steers being as follows :
facts
clearlyshown
are
"
Fat
%
First
lb.
500
Second
lb.
500
459.
48.6
75-
Energy
stored in
of
content
gain.
"
The
of
amount
energy
it contains.
animal
cases
rate
attempted seems
was
Therms
The
per
results upon
to be
up
to
about
3.5 Therms
per
therefore
cases
the limit
seems
to
The
dimensions
of
rate
of
of growth to
growth.
"
growing animal
1
Feeds
and
age
If
the
be
platted,there
successive
weights
are
or
obtained
NUTRITION
374
what
might
OF
be called the
FARM
of
curves
ANIMALS
of stature.
weight or
These
rise
more
rapidly at first and afterwards
slowly as the animal
the increments
of
approaches maturity. Or in like manner
weight or size observed in successive equal periods (day,week,
be platted,showing at what
month
or
year) may
periodsthe
absolute growth is most
rapid.
It is evident,however, that an increase of a pound in weight
by an animal weighing 500 pounds is relativelymuch less than
increase in a 100-pound animal.
the same
For many
purposes,
of growth to age is afforded
a better expressionof the relation
the
by a computation of the rate of growth, by which is meant
in a given unit of time expressed as a fraction of the
increment
amount
present
instance
the
at
the
just supposed
would
one-hundredth.
one
beginning of
of
rate
time.
growth
in
the second
Thus
in the second
the small
case
in the
and
five-hundredth
one
In
that
animal,
in
Rate
of
growth
different
at
ages.
"
Somewhat
tensive
ex-
manner
illuminating
most
and
other
others' observations
animals
growth
is
as
well
same
curve
into intrauterine
on
as
expressed by
graduallybecoming
the
by
extends
life.
on
guinea pigs,rabbits,chicks
on
Graphicallythe
man.
descending
and
more
Minot
more
backward
Foster
says:
rate
own
and
of
but
first,
nearly horizontal,while
curve,
steep
without
"It
seems
at
material
as
break
if the
petus
im-
In
growth given at impregnationgraduallydies out."
the early stages of growth, therefore,the anabolic
processes,
which
tend to build up tissue,
while
time goes
as
predominate,
the
the katabolic processes
and
on
over
more
gain more
anabolic until at maturity the two tend to become
substantially
to
balanced.
1
C. S. Minot
Age, Growth
and
376
Just 1
follpws.
and
OF
NUTRITION
of
lambs
on
have
FARM
been
ANIMALS
included
the
in which
made
experiments were
by the method
of comparative slaughtertests, the compositionof the control animals
of the initial protein content
of the
gives an approximate measure
control animal
no
was
tent
body. When
analyzed the initial protein conestimated
from
has been
the live weight.
well as possible
as
the case
in the majority of the experiments it seems
Since this was
the gain of protein per iooo
live weight.
desirable also to compute
Except in the case of very young or very fat animals,the results are
with those computed in the other
likelyto correspond substantially
way, while they have the advantage of being expressed in the manner
usually.adoptedfor formulatingfeedingrequirements.
In those
cases
Table
80.
"
Rate
Gain
of
of
Protein
Gain
Daily
Average
Protein
of
Age
Per
Days
ioo
Body
Per
iooo
Protein
Weight
Live
Cattle
Soxhlet
Soxhlet
Soxhlet
Soxhlet
Fingerling
Soxhlet
De
Vries
De
Vries
Jzn
Jzn
Fingerling
De Vries Jzn
.
Neumann
De
De
Neumann
De
2-945
45
2.419
45
1.272
2.169
47
1.248
2.
5o
0.880
1.500
50
1.082
1.844
54
1.026
57
62
1.320
2.284
o-939
1.611
Landw.
2-755
1.449
Vries Jzn
3.085
1.693
i-795
1.974
32
40
Fingerling
21
2.803
2.276
Vries Jzn
3.024
2.124
Vries Jzn
Vries Jzn
1.722
1.246
Neumann
De
21
1-335
Neumann
Neumann
3-552
37
Neumann
Vries Jzn
3-994
2.076
1.644
38
Neumann
De
2-347
15
18
Vers.
161
63
64
65
0.678
1.209
0-655
1.209
1.020
1.723
68
0.948
1.7*19
69
1.062
1.823
74
0.713
1.
271
9.
GROWTH
377
Daily
Average
Gain
of
Protein
Age
Per
ioo
Body
Per
iooo
Live
Days
Protein
ioo
0.711
1.
150
0.48
0.83
182
0.41
0.76
214
"-33
0.64
297
0.22
0.47
840
0.064
0.089
Weiske
140
0.372
0.651
Weiske
177
0.307
0.499
Weiske
214
0.219
0.360
Weiske
254
0.288
0.449
Just
285
0.233
o.475
Weight
Cattle
Vries Jzn
Fingerling
Fingerling
Fingerling
Fingerling
Jordan
De
192
Sheep
and
Kern
Wattenberg
290
0.272
0.303
Weiske
293
0.179
0.284
Just
3i5
0.182
0.370
Weiske
0.160
0.264
0.180
Weiske
328
360
366
0.360
0.382
Just
Weiske
Weiske
Just
Kern
and
Kern
and
Kern
39o
0.238
0.158
0.315
405
0.178
0.301
436
458
0.033
0.061
0.068
0.074
521
0.087
0.096
745
0.067
0.069
Si
5-553
9.029
7.269
5.621
6.852
5-757
13
4.129
6.675
Zuntz
21
1.840
3-257
Zuntz
26
0-757
1.470
Wattenberg
Wattenberg
and Wattenberg
Swine
Ostertag and
Sanford
and
Zuntz
Lusk
.
Wilson
.
Ostertag and
Ostertag and
Ostertag and
Tschirwinsky
Tschirwinsky
Zuntz
....
114
0.442
0.663
134
0.483
0.740
5-94
7-73
Dog
Thomas
Gerhartz
10
6.44
7.67
Thomas
16
6.71
8-73
54
1.70
2-35
1.82
2-93
6.10
7-57
5-89
7.91
1.60
3-o5
Thomas
Thomas
101
Cat
Thomas
Thomas
18
Thomas
101
378
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
the
that
in
error
equation1
with the
attaches
significance
the mathematical
it would
to
this formula
that
seem
broad
express
in
growth
of farm
ruminants
dog and
cat
on
the
in the young
464.
of
Rate
be
may
the
general
indicate
to
of the curve,
used
way
average
at different ages.
seem
of these
form
but
tentativelyto
of protein
rate
The
higher rate
few
results
of
growth
species.
gain of
energy.
"
While
the
rate
of increase
involves
storage of energy
gained
but
is difficult to
of
fattening
also in the
draw
young
1
The
an
line between
exact
the
growth
animals.
equation of
rectangular hyperbola.
and
the
GROWTH
379
XI
"
c/i
a
o
o
00
CO
o
I"
If/OOO/
-""rf m
38o
NUTRITION
OF
assumed
be
If it may
in Table
FARM
ANIMALS
in those
that
of the
experiments
corded
re-
considerable
no
tempted
fatteningwas at79 in which
the increase in weight was
approximatelythat due to
normal
growth,the
of energy
contained
in the increase
the daily rate of gain of energy
and
pounds live
per 1000
be computed.
The
the
following table shows
weight may
results
of
such
comparison,
in direct
being computed
81.
Table
amount
"
the
figures per
the
proportionto
Energy
Content
weight.
Daily
of
pounds
1000
Growth
Energy
of
Average
Live
Weight
Average
Animal
Experimenter
Age
Content
Growth
Per
Head
Per 1000
Lb. Live
Weight
Days
Lb.
Cals.
Therms
Thomas
Dog
0.79
58.13
73-35
Thomas
Cat
0.38
14.67
Wilson
Pig
38.47
17.87
Soxhlet
Calf
Gerhartz
Dog
10
Soxhlet
Calf
15
Thomas
Dog
16
i-55
Thomas
Cat
18
0.864
Soxhlet
Calf
21
Wellmann
Thomas
Pig
Pig
Dog
Dog
101
Thomas
Cat
101
Wellmann
.
Thomas
...
Tschirwinsky
Tschirwinsky
Kern
and Wattenberg
Kern
and Wattenberg
.
Lawes
and
Gilbert
Lawes
and
Gilbert
Kern
and
Kern
and
Kern
and
Jordan
Lawes
Wattenberg
Wattenberg
Wattenberg
....
and
Gilbert
Approximate.
"
Average
0.98
138.60
i5i-53
Sheep,Lot
II
Pig
Sheep
Sheep, Lot
Sheep, Lot
Sheep, Lot
Cattle
Cattle
All data
73-58
2634.00
49-31
24.66
5Q-47
3I53-""
22.74
113.40
73-35
39.20
3294.00
45-36
21.74
23
13-52
243-9
18.04
34
17-93
316.5
17-65
54
Pig
Pig
Sheep, Lot
4.12
106.87
3-38
38.02
11.25
5-95
73-Q4
12.28
1.91
27-34
14.32
114
39-51
568.6
14-39
134
34.66
20.36
290
67.02
705.6
328.0
73-42
608.1
290
300
:
l
4.90
8.28
181.88
5041.0
135.58
1185.4
8.74
106.70
712.9
6.68
27.72
II
456
458
521
102.51
434-5
4.24
745
130.07
520.4
4.00
826.10
840
1460
refer to empty
1272.40
1618.0
1.96
6378.0
5.01
weight,exclusive
of hides.
GROWTH
The
of
gain
of energy
381
thus
computed is notably
carnivora
(dogsand cats)during the first two
greater for young
three weeks than that of pigs or calves.
Aside from this,the
or
results on farm animals,although more
less irregular,
or
present
in general the same
pictureas those on the rate of gain of protein,
viz.,a diminishingenergy of growth with advancing age.
The
few instances showing a wide divergencefrom the majority
rate
probably be
may
" 2.
assumed
The
Relative
values
of
questionof
the
to
rapidfattening.
Feed
of
utilization
of the utilization of
the
be due
Utilization
The
465.
to
as
Growth
in
of protein
tion
considera-
"
relative values
of different individual
teins
pro-
in this respect.
As
that
in
pointedout
was
Chapter IX
(398),it appears
probable
the
is essentially
protein requirement for maintenance
amino
acid requirement and
that the relative values
of
an
proteinsfor maintenance
may
prove to depend largelyor wholly
their abilityto supply certain specific" building stones
on
required for the performance of specificfunctions. In the
there is,in addition to this requirement for
growing animal
"
functional
purposes,
demand
for amino
acids
out
of which
In growth, therefore,
be built up.
the
acid requirements may
differ from those for maintenance
body proteinsmay
new
amino
only
not
in
being quantitativelygreater
different.
but in
striking illustration of
of Osborne
and Mendel
by the investigations
of lysinto growth.
tively
being qualita-
this is afforded
1
on
the relation
investigators
they have found that tryptophan
maintenance
Wheat
tains
(399).
gliadin conminute
of
but
While
amount
only a
they
tryptophan
lysin.
have repeatedlysecured maintenance
for long periodson rations containing
the
sole
have
been
unable
to
secure
gliadinas
protein,they
but the simple addition
of lysin enabled
such
with
rations,
growth
The body proteinscontain lysin,
growth to proceed at a normal rate.
ox
muscle, for example, yielding7.6 per cent (50). Evidently this
In
common
is
with other
indispensablefor
12
(1912),473;
17
(1913),325;
26
(1916), 293.
382
acid
amino
in order
in the feed
in the
molecules
be
cannot
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
but
must
of the
be
supplied
new
protein
(399) it appears
that the addition
to
be
adequate
to indispensable. Moreover, they have shown
proteinslike gliadinof other proteinscontaininglysinpermits
that the proportion of the
growth to take place and furthermore
in order
be added
must
to support normal
second protein which
growth is less in proportionas it is richer in lysin.
conclusions
have been strikingly
and Mendel's
confirmed
Osborne
x from
Nollau
and
Kastle
obtained
feeding
by Buckner,
by the results
and
low
mixtures
of
content.
chicks grain
lysin
high
young
capable
lysin in a proteinrenders it inalthough it may stillbe adequate
for maintenance
(399),and that the proportion of lysinin those
proteins containing it constitutes a limiting factor for the
of growth which
amount
they can
Tryptophan is
support.
obviously another limitingfactor in this respect, while it must
be regarded as
acids
altogether probable that other amino
become
limitingfactors
belong in the same
category and may
is deficient.
In other words, the amount
if the supply of them
of some
particularamino acid which is available may become
factor which
determines
the rate of growth, just
the minimum
the minimum
mine
as
supply of potassium, for example, may deterThe unsatisfactoryresults
the rate of growth of a crop.
in
obtained
animals
practicewith
be
well
may
maize
due
in
as
the
large part
to
sole
the
feed
for
poverty
young
of the
proteinsof
mixed
foundation
which
on
relative
values
the
of
case
for the
this
of
to
base
proteins in
growth
as
quantitativediscussion
in that
farm
practice. Accordingly, in
of maintenance
consider
of the
it appears
questionsregarding the
sary
neces-
protein
requirement upon the basis of total protein,
largelyirrespective
of its nature.
(Compare Chapter XVII, " 4.)
466.
present
Percentage
animal,
the
to
retention
katabolism
1
Amer.
of
of feed
protein.
"
In
the
mature
protein substantiallykeeps
39 (1915),162.
Jour. Physiol.,
pace
3^4
Table
83.
With
Percentage
"
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
Feed
of
ANIMALS
Protein
Retained
Fingerling
"
age,
animals.
mature
467.
Does
not
utilization.
measure
utilization
the
animal
is made
statement
and in that
sense
been
the
basis
customary
proteinis high in
rather rapidlyas
diminishes
and
it has
On
"
the
case
it grows
say that
of the young
to
older.
This
essentiallyfrom a commercial
standpoint
animal
is
the
is capable
it
true.
growing
Only
of
its stock
marked
the animal.
the younger
The
of this
of the
retention
percentage
necessarilyvariable
and
with
the
which
neither
animal
feed
affords
protein,however,
of the efficiency
measure
it into
converts
is
body protein
at different ages.
efficiency
two
important factors to which
viz.,the
especiallycalled by Fingerling,1
of that
nor
The
permits a comparison
comparison is disturbed by
has
attention
influence
of
been
deficient energy
468.
Influence
implied,growth
The
feed
proteinsuppliedand
the effect
supply.
of
is
of
protein supply.
already been
factors.
biological
has
As
"
primarilydependent upon
suppliesmaterial
for
growth
does
but
not
determine
lated
protein as formuin the previous section
(463) represents (so far as the
results are
trustworthy)the capacity of the animal for protein
its maximum
rate.
The
rate
Landw.
Vers.
of increase
of
Stat.,74 (1910), 1.
38S
GROWTH
storage
which
at
would
would
only
The
organism is unable
olized.
as
this is the
since
maximum
possible
be
pound
pound,
for constructive
and
purposes
Chapter IX (402-404)and
in
shown
to
In
other
suppliedin
the ration
in the
body.
On
of
excess
requiredby
retained
simplyas
serves
the minimum
over
one-tenth
therefore it is katabolized
of energy.
of
the added
use
lower
protein
the
will be the
hand,
the other
source
mands
decentage
per-
with rations
deficient in
utilize the
growth capacityof
the animal.
Table
84.
Influence
"
of
Protein
of
Supply
Grams
2-5
42.49
25-30
62.97
2
Percentage
Retention
Nitrogen
Digested
Nitrogen
Feed
of
June
June
on
Per
Urinary
Nitrogen
Gain
Calf
Grams
Grams
7.91
28.77
by
Cent
Feed
Protein
Retained
of
34.58
81.4
34.20
54-3
386
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
Table
85.
"
High
Percentage
Retention
of
Nitrogen
cient
Insuffi-
on
Protein
Digested
Nitrogen
Feed
of
Urinary
Nitrogen
Grams
June 2-5
June 13-ii
469.
Grams
Cent
Feed
Retained
Per
by
of
Grams
42.49
7.91
34.58
81.4
19-95
5-5
14.90
74-7
of deficient
Influence
Gain
Calf
supply.
energy
"
But
only
not
in the
of energy
surplusof protein be utilized as a source
but if the energy
manner
supply in the feed
just illustrated,
be diverted from
is inadequate protein may
growth to serve
in the case
fuel material,precisely
of maintenance
as
as
(412),
thus lowering both the observed
tention.
gain and the percentage remay
This
so
diminished.
that
the
When,
actual
in
the animal
protein
was
grew
older
diverted
to
the
fuel
gain
third
As
and
387
GROWTH
Table
86.
Influence
"
of
Supply
Energy
Per
Digested
Nitrogen
7-9
Oct.
Meaning
Gain
Calf
cent
Feed
Protein
Retained
by
of
Grams
Grams
Grams
51.84
51-87
12.62
39.22
75-7
19.99
31.84
37.66
61.5
82.3
8.10
45-76
19-27
470.
Urinary
Nitrogen
Feed
or
Oct.
Retention
Nitrogen
of
Sept. 29-Oct.
Percentage
on
of utilization.
The
"
ible
percentage of the digest-
content
ration.
What
then is the
conceptionof
correct
protein?
of protein
As appeared in the previoussection,the amount
which a growing animal can
store
to be a function of
up seems
its age (463),and the attempt was
made
to formulate
mately
approxiin
the capacity for growth
this sense
at different ages.
The
logical
percentage utilization of the feed protein in the physiois
sense, as distinguishedfrom the percentage retention,
the ratio between
the body proteinthus stored up and the least
of feed
amount
which
favorable
proteinin
is necessary
to
of the maintenance
excess
ment
require-
as
conditions,especially
to energy
the most
supply. Suppose,
for
82
per
cent.
the other
to
be
hand,
suppliedin
it
was
found
that
388
to
the
percentage
cent, while
with
be
100
results.
determinations
capacityof
only
1.23
maximum
if the
hand
per cent.
The
writer
is
"
of the
4-
the
2.0
animal,
62
growth
digestibleprotein, the
of
pounds
1.73
Experimental
exact
any
other
ANIMALS
the
to
would
evidentlybe
would
471.
protein up
utilization
the
on
secured
be
of
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
percentage
not
per
could
zation
utili-
of
aware
utilization in the
of protein
amount
justdefined,that is,of the maximum
be produced either from singleproteins
tissue which
can
or from
but interesting
data regardthe mixed proteinsof feedingstuffs,
ing
the utilization of proteinby growing animals
furnished in
are
x
experiments by Fingerling upon calves and by Just 2 on lambs
the influence
in which
of a varying proteinsupply upon
the
sense
been
Table
fullyutilized
87.
"
were
Computed
follows
as
Utilization
Gain
"
Protein
of
tein
Pro-
of
by
Feed
Protein
Excess
of
Maintenance
in
PER
Calves
Percentage
Utilization
IOOO
Aver-
per
age
Animal
Period
Landw.
Vers.
Age
Days
ObTrue
served
ity
for
Protein
Capac-
IOOO
Crude
Protein
True
Protein
1.94
2.00
34.
O.63
O.62
O.84
O.76
0.85
2.15
Crude
Protein
Gain
Gain
172
O.70
O.67
175
0.63
157
2-44
39^
34-8
33-5
75-o
101,
184
0.66
o-75
O.79
1.04
94.
72.1
211
O.58
0.68
2-59
2.85
26.
23-9
0.53
o.57
I.08
1.29
52.
44.2
237
262
0.48
O.S4
1.
i-37
47-
39-4
309
0.41
0.50
O.31
0.49
161.
102.0
339
0.38
0.44
O.25
0.42
176.
104.8
Prelim-
inary
135
O.87
1.07
2.42
2.81
44-
1-6
187
O.05
0.80
O.74
1.01
Stat.,76 (1912), 1.
13
108.
38.1
1
79.2
Ibid.,69 (1908),393.
GROWTH
389
high
these
to
admit
or
that
Table
either
that
the
non-proteinwas
Computed
estimate
used
for maintenance.
Utilization
Substituted
for maintenance
for No.
of
II.
Protein
by
Lambs
is
too
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
390
to
Neither
to
solve
of
be very
true protein
digestible
been very
proteinin growth,but
high
should
and
the
experimentsupon
lead
General
for
values
for maintenance
growth
is
net
"
conception.
values
caution
to
in the
that
it may
of
interpretation
proteinrequirementsfor growth.
Utilization of energy
472.
if not
have
must
growth,while
its
of the animal
to the maintenance
contributed
least have
energy
The
"
values
for growth
conception of
that
net
energy
of net
entirelyanalogous
energy
for
or
fattening. They represent that
to
of the maintenance
suppliedin excess
energy
is able to store
the animal
up in the gain
in mind
It is important to keep this conception clearly
when
as
producerof
It is
live
familiar
weight increase.
fact
that the
young
when
more
animal
gains in weight
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
392
(366,759), Rubner's
explained in Chapters VIII and XVII
with the energy
ture
expendi"specificdynamic action" is synonymous
if
from
it be subtracted
caused
by the consumption of feed, and
As
is the net
the remainder
the metabolizable
energy
utilization is of
the
course
net
energy
The
energy.
centage
per-
energy.
be
the percentage utilization would
in this way,
of the followingtable,the second
in the first column
Estimated
shown
as
and
of which
third columns
utilization
the
show
io
cent
per
computed
as
addition
the data
from
to
mature
on
animals.
Table
89.
Utilization
Estimated
"
Energy
Metabolizable
of
of
Milk
Computed
Writer
by
Fasting
Computed,
Katabolism
Fasting
Using
Rubner's
Factors
Katabolism
in
Same
as
Mature
Animals
Greater
than in
10%
Mature
Animals
Rubner's
84.08
73.10
Soxhlet's
86.18
73-77
75-56
83-99
70.31
75-47
experiments
experiments
Wilson's experiments
it is clear that
While
final conclusions
no
be based
can
upon
been,
figuresobtained as
that the actual experiments
it seems
suggestive,nevertheless,
utilization than
lower
show
with
a
growing animals
average
small
differences
be
would
which
Wilson's
Rubner's
results
ttf the
sense
notion
by
animals.
that
young
these
the
animals
those
Kornauth
and
swine
comparisons afford
of energy
is much
animals.
than
apparently lower
utilization
have
mature
be
mature
are
results upon
may
Arche's
between
expectedfrom
Moreover,
these
consuming
little support
in the
higher than
logical
physiothat
by
GROWTH
Experiments
474.
older animals
older
on
those
of Kern
393
animals.
Of
"
experiments upon
and
pigsbetween
the
On
if
9 and
whole, the
results of these
rather lower
anything,a
animals
younger
fail to show
weeks.
10
compared
on
superiority
as
any
of the results of
is true
experiments seem
cate,
indi-
to
At
any
they
rate
The
same
l
determined
the
expended
energy
in
the
development
of
the
in
embryo
as
computed
in
over,
More-
they show
as
figureas
28
per
cent
having
been
observed
after
10
days'incubation.
The
method
by Tangl
similar
and
eggs
contained
may
Mituch,
from
the
Skand.
each
same
by the results of
upon
Cals. and
experiments
analysesof
two
respectively
229.72
(1908),423
be illustrated
104
and 353 ; 14
energy.
(1904),624;
437.
used
(1903),398.
121
and
its contents
sack and
results
the embryo
of incubation
the end
At
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
394
the energy
90.
Utilization
"
of
Energy
Incubation
in
Eggs
Hen
Originalenergy of eggs
Remaining in yolk sack and
for
contents
in
embryo
used
loss of dry
165.77 Cals.
196.74 Cals.
Cals.
125.66 Cals.
59.87 Cals.
of
substantially
fat.
loss of
No
63.84 Cals.
of the egg
substance
thus katabolized
showed
94.64 Cals.
matter
from
63-95 Cals.
words,
not
was
VIII
291.38 Cals.
99.24
Percentage recovered
In other
Eggs
Hen
from
Cals.
229.72
productionof embryo
Recovered
yolk
lowing
with the fol-
determined
of each
"
Table
Used
the
separated from
was
consisted
observed.
nitrogenwas
and reptilian
embryos, especially
Experiments on mammalian
by Bohr,2 by Murlin 3 and by Carpenter and Murlin,4appear in
that the
accord
with the foregoingconclusion,since they show
metabolism
of
greater than
the
embryo
per
of
unit
weight is as great or
animal, despitethe fact that the
maintenance
476.
Summary.
"
foregoingparagraphs
statements
In
of the
the
case
same
may
experimentalresults mentioned
in the
be briefly
summarized
in the
ing
follow-
"
of
of the metabolizable
1
Including the
Skand.
3Amer.
The
egg
energy
of milk
for
growth
appears
to
be
membranes.
Arch. Physiol., 10
(1900), 413;
Jour. Physiol.,26 (1910),134.
15
(1904),23.
4
Arch.
GROWTH
would
distinctlyless than
on
case
395
expected from
be
Rubner's
animals.
the utilization of pure nutrients by mature
the utilization appears
to be
of swine, moreover,
than
seem,
The
compared
as
results
in
than
and
477.
draw
and
ones
at
any
rate
fail to
case.
show
relativelylarge
the broader
for the
it
with
in
energy
to
the
more
structure
transformation
embryo.
mature
hypothesis.
formulate
embryonic
of the
of egg substances,
as
relatively
greater in the young
be
final conclusions
permissibleto
sense,
chemical
mere
seems
Provisional
any
older
embryonic growth
on
in
organization,
compared
with
low
rather
less
even
of
energy
that it is any
expenditureof
energy
In the
mals,
anigrain by mature
pated.
although the contrary would naturallyhave been anticiThe results with older animals,while far from conclusive,
if anything,to indicate a lower utilization by younger
animals
show
results
While
"
from
the
it would
be
foregoingdata, it
rash
to
may
be
expenditureof
the
increase
the
organism,since
consists
to
as
the animal
diminishing extent
of
proteinand
to
an
normal
feed of its
energy
might be assumed
the percentage
species,
to
be
not
much
less than
that
ex-
396
OF
NUTRITION
hibited
proportional
to
energy
values
might
be used
absolute
The
also to
an
the
for
of
rate
to
of course,
mean,
for maintenance
be
the
practically
that
and
measure
values
at any
the
net
fattening
if not
their
growing animals.
clusion
validityof this provisionalcon-
and profitable
field for investigation.
interesting
The
Contrast
would
feeding stuffs
energy
determination
" 3.
animals
of
net
offers
478.
This
it.
and
animal
the mature
by
ANIMALS
FARM
Feed
with
Requirements
fattening.
"
conception of
In
for
the
Growth
case
of
fattening
the feed
as
requirement,particularly
since the extent
of the
artificial,
animal
amount
is
and
character
capable of making
of the increase
under
normal
the young
conditions.
which
Mo.
Soc. Prom.
has been
made
GROWTH
Total
479.
increase
in
397
normal
growth
at
different
ages.
"
The
given by which
its amount
estimated.
regards energy,
As
for farm
at
animals, but
any
fewer
the
be
approximately
are
available,especially
8i
(464) shows
ing
diminish-
the animal
grows older.
ent
the followingtabulation the daily gain of protein at differof
rate
In
may
data
in Fig.
graphicrepresentation
39
age
gain of
energy
as
calculated by means
of the formula justmentioned
and the gain of energy estimated from the smoothed graph
ages has
of
Fig. 39.
been
The
of
expression
Table
91.
"
two
togethermay
the normal
Daily
Increase
Age
io
20
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
1
I
2\
1
increase
in
Growth
be taken
in
per
growth at
iooo
approximate
an
as
different ages.
Pounds
Live
Weight
Protein
Energy
Pounds
Therms
days
4-50
24-5
days
days
days
days
days
days
days
days
days
days
days
3-38
21.8
2.70
20.0
I.50
16.O
I.23
13.O
O.96
n-5
0.79
10.0
O.68
9.0
0.59
8-5
0.52
7-5
o.47
7.0
0.42
6-5
year
0.35
5-5
years
O.24
4.0
years
O.I5
2-5
39"
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
B
o
a
o
o
o
""
"
Therms
per
iooo
NUTRITION
400
Table
92.
Average
"
Gains
by
Live
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
Growing
Calves
per
Pounds
iooo
Weight
animals
Similar
"
estimated
are
larger breeds
assumed
should
that
the
uniform
be
would
old.
The
it
being
mately
approxi-
year,
at
that the
an
reach
energy
the heavier
on
animals
compiled
as
since it may
by heavy
fattening,
mals
for the weights and gains that the anithe figures
from
that
of his statement
basis
obtained
were
computed
the
rate.
It is evident
by Henry
on
weight of
content
it
feedingfor
would
per
about
pound
pounds at about
of gain is estimated
320
10
on
months
the
sumption
as-
increase
Feeds
and
p. 499.
GROWTH
Table
93.
Average
"
Gains
401
Growing
by
Pigs
per
iooo
Pounds
Live
Weight
482.
Estimated
averages.
"
The
foregoing results
have
been
results
for
calves
approximate
by
these
appear
for
the
pigs, respectively,
following
of the average
of gain of energy
rate
similar data
No
species have been obtained.
estimates
two
to
and
be
The
available
for
other
speciesof
farm
animals.
mutton
breeds.
2
OF
NUTRITION
402
Table
94.
Estimated
"
Rate
of
Pounds
FARM
Gain
Live
ANIMALS
Energy
of
Day
per
and
iooo
Weight
Cattle
Age
(and
Swine
Sheep?)
days
60 days
90 days
120
days
150 days
180 days
210
days
270 days
365 days
30
Therms
Therms
18.O
20.0
13-5
14-5
11.0
II.O
9.0
9.0
7-5
8.8
6.0
7-5
18 months
5-25
7.0
5.o
6-5
4-75
6.0
4-5
24 months
30 months
4-25
4.0
It cannot
be
claimed
that
the
foregoing computations
are
The
ment
data are
particularlysatisfactory.
scanty, and the eleof personal judgment unavoidably enters, especially
into
the
estimates
of the
value of
energy
there
Nevertheless, while
weight.
divergenciesat
unit
of increase
in live
considerable
very
is after all a certain general
certain
are
points,there
and they may
agreement in the results,
perhaps serve as a first
an
approximation towards
expression of the growth capacity
of farm
animals
in terms
of energy
storage.
It is much
to
be
great
Total
attempt
per
ages.
An
energy
show
requirements.
"
The
foregoing figures
to
1000
difficulty.
GROWTH
not
only supplynet
made,
sufficient net
total
the
ages
energy
and from
94
maintenance, the
for
energy
net
Table
from
energy
indicated
as
403
required by
of the two
animal.
the
the estimated
the energy
sum
live
weight
being
Computing
at
different
and
by
Table
b of the
IV
Appendix.
Protein
484.
Minimum
requirements
requirement.
As
"
with
the
energy
of
the
a
feed, the proteinsupply of the growing animal is essentially
certain
factor.
A
deficient
lacking
supply or one
limiting
check
porarily
essential
(465), may
building stones"
growth temor
permanently through simple lack of material,but
that a surplus of protein can
it does
not
materially
appear
"
growth.
of the estimates of the
Granting the approximate accuracy
actual gain of protein in normal
on
growth made
previous
f
eed
of
the
quired
(463, 479),
protein requantity
digestible
pages
in the ration of the growing animal
at any
particular
be conwhat proportionof the latter can
verted
age will depend upon
the percentage
into body proteinand stored up, i.e.,
upon
in the
utilization of the feed protein (470). As was
shown
preceding section, however, this is very imperfectlyknown.
and Just'sresults (471),it be
If, on the basis of Fingerling's
assumed
that the utilization may
approach 100 per cent, then
stimulate
estimated in Table
the amounts
about
of
the rate
0.5 per
1000
digestible
protein which must
normal increase of proteintissue.
of
485.
Results
in
experienceseems
proteinthan is
if not
there
the
are
few
91
practice.
"
show
to
that
As
a
suppliedto support
be
the
of
fact, however,
liberal supply of feed
matter
more
indicated
necessary
tageous
by these estimates is at least advanWhile
in the actual rearingof animals.
on
investigations
determination
of the
1
record
minimum
directed
to
specifically
protein requirements of
NUTRITION
404
OF
the increase
are
immature
weight
has
reasonably similar
protein.
ANIMALS
considerable
otherwise
of
FARM
number
of
fatteninganimals, in
been
but
determined
upon
ments,
experiwhich
rations
containingvarying proportions
In the immature
safe to assume
that the
fatteninganimal, it seems
of
is
to the
maintenance)
protein(in excess
appliedsubstantially
of
and
this
that
the
with
growth
growth goes on parallel
support
less independent of it. There appears
or
fatteningprocess but more
evidence that protein specifically
ing,
to be no
stimulates or aids fattenthat conclusions regarding the protein supply drawn
from
so
fatteningexperimentsmay be regarded as applicableto growth without
fattening.
feed
If in such
of feed
experiment, in which the total amounts
consumed
do not
differ widely, it appears
that
the smaller
of protein has been as efficient as the largeras regards
amount
in
to be normal
gain in live weight, and if the gain appears
amount, there is a strong presumption that the lesser amount
of protein was
for
at least sufficient for the needs
of the animal
growth and maintenance, while if a block test shows a normal
character
of increase this presumption is further strengthened.
Obviously, results of this sort cannot be relied on to fix definitely
the lower
an
limit of
furnish indications
regardingit.
486.
Experiments
with
cattle.
"
In
the
experiments upon
calves
included in
by Soxhlet, De Vries Jzn and Neumann,
Table 80 (463),
showing the rate of gain of protein,the amounts
of digestibleprotein consumed
as
compared with the actual
gains were
as
follows
Table
95.
"
"
Protein
Consumed
by
Calves
GROWTH
405
the
writer
has
elsewhere
the
might
several
be deduced
ages.
altered
slightly
form
Those
and
discussed
the
to
indicate
the
experiment by
to a degree the judgment of
to be
as
interpreted
Table
96.
"
The
much
here
are
addition
Protein
tabulated
of
Requirements
course
the
sents
repre-
figuresare
determinations.
Cattle
of
The
in
subsequent
of
summary
Estimated
higher requirements
gains of protein
the actual
results
Schneidewind.2
of immature
protein supply
from
with
some
the
tein
pro-
upon
two
steers, directed
principally
to
other
questions,
U.
Anim.
2Landw.
3U.
Indus.,Bui.
128
406
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
97.
Protein
Digestible
"
Armsby
per
and
Pounds
iooo
Live
Weight.
that
"
Fries
x
likewise report the results of unpublished
Henry and Morrison
in which
growing fattening
experiments by Haecker
made
of digestible
steers
satisfactory
gains on amounts
protein
between
intermediate
those
recommended
Kellner
by
for beef
for
dairy breeds.
calves
the other
On
on
hand, Fingerling'sinvestigations
tion
4^-11 months
old, already cited in a discussion of the utilizalower level of
of feed protein (471),indicate that a much
proteinsupply may be adequate to support normal growth.
and
experiments2
The
menthaler
calves from
made
were
four
to
upon
seven
four
months
grade
or
old at
full-blood Simthe
beginning of
The
rations fed
early-maturingstrains.
added
in
consisted of a basis of hay or straw, or both, to which were
varying proportions wheat
gluten,peanut oil and starch with the
varied by varying
of salt. The proteinsupply was
amount
necessary
the amount
of wheat
gluten,the energy values of the rations being
kept as nearly identical as possibleby corresponding changes in the
intended
starch and oil. The experiments were
to test the necessity
for the relatively
of protein called for by the current
large amounts
standards
and also the influence of a deficient energy
supply upon the
of
gain
protein.
and
the trials,
As
the
live
the
1
belonging
from
to
rations,supplyingin
87, the medium
neighborhood of 1.2 pounds of protein per 1000
pounds
of
the demands
weight, were
clearlysufficient to meet
maximum
possibleprotein gain, since an increase of the
appears
Feeds
and
Table
p.
670.
Landw.
Vers.
Stat.,76 (1912), 1.
4o8
NUTRITION
Bull and
Emmett
OF
have
FARM
ANIMALS
compiledthe
results of
American
fifty
experiments on
fattening lambs, comprising 5127 animals,
and computed the protein and net energy content
of the rations
consumed.
ing
They divide the animals into four classes accordsubdivide
these classes into groups
to the live weight, and
of digestibleprotein consumed.
A
according to the amount
comparison of these groups shows in general that in each class,
with a liberal supply of feed energy,
the rate of growth
even
increased
the supply of protein increased up to a certain
as
fairlywell-defined
beyond which a further increase
amount,
of proteinhad in general little or no
effect.
The
authors
timate
esthe amounts
of digestible
to ensure
protein necessary
gains by fatteninglambs as follows :
satisfactory
"
Table
Estimated
Protein
Fattening
Lambs
in Table
On
99.
Requirements
of
the other
488.
93
"
with
Experiments
(481 b),the
swine.
above
distinguished
in
rapidgrowth, especially
swine
is
by its very
The
pig is able to double his
young
and to nearly treble it in two
a week
reached
or
exceeded
of young
by
no
farm
much
is illustrated in Table
As
"
other
the
weight in
weeks, a
animal
with
farm
rupeds
quad-
earlier stages.
little more
rate
the
than
of
growth
ception
possibleex-
fowls.
ingly
growth implies,of course, a correspondlarge storage of protein,a conclusion fullyconfirmed
by
of
the investigations
of Ostertag and Zuntz, of Wilson, and
Sanford
and Lusk, cited in " 1 (463) which
showed
an
average
Such
of
rapid rate
(1914).
GROWTH
409
the minimum
of feed
especiallyby
older
proteinnecessary
at
different
normal
pigs, simply to ensure
growth. There are on record, however, a considerable number
rations supplying varying amounts
of experimentsin which
of
proteinhave been fed to fatteningpigs and the effects upon the
and upon the rate of increase in live weight
make-up of the carcass
observed.
These experiments have served to demonstrate
in a
the practicaladvantages of a liberal protein
strikingmanner
instances the minimum
quirement
supply and while in many
protein rehave been considerably exceeded,nevertheless,
may
ages
the results
as
whole
perhaps
are
less useful
no
as
guide in
practice.
It is
number
Wolff
in 1876. l
United
States
A
as
may
be
even
an
For
enumeration
of the
large
of earlier investigations
summary
referred to the
considerable
compiled by
number
the
publishedby
summary
of earlier experiments in the
writer
gave
results of the
same
generalnature.
The later experiments upon
be divided into those
this subjectmay
directed more
of the influence upon
to the determination
specifically
and those in which
qualityand chemical composition of the carcass
the increase in live weight was
the principalcriterion.
489.
Effect
of insufficient
Strikingresults
protein upon
the
carcass
of
the
pigs.
"
in young
make-up of the carcass
pigs
have been reported by several investigatorsin experiments in
which
exclusive maize feeding was
compared with the use of
rations
mixed
more
supplying much
protein and ash. The
trials have been popularly spoken of as
Feeding for fat and
In realitythey are
for lean."
quate
a
study of the effect of inadeprotein (and ash?) supply in limiting growth. The
2
first taken
and soon
after by
subject was
up by Sanborn
Henry.3 In general it was found that in the pigsreceivingthe
as
to
"
1
2
3
pp.
465-496.
NUTRITION
410
protein (maize)
low
and
organs
in
OF
rations
some
FARM
the
ANIMALS
weights
of certain
cases
of
blood, of
individual
animals
the
internal
muscles
were
receiving the
other
hand, the
in the maize-
fed animals.
these
Since
made
were
investigations
fact that
the
mixed
proteins of
it has become
maize
are
nized
well-recoginadequate to support
a
as
deficiency.
As
the
regards
remarked
that in
have
made
purposely made
it clear that
supply
exclusive
experiments it
the difference
instances
most
as
of the
quantitativeaspect
is to
the
between
be
rations
While
the experiments
large.
afford an adefails
quate
to
feeding
maize
of
the
on
high proteinthan
Furthermore,
as
feeding,and
while
not
the animals
to
the
weights
in
one
instance
experiments were
did
the low
proteinrations
and
times
some-
less.
even
and
on
afford
not
data
of the various
at
of the
for
compared
were
least the
of
nature
computing
organs
carcasses
more
at
or
the
were
less
close of the
analyzed,the
comparative slaughter
the actual
amount
tensively
ex-
of
tests
protein
to
gained. Moreover, the results upon the carcasses
analyzed 2 seem
indicate that the rations affected the adipose tissue as to its distribution
to
to
in
the
On
from
valuable
whole, while these investigations
are
the standpoint of practiceas a demonstration
of the ill effects
of a deficient amount
be said
or
quality of protein,it cannot
that this class of experiments affords very definite information
to the actual proteinrequirements of pigs.
as
1
U.
Iowa
Anim.
Indus., Bui. 108 (1908), p. 74.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Expt. Sta., Bui. 48 (1900), pp. 373-451;
Indus., Bui. 108, p. 75,.
Anim.
GROWTH
"
490.
Fattening experiments
411
with
Of the
pigs.
"
recent
more
fattening.
In the Halle
the gradual
to note
experiments it is interesting
loweringof the average protein supply from the high level of
the
first series.
results
content
is
as
The
may
final series
be
obtained
pounds
follows,although the earlier
higherfigures.
per
Table
100.
Estimated
"
from
Protein
trials
show
rations
the different
at
1000
to
seems
whose
weights
seem
Requirements
that
protein
of the animal
to indicate
of
factory
satis-
Fattening
At
weight 77-100 lb
weight 1 10-165 lb
At weight 165-220 lb
At weight over
lb
220
4.0
At
what
some-
Pigs
lb.
3.0 lb.
2.0-2.5
2.0
lb.
lb.
In
Landw.
Jahrb.,28 (1899),947
; 31
(1902),916
; 36
(1907),679
(1910),179.
2
Ber.
Die
Deut.
Landw.
Ernahrung
Rat, Heft
der landw.
(1908).
Nutztiere,5th Ed.,
p.
488.
OF
NUTRITION
412
Table
The
ioi.
"
Kellner's
of the
outcome
FARM
Standards
ANIMALS
for
Pigs
Fattening
cooperativeexperiments tended
to
firm
con-
"
Table
Dietrich
102.
"
recommends
although he too
animals.
to
up
the
Kellner's
recommends
His
figuresfor
age
of about
his
are
figures
from
491.
Standards
months,
General
2.0
Ills. Expt.
the
6 months
to
conclusions.
paragraphs that
followed
at 7 to 8 months.
point to
Growth
at
by
For
of age,
Pigs
of
notably largeramounts
less for breedingthan
fatteningpigs are 6.0 to
5.0 to 5.5 up
that
for
of
for
protein,
fattening
7.0 per
1000
tion
gradual reduc-
breedinganimals
ishing
graduallydimin-
maturity.
It is apparent
from
evidence
regarding the
"
Sta.,Circulars 126,
133
and
153.
the
going
fore-
proteinre-
GROWTH
less conflicting.
or
fragmentary and more
side are
investigationslike Fingerling's
sheep (486,487) which appear to show
On
cattle and
on
one
Just'son
413
is
to
support what
seems
normal
of
the
upon
fatteningof
immature
animals,in which
rations
least
of this
that the
For
classes of
two
one
thing, the
while
experimentsare hardlycomparable.
experimentsin which a relatively
high
seemed
fattening experiments.
measured
The effect of the feed was
by the gain in
uncertain
criterion,
weight, which itself is a somewhat
protein supply
live
considerable
of fat rather
on
than
the
advantageous
protein.
all
were
was
due
to
storage
and
Fingerling's
to
contrary, relate distinctly
ments,
Just'sexperigrowth and the
of proteintissue
important
difference
experimentslies in the
experimentsthey
nature
between
the
of the rations.
two
In
classes of
olism
the metab-
OF
NUTRITION
414
FARM
ANIMALS
stances
however, the influence of those accessory subparticular,
gations
(498,499)which recent investior
growth substances
have shown
to play such an
ing
importantpart in conditionIt seems
not
growth is to be considered.
impossiblethat
in some
such way
have
feeds may
a
stimulating
high-protein
effect upon
the capacityfor growth quite independentlyof their
On the other hand, however, any such stimulating
proteincontent.
effect upon
growth would be absent in experiments made
with pure nutrients added
to a basal ration of hay or straw, and
normal
rate of increase seems
to have been maintained.
yet a fairly
On the whole, one
can
hardly fail of the impressionthat the
estimated
requirements for protein as such in growth have been overutilize its proteinsupply
and that the organism may
In
"
"
made
be
actual
has
than
considerablysmaller
would
feeding standards
proteinsupply may
been
supposed
before
Ash
Growth
492.
involves
requirements
storage
of ash.
growing animal,
for the puringredients
poses
The
"
in
requires mineral
Chapter V (268-272),but
of
new
one,
enumerated
tissue and
involves
in
limitingfactor
in addition
of
especially
ingredientswhich
must
to
the skeleton
be
derived
from
cent
feed.
to 6.18 per
493.
Rate
of
This
cent.
storage
are
elements
are
in
growth.
"
Data
regardingthe
rate
in
of storage of mineral
and
is shown
Landw.
Vers.
Stat., 1
elements
Wien, pp.
(1859), 68.
101-155.
2
4
Jour. Landw.,
Jour. Landw.,
41
21
416
NUTRITION
fact shown
in
of ash
may
direction.
in the
same
of
fluctuations
to
nutrients
organic
draw
to
Total
494.
total
may
of
weights
during growth.
ash
each
of
ash
the
old
in the
would
be
Table
104.
as
"
from
entire
of the
those
much
serve
largerre-
bodies
follows
Total
at
:
notion
bodies
in
to
the
yses
Gilbert's anal-
farm
of
of
during growth
and
Lawes
old be assumed
animals
them.
the
Thus
if
daily retention
average
to
Some
"
ingredientcontained
analysesof
the total
points
assimilated
elements
by computing
six months'
animal
mature
organism appears
its daily supply of ash than
because
it has relativelya
less storage
or
The
the live
and
in the
even
of mineral
the
more
upon.
secured
of
occur
retention
amounts
be
ANIMALS
(435) that
IX
Chapter
elements
FARM
OF
elements
head
per
birth in the
in the
bodies
and
(includingthe stock
of the sheep and
case
the
tained
con-
pig)
"
Retention
of
Ash
Ingredients
During
Growth
GROWTH
417
In order to compare
the figuresthus obtained with the results
recorded
in the previous paragraph for the retention
during
short
105.
Average
"
Daily
Retention
per
Live
iooo
Weight
Pig
6
Potassium
0.018
Sodium
0.009
Calcium
0.084
Magnesium
0.004
Phosphorus
Chlorin
On
O.051
0.006
0.003
up in normal
495.
ing
DurFirst
Months
growth, is
Availabilityof
formulate
ments
requirestored
quitefragmentaryand unsatisfactory.
ash
ingredients
of
feed.
"
If it is difficult
from
difficult to
make
of
amount
the feed in
extent
are
to
which
statements
in the
to formulate
trustworthy,it is possible
Thus, Weiske's
to
definite
regardingthe total
be suppliedin
element which must
any particular
order to meet
those requirements,although to the
any
35
mgrs.
of
results
previousparagraphs
the minimum
supply.
20
If
these
phosphorus which
is
capableof
solution in
4i8
the
elimination
the
on
element
sufficient
amply
suppliedin
still more
and
digestivetract,
one
ration
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
upon
of
phosphorus.
to
meet
might
be
the
An
of this
amount
demand
normal
quite inadequate
ments
ele-
when
in another
of
different character.
the
Since
basic
and
of acid
are
the
and
elements
normal
to
less
degree
ratio
the
of
have
striking effects of this sort.
potassium to sodium
may
dition
For
example, in Weiser's experiments on pigs (493),the ad-
of 5 grams
of
calcium
carbonate
to
ration
of
iooo
of maize
not
only changed a loss of calcium into a gain
grams
the phosphorus balance,
effect on
but also produced the same
so
to
Table
io6.
Ash
"
Balance
or
Swine
with
and
Calcium
without
Carbonate
Phosphorus
Calcium
Maize
alone
In feed
In feces
1.
In urine
1.0686
1.2682
and
1298
2.2570
0.8134
0.1384
Balance
Maize
2.6731
0.1996
0.3973
1.2682
3.0704
3.0704
CaCO%
In feed
In feces
In urine
.
2.8167
2.1950
Balance
2.1950
1.2602
1.6960
0.0766
0.2714
0.8582
0-8493
2.1950
2.8167
2.8167
GROWTH
It has
419
been
body
the average
on
Total
"
ash
53-o
Potassium
20.7
Sodium
29.1
Calcium
97.0
Magnesium
30-S
Phosphorus
72.5
Chlorin
Neumann's
3.8
experimentswith
that the
phosphorus
and
in the
elements
elements
It
body.
somewhat
one-half
great
as
milk
skim
experiments on
milk
Calcium
used
Phosphorus
animals
therefore excreted
and
the calcium
on
mixed
the excess,
in the feces.
and
Weiske's
rations showed
and
milk
Period
calcium
in Neumann's
is that
the
44-5
42.7
the
be
1
Landw.
%
%
%
41.8%
44-1
phosphorus in
the urine
of
availability
the
for these
elements
Period
and
Lehmann's
in Neumann's
was
47-8%
.Si.i%
older
for these
alone.
Period
The
retention
scarcely more
experiments,viz.,in the
in Soxhlet's
as
(493),
can
high
large demand
are
of the
cause
the
was
older calves
in
cause
the
phorus
phosskim
clusion
con-
body,
of the less
phates
inorganicphos1
quite completely assimilated,and Fingerling
Vers. Stat.,79-80
(1913),847;
86
(1915),75.
NUTRITION
420
has
shown
the
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
thing to be true
phosphorus compounds, as well as of
feeding stuffs,while in case
of
should
two
which
496.
doubt
some
contain
elements
the
of
would
of
Effects
three
times
normally be
deficiency
make
regarding the
of
the
stored
ash.
any definite
ash supply of
in the
ability
avail-
serious
the feed
it
seems
quantitativestatements
growing animals there is
an
as
insufficient
supply.
already indicated,
both
directlyand
generallyconnotes
deficiency
consequences
These
body.
while
But
"
a
particular,
deficiencyof calcium,
have
centrated
con-
quantitiesof mineral
necessary
evidence
of the evil effects of
abundant
may
the
of
phosphorus
roughages * an
observed.
was
per cent
Kellner's conclusion
that
on
or
scarcelypossibleto
In
varietyof organic
approximately 50
throw
facts
of
same
of
account
on
an
acid ash
(431).
2
Kellner
dogs
and
cites
showed
and
deficient
young
growth
the skeleton
developed severe
pathologicalsymptoms,
showing
3
in
lected
ash
Forbes
has colingredients (Rachitis)
deficiency
of which
of experiments on this subjectin some
a largenumber
marked
effects on
the composition of the bones
observed
while
were
notable
in others
these effects
not
were
distinct.
very
In
still more
recent
experiments by Weiser
pigs, a diet deficient in calcium
upon
the growth and produced a skeleton containing an excess
and organic matter
and deficient in ash.
water
Contrary to the
(428) the
of Aron
deficient in calcium
bone
and
ash
of
sults
re-
the
on
contained
stricted
re-
an
sodium.
Of farm
partlybecause
their
growth
apt
to
be
low
rations
results in the
and
Burnett
1
2
3
4
6
has
Biochem.
is
almost
in calcium
supplementing such
most
exclusive
with
production of
confirmed
these
calcium
heavier
results.
phosphate
and
or
bonate
car-
stronger bones,
Hart
and
McCol-
GROWTH
lum
that confined
found
421
pigs on
ration of maize
alone and
cattle and
With
feared,since
and roots, however, are rather low
Straw
those
certain by-product feeds,especially
meal, distiller's grains,etc., which have
to be
with
element.
and
so
are
like
water.
of
Forms
497.
in calcium
usually
phosphorus.
questionis
inorganicphosphorus
discussed
much
"
organic and
compounds. It was stated in Chapter V (258),that the animal
body is apparently able to synthesize its organic phosphorus
2
has
given
compounds from inorganicphosphorus. Forbes
His
a
very complete review of the literature of this subject.
general conclusion is that it has not been proven that a supply
of organic phosphorus is essential,
although he regards the
for
all the purposes
proof that inorganicphosphorus can serve
needs phosphorus as being incomplete. As
which any animal
of the two, the facts alreadynoted
regards the relative efficiency
in Chapter IX
garding
(437,438) and in the following paragraphs,rethe importance of accessory
substances,in particular
the so-called growth substances,in nutrition strongly suggest
has
of organic phosphorus which
that the apparent superiority
that of the relative value
been
observed
in
of such
presence
of
compounds
and
the
accompanying
substances
the latter
to
not
been
have
experimentsmay
some
as
due
to
the
phorus
organicphos-
such.
Accessorysubstances
498.
Relation
of
fats
to
growth.
apparently been
of
amount
"
lipoids)was
fat
(or
at
necessary
shown
to
It
"
functions
in
of the nutrients,
growth.
different
Later
gations,
investi-
of
interpretation
Ohio
mentioned
was
to
365-
these
OF
NUTRITION
422
ANIMALS
FARM
the
lated
technique of experimentation with isohas been
of Rohmann,
nutrients
developed by the work
and
Mendel
and
McCollum, Osborne
others, it has become
evident
that it is not the lipoidsas such but some
substance
or
earlier results.
As
associated
substances
for
while
all fats
McCollum
of
mixtures
for
it has
and
Osborne
considerable
time,
reachingperhaps "
cessation of growth
the
but
fat,olive oil,almond
decline in
of
animal
an
by
effect
have
75
or
no
tinued
con-
means
growth.
on
found
fat may
no
about
added
the
to
liver oil
hand, purifiedbutter-fat,cod
the ration
to
that
normally
grow
days,
100
fed
rats
and
after
or less abrupt
weight,there is a more
decline
in
stantially
weight. Subby a speedy
when
certain forms of fat (lard,
beef
ensues
oil)are
that
favorable
and Mendel
after
followed
result
same
essential
are
shown
purifiednutrients containing
of the mature
to
been
capableof exertingthis
are
Both
which
at
other hand
the
on
them
one
time
considerable
the
On
growth.
with
which
has
is
or
ration,but if,on
certain
ceased
other
to
fats be added
and
grow
and
promptly stopped
the other
begun
to
practically
normal
glyceridsthemselves
499.
substances.
Growth
McCollum
in
rejectsFunk's
specific vitamins
numerous
soluble
to
is associated
A,
water-soluble
with
fats
abundant
fats.
thus
other
The
the
"
in water
leaves
than
and
other,called
ciated
asso-
from
all table
vegebut
sufficie
insmall
in
to
appears
be
relatively
of
these
McCollum
(1916),333
is absent
It is present
grainsbut
calls fat-
apparentlynever
plants.
specific
growth
growth is,however, apparent
factors
Hart
and
he
the
fats,while
fat-soluble A
in the
influence
by
tions,
investiga-
existence
hypothesis
and
distinguishedonly two
substances) both of which are
of
certain
far examined.
in the
markedly
with
B, is soluble
amounts
of later
essential
That
the basis
(orclasses of
which
growth. One, lipoid-soluble,
substances
growth
substances.
accompanying
some
On
"
"
of
41
but
231
who
; 25
found
(1916), 105
substances
from
recent
may
periments
ex-
Jour. Physiol.,
XII
CHAPTER
PRODUCTION1
MEAT
"
flesh of
the
the
on
into
"
By
Meat
of
"
animal
an
and
the internal
greater
or
fat,and
501.
is
skeleton
other
offal
cally
separablemechaniof
which,
complex composition.
of connective
of fat has
less accumulation
the
and
general
of somewhat
tissue in which
place and
taken
is
of
reserve
its characteristic
Proportion
of lean meat
of fat and
in
lean
carcass.
is
carcass
body to a minimum
production of large amounts
while
proteins.
The proportion
able,
naturallyquitevari"
ing
chieflyon the feedreducing the store of fat
the
heavy feedingmay cause
the age
upon
of the animal, insufficient nutrition
in the
the
are
ingredients
depending somewhat
of it.
but
Thus
and
Lawes
found
in
material.
non-nitrogenous, energy-yielding
in the narrower
The
lean meat, or
meat
sense
(86),
tissue along with more
less
or
primarily of muscular
a
essentially
consists
hide
organs,
generalsense
are
latter,
adiposetissue (94) consists
The
is understood
from
distinguished
as
in this
Meat
Production
"
meat
especiallythe
but
hand
one
the other.
on
Nature
Definitions.
500.
way
i.
the
of the
to
cent
Gilbert
animals
ten
48.3
per
in steers
cent.
2-2
of 10.39 and
Tschirwinsky reports the extremes
of 1.31
found
a minimum
40.92 per cent in pigs,while Wilson
2
in new-born
pigs. Atwater
gives the followingas
per cent
the average
fatness :
compositionof a side of beef of medium
years
old.
"
The
discussions
in this
chapter follow, to
considerable
extent, those
(1895),p.
35.
presented
PRODUCTION
MEAT
Table
107.
"
Average
425
Composition
Medium
of
Side
Beef
of
of
Fatness
Water
54-77
Protein
17.20
Fat
27.07
Ash
0.96
100.00
Lean
of meat,
by the
cuts
is indicated
l
Emmett
dry
cent
per
samples
been
removed.
in the
fresh
The
matter.
may
contain
average
The
of beef round
minimum
substance,or
of the
much
Grindley and
Thus
foregoingstatement.
analyzedseven
however,
from
figurefor fat
12.29
per
analyses
seven
which
the
was
cent
of the
was
as
lows
fol-
"
Table
108.
"
Average
Composition
of
Visible
Fat
with
Seven
Samples
of
Beef
Removed
In
Water
Round
Water-free
Substance
Ash
.
Protein
Extractives
Fat
.
which
he
carefullyprepared lean meat
used as representing
substantially
proteinfeed,and which had
freed from all visible fat,0.91 per cent
been most
painstakingly
of ether extract in the fresh substance,equal to 3.77 per cent of
the dry matter.
The term
meat
commonly suggests to the mind the muscular
with
almost
tissue of the animal, and has become
synonymous
Voit
found
in
the
426
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
which
food
"
nutritive
of which
valuable
fat,although a
so-called
meat
it is
are
nutrient,is
to
certain
while
sidiary
sub-
extent
accidental.
in
Corresponding
general
meat, viz.,
distinct
tissue and adipose tissue,two
physiological
involved in meat
are
production,viz.,growth and
Processes
502.
proteinsof
the
and
the
"
that
equally true
the
Thus
side of beef,calculated
of the average
in the
On the other hand, however, it
is about
i : 3.5.
ratio
usual manner,
is
ordinarilyconsidered.
it is.
the
to
way
muscular
processes
involved.
main
two
"
of
constituents
commercial
fattening.
Growth.
unfit
to
the
not
The
"
serve
utilize
from
feed.
or
less
be concluded
a
whole
birth
at
be
the
in the
marked
is
usually regarded as
this
were
Moreover, even
food.
human
it would
highestdegree
assimilative
uneconomic
powers
tissue
of
the
(meat)
production of body
involves
Consequently the production of meat
This may,
for specialreasons,
growth in all cases.
early,as in the productionof lamb or veal, but as
animal
young
more
as
case
fail to
to
animal
for
the world's
the
commercial
meat
supply
is derived
from
at least
determined
animal
and
can
at
by
most
the
be
of
individuality
stimulated by an
slightly
nature
but
and
the
creased
in-
proteinsupply (403,484).
Fattening. Fattening,on the contrary, is a process which,
is largelyunder
the control of the
in a given animal
at least,
the quantity of feed
feeder.
it is dependent on
Substantially
"
requirementsfor
and growth, and there is lackingany definite proof
maintenance
that the actual storage of energy in the form of gain for a given
of excess
feed is seriouslyaffected either by the age or
amount
consumed
the
by
the
animal
in
excess
of
the
PRODUCTION
MEAT
for
for material
growth
in the young
427
animal
tends to reduce
the
are
certain
and
extent
the skin
under
The
waste.
incidental
are
subcutaneous
to
this and
fat affords
index
convenient
beyond
what
to
the
is necessary.
shade
into each
other
and
considerations
economic
will
decide whether
by
ously
or less simultanethey shall be carried on more
singleproducer or at different times by two different
individuals.
brief,meat
production may be defined as a combination
of growth and fattening,
which may
be either simultaneous
or
successive,but the production of protein tissue is the primary
of fat,although adding
objectin view, while the accumulation
In
to
or
less a
is
to
of the meat,
palatability
is more
of the present
chapter
of growth and
consider the applicationof the principles
of food
503.
Factors
mechanism
then, as
precedingchaptersto
this branch
of
meat
meat
production.
From
"
producing animal
of which
the
may
the
economic
be looked
material
upon
contained
by
uct
feedingstuffs is converted into the finished prodhuman
production,
consumption. Regarding meat
and quality of
a
manufacturing process, the amount
in the various
for
in the two
purpose
production.
The
secondarymatter.
discussed
fattening
as
and to the
means
raw
428
NUTRITION
three factors
is plainly
dependent upon
productionobtained
the
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
and
of the mechanism
the efficiency
first,
; second, the amount
material
supplied; third, the conditions
quality of the raw
under
"
which
The
2.
the
Of
the mechanism
Animal
as
operated.
Factor
Production
Meat
in
the animal
just mentioned,
factors
three
is
may
fairly
of the
prime importance. The success
to
the capacity of his animals
feeder depends primarilyupon
of raw
into a
materials
convert
profitablylarge amounts
finished product of high quality.
be said
be the
to
of
one
Early maturity
504.
the
upon
of
Definition
maturity.
importance
Strictlyspeaking,a
its growth
one
i.e.,
reached
in meat
more
or
less distinct
is one
animal
the increase
in which
rightlylaid
though
alproduction,
is
which
of
has
senses.
completed
protein tissue
has
of two animals
In this sense, that one
limit first is the earlier maturing.
this natural
limit.
its natural
reaches
which
in two
mature
"
stress
earlymaturity
of
is used
the term
Much
"
limit of size,
substantiallythe same
this conception of early maturity is, of course,
synonymous
with a greater absolute rate of proteingrowth (460),while if the
latter be expressedrelativelyto the weight of the animal, as
of size.
in previous pages, the same
thing is true regardless
The
term
early maturity,however, is used also in a quite
of the animal rather
to the conformation
different sense, referring
has
than to completed growth. Thus, if a steer at 22 months
and
reached sufficient size to
attained the typical beef form
viously,
Obof the market, he is said to be mature.
the demands
meet
With
this does
but
This
commmercial
not
rather
size of
and
carcass
to
reach
he
of
has
sufficient
conception
that
mean
he has made
simply that
meat.
reach
which
animals
maturity,
in
It is
physiological.
element.
involves
a
physiological
than
it
as
well
this at
of
words,
important
other
as
an
conformation
certain
early age
growth,whether
almost
measured
is
to
manded,
is de-
necessarily
physiologi-
PRODUCTION
MEAT
429
Economic
significance.
"
material
There
no
seems
difference
reason
to
logical
regardsphysiorapid growth and slow growth ; that
that the storingup of certain
to suppose
is,there is no reason
of protein and energy
in the body of an animal in one
amounts
month
requiresany greater or any less total feed supply, in
suppose
addition
the
same
to the maintenance
amounts
feedingmay
(722). In
in the
diminish
the
as
the
storingup of
months'
two
time, except as heavy
of the ration
percentage digestibility
requirement,than
other
weight sooner
It makes
than
the
one
in which
that
impulse is
less.
very
material
NUTRITION
430
pounds
noo
in
comes
of
from
expenditurefor
well
the
has
the
ANIMALS
difference
regardsfeed cost
maintenance, since each pound
as
originalioo
on
higher rate
costs
two
the
as
it is laid
the time
which
FARM
The
of increase.
the
gain,as
OF
owner
years
the
than
one
maturing
savingin
cost
of attendance
in three
feed
and
Age
Influence
506.
of
cost
on
the
the
undisputed
cheaply by the
more
older animal.
commercial
an
fatteningof partly
animals.1
mature
On
It is
"
rapidlyand
that
fact
production.
hand, it was
the other
shown
in
(472-476)that
capacityof the young
Chapter XI
no
(720)
of the young
that the digestive
animal is not materially
power
animal.
As regards protein,
different from
that of the mature
that the loss of nitrogenousmaterial in the
the indications are
of feed proteininto body protein is not
actual conversion
dinarily
ormaterial
tissue,while
into
great and
animal, while
no
507.
Causes
it
regardsenergy
as
also
established
been
in the young
that the probabilities
shown
are
than
is
it has
is less rather
than
of greater economy.
"
More
or
less confusion
of
been
the greater
This
made
the
and
digestive
confusion
has
arisen
of unwarranted
basis
assimilative
to
powers
inferences
Compare
568-572.
Henry
superiorityof the
and
Morrison, Feeds
and
younger
to
animals.
of young
and
commercial
distinguishbetween
physiological
of the
and it is important to secure
a clear conception
of the commercial
as
to
economy
elements
animal.
pp.
431-434,
512,
NUTRITION
432
Table
109.
"
Table
Relation
iio.
FARM
OF
of
"
Feed
Weight
ANIMALS
of
Pigs
Consumption
to
by
Lambs
Digestible
Eaten
Live
Organic
Matter
Live
Kgs.
50
Weight
per
Weight
In
Consumed
Feed
In
Proportion
Weight
to
Kgs.
Period
Period
II
.
Period
III
Period
IV
.
Period V
Period
VI
20.5
I059
1029
28.9
32.6
Grams
25-5
35-0
757
35-3
755
38.0
710
Period
VIII
40.5
681
Period
IX
.
39-o
690
57-5
549
as
Grams
787
870
VII
But
Surface
850
Period
Period X
Proportion
to
575
the maintenance
its maintenance
requirement, so
that
constantly
experiment it
may
be
computed
PRODUCTION
MEAT
able
of
energy
the
rations
433
and
consumed
maintenance
Table
hi.
In ration
Required
1568
for maintenance
In Period
ration
available for
was
cent
were
of
Feed
Period
Cals.
2209
807 Cals.
1613 Cals.
761 Cals.
596 Cals.
of the metabolizable
growth as compared
with
of the
energy
only
27 per
X.
regardsthe
increase may
"
Cals.
of the
brief,then, the undisputedsuperiority
In
as
I,48.5 per
in Period
cent
approximate
Period
Energy
Metabolizable
head
Availability
Diminishing
"
the
of feed
amount
be
requiredto produce a
reasonably ascribed
animal
young
unit of
"
concentrated
First,to the fact that his feed is often of a more
and
matter
nature, containinga greater proportionof digestible
perhaps causing a smaller expenditureof energy in connection
with its digestionand assimilation.
Second, to the fact that the gain of live weightin the young
and especially
animal contains a less percentage of dry matter
the
than
therefore
of fat and
same
total
feed
increase.
Production
511.
of the
gain made
even
at different ages
factor in
is a material
is of
of lean meat.
"
The
difference in the
which, as
determiningthe
cost
nature
has
of
justbeen shown,
gain in live weight,
matter.
in
shown
OF
NUTRITION
434
FARM
ANIMALS
by
the
is smaller.
for maintenance
to
stint
protein supply
the
of
The
the
of
feeder
afford
cannot
growth can
demands, the
nearly enough to completion to satisfymarket
more
economically will it be conducted.
conclusions
The
regarding the rate of increase of protein
tissue considered in Chapter XI
chiefly
are, however, derived
of the gain or loss of total nitrogenous
from
determinations
besides
the edible portion,the proteinof the
matter, including,
ternal
skin,hair,hoofs, horns and other epidermal tissue,of the inIt is important, therefore,
and of the skeleton.
organs
to inquireinto the rate of increase of the edible portion of the
earlier the
process
carcass.
Table
112.
"
Gain
of
Fat-free
Lean
Meat
and
Total
Protein
by
Lambs
Gain
Aver-
age
Character
Ration
of
Lot
and
per
Week
Head
Age
of
Ani-
mals
Kilo-
Days
Growing
Growing
Fattening
Fattening
Fattening
290
gramsKilograms
O.I14
O.056
521
"053
.031
745
.042
.029
290
.130
.077
.040
.026
458
it may
be
MEAT
scanty, owing
the laborious
to
About
PRODUCTION
the
only
and
435
of such
expensive nature
available
results
those
are
of
ments.
experi-
Kern
and
lambs
on
and
those
of
that
of edible meat.
Table
So
far
as
"
conclusions
it would
results,
parallelto that
with
113.
Gain
can
of
be
Protein
safelydrawn
of
Nos.
has
and
been
were
somewhat
computed
to the
from
gain of
like the
being somewhat
age, the diminution
than in the latter. At all ages
case
content
Cattle
by
more
the
lean
latter
these few
meat
runs
diminishes
rapidin
the
mer
for-
storage of total
The
protein
lighter animals than Nos. 2 and 3.
live weight of the heavier animal in each case.
436
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
protein(or,more
greater.
512.
Best
the
narrower
the
immature
for
age
"
of increase
sense
While
fattening.
animal,
of
proteintissue is confined to
improvement of its quality by the
the
time
in
is to be
hands
the
production in
meat
of
the
commercial
meat
effected at
practically
Assuming that
same
an
from
owner
duction.
pro-
animal
birth until
fattening
slaughter,at what stage should the distinctively
from
be
growth
begun?
process as distinguished
It is evident that the beginningof the fattening
process may
be delayed too long. To take the extreme
be
case, it would
obviously uneconomical
and
to add
then
fatteningperiod.
to full maturity
animal
an
While
there is
no
reason
of feed
the amount
productionof a
fatteningwere
conducted
to
that
first to grow
suppose
during the
growing
overload
the meat
with
fat
or
toward
the accumulation
of
limited market
of
exists,
course,
and
has had
for the
an
beginningof
opportunity
the
to
overtake
fatteningshould
be
that
so
of fat.
timed
Plainly the
that
it will be
to be
completed by the time the rate of gain of lean meat ceases
profitableunder the existingmarket conditions.
The periodin the life of the animal
at which
fatteningshould
begin,then, will depend upon its inherited capacityfor growth,
MEAT
PRODUCTION
437
If this is
its rate of growth as defined on previous pages.
i.e.,
rapid,as, for example, in the improved breeds of swine especially
less extent
be
with cattle and sheep, it may
and to a somewhat
practicableto begin the fatteningalmost from birth,the innate
tendency to growth assuring sufficient size and weight by the
To
this
time good marketable
condition is attained.
secure
result,however, it is necessary to use rations containinglarge
and such
of easily digestiblefeed in a small bulk
amounts
rations are
necessarilycomparatively expensive. Moreover,
expenditure of feed
growth as well as fatteningrequires an
siderable
(473-476)a not inconenergy, and as appeared in Chapter XI
ever,
The capacityof an animal to consume
one.
feed,howanimal
is put on
is limited and when
a
relativelyyoung
full feed,the more
growth he makes the less feed will remain for
fattening. This corresponds with the experience of practical
feeders that mature
animals will reach a higher condition in a
given time than the young ones.
Under
conditions,as a rule,only the best
present economic
grade of animals having to a high degree the quality of early
maturity can be profitablyhandled in the way just indicated.
With
animals
more
economical
cedure
pro-
comparatively cheap
roughage,followed
short period of intensive fattening,
beginning,
by a relatively
lost.
however, before the capacity for growth has been entirely
of supporting
The
lies,of course, in the possibility
economy
cheap feeds during
growth and maintenance
relatively
upon
considerable
rations,consisting
to a
The
stuffs.
be about
For
the
actual
same
the individual
who
case
of
of inferior animals
the relative
costs
and
of
fatteningitself is
of the
feed cost
in either
extent
feeding
likelyto
case.
raises and
fattens his
own
animals,
rearingof
in
to
animals
and
their
hands, other
modify this conclusion.
In
this
case
the
in
ferent
dif-
enter
business
of
438
the
NUTRITION
feeder
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
feed cost
is
pound
per
of
gain is higher.
Condition
513.
It is generally
admitted
that in the
of the
case
nearly mature
"
First,the maintenance
requirementof the animal increases
with its gain in weight (393). The
capacity of the digestive
however, undergoes no correspondingincrease,and
organs,
of excess
feed is correspondingly
reduced
consequently the amount
and its proportion in the ration made
less,so that the
total feed requirement per unit of gain will be greater.
Second, the appetiteof well-fattened animals not infrequently
diminishes,resultingin a lessened consumption of feed. This
of excess
again has a double effect,
diminishingthe total amount
feed to total feed.
feed available and reducing the ratio of excess
the close of the
Third, a unit gain in live weight toward
fatteningperiodrepresents a largerstorage of energy than the
same
gain at the beginning(452).
514.
Effect
is natural
state
on
that
of fatness
of
economy
for a lot of
economy
"
the
"
of
gain.
"
condition
should
have
For
"
all these
of the animal
marked
effect
"
on
reasons
that
it
is,its
the rate
and
gain. Georgeson
reports the following results
of
3-year-oldgrade Shorthorn steers, the number
in the table meaning in each case
the number
from
days stated
the beginningof
the
1
feeding:
Kansas
"
34,
p. 95.
OF
NUTRITION
440
ANIMALS
FARM
is
actual
the
not
sufficient evidence
no
utilization
percentage
of
the advance
with
both
breeds
recognizedmeat
singleanimals
animals
differences
marked
characterize
they yieldfor
reasons
and
to
in
which
particularthere
physiological
causes,
have
has
the
differences between
exist between
of meat
such
individual
the feed
sumed,
con-
always been
not
been
common
tendency
unwarranted
and
some
power,
these pointshave gained currency.
Digestive
another
over
difference
to a
although those
who
digestionwhat
is
there
in the extent
make
to which
this assertion
properly
differences
are
animals, but
animals
The
"
as
more
they
clusions
con-
breed
superiorityof one
regardsfeeding capacity is often
power.
the feed is
often
"
or
cribed
as-
digested,
by
understand
utilization."
doubtedl
Un-
between
digestivepower
of manifestlyabthe case
normal
found
to be comparatively
in
except in
been
have
termed
to
difference in digestive
as
assimilative
on
different
the individual
and
the
or
animal
qualitieswhich
return
clearlyseen,
assign them
515.
Individuality
regardsthe
but
or
feed diminishes
excess
that
as
of the
whether
are
production is
observation
and
inherited
those
show
to
generally
fattening.
Breed
That
record
on
been
had
of the
ences
differ-
any evidence
that the improved breeds of meat-producing animals
possess
the ordinaryunimproved
in this respect over
any superiority
is there
animals.
An
Armsby
the digestivepowers
Fries,1in which
and
of
no
material
pure-bred beef
in
difference
animal
experiments by
observed
was
and
"
scrub"
in
at
in urine
energy
which
1
was
and
methane,
so
that
the
percentage
metabolizable,especiallywhen
Anim.
of
the
computed
on
feed
the
MEAT
PRODUCTION
441
energy of the
animals.
The
the same
for the two
digestedmatter, was substantially
for
the
the
of
and for
figures
digestibility
dry matter
the percentage of the digestible
each
metabolizable,
energy
being the
of
two
follows
were
as
:
periods,
average
"
Table
116.
Digestibility
"
Assimilative
516.
power.
designatebroadly
the
digested nutrients
of the
producer able
meat
kind
given
more
to
Pure-bred
by
This
"
abilityof
feed
form
from
tissue than
new
term
the
into
a
can
and
Scrub
body
unit
be
may
organism
to
tissue.
of
Steers
used
to
the
convert
Is the
good
digested feed of
In
other
such
evidence
of material
Such
of the
does
indicate
not
the
existence
of Kellner's
(449) as
animals
is available
as
show
energy
of the
were
determinations
made
upon
of net
similar
generallygood agreement
feed,although it does
experiments whether or not
a
of the
as
not
the
appear
animals
from
used
the
counts
ac-
differed
materiallyin type.
The experimentsby Armsby and Fries,justreferred to, were
directed
of this question. They failed
to the investigations
more
specifically
to demonstrate
any decided advantage on the side of the pure-bred
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
442
ANIMALS
utilization
supplied in
of the maintenance
concerned, the slight
excess
requirement was
difference
observed, especiallyin the earlier years, being perhaps
for by the greater tendency of the pure-bred steer
accounted
to
lay on fat.
of breed
In the aggregate a considerable number
tests of cattle,
experiment stations,
sheep and swine have been made by the American
animal
far
so
as
the results of
the
show
to
individual
of which
some
have
of feed
quantity
cases
as
whole
breed
one
been
of the
energy
by Henry x so as
unit of gain. While
in
less,
to be found, neverthe-
summarized
consumed
per
fluctuations
considerable
the results
of
the percentage
are
certainlyfail to indicate
another
over
marked
any
later
periority
su-
ments
experi-
to
we
given materiallydifferent results. When
come
consider the other possiblefactors,such as differences in live weight,
in maintenance
requirement, in total feed consumed, etc., we must
clear evidence
of any
results give no
conclude that the recorded
have
not
specificindividual
involved
processes
breed
or
differences
in the conversion
that
they
the
in
of feed into
fail to
prove
actual
physiological
tissue,although it is
the
of such
absence
differences.
It
a
than to
that it is necessary
to look elsewhere
capacity of the
greater digestiveand assimilative
clear
seems
supposed
typicalmeat-producing
superiorityover
Thus
requirement.
pounds
4.72 Therms
live weight
various
factors
pointed
out
and
figuresof
muscular
called
found
the
were
of
one
activityof
the
his
nomic
eco-
individual.
specialized
It
"
shown
was
inconsiderable
not
differences
individuals
as
in the
of cattle the
case
in
regards
the
tenance
main-
extreme
of net energy
7.43 Therms
per 1000
for thin animals.
Of the
observed
affectingthe
that
rest, and
that
different
exist between
may
less
explanation of
an
requirement.
(376,391)
VIII
Chapter
the
maintenance
The
517.
for
animal
maintenance
the
most
animal
requirement, it was
important is the degree of
when
even
in the
state
of
so-
requirement
decidedly lower maintenance
pared
by Armsby and Fries for a pure-bred beef steer as comdue
with
scrub was
there interpreted
to
a
as
probably
more
the
and
disposition
nervous
greater restlessness
of
the
latter.
It is
rations
clear,however,
the
which
one
Feeds
and
that
has
of two
the
animals
lower
receivingidentical
maintenance
pp.
328 and
511.
requirement
PRODUCTION
MEAT
443
will have
of
perhaps be
wider
practicea
scope may
the individualityof the animal in this
Feed
518.
consumption.
is
superiority
individual
element
of
important
abilityof
the
to
respect.
Another
"
afforded
animal
an
to
consume
of feed.
Of two
animals
otherwise
regularly large amounts
day
similar,it is clear that the one which is able to consume
after day the heavier ration is the better meat
producer. It is
not
however, that the heavier feeder makes a
always realized,
profitableuse of his feed because, as pointed
relativelymore
in Chapter VIII (360),assuming the maintenance
out
ment
require-
Consequently, since
makes
the
There
but
breeds
doubtless
are
in this
animals
as
gain, not
because
simply because
he
he
is able
marked
differences
between
respect. Whether
whole
in view
doubtful
to
better
be
animal
utilizes his
to
consume
of it.
more
of
economical
more
feed
excess
possess any
of the results
individual
the
specific
meat-producing
in
this
advantage
respect appears
record regardingthe feed cost
on
gain with
different breeds.
attention.
519.
that
Type
the
factor
in
breeds
as
and
conformation.
conformation
of
"
meat
It is
animal
fact
well-recognized
is
very
important
somewhat
OF
NUTRITION
444
largerproportionof
of meat.
They are
an
animal
ANIMALS
the
higherpriced cuts
all
important
of meat, but
renders
FARM
there
is
factors
as
higher quality
in the
evidence
no
efficient
more
any
and
that
economic
their
duction
pro-
possession
of feed into
converter
meat.
economic
The
importance of a rapid
of the consequent early maturity has been
rate of growth and
considered
in previousparagraphs (504,505).
of common
It is a matter
experiencethat there exist marked
Early maturity.
520.
"
individuals
differences between
of the
the
speciesboth
same
animal
mature
and
as
as
to
the
to
It is natural to interpret
this
growth at the same
age.
differences
in the
fact as indicatingcorrespondingindividual
of proteintissue,but the writer is
of growth, especially
rate
of any recorded
on
not aware
experimentsbearingspecifically
that the qualityof early maturity is
this point. It is true
popularlyattributed to the meat breeds, but as regards cattle
rate
at
of
least
Henry
has
shown
such
as
the data
that
show
fail to prove
hand
at
greater
gain in live
dairybreeds,
of
rate
in
variations
a
breeder
noted
above
rate
of
gests
sug-
the
the feeder.
" 3.
521.
differences
the
field for
and
the individual
ascribe
to
Feeding
Feeding
as
Meat
for
related
to
Production
individuality.
"
The
facts considered
in
Feeding stands
purpose
is to
somewhat
supply the
1
Feeds
and
material
to
the
different
upon
relation,in
which
p. 329.
the
that
mechanism
its
MEAT
PRODUCTION
445
It is of
maximum
by increasingthe ration.
Feed
522.
supply
requirements.
of
"
upon
mechanism, it is clear
that the kind and amount
required will depend primarilyupon
the capacityof the animal.
The young
animal,with his marked
of the specific
more
capacity for growth, will requirerelatively
materials for growth, viz.,protein and ash, than will the older
animal.
The early maturing animal, with his greater rate of
total feed per day than the one
growth,will requiremore
turing
maa
as
more
and
raw
slowly. The
utilize largetotal
in
larger amounts
order
animal
with
capacity to
of feed must
amounts
that
the
his
advantage
be
sume
con-
given these
in this respect
may
be
time
have
but
already been considered in the two previouschapters,
be convenientlyrecapitulated
here with more
particular
fullyutilized.
As alreadypointed out, meat
of
production is a combination
growth and fattening,the latter process being superimposed
The feed requirements of the meat-producing
the former.
upon
include in the firstplacethe requirements for
animal, therefore,
normal
growth, to which are added during a longeror shorter
may
emphasis
on
economic
Protein
523.
Relation
that it is
of meat
relations.
requirementsfor
to age.
"
It
in the
narrower
was
meat
shown
production
in
Chapters X and XI
considerable production
that any
i.e.,of muscular
sense,
tissue,takes
place,and
young
and more
slowly,until physiological
maturity,when
but
slight
446
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
increase
524.
Minimum
protein supply
animal, then, in
be
growth must
in addition
to
order
suppliedin
for
to
growth.
utilize
The
"
fullyhis
ducing
meat-pro-
capacityfor
his maintenance
much
protein as
digestible
growth. Whether
any greater quantity than this is necessary
gree
deor
advantageous is,as has been shown
(491),still to some
unsettled question. Some
with
an
experiments,
especially
cattle and sheep,indicate that any considerable surplusis unnecessary
for normal
the
other
hand, feeding
growth, while,on
with ruminants
cate
indiextent
experimentswith pigsand to some
that amounts
of those thus computed
considerablyin excess
at least greater gains of live weight.
assure
525. Protein
requirements in fattening. While growth
and fattening
be regarded physiologically
distinct proas
may
cesses,
it is economicallyimportantin the practice
of meat
duction
prothat they should go on
less simultaneously.
more
or
The
animal
the very young
is not
growth of even
simply a
but normally includes more
less
or
production of protein tissue,
fat production,while in proportionas one
has to deal with
earlymaturing animals it is desirable to begin the fattening
proper at a comparativelyearlystage of growth (512)
There
for regardingthe actual fattening
to be no
reason
appears
different in the growing and
as
being essentially
process
"
in
the mature
animal.
required
for
case
It has
no
maintenance
reason
combined
material
shown, however
excess
is necessary.
supply of buildingmaterials
no
been
is
of
So
(453,456)
proteinover
far
as
the
there
concerned,therefore,
that
mere
seems
normal
from
this
point of
view
the increased
feed
supply requiredfor
448
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
be used
advantage,
even
without
digestibility,
supply, especiallyin the case
maturity.
loss of
some
of
Specific effects
527.
animals
of
of the
approaching
must
be
experimentsupon
the
stuffs.
feeding
taken
"
Account
concentrates
for maize.
meal
however,
such
not
are
we
to
not
may
tain
cer-
cottonseed
ration,such, e.g.,as substituting
As was
suggestedin Chapter XI (491),
substitution
the
suppose
nutrients
only affect
the ash
substances
to introduce
ance
bal-
which
such
substances
can
take
feed.
At
rate
any
it
seems
of certain
oil
rations
meals,
them
to
to
the
feed
consume
generalexperienceof stockmen
feeds rich in protein,
the
especially
fatteninganimals tends to induce
freelyand thus (518)to yieldmore
to be the
of
more
profitable
gains.
Energy requirements
for
528.
Combined
growth
and
meat
production
fattening.
"
An
attempt
was
in
made
in
by
net
energy
stored
up
in the increase
of
sue
adipose tis-
or
addition
to the
of either
terials
nitrogenousor non-nitrogenousma-
growth ration.
MEAT
PRODUCTION
449
due
to
in
estimated
was
of net energy
3.25 Therms
to the requirementsfor growth as estimated in
growth proper,
be added
about
should
Chapter
XI
the extent
capacity,and
and
specific
no
to which
it is desired to utilizethis
invariable
requirementscan
be
formulated.
Total
amount
of feed.
"
feed consumed
and
NUTRITION
450
be
stimulated
the
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
ever,
possible. In fact,howother considerations
in to modify this conclusion.
come
531.
Influence
on
tent
digestibility. Overfeeding to the exand throwing the animal
of causingdigestivedisturbances
to
greatest
extent
"
"
"
off feed
is of
and
rather
feeder
the
than
from
aside
But
turbance
avoided, since the resultingdis-
the
outweigh any
may
It is the regularuniform
animal
be
to
course
with
one
this
that is
danger, it
consumed
results
The
increases.
well
seems
of mixed
digestibility
decreases
productivefeeding,
in
rations,such
more
or
record
on
less
of the
efficiency
Influence
532.
that
as
digestibility
in the net
decrease
to be
to
somewhat
this effect
quantity
respect (722)
of the nitude
magtend to diminish
just noted
the
the
that when
values.
value
is,of
"
Such
equivalentto
course,
ration
become
of the
ration
is flooded
organism
matter
less
with
There
energy
efficient in
of
As
as
The
the
appears
yet
in
seems
net
energy
reportedhave
rangingfrom
energy
of
appears
actually
producing
in other words
"
the resorbed
products
and
stimulated
are
processes
the digestedmatter
escapes
the katabolic
of digestion,
share
(764),the
Chapter XVII
hardly sufficient to warrant
that in addition
and
is increased
of
decrease
of the rations.
the
digestibility,
on
the amount
gain as
rations.
energy
energy
be
the
as
in this
however,
general impression,
from
resorbed
net
on
that
would
as
profitable
established
scarcelysufficient
are
eaten.
capriciousappetite.
the percentage
used
be the
to
likely
feed
of
evidence
on
a
as
this
larger
heat.
"
point
positivestatements.
rations,and
values
the
of
results show
no
distinct
indication
of
of feed.
On the other hand,
amounts
increasing
that
render it quite conceivable
considerations
physiological
and so increasing
metabolism
the effect of the feed in stimulating
be relatively
the heat production(365)may
greater on a high
than on a low nutritive plane.
less falling
off in the nutritive effect of
or
Apparently more
be anticipated,
is increased must
ration as its amount
a fattening
of
of decreasing digestibility
whether
or
account
on
decrease
with
PRODUCTION
MEAT
451
utilization of the
combination
a
or
digestiblematter
this diminution, within the limits of the
Whether
of the two.
animal's capacity to consume
feed, is sufficient to offset the
economic
advantage of such increased consumption remains to
be shown, although Morgen * reports experiments on sheep in
which
gains in
very heavy rations, actually produced smaller
live weight than lighterones.
Finallyit should be remembered
that it is the actual gain of chemical energy by the animal which
relation to the feed enis believed to bear a tolerablyconstant
ergy.
It has been repeatedlypointed out that the gain in live
of energy
weight is a very uncertain indication of the amount
It is quite conceivable
that the largergain to be
stored up.
lessened
expectedon
dry
matter
the
lighterration,and
not
may
be
contain
less water
fat than
consequentlythe
proportionalto
the increase
533.
or
of
Proportion
considerations
wiped
to
In
heavier
feeding
out.
to
concentrates
apply
produced on
increase in weight
that case,
recognized by the
more
that
in feed.
unless the
would
and
in
the
roughage.
"
first instance
The
to
going
fore-
varying
of the
the
much
an
addition
mixture
same
largeramount
of
of
which
concentrates
can
When
be consumed.
contains
such
large proportion of
observation
indicates
more
"
22
and
33.
conclusion
reached
was
Such
an
of
intensive
be
in
significance
at least
afford
basis
it is evident
feedingstandard
the amount
as
for
the
mony.
quitein hareffected only by a
are
to
as
Under
This
permit.
investigation
appear
feeding can
and
of concentrates
use
feeder will
that
so
feeders,
long ago by practical
experienceand
results of
ANIMALS
FARM
skill of the
the
and
of the animals
free
OF
NUTRITION
452
very
use
expensive
them
in the
ordinarysense,
to the
little
so
far
of feed is concerned.
it is true,
It may,
preliminarycomputation of the amount
Table
requiredfor
117.
"
season's
Requirements
of
Fattening
Lambs
Weight
Ills. Expt.
per
iooo
Lb.
Live
MEAT
PRODUCTION
453
similar
No
yet been
the
of
publications
"
While
Influence
4.
the
awaits
experimentstations
capacityof
the animal
as
the
capacityare
under
the conditions
influence
producer and a
qualityto fullyutilize
meat
great factors in
two
which
discussion.
Conditions
External
of
such
the animal
production,yet
meat
is
kept are
without
not
on
Temperature
of
Teachings
535.
animal
from
"
feed, it
the
warm
fairly
in sheds
amount
that
better
a
this
of this
feeding in
number
the writer
same
siderable
recentlya coning
has been reportedshowpracticeactuallygives
and
more
comparisons have
leave
doubt
no
as
to
results of
been
the
which
Critical
536.
(354),there
is
marized
sum-
validity
the principles
in harmony with
conclusion,while it is entirely
governing the influence of external temperature
metabolism
upon
in
previouschapters.
in Chapter
shown
As was
temperature.
certain approximate temperature, called
a
were
for
time,however,
being successfully
the
quarters. The
warm
of such
l
of feed
experimentalwork
supposedly uneconomic
considerable
by
open
of
than
returns
oxidation
rived
de-
that cold
conclude
were
cattle,in particular,
and
of materials
considerable
the economic
upon
quarters for live stock. At
of
to
wasteful
past
great numbers
fattened
natural
seemed
surroundingswould lead to
simple heat production,and
laid in the
temperature of the
by the katabolism
is maintained
body
Since the
practice.
discussed
"
VII
the
and
below
which
more
or
less oxidation
of tissue
is
and
assimilation
1
U. S. Dept.
of feed
and
its conversion
the
OF
NUTRITION
454
ruminants, and
in the
of heat
with
this
and
heat
the
which
the effect of
that
heat, especially
internal production
to
virtually
is
animal
for each
of
relatively
large amounts
of
evolution
ANIMALS
FARM
ration
becomes
produced
and
certain
above
temperature
in part
an
excretum,
to be
evaporation.
of heat productionover
likelythat a certain excess
the body temperature
is
that absolutelyrequiredto maintain
advantageous, both as promoting the comfort of the animal and
of temporary fluctuations
a margin in case
as affording
especially
On the other hand, both our
of temperature.
own
sations
personalsenof practical
stock feeders show that
and the observations
both
an
affecting
high temperature is debilitating,
unnecessarily
then, it is desirable to
appetiteand generalhealth. In practice,
keep the thermal surroundings of the animal within the range
somewhat
above
above
the critical point but not
indicated
much
to affect the appetiteand thrift. It is evident
as
so
so
that the limits of this range may
vary widely with the kind of
It appears
"
animal
and
537.
the
the
with
of ration.
Amount
of the
amount
The
"
ration.
influence
requirementsfor protectionfrom
cold
digestionand
feed thus
have
their
at
into
tissue.
and
ox
fattening
Table
118.
Metabolizable
Energy
the
gave
Thus
energy
stored
as
conditions
to
one
Heat
538.
of heat
Excess
over
Age
like animals
and
of
in
surplusheat
experimentson
Fattening
5"92o
20,740
Cals.
Cals.
15,060 Cals.
....
5, 680
maintenance
of different
full
26,600 Cals.
of ration
gain
weight
on
"
Production
animals
of exposure
which
growing animals on
young,
of Kellner's
followingresults :
Excess
"
Mature
Cals.
37-7%
of
animals.
sizes,under
"
like
The
internal
work
conditions,appears
of
to
456
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
be
to
rather
higherthan
in the other
sumption
consumption
con-
stock
may
case.
Shelter
and from wind may
be of quite
protectionfrom rain or snow
as much
importance as protectionfrom low temperatures simply.
is
541. Precipitation. An
important factor in the case
the amount
ing
of precipitation
(rainor snow) to be expecteddurthe feeding period. In cold weather
the low
temperature
A
"
of the water
of
which
loss of heat
affected
the
by
than
and
seem
as
has
once
of the animal's
thickness
the coat
out
of the
some
would
be
coated
the heavier
thoroughly
the
nature
of the
climate
is
relatively,
the animal
or
that
as
is
regardshumidity and precipitation
from
the
that
storms
temperature
in its
in many
localities
be
efficient as
may
as
bearing
roof to
a
tight
dentally,
inciadvantage of the roof, already mentioned
of a dry bed, thus
is that it providesthe possibility
penditure
only adding to the comfort of the stock but avoiding exing
meltof energy in warming up or evaporating
water
or
barn.
snow
542.
One
"
ice.
or
Wind.
"
All
are
familiar
with
windy day
A
it
not
when
will be
of the
indications
animal
Still greater,
wet.
on
falling
requiredto melt the snow
which
it is compelled to lie.
it
effects,
portant
im-
more
is the
the heat
upon
These
Far
coat.
quired
expenditure of heat reafter it is wet, and this,as it would
cate,
to indiexperiments with sheep seem
greater with
become
cause
this,however,
dry
to
is the
which
due
to that
to
penetrates
the coat
of
as
an
animal
resides
Wind
the greater
severityof
of the
temperature.
same
or
clothingof man
the
in the air entangled between
tends to replacethis air with fresh,
of the
PRODUCTION
MEAT
thus
have
therefore,
may
feeding.
Insolation.
543.
457
The
"
distinct economic
A windbreak,
in stock
value
are
appreciably
modified
any
weather
the
hot months
its heat
work
is
reverse
body by
production below
that
from
resulting
cannot
duce
re-
its internal
and
the
by
the
be
cold months.
and
the animal
Since
true.
For
to the wind
exposure
the animal
similar
to
to
a
reasons
may
be of
those
obtainingduringthe
Other conditions
644.
^
Exercise.
The
"
well-known
tion
exer-
of tissue
is
animal
case
of the
element
be restricted
as
much
as
practicable. In the
enters
exercise tends
very
important
namely,
growth of the muscular
system,
Since this is
words, the productionof lean meat.
of
the essential objectsought, a normal and reasonable amount
or, in other
muscular
allowed
activityon
and
encouraged, even
involves the consumption of
stock should be given the freedom
of the pasture or range
to
time care
while at the same
as
great an extent as practicable,
should be taken to supply abundant feed containinga sufficient
supply of protein in order that enough material may be present
to supply the demand
for growth stimulated by the exercise.
In the case
of breedingstock, especially,
most
a
important
consideration is that of the health and stamina of the animal,
458
NUTRITION
which
can
above
principles
the
on
of
other
while
ensure
it
then,
reduce
to
should
"
be
of
the
close
is
at
545.
rapid
to
and
is
of
have
this
the
the
ters
quar-
in
may
the
case
similar
For
of
animals
they
important
supply
be
ing
fatten-
the
that
so
portion,
pro-
should
and
nature.
water
In
comfortable
possible,
tein
pro-
health
feed.
keep
to
bedding,
timid
stage,
of
endeavor
end
particularly
its
of
fattening
the
for
water
the
requires
as
the
well
as
of
utilization
of
consumption
physiological
for
be
never
"
involving
feed,
reason,
should
It
supply.
of
this
taken
as
more
sons
rea-
animals
hand.
production,
amount
For
desirable
Water
amounts
exercise
This
account
on
reached,
the
plentiful
for
growth
of
is
with
stock.
sufficient
assimilation
To
of
fattening
little
maintain
to
undisturbed
as
the
comparatively
and
classes
allowed.
reached
necessary
The
opportunity
an
frequently
possible.
as
down."
lie
sheep
it
of
all
to
way
have
stage
provided,
kept
and
eat
only
this
quiet
be
is
is
overconfinement.
given
which
amount
as
be
appetite
as
the
animal
should
is
normal
general
there
hand,
tissue,
to
animals
ANIMALS
through
than
exercise
case
the
in
should
hogs
FARM
suffer
to
apply
and
movement
In
fail
hardly
particular,
In
OF
the
that
relatively
large
corresponding
of
purposes
the
mentioned
previously
one
forgotten
animal.
(540)
,
it
is
desirable
possible,
too
cold
that
stock
at
all
times
to
be
consumed
and
should
that
freely
have
the
by
water
the
ready
access
supplied
animals.
to
should
water,
not
if
be
CHAPTER
MILK
"
546.
The
i.
XIII
PRODUCTION
Physiology
of
Components
milk.
In
"
Production
Milk
of
addition
to
milk
water,
contains
"
In addition
to
lact-albumin
Their presence
in small amounts.
paraglobulin
of
the casein by means
by precipitating
of peptones, possiblydue
the filtrate. Traces
also found in milk.
of a proteolytic
are
enzym,
be demonstrated
may
acid and
to
and
heating
the presence
has
been
that
According
observed
Fats.
to
to
vary
Fats
"
varying
from
average
to
stated
in
in
and
as
the diameter
simplya
condensation
of these
runs
formerlydescribed
milk
ules
microscopicglobin
loidal
colthe
suspension
of
the
millions.
surrounded
by
to
cow's
In
their number
globuleswere
of
be
millimeter
0.01
milk
held in
globulesmay
0.0016
in the form
in milk
occur
solution of casein.
fat
of milk
content
of the
proteinof
The
fat
membrane
is
the
now
garded
re-
milk, due
surface tension.
Milk
of
fats,is a mixture of a number
As compared with body fats,the
triglycerids.
simplefats
fat of milk
or
rich
relatively
melting point.
is
low
relatively
consequentlyhas a
from
is especially
distinguished
in olein and
It
459
460
OF
NUTRITION
molecular
important
proportion
already noted in
weight, as
the principalconstituents
list of
considerable
"
of these so-called
of
the presence
body fat,however, by
ANIMALS
FARM
be distilled in
for
means
of
current
detection
the
volatile
of
is
"
fattyacids
steam) affords
adulterations
of
butter.
The
the other
cent
varies
of
minimum
on
of fat in milk
percentage
is reached.
Babcock
for
observed
that
states
givingas
cow
much
as
is the
cent
9 per
pounds
15
mum
maxi-
of milk
daily.
and
fat
milk
The
also
varying
lecithins and
cholesterins
of
coloringmatter, derived, as
shown, chieflyfrom the carotin of
amounts
Eckles
and
Palmer
of
carries traces
have
the feed.
Milk
Carbohydrates.
"
in
contains
solution
disaccharid
itself,
namely, lactose,or milk sugar (13). In
distinction from fat, the percentage of lactose in fresh milk
shows
comparativelysmall variations,averaging about 5 per
in cow's milk.
The
cent
souring of milk is brought about by a
peculiar
to
of the
fermentation
milk
sugar
by
which
its molecule
is
split
of lactic acid.
tioned
organicingredientsof milk should also be menin appreciable
in the
acid,which occurs
quantities
citric
the
Among
form
of calcium
Ash.
about
citrate.
total
The
"
cent
0.7 per
mineral
according to Van
the ash
Qualitatively,
in all animal
matter
of milk
substances.
Its
in
milk
cow's
averages
Slyke.2
contains the
ingredientsfound
quantitative composition,however, as
same
with
the blood
of cattle blood
added
of
Lawes
and
and
serum,
of the
Gilbert's
ash
on
the
of cow's
one
milk.
these have
To
of
comparison.
Jour. Biol. Chem., 17 (1914),191-264.
Jordan, The Feeding of Animals, 1908, p. 305.
3Ztschr. Biol.,10 (1874),301 ; 12 (1876),191.
1
2
been
MILK
Table
119.
Composition
Percentage
"
461
PRODUCTION
Serum
Cattle
Blood
Ash
of
of
Cow's
K20
22.1
55-i
5 -40
1.6
MgO
0.6
2.6
0.1
0.04
CI
20.0
47.1
P2O5
2.20
0-53
0.12
24.8
40.37
tions
animals,having a shorter period of growth, the relal
for
the rabbit Bunge
more
striking. Thus,
reports
smaller
are
the
43-95
21.3
3-4
With
3.82
13-9
CaO
Fe203
OF
3-2
Na20
Bodv
Calf
Milk
even
followingresults.
Table
120.
"
Composition
Percentage
Serum
Rabbit
Blood
of
Ash
Body
of
of
Days
Old
Rabbit
14
3-2
10.8
54-7
6.0
CaO
1.4
35-0
MgO
0.6
2.2
0.0
0.2
K20
Na20
Fe203
CI
P205
It appears
that while
sodium
and
47-8
4.9
3-o
41.9
chlorin
are
the
predominant
figuresas
cow's milk
1
2
3
see
cites the
following
Wing
showing approximately the average composition of
3
accordingto various authorities.
Average
composition.
"
fiirPhysiologie,II, 188.
by Sellheim in Nagel's Handbuch
its Products, 1897, p. 17.
Milk
For data regarding the composition of the milk of other speciesthan
Schaefer's Text Book of Physiology,Vol. I, p. 125.
Quoted
and
cattle,
462
NUTRITION
Table
121.
OF
ANIMALS
Composition
Average
"
FARM
American
Casein
3-40
3-30
3.00
3.02
3-40
0-45
O.70
4.88
4-55
4.60
4.80
0.71
o.75
o.75
"-75
100.00
Milk
548.
in
two
glands.
number,
body, although in
The
"
one
100.00
milk
animals
many
or
or
two
has
The
compound
in
structure
milk
40.
Manual
(Armsby,
gland.
of milk
Lobule
of
great number
Feeding.)
of Cattle
in
Fig. 40,
in groups
of
outlet
shown
as
common
alveoli
which
lead
the "active
are
passages
cells but
These
lined with
are
of
ducts
3 to 5
in the
cluster.
the
different
unite to form
alveoli
sort
and
alveoli,
are
olus
alve-
of
an
inch
in diameter
lobules
form
nective
con-
and
vessels,nerves
to
having
figure. Internally,the
cells (Fig.41),
epithelial
The
.ducts
or
which
largerones,
Each
layer of
outer
singlelayerof
milk.
agents in secreting
leadingfrom
to
schematically
correspondingto the single
united
Its
shown
are
carrying capillaryblood
lymphatics. These alveoli are about -^
are
sheep
consists
It
grapes.
of acini or
tissue
and
and
gland.
roughly compared
be
may
of
bunch
three of which
"
horse
tubulo-acinous
of
outlets
in
that
the
two
three,and
or
into
having separate
Thus
gland
line of the
is subdivided
gland
lobes
more
fourteen.
as
glands,properly speaking,
each
teats.
each
99.60
IOO.OO
each
on
two
Fig.
87-75
3-25
"-53
Ash
are
87-75
2.80
Albumin
Sugar
mann)
French
(Cornevin)
87.60
3-69
(Fleisch-
(Oliver)
87.17
Fat
Milk
German
English
(Babcock)
Water
Cow's
of
as
do
not
shown
in
epithelial
produce milk.
the so-called
teat.
which
Fig.42,
In
"
milk
compound
464
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
reach
of
formation
the
that
At
new
ones
pass
That
substances
stimulating
fluid found
of the
in
Starling,the formation
so
reach
the milk
glands.
apparently well-established
the
by
least
at
may
and
perhaps
to this
stimulus
(Hormones) in
of the mother
causes
the
occurs,
stages of pregnancy.
later
fact that
the
the
moval
regularrevirginanimal,
glands of the
mechanical
lead to the formation
even
stimulation,may
considerable
in
instances even
quantitiesof milk, in some
or
of
the male.
550.
The
secretion
secretion and
is
not
clearlyshown
of milk.
mere
That
"
formation
milk
filtration of material
from
is
the
true
blood
the facts
position
alreadystated regarding the commilk.
As
all
of
the principal
was
pointedout,
organic
of the milk are
ingredients
peculiarto it. Casein and lactose
in the animal body, and while the prinnot found elsewhere
are
cipal
milk
in
also found
the body fat,their
are
simple fats of
different in the milk fat and the latter is specially
are
proportions
characterized
by the presence of glyceridsof the lower acids
series.
of the aliphatic
marked
more
Furthermore, even
titative
quan-
by
and
those
of the blood
the mineral
From
serum.
elements
all these
of the
facts,it is
the solid
in it out
of materials
derived
from
the blood.
propounded by Virchow
found
wide acceptance.
According to this theory,milk production
of a physiological
consists essentially
fattydegeneration
of the epithelial
cells of the alveoli. The microscopeshows that
the cells of the activelysecreting
gland are largerthan those
in the restinggland and more
less filled with fat globules,
or
It was
the side toward the cavityof the alveolus.
on
especially
held that while this process went
the cell divided,forming
on
and that finally
the cell next to the cavityliquefied,
two or more,
settingfree the fat globules which it contained and, perhaps
A
theory
of milk
the
Milk
production was
tissue.
addition
of
with
secretion
more
thus
first
the milk.
growth
of
465
PRODUCTION
MILK
glands.
cells,but
of
breaking down
It is not
as
to
as
This is held
the other
analogous to that
cellsof
by the epithelial
material
The
as
precisely
to apply to
of the
secretion of milk
continuous
the
the
The
is in
process
the obvious
intestine,
is
move.
more
or
less
the
possiblycontain
of milk produced in a singlemilkingby a reasonamount
ably
tion
productivecow, and it is well recognizedthat a rapidsecreof milk occurs
duringsucklingor milking. In other words,
milk gland,like other glands,reacts to a specific
stimulus.
551.
source
secreting
fat globules
the materials
do the
process,
passages
their
resorptionof digested
the small
difference
latter extrude
ingredientsof milk.
ways
many
and
glands.
the
Sources
of
ingredients of
of the material
feed,the
milk
immediatelyfrom
brings about
extensive
its
the
milk.
While
"
in the milk
contained
gland draws
cannot
supply of
is of
material
blood,while
at
the
transformations
chemical
the ultimate
the
course
for milk
same
in
duction
protime it
the
stances
sub-
"
466
OF
NUTRITION
be utilized
phates)may
of the
sources
as
ANIMALS
FARM
phosphorus of the
milk
(257,258, 497).
gation
production of casein,however, is not simply a conjuThe
of a simple protein with
a
phosphorus group.
The
of casein
constitution
is
different
markedly
from
of
that
the
blood
considerable
tissue,a
or
of
reconstruction
cules
mole-
their
553.
Origin
the other
On
of milk
the
249) in discussing
fats.
It
"
of
sources
stated
was
body
in
fat that
Chapter V (247latter
although the
be derived
show
in part from the fat of the feed and
some
may
of its characteristics,
nevertheless,the production of fat must
be
regarded
and
not
In the
of
and
Jordan
formed
from
In
others
the
that
milk
or
with
one
determined.
which
feed,a
could
from
possiblybe
the
of the results
Table
1
2
very
N.
poor
After
considerable
fat
carbohydratesof
Jordan'sl experiments
ration
milk
due
as
cows
balance
fed
in fat and
was
carbohydrates.
left
The
the
the
for
accounted
as
body fat
either with
production
maximum
an
amounts
protein and
which
could only have
followingtable gives a
by
"
Production
of
the
Fat
by
ordinary
of fat in the
"
122.
be
may
the feed.
were
deducting
well
as
Cows
fat
of
fat of the
been
duced
pro-
summary
467
PRODUCTION
MILK
of fat from
perhaps be pointed out that the formation
have occurred
carbohydratesin these experiments may not necessarily
that the main
in the milk gland itself. It is entirelyconceivable
have
taken
place elsewhere
portion of the synthesisof the fat may
and that the fat or its precursors
were
simply transferred to the milk
gland.
It should
of
Second, it has also been shown by a considerable number
experimentsthat,as in the case of body fat,the fat of the feed
sensiblyaffect the propertiesof the milk fat. Not only
may
have
changes in the melting point,iodin number, and other
of
properties
fat been
butter
found
follow in
to
generalway
in the feed
to
seem
show
that
animals
of milk
idea
The
certain
least)conduces
at
extent
in it of the lower
is
acids
of the
or,
breaking up
of the carbon
on
be
may
simplercarbon
aliphaticseries,which
fat from
hand,
chain
into milk
precedesits transformation
a
is
synthesisof
the other
compounds,
As
efficient production
most
to a
produced synthetically
perhaps supported also by the presence
steps in the
intermediate
to the
fat.
it may
general conclusion,therefore,
Origin
of lactose.
"
The
yieldingupon
hydration dextrose
its derivatives
are
and
it is also
bivorous
(inher-
fat.
considerable
amount
abundant
constant
lactose of milk
and
in the carbohydrates
also be produced
experimentally,
body fat, it
of
is a disaccharid
galactose.
Dextrose
of
ingredient
the blood.
On
or
animals
the other
468
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
contains
ordinary feed of herbivora
drates
carbohyis
latter
transformed
the
apparently
yieldinggalactose,
and
has not
into glycogen quite promptly
at any
rate
been
found
in the blood,while animals
receivingfeed containingno
The
galactose (carnivora,e.g.)produce lactose in their milk.
to be that the galactosehalf of the lactose
probabilityseems
in the milk
is manufactured
gland from the dextrose of the
hand,
the
while
blood.
of
Sources
555.
ash.
"
ash
milk
that
of
Character
milk
production is
production.
a
of
form
tissue
it is essentially
true
incorrect anatomically,
compositionof
the feed
on
comparing
and
milk
supply
of the
in that
comparison its
milk, it
growth
so
far
This
in
is evident
sugar should
Taking Babcock's
is
probably
the chemical
it makes
clearlyshown
is
by
of
organicmatter
weight of growing animals.
protein to fat
increase
as
statement
which
the demands
concerned.
milk
of fat.
amount
are
the ratio of
the solids of
In
product and
the
the
While
"
in the
to make
that in order
be
reduced
to
fair
the
figures(547)as
equivalent
representing
vided
compositionof milk, the 4.88 per cent of sugar diby 2.25 is equivalentto 2.17 per cent of fat,which added
the average
to
3.69
by
fat the
total
this
organicmatter
would
amount
parts of
total fat
thus
to
placed
re-
9.41
would
organic
contain 37.73 per cent
proteinand 62.27 per cent of fat.
Comparing these figureswith those given in Chapter XI (458)
that
for the composition of the increase in growth, it appears
the proportionof protein to fat is greater than that computed
per
cent.
On
basis, 100
matter
of
for young
The
animals
computed
Ohio
content
of average
milk
solids is 2620
469
PRODUCTION
MILK
of
the energy
content
animals, but less than
general way,
be said that milk solids correspondin proportion
then, it may
of proteinand in energy value per pound to the gainsmade
by
that
growing animals
557.
months
of
Rate
pounds per
of
dry
neighborhoodof
production of milk
solids.
three months
"
old.
growth of approximately
day, containingperhaps three-fourths of a pound
with
matter
very
moderate
day would
contain
The
in the
when
be assumed
old may
1.5
stages of growth. In
in later
computed
an
make
to
about
of about
content
energy
yield of
Cals.
2200
15
1.92
words, considerably
than twice as great a productionwould be effected by the
more
relativelysmall bulk of the secretingcells in the udder as by
to
5030
other
In
of energy.
Cals.
is further
it
body of the calf. When
is
that the product of the dairy cow
economic
value
as
a
producer of human
this point Jordan says : 1
On
is
milk
pounds of average
year
per
the
whole
edible,her
all
food
"
considered
cow
not
great
vious.
ob-
becomes
yielding6000
regarded as an
annual
tion
produc-
however, the
amount
less than
of not
an
780 pounds of milk-solids,
in the body of a cow
least double the dry matter
weighing
at
pounds.
900
This
animal.
unusual
When
we
means,
consider
of
new
material is carried
year
on
not
certainlycontained
than
more
2500
pounds
of solid
wonderful powers
regard the cow as possessing
of transmutation.
Her
capacity for the rapid and economical
food of the highestqualityis not equaled
production of human
matter,
by
any
558.
from
we
must
other animal."
Factors
of milk
production.
productionin one
latter,broadly speaking, an
meat
animal
is what
is
1
very
The
Milk
essential
increase
sought, and
"
while
productiondiffers
particular.In the
in the whole
the
body of the
product may
p.
308.
vary
in
NUTRITION
470
the feed
quality,all
market
requirement
In
milk
OF
FARM
consumed
is available
production,on
ANIMALS
the
in
for
of the
excess
the
of
production
contrary, what
tenance
main-
is desired
gain.
is the
of
for
necessary
this
production,while
avoiding,in
the
mature
second
productionfor
the distribution
is greater than
conditions
the
that
reason
of the
they
forms
of
materially influence
may
feed between
excess
in other
milk
productionand
tissue increase.
" 2.
The
The
559.
Animal
as
Factor
in
Milk
Production
secretingtissue
which
rate of activity
and of yieldinga secretion of good quality,the most
scrupulous
and the most
abundant
care
feedingwill inevitablyfail to yield
animal.
latter possesses
abundant
is capable of being stimulated
to a normal
Unless
the
returns.
satisfactory
Individuality
560.
Includes
may
is
simply
an
breed
be
said
differences.
to
aggregate of
related
individuals.
It
discuss
problems of
breeds
include
more
or
is outside
and
"
that of
breed, since
less similar
the
of
influence
The
scope
and
of
dividual
in-
breed
genetically
this work
to
of the
NUTRITION
472
three
of these
poorest animal
animal.
breed
was
the
between
has been
of the
some
investigations,
differences
shown
by
same
the
statistical
numerous
have
strikingof which
most
of the
averages
the
exist among
greater differences
even
of the country
cows
common
individuals
That
breeds.
differences between
greater than
much
were
Moreover,
are
incident
necessarily
conditions
the unfavorable
each
of these records
the lowest
Even
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
been
lected
col-
by Eckles.1
562.
Influence
that
the
(i.e.,
on
utilization
the
of
of milk
amount
of
economy
in the udder
feed
the
solids of
from
feeding.
a
in
it is
While
the
narrower
likely
un-
sense
factured
given composition manu-
of nutritive
equal amounts
"
the
substances
of
individuality
the
is
economic
sense
animal, the feed utilization in the broader
this factor.
be conIt must
stantly
largely dependent upon
very
borne
in mind
that, as already stated (558),efficiency
in milk productionis in largepart a question of the distribution
of maintenance.
Some
of the feed suppliedin excess
animals,
able to
are
by virtue of individual or inherited peculiarities,
of excess
feed into milk without
ing
stortransform large amounts
up any considerable portion of it in the form of body tissue.
if well fed
tend to remain
Such animals
spare in body and
of milk.
They are the typicaldairy
produce large amounts
wellthe
animals.
Other
a
individuals,on
contrary, have
marked
tendency in the opposite direction,viz.,toward the
fed heavily, they utilize
production of body tissue. When
little or
feed chieflyin this direction and show
the additional
no
The
important bearing
dairy
Here
animals
it may
will
simply
individuals
paragraphs
abilityto
into
be
which
noted
has
milk
been
due
to
large amounts
rather than
Dairy Cattle
and
into
Milk
facts
the
upon
nutrition
of
(606-610).
of certhat the superiority
tain
illustrated in the preceding
considered
further
is doubtless
consume
be
of these
later
considerable
of feed
body
and
extent
convert
tissue.
Production, 191
1, pp.
18-126.
to
the
the
plus
sur-
PRODUCTION
MILK
Influence
563.
on
473
of lactation.
course
That
"
individuality
plays an
Influence
564.
composition of milk.
on
that
observation
common
in
cows
more
of
matter
regards the
as
vary
It is
"
the
richness
of cream
butter
or
milk, that is,as regards the amount
be obtained from a given weight of milk.
Various
which can
breed tests at experiment stations have served to define more
the comand breed upon
position
exactly the influence of individuality
of their
The
of milk.
and
to
at
two
in the
results
The
average
in
from
test, and
the average
results
of the milk.
fat content
Table
124.
Average
"
each
proportion
to
are
Composition
ranging from
time
24
intended
are
ferent
difcompare
of the results obtained
table shows
covering periods of
years.
primarilyto
not
the averages
three different experiment stations
The
breeds.
in tests
in Table
results cited
station
the
eightmonths to
are
given weight
number
arranged in
of
Milk
of
of
under
cows
the order
Different
of the
Breeds
Num-
ber
Casein
and
Ash
Albu-
min
Holderness
Ayrshire
Shorthorn
Devon
Guernsey
Jersey
maximum
224;
50
Maine
New
Solids
0.68
3-14
5-n
346
12.39
12.29
12.82
12.45
3
2
3.22
4.89
3-5i
IS*
S-i3
3-27
4.80
3-64
3-65
o.73
0.76
3-74
5-32
4-54
14.36
0.75
3.78
4.94
4.96
1443
o.75
3-92
4.98
5-25
14.90
evidentlythe
OF
Cows
Aver-
aged
0.67
0.67
is
Fat
than
tose
Fat
Total
%
.
Holstein-Friesian
Lac-
most
variable
ingredientof milk,
its
in these averages
by more
exceeding its minimum
Along with the increase of fat there is
per cent.
Jersey Expt. Sta.,Rpt. 1890, pp. 223Expt. Sta.,Rpt. 1890, p. 29; New
York
(Geneva) Expt. Sta., Rpt. 1891, pp. 94-104.
also
of the
increase
an
these
but
and
25 per cent
increase of 12
an
per
changes, the
Influence
565.
of the
nature
differences
by computing
with
total solids,
Table
125.
Average
"
not
composition
on
clearer
free
of
range
increase
the
solids,
of the
the
and
differences
regularlywith
lactose
other
constant
most
total
comparatively small
ingredients.The
of the milk.
ingredient
of the
the
fat,the totals
cent, respectively. There is also
the proportion of ash, while the
extreme
it does
cent, while
per
per
in
cent
of
that
than
contrary, shows
the
lactose, on
protein and
total
21
ANIMALS
FARM
smaller
relatively
are
being
11
OF
NUTRITION
474
milk
of
is
regular
ir-
being
the
crease
in-
evidentlythe
solids.
The
"
real
composition,however, is rendered
percentage composition of the water-
in
in Table
Composition
Milk
of
125
Solids
"
Different
of
Breeds
Num-
ber
Casein
Ash
"
AND
OF
Fat
Lactose
Albumin
Holderness
.
Holstein-Friesian
Ayrshire
Devon
Guernsey
Jersey
.
5-49
25-44
26.20
41.24
7-93
39-79
28.56
40.01
28.39
5-86
26.37
26.27
38.55
29.32
5-29
26.04
37.06
31.61
5.20
26.20
34-23
34-37
5-o3
26.31
33-42
35-24
5-23
Shorthorn
aged
5-45
Cows
Aver-
of
the
68.53 per
cent.
In other
words, it appears
from
these
figures
in
cows
PRODUCTION
MILK
Table
475
by
124
tively
rela-
analyses of
2400
of the
Haecker2
United
has
the
milk
States
study of
tions
reported by the experiment starecently
up to that date, and more
the
substantially
reached
from
conclusion
same
result
same
from
of milk
from
the Minnesota
Station herd.
566.
be
of composition
Variability
that
noted
the
in
foregoing conclusions
animal.
same
drawn
are
of the
It should
"
from
individuals
same
cow,
far
have
determinations
more
been
of
made
this
stituent
con-
than of any
and
the
great
the
as
most
same
3 per
cent
per
cow
cent
are
not
not
very
differences of
and
uncommon
there is
Whether
rare.
of successive
as
proportion of lactose,
the previous paragraph,does not
are
due
and
even
tion
correlated varia-
in the averages
in the
in
milkingsof
appear.
largely
to
compared
It is presumed
external
influences but
factors of environment
specific
has been traced with certainty,
although Spier3 believes them
It is evident that correct
to be due to incompletemilking(575)
comparisons of the yieldsof different animals, or of the same
be made
animal at different times,can
only on the basis of the
of days.
average yieldand composition for a number
in the composition of milk from
The extent of this variability
one
milkingto another appears to be an individual peculiarity,
the milk of some
uniform in daily composition
cows
being much more
An
than that of others.
example of this
interesting
has been reported by Farrington.4
no
definite connection
with
any
1
2
3
4
Minn.
Ills.Expt. Sta.,Bui.
17
(1891),p.
9.
476
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
Stage of lactation
production
Milk
567.
has
of nature
state
of the young
shortlybefore,while
or
becomes
Milk
"
tion
produc-
of the offspring. In a
objectthe nourishment
it is a periodic
function,beginning at the birth
its
as
periodic function.
dependent
less
as
the
on
the young
animal gradually
mother
it diminishes
in
intensityand
during the
of
progress
Influence
568.
of
finallyceases.
yield
on
the
produced, but
of milk
at
at
the
does
of the
case
fallingoff
slow
rapiddecrease
of farrow
cows,
comparatively slow
The
greatlyfrom
animal
569.
to
cow
and
by
cow
observed
any
Influence
toward
the end
570.
Bearing
the
of lactation
continue
for
much
may
from
to show
longer time.
be called,
however,
vary
to
year
general the
fat tend to increase,
especially
the quantity of milk falls off
when
of
milk.
In
"
of the lactation.
the end
changes in
more
the
all
at
cally
typi-
conditions.
of lactation
rapidly. Like
composition are
manifest
by
is
calvingapproaches,all but
In the
longer or shorter time.
composition
on
there
in
and
marked
show
the birth
weeks
two
followed
months
amount
next
they
as
amount
rule,the
immediatelyafter
toward
As
productionmay
decrease
of lactation
curves
of the
effect
differ widely
may
in different animals
and
lactation.
for several
the time
as
exceptionalcows
a
animal
same
of the
case
evident
most
of decrease
rate
its maximum
reach
not
The
"
gradual decrease
periodin
corresponding
of milk
the
milk.
of
is the
lactation
advancing
lactation.
on
experimental methods.
yieldand composition of
must
be
taken
account
"
milk
The
unavoidable
with
the advance
of in all
experiments
on
MILK
production,and
milk
PRODUCTION
render
477
the
not
to
of the milk
increase
yield in
later
the group
The
system.
the
In
duced
period system, as introby Wolff, Kiihn and others of the earlier experimenters,
the animal receives an identical ration in two or more
periods
well removed
from each other in point of time
usually the
and from the results of these periodsthe
firstand last periods
gredient
daily rate of decrease in the yield of milk and its inaverage
is calculated.
On the assumption that had the same
ration or treatment
been continued
unchanged this rate would
have
been
uniform
be
throughout the experiment, it may
mediate
computed what yields would have been secured in the interperiods. A comparison of these computed yieldswith
those actually observed
is taken as the measure
of the effect
of the change in feed or other conditions.
The
of
accuracy
571.
period system.
"
"
"
this method
depends
that
the
of
course
the
on
yields would
have
of the
correctness
decreased
at
sumption
as-
uniform
rate.
572.
The
introduced
each
other
groups
relative
with
animal
animal
receive
production
his
to
or
of the group
use
with
group.
same
group
animal
or
seeks
system,
group
of
on
with
to
the
other
an-
long preliminaryperiod
ration
is determined.
was
Copenhagen
period system
an
In
the
system
their determinations
itself. The
compare
the
in
successors
(702). The
units
hand, attempts
check
The
"
in connection
Station
so-called feed
compare
both
system.
by Fjord and
Experiment
the
group
or
treatment
and
their
One
of the groups
is then
the same
continued
while with the other group
treatment
on
the factor to be tested is introduced.
Finally,in a concluding
period,both
groups
are
again treated
as
in the initial
'
period.
478
OF
NUTRITION
of the
combination
two
receives
the other
uniform
ANIMALS
systems
of animals
group
while
FARM
ration
throughoutthe
entire
experiment.
A
of the methods
discussion
complete
very
of
of
eliminatingthe
fluence
in-
Morgen.1
" 3.
Influence
The
The
word
which
all those
affect
may
to be
is here
environment
to summarize
term
Environment
oe
milk
important of
more
which
used
looselyas
influences
external
The
production.
particularlysensitive
external
to
tion
Produc-
convenient
other
than
dairy cow
in the
feed
appears
of the
conditions,some
considered
are
Milk
on
following
paragraphs.
Milking
is but
Milking
an
of the
sucklingof the
in securing the milk is likely
efficiency
imperfectimitation
and naturallyits
young,
to be affected by a variety of circumstances.
573.
Frequency
of the udder
at
of
milking.
"
As
one
in
considerable
accumulation
there
of matter
produced
be
evidently may
in the
alveoli
and
canals
which
called
effect
"
back
of
secretion
pressure." Suckling
relievingthis
"
or
"
pressure
milking
and
would
have
the
perhaps rendering
time it seems
to act as a
easy, while at the same
direct stimulus to secretion.
At any rate it is a fact that more
frequentmilking tends to increase the yield of milk, especially
in the
more
of
case
Landw.
Vers.
p. 521.
480
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
it is more
concentrated
than that yielded
fat,i.e.,
The
differences in the composition
after the longer interval.
of the night'sand morning's milk, which
have been the subject
of so much
this basis,the
discussion,appear explicable
upon
the morning's and night's
interval between
milking beingusually
the night'sand morning's.
less than that between
solids and
be
the
to
be greater than
percentage
of
solids-not-fat
The
little.
"
is well
known.
caused
as
by
in the
contained
small
well
If successive
"
found
portions will
while
milking.
same
pings
of
Completeness
575.
the
of
This
udder.
The
as
untenable.
of the
earlier ones,
is held
comparatively
so-called
strip"
at
was
time
one
cream
fact,however,
of the
difference
The
in the
risingof the
of milk
amount
varies
difference
actual
an
portions of
the milk
on
that
plained
ex-
but
paratively
com-
in the milk
udder, renders
is probably due
to a
cistern,as
explanation
partialretention
and canals,they
this
of
secretion
is
of
retention
the
the
the
practicable.The
the
the
it
as
be
to
seems
influence
been
much
as
exercise
small
extent.
to
to
upon
the
United
"
various
methods
with
of
manipulating
probably due
most
to
cows
chines
ma-
remove
hand.
exercise,
fatigue
exertion
a
the
milked
necessary
of muscular
In
check
exertion
discussed
basis.
been
the
of
to
milking, therefore,it
out
as
completely as
or
by
portions,
strippings,
Muscular
The
be
tends
alveoli
all forms
cow
this influence.
largelyto
the
advantages of
udder, such
the last
in
In
milk.
that
important
fat
milk
upon
secretion has
comparatively slender
States
the
mental
experi-
questionhas usually
of motion
and
of allowing freedom
desirability
while
in Europe, especially
dairy cows,
among
the
farmers, cows
are
used
for draft
to
not
inconsiderable
Feed
576.
of
discussion
(391)to
of exercise.
cost
the very
Attention
"
maintenance
the
marked
481
PRODUCTION
MILK
in
requirement
effect of muscular
called in the
was
Chapter
VIII
exertion in increasing
the
from
should be restricted
cows
indeed
have
as
was
any
possible. Not
as
confine
to
as
their
to
few
dairy
men
dairy-
entirely,
cows
diversion
to
convert
waste.
much
far
so
gone
of exercise allowed
of it to
work
severe
an
unfavorable
effect upon
both
the
yieldand
of the
are
empiricalobservations
experiments.
"
influence
those of
the
less
or
more
577.
the
of
nature
of
Morgen
muscular
2
at
exertion
milk
upon
the Hohenheim
production,
Experiment Station
are
under
made
convincingbecause they were
strictly
comparable conditions and especiallybecause the relative
of work
amounts
performed in the different periods were
most
determined.
The
Simmenthal
two
being used
for draft.
employed
cows
The
work
was
done
the
accustomed
were
at
slow walk
to
upon
Wolff in his
by
experiments
(386a, 670, 779),the amount
performed being regulatedin part by the resistance of
dynamometer
in part
required,so that
of hours of work
by the number
approximatelysingle,double and quadruple
work
The
done.
was
and
ration
1 1
1
3
fed,which
trials. The
periods,approximating two
Die
was
weeks
2
Landw.
each
Vers.
of alternate rest
Stat.,51 (1899), 117.
482
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
and
be
littlegreater in the
periods in
which
most
work
done.
was
The
the
somewhat
milk
effect,however,
concentrated.
more
was
upon
the
The
notable
most
showed
an
in every case
but two.
This increase was
pensated
comfor by a decrease of the fat-free solids,
so that analyses
actual increase
showed
of the milk
higher percentage
of fat and
in
obtained
cases
some
solids,
changed.
unpractically
Confirmatory results.
578.
of total
"
the
at
yieldof
actual
from
Aside
time
same
by
the
cows
of their milk
both
the
fat.
clear that
appears
to increase
and
questionof
a
considerable
without
with
an
the
effects of
amount
overexertion,it
of work
may
be performed
of the volume
yieldof fat,its
in Morgen's
lightestwork
ingredient.The
experimentswas roughlyequivalentto hauling a load of a ton
much
more
if miles over a smooth level road. This is certainly
labor than the ordinarycow
will perform when
turned loose in
a comfortable
yard or paddock.
most
valuable
2
Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 39 (1897),529.
Ztg., 25 (1896), 331.
Expt. Sta. Rec, 10 (1899), 85.
Agr. Chem., 28 (1899), 492;
4
5
Jahresber. Tier Chem., 33 (1904),382.
Expt. Sta. Rec, 12 (1901), 381.
6N. Y. (Geneva) Expt. Sta.,Rpt. 1882, p. 25.
7 Landw.
Vers. Stat.,46 (1896), 329.
8 Vt.
Expt. Sta.,Rpts. 1894, p. 162, 1898, p. 367 and 1899, p. 309.
1
Milch
Centbl.
483
PRODUCTION
MILK
just mentioned
be
feed
extra
the instance
In
purpose
may
contained in
approximatelyestimated,on
matter
Chapter XIV, at two-thirds of a pound of digestible
per
of
of
The
about
maize.
to
feed
a
eight-tenths
pound
day, equal
of
the
exercise
taken
turned out in the
cost
ordinarily
by cows
and
be far outweighed by the tonic
yard must be insignificant
effects of fresh air,sunshine and freedom
their health and
on
some
general condition,while in the case of heavily fed cows
be
of
exercise may
ency
possibly
advantage in diminishing the tendThe
to fatten.
for
question of turning out dairy cows
exercise,then, virtuallyreduces itself to the question whether
of the labor involved is repaid by the effect upon
the cost
the health
of the animals.
Temperature. Shelter
579.
the
Air
temperature.
relations between
The
"
general principlesregarding
external
heat
temperature,
production
(350-356),
and
example, in
heat production of
For
the estimated
and
on
ration
maintenance
Table
127.
"
were
as
Estimated
Heat
follows
775
Computed
Estimated
heat
production
heat production
.
maintenance
No.
1200
18.67 Therms
10.10
heat
The
Cow
10
Lb.
Therms
Cows
of
No.
12
Lb.
21.10
Therms
13-7o
Therms
on
ration
.
"
Production
Cow
Weight
Macmillan
case
by 85
amount
that
Co., New
on
per
cent
and
maintenance,
p. 310.
484
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
of
maintenance
So
and
as
mere
of ration
character
question is
580.
in the
as
case
of the steer
obvious.
Shelter,
etc.
The
"
question of
shelter
does
apply in
render
which
reasons
differ
not
influence
in
the
into the
enter
of
of
drinking
and
the steer
one
caze
the other.
The
foregoingfacts,however, are
scarcelysufficient to justifythe conclusion that a dairy cow
be treated in this respect like a beef steer.
In making a
may
quantitative application of these facts in practice,certain
modifying factors requireconsideration.
Relative body surface. Even
casual
the most
comparison
with the beef steer is sufficient to show
that
of the dairy cow
in form and to raise the supposition
that
they differ materially
the ratio of body surface to weight may
vary considerably in
581.
Modifying factors.
"
"
the
of
two
surface
body
that
The
types.
the
spare
of
writer is not
cows
but
can
angular form
surface
more
relatively
one
than
of any
hardlyavoid
aware
of the
measurements
the
impression
typicaldairy cow
the compact,
exposes
form
rounded
of the
beef animal.
Condition.
"
Outdoor
winter
largelywith fatteninganimals
feeding of
and
conducted.
it is with
With
practiced
cattle is
them
such
that most
an
animal
fat is
definite data
no
but
that
doubtless
it
Skin
thinner
it is
might
and
than
have
hair.
"
that
as
to
the
protectivevalue
of
fat
covering
The
of the
skin
of the
and
dairy cow
is
reputed to
be
therefore be a better
may
The coat of hair of the cow, too, is apt to be
radiator of heat.
shorter and lighterthan that of the steer, whether
a result
as
steer
MILK
PRODUCTION
485
of
to
For
like
weight under
the
former
The
limit of external
katabolism
direction
consideration
and
is caused
of
in connection
with
the
is that
dairy cows
direction of production.
the
and
steer
that
be
of
sequently
con-
below
temperature
may
production.
shelter for
upon
conditions
the
than
582.
external
same
minimum
additional
which
the
more
the
of
Another
"
important
question of temperature
their possible influence
Stress
laid
was
at
the outset
production (558)upon
beef production and milk production
due
of
to
singlegland and
simply the
tion
secre-
katabolism
maintain
not
the
less
body temperature, might neverthethe formation of milk, especially
if the cow
jected
subwere
to it suddenly. In such
it would be anticipated,
a case
either that feed previouslyused for milk productionwould be
stored up as body fat or else,if the cow
continued to eat the
same
amount, would lead to a stimulation of the generalbody
katabolism and so to an
unnecessary increase in heat production.
In other words, exposure
to cold might conceivablyneither
to
check
of milk
Results
in
is available
of temperature for
Plumb
to
other and
practice.
"
undesired
Only
of
production.
dence
experimentalevi-
meager
dairycows.
forms
one
on
of which
sunny
was
days
and
turned
while
the
yield of
milk
out
into
other
89-96.
was
the
two
yard
turned
486
NUTRITION
shelter from
some
The
exposed
lot ate
comparabilityof
the
Brooks
stable kept
which
550 F.
at
and
lots of
a
Jordan
and
more
milk
more
ad
No
with
libitum.
hay
than
proof of
heated
artificially
the temperature of
produced in the warm
one,
was
lower.
was
recorded
an
but
less
milk.
between
cows
feed
somewhat
cooler,unheated
Rather
reported.
Richards
consumed
cows
more
two
the weather
regard to
grain but
produced 161.1 pounds
the two
lots is given.
exchanged
is not
stable but
much
ANIMALS
FARM
eighthours
for
out
OF
the milk
yieldof
number
of
cows
He
in alternate
feed
uniform
calls attention
to
these
the average
the average
consumed
of
warmer
results for
there is
128.
Influence
"
of
on
record
Ventilation
Milk
of actual
Mass.
Wis.
feed
consumed
Stable
Temperature
Production
no
of the live
involved
in
followingtable shows
periods as compared with
preceding and following periods and likewise
rations
the entire experiments. The average
stated but
are
are
The
experiments
factors
p. 39.
p. 143.
pp.
255-306.
488
NUTRITION
the whole
On
OF
agree with
indicate that the
deductions
the
need
for
been
overemphasized,but
limits
within
Much
doubtless
of
treatment
have
likelyto
insufficient
are
effect
more
to it
accustomed
and
coat
such
on
animals
the weather
as
low
the
has
the
yield.
previous
carry
temperature
grows
and
affect
not
than
on
establish
to
does
temperature
winter
are
data
physiological
quarters for dairy cows
than
rather
experiments as
from
warm
stable
which
ANIMALS
it may
record
FARM
seems
those
on
mer
sum-
ually
grad-
colder.
cows
are
perfectventilation,with
more
vigorof
health and
" 4.
the
584.
Meaning
of
identical with
(470).
discussed
the milk
milk
the
is the
conceptionof
here
of
ratio
liberal
is substantially
growth already
protein contained in
protein which is required
favorable
production requiresa
considered
tion
the utiliza-
the
of feed
the most
conditions.
it is evident
While
"
supplyof proteinin
the
amount
increase
of milk
it appears
While
at
the
Production
of its utilization in
possibleto
used,
of protein
The
"
Milk
in
productionas
that
It
produce it under
585.
Feed
utilization
milk
be
can
of
of utilization.
proteinin
temperatures
animals,is possible.
Utilization
The
The
to
If low
of the
case
will the
growing animal.
amount
of
that
the
ration,
marily
priis the
It is not
proteinsecreted
that
of
activity
in
the feed.
the milk
glands
can
proteinsupply
by an
(599) it is nevertheless true that the animal producesan amount
of milk determined
essentially
by its capacity and any surplus
be
to
stimulated
somewhat
abundant
of
protein over
that
necessary
is katabolized
MILK
is the
justas
for that
a
This
with
case
matter
to
supply of
surplussuppliedto
mature
material
489
PRODUCTION
animal.
and
not
Feed
cause
animal, or
young
tially
protein is substanof production.
is
130.
"
Average
Daily
Nitrogen
Balance
of
Cows
Gain
Body
by
Grams
Jan. 30-Feb.
Feb. 6-Feb.
16-Feb.
Feb.
26-Mar.
Mar.
8-Mar.
1
Mar.
17-9
16.3
2.2
0.3
18
6.9
26
8-Mar.
16
Feb.
Mar.
28
12.2
-f- 10.6
8-
Apr. 7
Apr. 7-Apr. 14
9-4
in
yieldsdecreased in quite a normal way with the advance
like that of total milk solids,
ing,
diminishthe yieldof protein,
lactation,
the
about
while the percentage of proteinin the latter remained
of
the
middle
there
rations
On the low protein
seems
periods
same.
the
of
milk
o
ff
in
have
been
amount
to
some
proteinproduced
falling
have
been
in comparison with what
might
expected on an unchanged
in
is
small
but
the
difference
two
or
one
ration,
periodsin which
except
Aside
from
the protein supply reached the lowest limit.
this,the
of digestible
protein
principaleffect of the variations in the amount
diminish
the
of
excreted
increase
to
amount
or
was
nitrogen
supplied
and fell with the
in the urine, which, as the table clearlyshows, rose
supply of nitrogenin the food.
The
586.
Estimates
of
utilization
of
protein.
"
In
attempting
feed protein
reach
conclusions
N. Y.
132
(1897) and
197
(1901).
is
OF
NUTRITION
490
FARM
ANIMALS
that
the
of
been
have
animals
well
protein but
digestible
milk
plus those
estimated
maintained
and
in which
those
found
for maintenance
been
of
amounts
in the
have
amounts
Table
of
131
number
shows
of
smaller.
the
low
requirement of crude
1000
pounds live weight in direct proportion to the latter. It
includes the experiments by Jordan upon
of milk
the sources
fat,the results of one of which as regardsproteinhave justbeen
cited,an experiment by Hayward x the results of which
as
the
tensive
regards
nitrogen balance are still unpublished, the exexperiments upon the minimum
protein requirements
1
Penna.
Expt. Sta.,Rpt.
1901-1902,
pp.
314
to
396.
MILK
Table
131.
"
Utilization
PRODUCTION
of
Protein
491
in
Milk
Production
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
492
ANIMALS
dairy
carried
cows
in the next
mentioned
on
the
at
paragraph,when
computed
in the
same
way,
Haecker's
low
proteinrations
in
as
1902-3-4-5,
to afford another
noted
on
example of the
subsequent page (602),seem
high utilization of feed protein.
While too much
weight should not be attached to the results
since they include
of comparisonslike the foregoing,especially
estimate
of the protein requirement
less uncertain
a
more
or
to indicate beyond
for maintenance, they nevertheless seem
reasonable
doubt
that
low
on
some
587.
of
values
Relative
proteinrations
be
converted
proteins for
the
into
milk
proteinof at
milk protein
production.
"
The
ing
precedingchapters(400,465) regardfor maintenance
and
the relative values of different proteins
for productionrender it altogether
probablethat they also differ
of milk protein. No
in value as sources
experiments on this
but Hart
and Humphrey 3 in
point have as yet been reported,
have compared the mixed
series of experimentson
two
cows
proteinsof maize, wheat, gluten feed, oil meal and distillers'
using maize
grains with proteins prepared from milk (784),
and silageas roughage. They found the average
stover
centage
perconsiderations advanced
in
recovered in the
nitrogen which was
gain (or minus the loss)of the body protein
of the resorbed
milk
to
yieldplus the
be
Skim
milk
powder
59
Casein
Maize
Wheat
Gluten
feed
Oil meal
Distillers'grains
1
Denmark-Beretning
for landokonomiske
"
59%
40%
36%
45%
61%
60%
fra den
Forsog.
Rationale
du Betail.
by Mallevre, Society de l'Alimentation
Compte Rendu
et i2eme
ueme
Congres.
2 Die
Ernahrung der landw. Nutztiere, 6th Ed., 1912, p. 551.
3
Jour. Biol. Chem., 21 (1915), 239; 26 (1916), 457.
de
MILK
the
If
493
deducted
PRODUCTION
the
total
nitrogen,the
resorbed
be
utilization of
100
cent
per
in several
instances.
differences observed
The
tuations
largelydue, however,to flucbody protein,the formation of
were
in the
milk
gain or loss of
protein being quite uniform
from
period, and
this fact seems
the results of somewhat
to render
questionable
relevance as regards the specialquestionof comparative values
of milk protein, although they do show
marked
as
sources
period
to
The
588.
utilizationof energy
for milk
The
values
net
production.
energy
value of a feedingstuff or ration for milk production is
Net
energy
identical
"
in
conception with
that
for
fattening(448) or
for
being three
589.
contained
Complete
nitrogen, carbon
on
in
brief
by
preliminary
paper
l
Kellner
balances.
energy
and energy balances,
determined
oxen,
of three
cows
Kellner.
reports
"
as
in his
the
periments
ex-
rations and
receivingmixed
scribed
denet
5terInternat. Kongress
fur
Milchwirtschaft,
191
1.
Estimating
from
the
their
maintenance
weights on
of
oxen
ANIMALS
maintenance
the
live
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
494
results on
of his average
(381),Kellner obtains the following
basis
the
Table
132.
"
Energy
Balances
of
2.356 Therms
Dairy
net
Cows
energy.
496
*
has
farm
of
nutrition
likewise
animals
determined
partialenergy balances of
for an entire year on rations just sufficient to
ten milking cows
their live weight. In these experiments the percentage
maintain
of the rations is computed for eightof the cows
on
digestibility
Eckles
the
basis
of results
animals,while
was
were
dried
digestiontrials
five of
on
the
metabolizable
of the
energy
rations
assumption of
Table
gain
no
loss
or
by
135.
"
Percentage
Utilization
3.7
puting
com-
the
the
Milk
of
Energy
Metabolizable
in
Production
Cow
No.
206
Cow
No.
304
Cow
No.
400
63.36 %
67.60%
66.90%
Cow
No.
43
5J-36%
Cow
No.
62
Cow
No.
Cow
No.
27
72.82%
60.24%
62.89%
Cow
No.
63
5o-35%
Average
61.94%
Haecker,2 in discussingthe
with
at
(753)and
organicmatter
per kilogram of digestible
the results,
exactly as in Jordan's experiments,on
for the
the
in
off,with
Estimating the
Therms
in
the maintenance
determined
cows
obtained
the
results of extensive
experiments
dairyherd
Experiment Station,has
nutrients
of the feed and the solids of
compared the digestible
the milk by reducing both to their carbohydrate equivalent.3
Subtractingthe estimated maintenance
requirementfrom the
total carbohydrateequivalent (" nutriment
") of the feed, he
finds
cent
years
recovered
in the
were
of the Minnesota
lower
generalmaintained.
utilization of energy
Jordan'sand
1
Mo.
Minn.
The
Eckles'
from
milk,
while
the
This
seems
than
that
experiments.
to 66.22
50.25 per cent
per
for nine
the general average
It
the metabolizable
weights
to indicate
of the
cows
decidedly
computed in Kellner's,
be noted, however,
must
a
45.
and
of the milk
live
energy
2.2
and
protein. The
proportional
of the feed
sums,
to the
by 2.25
which
energy
respectively.
are
tent
con-
MILK
PRODUCTION
497
that the
on
also
591.
Net
"
values
for
comparison
by the
estimate
quirement
re-
high.
seems
energy
fattening.
obtained
Haecker's
probably greater
of Kellner's
l
author
same
milk
and
results
for
(589)with those
and
by Armsby
in either
energy
than
Fries
for
maintenance,
to indicate
fattening seems
clearlythat the net
for milk production are
values
distinctly
higher than
energy
those for the latter purposes, although no direct comparisons
the same
on
feedingstuff or ration can be made;
Both Jordan's and Eckles' results tend to confirm this conclusion,
which
is further strengthened by the fact, to which
Eckles calls attention,that with one
exceptionthe actual energy
of the milk in his experimentswas
content
greater than the net
growth
value
energy
by
or
the
of Kellner's
use
Unfortunately, no
singlefeeding stuffs
been
The
Cause
or
of
higher
net
energy
compared
as
in
shown
in
values
energy
with tissue
the difference
to
As
results
impossibleat present
quantitativecomparisons.
592.
computed
as
factors.
that it is
so
reported,
exact
"
producingit
for milk
and
be
compositionof
the
yet
any
production.
production may
the
make
to
of
tion
produc-
cribed
plausiblyas-
the
products.
crease
of the in-
Chapters
XI,
consists
in
fattening
chieflyof fat (441-443)and even
the case of growth fat makes up a considerable proportion
of it
(458)except in extreme
youth. In average milk, on the comtrary,proteinand milk sugar constitute two-thirds of the total
organicmatter and carry over one-half of the total energy.
X
organic matter
in
It
not
seems
protein into
milk
milk
may
sugar,
of energy
as
or
1
2
improbable that
the
conversion
of
digestible
protein,or of digestiblecarbohydratesinto
involve a comparativelysmall expenditure
hydrates
compared with the synthesisof fat from carboprotein. If such be the case, the organicmatter
i.
Sta., 53 (iqoo),
Jour. Agr. Research, 3 (1915), 435;
Landw.
Vers.
7 (1916), 379.
498
NUTRITION
of the
milk
energy
would
of the
the increase
matter
could
593.
would
retain
of
ANIMALS
of the
larger percentage
from
matter
digestible
tissue
body
which
it
which
formed
was
that
chemical
than
digestible
same
produce.
Computation
it be
Let
"
FARM
OF
of
equivalent
assumed
values
for fattening.
net
energy
the
digestibleprotein and
that
be
may
without
converted
loss and
into
that
the
sponding
corre-
the
expenditure
carbohydrates
is the same
that observed
as
by Kellner (769)for the production
of body fat.
Then
each gram
of protein or carbohydrates in
the milk would
requirethe supply in the feed of one gram of
digestibleprotein or carbohydrates respectively,while each
of energy
in the
of milk
gram
production of milk
fat if manufactured
fat from
from
carbohydrateswould
foregoingassumptions,be
Table
136.
Computed
"
Energy
in
Supplied
1
1
Feed
in
follows
protein
gram
carbohydrates
carbohydrates
gram
gram
Recovered
"
Milk
in
Production
and
Fattening
Produced
gram
3.9 grams
as
Energy
Recovered
Milk
in
Milk
in
ing
l
Cals.
5.7
Cals.
2.24
carbohydrates
4.1
Cals.
2.37 Cals.
fat
9.23
Cals.
9.23
protein
gram
Energy
Recovered
Fattenin
Cals.
approximatelythe amount
be requiredfor the
would
of net energy
for fatteningwhich
of milk of known
production of a given amount
composition.
Thus
four
Table
cent
to
milk, according
144 (604),
average
per
of
contains
drates
carbohy3.08 per cent of protein,4.85 per cent
this
On
and
contained
the
amount
the
same
basis,it is easy
4.0
in
of
feed
per
cent
pound
to
compute
The
of fat.
of
such
milk
actual
would
have
which
would
energy
if used for fatteningwould
Cals.
of
net
the
Conversely, an amount
as
computed from
energy
1
Kellner's
amount
be
been
have
of
energy
336 Cals.,while
recovered
been
from
only
252
feed
factors.
MILK
ments
would
energy
in four
PRODUCTION
suffice to
shown
in the
Table
137.
support
the
The
milk.
cent
per
499
method
of
computation is
following table.
Recovered
Energy
"
Four
in
Cent
Per
Milk
and
in
Fattening
Energy
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fat
...
Total
per
100
Total
per
pound
is afforded
(589).
In
4.1
3-08
4.85
9.23
4.00
2.24
3.08
19.8 Cals.
2.37
4.85
9.23
4.00
36.9 Cals.
Cals.
6.9 Cals.
1
1-5 Cals.
36.9 Cals.
Cals.
55.3
Cals.
Cals.
252
Confirmation
"
Energy
covered
ReFattening
17.5 Cals.
336
of
this
hypothesis
by his cow
only 10.367 Therms
a
in
74.2
results.
Equivalent
in
that while
that
5.7
grams
Kellner's
594.
Recovered
Milk
ration
was
of
13.907
net
energy
and
of the milk
solids produced
supplying this
for maintenance
energy
amount
body gain
in
excess
should
of that
quired
re-
be sufficient to
milk
for
production. For the three cows
which
results are reported,the requirements for net energy
as
thus computed compared with the estimated net energy values
of the rations
Table
138.
"
were
Net
as
Energy
follows
Values
"
Fattening
for
in
Kellner's
periments
Ex-
Cow
Therms
Total
in ration
Required
11.403
for maintenance
4.806
6-597
Required
.928
for
body gain
Available for milk production
Computed requirement for milk
5-669
tion
produc,
6.079
The
of net
FARM
ANIMALS
be
to
OF
'NUTRITION
500
Kellner
states
number
of
that
energy
this
also
was
the
in
case
considerable
his
reaching24
per cent.
Quite in harmony
paragraphs is
"
in milk
when
the
is the
equal
generalconclusions
by
statement
Eckles
of the
going
fore-
that in his
periments
ex-
production of
production of
low
to
fat is
other
in fat.
greater
tax
constituents
from
It appears
the animal
upon
of
the
milk
this
than
carrying
value."
energy
"
595.
the
the
therm
Apparently a
to produce milk
that
with
5. Feeding
Feeding
Milk
for
secondary
factor.
Production
"
As
has
already been
a
urged, the feedingof a milking animal is in a certain sense
of successful
secondary factor in dairying. The possibilities
milk
the capacity of the
production depend primarilyupon
the maintenance
animals as milk producers and upon
of such
environment
will give free play to this capacity. Feed,
an
as
the other hand, while equallynecessary, is after all essentially
on
the
supply of
works
and
raw
cannot
material
upon
which
the
animal
mechanism
greatlystimulate production,though
it may
thing is substantially
true, of course, of all forms
of productivefeeding,
in the feeding
the case
but it is especially
for the reason
of dairy animals
alreadynoted (558),that it is
the product of a single
gland and not a generalincrease of body
tissue which
is desired.
in
Improper rations,therefore,may
this case
if sufficient
not
only limit the total productionbut, even
in quantity,may
if deficient in quality deflect production
from milk to fattening,
or possiblyto greater muscular
activity,
and
same
milk-producingcapacityof
Loc. cit.,
p. 137.
the
MILK
PRODUCTION
501
a
Feeding, therefore,while in a sense
secondary
factor is nevertheless an important one.
Feed
596.
of
Regarded solely as a source
requirements.
of milk, the daily ration must, of
material for the formation
contain
of protein and ash and
an
adequate amount
course,
a
quantity of non-nitrogenous nutrients sufficient to furnish
material for the manufacture
of the non-nitrogenous ingredients
of the milk, while it must
also supply enough energy for
activities of the body, includingmaintenance
the physiological
and the energy
expended in the processes of milk formation.
be taken into conIn addition to this,however, there must
sideration
animals.
"
the
of substances
of
possibility
which
the presence
absence in the feed
or
have
a
specificeffect on the milk
may
gland,either
been
studied
most
in that connection.
Protein
Milk
597.
milk
requirements
for milk production
rich
in
productionis,of
The
of
physiological
purpose
to support the growth of the young.
(462),is the progrowth, however
duction
protein.
"
course,
essential feature
of
The
new
moderate
over
0.6
yieldsof champion
598.
Minimum
protein formed.
Even
the
tion
pounds of milk of average composipound of protein,while the extraordinary
dailyyieldof
contains
of milk
cows
20
contain
several
protein requirement.
"
amount
times
this amount.
Just as
of
in the
case
of
protein
digestible
OF
NUTRITION
502
which
is the
animal
possiblymeet
can
ANIMALS
FARM
in the milk
of proteincontained
proteinplus the actual amount
yielded. For example,if a iooo-pound cow is to produce daily
containing3.2 per cent of total protein,
25 pounds of milk
digestibleform
in the milk plus
at least the 0.8 pound of proteincontained
the approximate 0.6 pound presumably required for body
maintenance, or a total of approximately 1.4 pounds. A less
evidently result either in a falling
supply than this must
it is evident
milk
off in the
milk
in
yieldor
in
contain
must
body proteininto
of
conversion
protein.
much
How
by
an
utilization
"4
ration
her
that
of
this
this minimum
than
more
adequate
ration will
amount
depend
the
upon
plied
sup-
percentage
already discussed
of the
be
must
in
proportionof
the
it
tion
capableof conversion into milk protein. Thus in the illustrajustemployed, if 80 per cent of the surplusfeed protein
be utilized the proteinrequirement would be 1 .0 pound for
can
milk productionplus 0.6 pound for maintenance, or 1.6 pound
with
is parallel
that of the
instead of 1.4 pound. The
case
proteinrequirement for growth discussed in Chapter XI (484491) and in both instances the experimentaldata available are
insufficient for a final conclusion,although the probabilities
of a high percentage utilization
to indicate the possibility
appear
under
599.
favorable
Protein
conditions.
as
stimulus
the
to
milk
glands.
"
The
going
fore-
subject. In
of milk protein
that the amount
them it has been tacitly
assumed
fixed.
It
manufactured
by the milk glands is substantially
well established,
seems
however, that in addition to furnishing
the nitrogenous
material
for the manufacture
of milk protein,
considerations
matter
do
glands,causinga
of all the milk
more
solids.
act
to
active
In
extent
some
secretion
other
full
to
to
not
words, it
as
the
stimulus
to the
only of proteinbut
would
the amount
appear
that
indicated
by
like the
advantage
natural
OF
NUTRITION
5"4
Table
139.
Influence
"
Protein
of
ANIMALS
FARM
Supply
and
on
Production
Milk
head)
siderable
proteinrations were able to support a conmilk productionwithout
causingthe body proteinto
liberal supply
be drawn
nevertheless,a more
materially,
upon
of digestible
accompanied by a distinctly
greater
proteinwas
productionof both total milk solids and milk protein.
Although
the low
extensive
investigationsof
gen's investigations. The
l
milk
production by sheep
Morgen and his associates
upon
of trials in which an exchange between
include a large number
M
or
"
comparativelypure proteinon
the
on
afford
other
was
factors.
in the
one
rations.
hand
The
and
starch
or
oil
results,therefore,
valuable
supply as
made
the
data
protein
surplusof digestible
above
the total of milk protein plus maintenance
protein. In
the followingtable,computed by the writer,the experiments
period
Landw.
contained
Vers.
considerable
Stat.,61 (1904),1
; 62
(1905),251
; 64
(1906), 93;
66
(1907), 63.
MILK
have
been
PRODUCTION
grouped accordingto
505
the amount
of this
surplus,and
the average
percentage increase in the yield of milk solids and
of milk fat which resulted from an increase of the feed protein
has been
Table
computed
140.
On
for each
Influence
"
of
group.
Protein
Supply
Milk
on
Production
the
the
followed
by
usuallyin
that
fat.
It should
yieldof
be
milk
solids and
said,however, that
solids and
six
Digestibleprotein
an
minus
increased
yieldof
milk
fat.
and
for
Out
of the
growth of wool.
506
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
600.
feeds.
protein-rich
of
In addition
"
to
tions
investiga-
of cottonseed
substitution
In
with
all these
one
in the last
two
or
meal
for maize
the milk
increase
of
of milk
from
maintenance, yet
followed
by
the
digested,
digestible
protein was
unit of organicmatter
per
cent
per
meal.
to
39
per
cent.
further
largeryield
increase ing
rangin the experiments
As
what
previousparagraph,the results appear somethe
showing no consistent relation between
capricious,
of proteinsuppliedand the relative increase of milk production
described
excess
in the
secured.
be
It should
low-proteinrations
of maize
extent
protein,which has
inferior nutritive value (783).
proteinsof
601.
the
Protein
fed
in
American
experimentsthe
of these
that in many
added
consisted
to
since been
shown
practice. On
"
considerable
the
to be
of
basis of
recommended
a standard
experimentsand observations,Wolff
for dairy feeding callingfor 2.5 pounds of digestible
protein
dailyper 1000 pounds of live weight. Although later modified
versally
unifor many
by Lehmann, this standard was
years almost
doubted
accepted on Wolff's authority,supported by the uninstances the addition of protein-rich
fact that in many
feedingstuffs to ordinaryfarm rations materiallyincreased the
milk
to indicate
yield. Later observations,however, seem
in practice
that while proteinis important the amount
necessary
has
been
somewhat
1
Die
overestimated.
Ernahrung
der landw.
Nutztiere, 1876,
p.
548.
PRODUCTION
MILK
Woll
extensive
an
regards the
successful dairymen were
United
the
practicein
make
first to
the
was
507
States
as
study of dairy
protein supply,
using rations
called for by Wolff's
was
the rations reportedas compared
standard.
as
follows
Digestible
Matter
of all
average
141.
was
"
"
Rations
Dairy
in
Woll's
Dry matter
Digestiblematter
Protein
24.51
Fat
Woll
ratio
that
be
not
represent
production,expresses the
and althoughit does not
feeding experience,
that less proteinwould not be sufficient or
either
would
more
average,
of milk
investigation
results of American
demonstrate
Lb.
i:5-9
scientific
any
0.74
Nutritive
Lb.
2.15 Lb.
13.27 Lb.
Carbohydrates
...
age
Aver-
similar
observations
additional
the
calls for
probably more
are
2
reported by Phelps
were
feature
in
that
several
stances
in-
on
the live
economical
602.
were
weight, and
believes
productionthan
Experiments
observations
on
and
those
herds.
"
such
rations
will
Haecker
tensive
reported exprotein supply
has
the
Conn.
Minn.
more
containingless protein.
experiments on
give
5o8
of the
dairy herd
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
of the Minnesota
standard
calls for
clusion
con-
unnecessarily
of protein.
largeamounts
regarded as normal and
During nine years, yieldswhich were
either on the basis of total amounts
produced or
satisfactory,
secured on rations containing,
of feed consumed
per unit of milk, were
2
with the exception of the year
1 895-1896, about
pounds
of
proteinper
digestible
1000
"
Table
Bui.
142.
140,
"
Protein
p. 43.
Supply
of
Dairy
Herd
Ibid,, p.
54.
PRODUCTION
MILK
The
of the milk
proteincontent
509
from
the
low
protein groups
is not
reported,but
which
second
three years
consumed
pounds
an
it
was
day by
per
over
weighing slightly
cows
was
Average
Average
Table
143.
"
of
of
and
periodsA
period B
Surplus
1.76 pounds.
1.97
Available
of
pounds.
Protein
Available
Protein
Period
A,
Low
protein
"
.
Average
C, Low
protein
"
.
Average
f
Period
B, High protein
Average
in
Herd
Milk
Protein
Lb.
Lb.
I.03
0.72
0.80
1.41
1.
Period
1000
18
0.69
Rations
Surplus
Available
Protein
Per
Cent
43
76
_7"
63
1. 21
0.74
0.82
0.58
41
1. 11
o-73
52
1.07
0.76
41
1. 00
0.69
45
1-54
I.18
0.70
120
"-59
100
1.22
0-63
94
i-3i
0.64
105
Bui. 13.
of
OF
NUTRITION
510
likewise
The
economical
average
The
the
of the
milk
3.38 per
cent
Summary.
603.
individual
"
both
cows
smaller
is not
decidedly more
supply of protein.
mating
estibut
stated,
requirement)
maintenance
winter
rations
was
yieldand
to
as
shown
as
in each
143
rations
and
proteinmaintenance, the
protein minus
protein (digestible
the milk production in the
over
in Table
greater and
production on
proteincontent
it at
ANIMALS
FARM
between
compositionof milk, it
is
clear that
one
no
and
the amount
character
produced.
of the milk
ble
fairlywell established (586)that the digestibe
converted
rations
feed proteinof ordinary mixed
may
It appears
into
be
to
proteinwithout
milk
a
moderate
rate
that
quently
conse-
maintained,
furnishinga comparativelysmall
the milk
protein plus the
protein over
surplus of digestible
least for
at
requirementfor
On
pure
the other
on
was
maintenance.
hand,
proteinsand
however
(599,600),both experimentswith
in which
those
an
increase
in the
tent
proteinconfeeds
protein-rich
of excess
protein
by the use of
to indicate clearlya stimulatinginfluence
milk production,
although in the majority of cases the effect
pated,
not very large. Contrary to what
might have been anticiproteinof the ration
however, an increase in the digestible
of rations
seem
rations
time, on
has
secured
been
mals
quiteas effective with anireceiving
alreadyon a high plane of proteinnutrition,i.e.,
the minimum
requirement as with those
a
large surplus over
This
level of protein supply.
much
lower
a
on
appears
with
especialclearness in Morgen's experiments on sheep.
appears
The
to have
results
been
therefore
on
the whole
fail to
indicate
the limits
within
which
conditions.
NUTRITION
512
If there
FARM
ANIMALS
available definite
were
of
values
energy
OF
feeding stuffs
605.
Equivalent
values
energy
of determinations
of the net
for
In
fattening.
"
values
energy
of
the
sence
ab-
feedingstuffs
(593),the
of
amount
fatteningwhich
of milk
yield.
unit
a
requirement
certain assumptions,that
on
to
is
equivalentin
Thus
it
was
energy
estimated,
of net
ration
energy
pound
this way
of
ingly,
Accordactuallypresent in the milk.
in excess
of maintenance, 252 Cals.
containing,
for fattening
would
have been adequate to produce
of
Cals.
milk
the amount
pound
one
the amount
In
energy.
requiredfor the production
of net
energy
of each
of the
of milk
grades included
of net
of
Cals.
containing 336
content
energy
energy for
in
the
of the milk
fattening,it appears
possibleto utilize the net energy values of feeds obtained by
and
Kellner
others
in maintenance
or
fattening experiments
for milk.
Such a method
a basis for computing rations
as
is,of
equivalentamount
and
provisional,
course,
take
well-fed
some
which
into account
cows
the
of the
digestibility
lower
than
the
5 per cent
used in computing net
are
available.
it appears
by
Eckles
energy
the figuresfor the equivalent energy
for
necessary
(722)that
also
with
the average
digestioncoefficients
rations
average
In its actual
is
on
Accordingly,
fatteningas computed
values.
MILK
PRODUCTION
513
grades.
Table
606.
145.
Equivalent
"
Concurrent
Energy
fattening.
"
Values
Were
for
Fattening
all the
surplusfeed above
milk
production, it
requirement applied to
to compute the amount
would be a comparativelysimple matter
of feed energy requiredin a dailyration. Thus, if a cow
ing
weigh1000
pounds were
capable of producing 25 pounds of 4.5
per cent milk daily,the net energy requiredin her ration would
the
be
maintenance
computed
as
follows
"
For
milk
For
maintenance
Cals.
7.275 Therms
6.000 Therms
13.275
has
Attention
been
called several
times, however,
Therms
to
the
Including5
2
per
cent
allowance
for difference in
digestibility.
OF
NUTRITION
514
is diverted
must
would
be necessary
supply
both
established
other
that
such
forms
may
to
plane of nutrition.
"
It appears
experience and
common
the
than
duction.
pro-
to be well
by direct experiment
of energy
from milk productionto
in fact take place before the maximum
capacity
diversion
glands is
milk
of the
by
ANIMALS
energy
per pound of milk
utilized for milk
latter were
net
more
if all the
of
Influence
607.
FARM
reached.
moderate
On
rations,the
net
satisfyingthe maintenance
requirement,may
milk
utilized
for
be
entirely
production. As the
apparently
does not continue
feed is increased,however, the animal
to
after
energy,
available
with
then
for milk
productionup to
suddenlybegin to utilize any
On
higher plane
the concentration
the organincreases,
ism
and
at
a point varying
nutrition,
in the
digestednutrients
reaches
energy
capacityand
surplusfor fattening.
of the
net
of
fluids
body
different individuals
of available
speak,robs
for milk production.
milk glandsof feed intended
of
608.
of individuality. The
Influence
individuality
material
fatteningto begin,which,
causes
so
to
"
is
animal
cows
important
most
having
so-called beef
at
which
as
fattening,
energy
the
With
in this connection.
tendency toward
inherited
an
factor
the
in the
begins
be
to
between
milk
requirement
cost, while
with
constitutes
heavier
too
largea proportion of
feedingproduction is
largelyto fattening.
the typical dairy animal,
With
but a slighttendency to fatten,the
towards
the amount
of the milk
glands,or
on
the other
the feed
directed
too
hand, having
be increased well
may
capacity
requiredto support the maximum
that
in exceptional
to
even
cases
point,
up
feed
material
diversion to fattening. Such
any
if of large milk-producing
capacity,are the
animals, especially
without
causing
dairy animals
profitable
so
far
as
MILK
relations between
The
demonstrated
in
such
of
and
those
as
Hess
Carlyle3
4
Haecker
609.
it
and
Weld
and
of Waters
the Minnesota
Stimulation
from
beyond
diversion
station.
of katabolism.
obtained
is increased
part by
Waters, Caldwell
the
at
returns
feed
the
at
at
515
ing
supply,milk productionand fattenthe foregoing paragraphs have
been clearly
number
of investigations
a
on
dairy feeding,
in
outlined
PRODUCTION
certain
maximum
net
while
dairycow
may
milk
from
energy
to be true also that heavier
seems
of
But
"
the
as
ing
diminishits amount
be
explained in
tening,
production to fat-
feedingmay
cause
to be oxidized,
largerproportionof the digestedorganicmatter
either as the result of greater muscular
activityor by a direct
stimulation of the katabolic processes.
This is especially
evident
in breed
tests in which
heavy rations have been consumed.
Striking illustrations of it are afforded by the results of the
Purchase
tests of dairy breeds at the Louisiana
Exposition in
5
and by the extensive comparisons
1904 as computed by Haecker
of German
breeds reportedby Hansen.6
a
610.
Diminishing
returns
from
feed.
"
It is evident
from
the
of a very
foregoingthat,with the possibleexceptionof cows
be
pronounced dairy type, the maximum
yield of milk can
secured only at the expense
of a simultaneous
production of
less body fat and perhaps also of a stimulation
of the
more
or
of the body. Consequently,beyond the
katabolic processes
point at which this fatteningor stimulation begins, the milk
productionper unit of net energy in the feed must
necessarily
be a diminishing
of
one, and it is clear that the determination
the net energy requirements for milk productionis to a considerable
economic
problem.
Milk
will be produced at the least feed (energy)cost per
pound when the ration is so adjusted as to produce as great a
extent
yieldof
1
Penna.
Wis.
an
milk
as
is
possiblewithout
causingfattening.7If
the
2
Expt. Sta.,Rpt. 1893, p. 24-36.
Ibid.,Rpt. 1895, p. 24-55.
Expt. Sta., 17th Rpt. (1900), p. 37-61.
4 Minn.
5
Minn.
Expt. Sta., Buls. 79 and 140.
Expt. Sta., Bui. 106, p. 158.
6 Landw.
Jahrb., 35 (1906), Ergzbd. IV, 147-236; 37 (1908), Ergzbd. Ill, 2362er Ber. vom
Dikopshof (1911), 210, 430.
410;
7
It may
be presumed
that the stimulatingeffect upon
the katabolism
occurs
chieflyin heavy feeding which causes
fatteningalso.
516
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
supply is
energy
decreased
of
the
net
milk
and
below
ANIMALS
this
unit of milk
remains
stant,
approximatelycon-
both maintenance
to support
necessary
production increases relatively
per unit of
energy
product.
hand,
the other
On
katabolism, it
stimulate
to
or
is clear
as
to
that
will be
of milk
unit
so
tening
fat-
cause
the
energy
creased
apparentlyin-
produced
reasons
alreadyexplained. Such an increase in
for the
be economicallyjustifiable
the feed cost, however, may
of any form of intensive production.
reasons
as in the case
same
be doubted
milk
commercial
In average
production,it may
the rations should be made
whether
heavy enough to cause
any
requirements per
for the
fattening,and
considerable
far
so
mated
this is the case, the esti-
as
values
per unit of milk
energy
the basis for computing rations.
net
serve
as
in Table
145 may
If,however, feed is
ing
relatively
cheap and dairyproducts high in price,the diminishstill be profitable
due to heavier
returns
feeding may
up
of
milk
unit
certain
to a
point even
though more
per
energy
be supplied in order to support concurrent
must
fattening,
the fact that
while
more
less of
or
the
body
early
may
Fat
611.
Is fat essential?
It
"
was
noted
in
the
discussing
tions
func-
of the nutrients
for
of certain
fats
be essential
growth.
to
analogous
to
That
the
milk
body
in
whole
fat
as
Since
growth
productionas
associated with
of substances
or
any
or
on
well
as
largeamounts
appears
productionis in many
milk
it is of
them
interest
to
to
spects
re-
inquirewhether
either on milk
effect,
specific
the productionof milk fat.
body fat may be manufactured in
such
from
other
nutrients
has
been
shown
MILK
beyond questionby
PRODUCTION
517
the
produced on
from
or
which
the
made
of
feedingstuffs very
poor in fat
been extracted.
It is
scarcelyfeasible
such
animals
milk
productionwith
and
up
to
prepare
the writer is not
absolutelyfat-free
aware
such
rations for
of any experiments on
it is clear that at most
rations,but
of fat can
but very small amounts
be regarded as indispensable.
of fat to rations.
612. Addition
Experiments in which the
fat content
of ordinary rations has been increased,either by
the direct addition of fat in one
form or another or by the substitution
of fat for carbohydrates,
have given very contradictory
"
results.
been
An
increased
has
stations
with, in all,196
reportedby
The
cows,
have
been
Kellner.4
effected
N.
Landw.
3
4
5
nor
was
Y.
des Innern
to Hansen
Berichte
rice feed
According
although this effect did
in those of Fingerling (613).
liber
has
not
the
appear
Landwirtschaft,Heft
and
2.
in most
of these
duction,
pro-
experiments
5i8
in the percentage
associated
ANIMALS
according to
increase
FARM
with
Table
in the total
decrease
146.
Effect
"
of
yieldand
Increasing
At
Experiments
Fat
Bonn
"
Pommritz
Kiel
Breslau
+
"
Triesdorf
Weihenstephan
Lauchstadt
Darmstadt
Jena
crease
In-
Average
It
147.
"
average
of fat for
Influence
clear
seems
conditions
expected
%
0.2
%
3-1 %
2.3 %
7.1 %
2.1%
0.5
from
two
of the
5.o%
0.3%
2.6%
of
from
of
Individuality
the
3-7%
as
Effects
foregoingresults
4-8%
1.0%
10.8 %
animals
on
0.6%
carbohydrateswas
3.3%
7-9
however,
experiments the
decrease
the substitution
Table
OR
9-8%
6.6%
differences in cows,
example, in
For
or
2.5
crease
In-
Decrease
(" )
Content
Fat
in
Milk
of
-2.7%
Striking individual
increase
Percentage
(+)
Yield
0.5
versa.
Rations
of
-6.7%
vice
(+) OR
(" ) of
Decrease
Milk
that
appears
in general
was
Percentage
Danzig
of the milk
the results
Grouping
an
OF
NUTRITION
served.
ob-
were
of
range
consequent
follows
of
that
Fat
on
"
Increase
under
the
OF
NUTRITION
520
FARM
ANIMALS
of fat, may
favorable
a
by-products containinga minimum
pated
the yieldof milk and its percentage of fat be anticieffect upon
from an increase in the supply of digestible
fat.
614.
Influence
afford any
of the
None
"
periments
ex-
milk
supplyupon
regardingthe
data
exact
energy.
of the fat
the influence
on
of
utilization
on
production
gain or loss of
concurrent
determinations
no
production
the
at
direction
under
in which
effected
of the ash
estimate
mineral
no
Practically
615.
economically.
more
Ash
The
are
elements
on
record
the
milk.
in the milk
that
which
dairycow
It is true
"
trustworthy
can
be based.
the outgo of
without special
that
be determined
may
reasonably accurate
which
element
upon
requirementsof the
outgo in
and
difficulty
from
was
it may
be estimated.
in the problem. It became
evident
ash
in
in
consideringthe
Chapter
IX
(421-436)
of these factors.
*
Kellner
for calcium
and
requirements, he
found
amounts
assumption
in the
that
only
adds
to
milk
upon
one-third
ash
is available.
for
per
day by
cow,
Computed
thousand
pound
1
Ernahrung
landw.
these
the
his results
are
p. 595.
as
tionable
ques-
the
pounds
20
the
times
somewhat
one-half
to
yieldof
three
feed
of milk
follows
"
MILK
Table
616.
148.
The
that
the
Estimated
"
supply
will
dairy rations
PRODUCTION
Requirements
feed.
in the
"
the
usuallymeet
only in exceptionalcases
calcium supply.
Forbes
52
for
Kellner
Milk
states
Production
that
ordinary
requirementsjuststated
will it be necessary
to
and
supplement
has
animals
live
With
on
may
nevertheless
three different
weightsof
the
cows
rations,all of which
resulted in
and
maintained
the
and
an
phosphorus requirementsas
method
were
and
the actual
computed
according
suppliedin
amounts
the
to
rations
"
Table
149.
"
Calcium
Ohio
and
Phosphorus
for
275
Milk
(1916).
ner's
Kell-
Production
NUTRITION
522
Whether
shrinkage of
made
usually
cows
up
lactation,and whether
of the factors in the natural
the body is one
production, as suggested by Forbes, are
of
milk
investigation.
evident,however,
information
much
fresh
again in
this depletionof the
for future
It is
ANIMALS
relatively
large losses by
copiousmilk production and are
reserves
matters
FARM
such
accompany
the later stages of
mineral
OF
that
of the
none
regardingthe
real ash
foregoingdata afford
requirementsof dairy
cows.
Feed
617.
"
odor
or
taste
to
to milk
in
feedingstuff
of
which
small
or
proteinor
do not
production
flavoring substances
By
"
presence
its content
substances
are
whose
of
stimulus
substances.
Flavoring
those
meant
as
ration
energy.
yieldmatter
is
improves the
while not adding materially
In other words, they
to the body
or
energy
amounts
in the
however, it
limits,
various
to the
milk
In
of fat.
gland,causing a greater yieldof milk and especially
Morgen's experiments on milk productioncited on previous
extensive
of rations consistinglargelyof
made
use
was
pages
almost
flavorless
materials.
be
impossibleto secure
rations supplying equal
to
made
up
of
normal
With
such
rations
it
was
feeds.
The
addition
to
these
found
from
but
flavorless
as
fennel,anise or hay
rations,however, of such substances
the introduction of malt sprouts, caused
a distinct
or
distillate,
increase in the milk yield,so that, with rations containing a
secured.1
of fat,almost
or
sufficiency
quitenormal results were
in increasing
observed
the fat
Moreover, a distinct effect was
production and the percentage of fat in the milk.
1
Landw.
Vers.
Stat.,61 (1904),1.
MILK
PRODUCTION
523
*
Subsequent experimentsby Fingerling
fullyconfirmed these
results.
The addition
to the flavorless rations,or
to damaged
the impregnationof
fennel,or even
hay, of salt,hay distillate,
rations with the odor of the latter substances,caused a marked
in the
increase
yieldof
milk
and
in its content
of fat
well
as
as
of much
be
economic
of the
the claims
etc.,
It
also shown
was
powders,
that
certain
cake
feeding stuffs (malt sprouts, palmnut cake, cocoa
beet molasses)when added to a ration of damaged hay and
nutrients increased the milk and fat yieldsto about the
extent
to
as
some
(549)does
618.
not
production of
pure
same
the hormones
Specific effects
feeds.
of
the
general.
feedingstuffs
The
may
the quality of the milk
"
The
production of
of milk
production
appear.
that
and
increased
an
to
support
no
feeds,milk
condimental
numerous
largelyadvertised.
so
they lend
importance and
the
on
the
fact
just noted
milk
and
that
of milk
fat,
flavor of
so-called
"
rations,leads
"
effects
specific
belief has
promote
to
an
extent
of
fullyexplainedby the
which they supply.
energy
not
of
or
digestiblematter
On the other hand, there has been no general agreement as to
what particular
feeding stuffs possess this power, and scientific
have been led to question the existence of such
investigators
the compositionof milk.
A discussion
effects,
particularly
upon
of the literature of the subjectup to 1903 by Lemmermann
amounts
and
Linkh
affords
strikinginstances
of the
tween
bediscrepancies
different
^andw.
373;
2
indifferent.
74
64
(1906),357;
67
(1907),253;
71
(1909),
OF
NUTRITION
524
Defective
much
ANIMALS
experiments is doubtless
of
planning
FARM
of this confusion.
In
the
instances
many
responsiblefor
experimentershave
added
the
feed
be tested
to
to
is
and Linkh that the evidence
agree with Lemmermann
inconclusive,while their own
specific
experiments,although indicating
one
but
can
dairy herds
trials with
and
S torch
unit
"
and
carried
by
convincing.
the extensive
by Fjord, Friis
in Denmark
out
feeding
which
Scandinavian
or
these trials
In
is afforded
negativeevidence
Similar
scarcelymore
are
feedingstuffs,
"
feed
system
varietyof
with
influence
on
the milk
secretion
other than
explainedby
what
may
be
the total
and
protein content
plausibly
experimentalmethod.
effect on the production
specific
nutrients
to
the
indications of a
particular,
of milk fat are lacking.
More
positive results have been reached,however, in two
recent investigations,
viz.,in a series of investigations
by Hansen
at the AgriculturalAcademy
Bonn-Poppelsdorfand in a series
of cooperative experiments on
under the
palmnut meal made
auspicesof the German
AgriculturalCouncil.
In
Hansen's
619.
nine
series
experiments.
on
63
cows,
the various
feedingstuffs
comparison
ration
in this respect.
nutrients
net
energy
in the
Jour. Landw.,
Landw.
; 40
for others
Care
was
extendingover
be
tested
which
taken
experiments
2
5 years,
appeared to
to
keep
in which
substituted
were
the
be
total
cluded
in-
in
indifferent
digestible
rations,or
values
(starchvalues),unchanged.
Ill, 171
to
Hansen's
"
22 (1874),178.
Jahrb., 35 (1906), 125 ; 35 Ergzbd. Bd. IV, 327
(191 1),Ergzbd. Bd. I, 129.
; 37
(1908),Ergzbd. Bd.
PRODUCTION
MILK
feeding stuffs
results show
The
525
on
the
consistent when
were
repeated.
1
three
Hansen
distinguishes
experiments
were
feedingstuffs.
(apparently
of the first group,
including maizena
Those
gluten feed),maize and oats, increase the quantityof milk but
depress the percentage of fat,so that the total yieldof fat is not
of the second
including
group,
materially changed. Those
residues,maize distillers'grains,and to a
palmnut meal, cocoa
of these
groups
"
"
less
the
total
yield of
crease
legumes, inmateriallyaffectingthe
and
meal
cottonseed
fat without
the
quantity of milk, so
Those
increased.
"
false flax
diminish
"
the
do not
fat but
yieldof
to
cake,
degree sesame
sensiblyaffect the quantity
a
less
respectively
5.55
He
amounts.
the
and
12.42
concludes
per
that
proportionof palmnut
the
effect
specific
in the ration
cake
in the cake.
of fat contained
fed in different
fat when
cent
and
increases with
with
the percentage
finds that to
He
secure
can
be obtained
if sufficient is fed.
"
"
"
demonstrated
for
or
two
would
have
continued
longer time.
1
Loc. cit.,Bd.
Landw.
40,
Jahrb.,
187-188.
(1914), 30-
pp.
47
Camelina Sativa.
Cooperative experiments.
620.
the
under
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
526
The
"
ments
cooperative experi-
the German
auspicesof
AgriculturalCouncil
made
palmnut cake or meal and were
different institutions with,
plan at seven
according to a common
The
in all,1 86 cows.
experimental periodscovered about one
month
regarded as a
each, of which the first 5 to 7 days were
between
4 pounds
preliminaryfeeding. The comparison was
of
the influence
relate to
of
palmnut
of
meal
meal
of maize
mixture
protein and
values
energy
sulted
lactation,the substitution of palmnut meal reonly in each of the 7 experiments as a whole, but with
of
the advance
not
production.
The
increased.
quantity of
total
150.
milk
effects of the
palmnut
Effects
"
Palmnut
of
Meal
Milk
on
Increase
Daily
(+)
Decrease
(" ) in
Yield
Milk
Percentage
Bonn
.
Griefswald
Friesdorf
to
smaller
amounts.
immediatelyfollow
reachingits maximum
1
was
the
3-24
48
3-25
2-97
O.28
22
3-i7
3-05
0.09
64
3-5i
3-17
O.04
15
3-68
0.06
25
3.85
3-78
13
4.21
4-05
Berichte
change
uber
milkers
than
that
of feed but
course
seemed
meal
palmnut
of
one
Landwirtschaft,Heft
in
On Check
Ration
O.58
also observed
in the
Palmnut
Meal
good
were
On
3-58
-f-O.02
that
Fat
62
general,cows
of
"
Weihenstephan
In
as
O.29
"
Hamburg
Jena
were
Milk
Milk Fat
Grams
Kgs.
was
Production
or
Danzig
tially
substan-
yieldedwas
the percentage
average
of the fat
distinct increase
followingtable.
in the
Table
in
cows
unaffected,so that
shown
pounds
1000
per
3-5i
more
those
ceptible
sus-
yielding
developed gradually,
two
or
weeks, and
21
and
23.
528
the
NUTRITION
624.
Influence
centered
percentage
on
this substance.
around
increase
specific
of Kuhn
the work
an
increase
in the
The
well
as
conservative
to
has
percentage
percentage
content,
down
in 1868
fat is
discussion
view
up by Jordan in 1908.1
much
discussed and much
the
in the
fat.
in the
Since
"
increase
in the water
selves
them-
of the evidence.
An
result from
a decrease
solids,
i.e.,
of total
contented
of fat in milk.
ingredient of milk,
conservative,have
the conflicting
nature
pointingout
valuable
specially
the
"
ANIMALS
milk,while others,more
with
this
FARM
OF
as
on
gated
investi-
the present
day.
Many
short
low
'
exist between
relation
to
appears
the ration and the
the
character
quantity or
of
has
writer
The
composition of the milk.'
examined
the results of nearly all the important experiments
of this character of which he could find a record,and in but few
could
cases
in the
decrease
relation
he
discover
there
that
proportionof
to variations
in the ration.
change
in the ration,but
milk
in most
was
solids which
In
some
immediately
instances
bore
cases
after
of this kind
or
logical
temporary
violent
there
change
was
return
by
causes
to
the
not
under
his
normal
very
small
product. In a
manent
proportionof experiments,the milk appeared to sustain a perThe
modification.
extensive
weight of
though not
that the qualityof milk
testimony bears out the statement
mined
be changed at will by the farmer, but is largelydetercannot
a
soon
animal's
increase
material
control,such
as
breed
and
viduality
indi-
the latter,
although feedingand treatment, especially
have
or
more
less influence
upon
the
character
of the
milk
secreted."
position
feeding stuffs upon the comof milk is associated with the question of the so-called
specific effects of feeding stuffs (618). As was pointed out
Much
"
of the
allegedeffect
of
"
The
PP- 3i7-3i8.
Macmillan
Co., New
York, 1908,
MILK
PRODUCTION
that question,both
considering
in
of
of
many
the
529
the
planningand
execution
older
results must
experiments
the other
on
hand, as
well
the
as
of Morgen
investigations
Fingerlmgand
and
unquestionable instances of
the fat content
upon
an
of the milk.
to
cent
per
per
showed
cows
even
more
Apparentlyit
be admitted
must
of milk
may
and
625.
Influence
such
conditions
some
be
affected by
distinctly
to
percentage
on
from
it appears
that, under
fat in
of these latter
solids.
the
feeding
more
Further-
"
experiments as
cluded
in-
a
essentially
was
proportionof fat
This
milk
"
fat content
in
to
one-sided
marked
was
creased.
in-
results
was
were
Similar
in
althoughmuch less
experiments
Fingerling's
was
due, in
the
decrease of the
or
the
solids,
being
over
while
Lmdsey1
cocoa
increase
by the addition
mrik
"
increase
5 per
cent
has
majorityof instances,
largelyto
percentage
decrease
of fat contained
over
the
Hansen's
meal.
an
in the
comparison rations
in. fullyone-third of the experiments
or
confirmed
Mass.
Expt. Sta.,Bui.
155.
results
as
regards
NUTRITION
530
It
fat
the
in
the
of
626.
this
be
those
been
market
milk
is
most
essentially
altogether
of
selection
such
on
of
and
feeding
might
on
suited
to
easily
and
at
that
earlier
and
less
real
well
be
meet
the
the
is
be
made
the
to
meal.
is
of
one
subject
those
of
of
possible
the
by
depressed
of
the
ing
dairyThe
intelligent
the
time
short
in
has
As
particular
by
secondary
increase
is
matter
of
same
it
due
producer.
secured
If
observed
it may
milk
from
are
successful
demands
the
one.
milk
of
influence
At
true
(564).
in
any
feed
remains
still
animals
certainly
while
been
similar
palmnut
as
permanently
has
stuffs,
animal
not,
lished
estab-
importance
factor
prime
must
apparently
composition
in
factor.
stress
It
commercial
while
negligible
to
hand,
investigations
Council
as
other
the
that
feed
extent
the
of
secondary
of
the
selection,
indicate
to
seem
the
facts
the
differences
insisted,
best
and
breeding
in
are
individual
capacity
of
quality
not
which
and
the
centage
per-
presumed
fact, represent
considered.
just
differences
repeatedly
is
its
temporarily
much
Too
"
physiological
evidence
sources
breed
of
and
fat
be
in
point
matter
practice.
the
on
major
different
to
in
laid
the
by
as
of
may
of
proportion
sort.
Significance
however,
it
this
on
yield
influenced,
and
feed,
did,
experiments
of
that
the
the
that
total
be
may
obtained
results
conclusive
effect
of
facts
the
as
milk,
nature
ANIMALS
FARM
foregoing
well
as
fresh
the
the
least, by
the
solids,
milk
in
some
from
clear
seems
OF
fat
the
by
yield
unsuitable
considerable
large
German
scale
is
results
factor
experiments,
an
feed
it
is
suitable
to
any
or
if,
choice
importance
cooperative
Agricultural
CHAPTER
WORK
Prime
627.
the
feed in
of
prime
PRODUCTION
of
purpose
XIV
feed.
excess
for which
purpose
of its maintenance
excess
the external
either natural
domesticated
work
mechanical
work
Aside from
"
animal
mature
It is true
that
more
material
reserve
which
be
may
the
feed may
be
that a fattening
in
enforced
or
consumed
layingaside
consumes
animal.
tion,
reproduc-
simply a
utilized later
and, however
be regarded as
important economically,may
of the
incidental. Any considerable fattening
physiologically
work
animal is not only a diversion of energy from the main
of the
purpose
carried
with
the
by
feedingbut
of the United
i.
or
The
weight
it may
extensive
to
be
interfere
respiration.
mules
are
these animals.
The
Physiology
Nature
628.
extra
an
chieflyto
"
if too
animal,while
Since horses
constitutes
muscles.
"
of
of
Work
muscular
Mechanical
Production
work
work
is
performed by
an
They
by
are
means
of its muscles
also called
voluntarymuscles
53*
because
they are
inner-
OF
NUTRITION
532
the
from
vated
and
cerebrospinalsystem
under
are
muscles
The
of the will.
the
trol
con-
chiefly
are
non-striated
and
ANIMALS
FARM
are
of work
heart
629.
livinganimal
the
When
"
is
usuallya
nerve
is,it tends
it contracts, that
muscle
in
stimulus, which
stimulus,is applied to a
suitable
to
shorter
grow
thicker.
and
shorteningand thickeningof
the muscle is built up.
A single
the individual
fibers of which
stimulus,such, for example, as that caused by the making or
as
breaking of an electric circuit,givesrise to what is known
If such a stimulus is
contraction or twitch.
a simple muscular
repeatedwith sufficient frequency it produces a series of simple
in a state of contraccontractions
which fuse together,resulting
tion
which
continues,subjectto the effects of fatigue,as long
This
as
change
is
brought
about
by
acts.
This
form
the stimulus
received
the
ordinarycontractions
system,
nervous
of muscle
shorteningof
or
be done
in the
When
the
that
are
but
seem
momentary,
the
muscle
for
the
necessarily
imply
Contraction
the
with
in connection
in
ology
physiactual
an
either be isotonic
may
contracting overcomes
is said to be isotonic.
in the
of
mechanical
sense
the muscle
but
exerts
physiological
sense, i.e.,
is called
630.
the
In
not, however,
the muscle.
points of attachment
can
has
livinganimal
muscles, brought about by
used
as
resistance,as,
contraction
contraction
in their character.
does
isometric.
constant
the
those
contraction
term
of muscular
tetanus."
of
even
tetanic
essentially
The
"
of
name
Chemical
either
an
pull.
still contracts
Such
traction
con-
isometric contraction.
changes in
isotonic
or
contraction.
"
In
isometric,there
muscular
occurs
traction,
con-
rapid
PRODUCTION
WORK
in the
contained
of materials
katabolism
it
of their chemical
oxidation,yieldingchieflycarbon
to
or
katabolism
dioxid
the views
of muscular
general features
muscle
brought to
corresponding
This
energy.
an
Certain
533
of
mation
transfor-
is in effect
and
water, but
as
differ.
physiologists
katabolism
fairlywell
are
is
accompaniment of contraction
oxidation
but a rapid,almost
an
not
explosive,breaking down of a
substances
substance
or
tion
present in the muscle, causing the producdioxid.
of carbon
It has been
shown, according to Zuntz and
Nevertheless,it
Loewy, that the muscle contains no free oxygen.
contracts
instantaneouslywhen
stimulated,while the effects upon
lated
the blood supply follow later,circulation and respiration
being stimumore,
Furtherby the carbon dioxid and other products formed.
it has been
shown
that, under certain conditions at least,a
muscle
and give off carbon
dioxid
in the
continue
to contract
may
made
First
out.
entire absence
immediate
the
of oxygen.
or
activityof the muscle, there is established more
of
with
the
blood
less distinctly
increased
a state
equilibrium
supply,
taken
the
and
carbon
dioxid
muscle
being
given off,
oxygen
up by
of the
number
of
the
dextrose
to
a
while,according
experimenters,
blood also disappearsduring its passage
Other
through the muscle.
products of muscular
katabolism, notably lactic acid and potassium
the
so-called
tend
to
mono-phosphate
fatigue products
accumulate
in the muscle and diminish
and finally
suspend its ability
to respond to a stimulus.
Fatigue of the muscles usually results
lack
of these substances
and not
from
from a gradual accumulation
With
continued
"
"
of material
631.
which
to be
Energy
takes
katabolized.
transformations.
place in
conversion
muscular
of chemical
"
The
katabolism
contraction
energy
of matter
impliesan
into kinetic
energy.
lent
equivaThe
widely
vary
under
different conditions.
As
regards the
intermediate
siders
possiblegeneral views. The first of these conthat the potentialenergy
is
of the material katabolized
first converted
into heat, and that subsequentlya portion of
are
this heat
two
is converted
into mechanical
motion.
The
second
NUTRITION
534
generalview considers
produced,a portionof
the
other.
it has
been
not
that heat
differences to
on
work
of the
conceive
of sufficient temperature
broadest
and
simultaneously
are
existence
is not
less
muscle
in
general
view, stated
prevailing
The
garded
re-
quent
outline,is that in the chemical
changes conseis
in
heat
and
stimulus,energy
part liberated as
that
no
account
muscle
in
The
be lifted for
cord
certain
the muscles
is,when
are
up does mechanical
this increased
tension is also
would
contract
distance.
free to
some
process
denly
sud-
and
the
weight
contraction,
shorten,the increased
In
isometric
converted
finally
in
to be
In isotonic
work.
set
in
of the muscle
part
would
portion
it is difficult to
the
ANIMALS
The
distinguishedan
FARM
OF
sion
ten-
contraction
heat, as for
into
work
called
"
632.
"
static work."
is the muscular
Tonus.
"
In
assumed
that
tacitly
is absolutelyrelaxed.
in
effort
the
familiar
foregoingparagraphs
before and
Such
of
illustration
"
static
required in standing.
after
is not
of rest, so-called,
there
state
tension
is
contraction
normally
a
it has
greater
the
or
been
the muscle
case.
less
Even
degree of
of the
muscles, especially
during the wakening hours,
tonic contraction.
In
known
other words, the
tonus
as
or
the stretch,as is shown
on
livingmuscle is slightly
by the fact
that
it gapes
with
the bone
open
when
cut
or
shortens
when
its connections
are
severed.
This
536
NUTRITION
and
rapidlyremoved
are
fact,it
In
the
excessive
more
is
blood
during
is
supply of
that
contains
is
oxygen
during work which
less carbon
sured.
en-
is not
dioxid
and
rest.
muscular
ANIMALS
abundant
an
usually true
venous
than
oxygen
FARM
OF
it is obvious
organ,
that this
in the
circulatory
activitymust add materiallyto its
metabolism.
In the performance of work, therefore,there is
and energy, not only for the work
of
an
expenditure of matter
increase
the skeletal
the
heart.
the
justmentioned
horse
katabolism
cent
due
of the
634.
the
to
that
compute
of
work
total katabolism
the
heart
work
amounts
the
3.8 per
to
of the
body.
greater activityof
The
Respiration.
"
during moderate
muscular
exertion
would
upon
efficient aeration
provisionmade for more
increased
activityof
circulation
futile
be
consequent
the
not
were
in the
of the blood
the
respiration.Under
the stimulus of the carbon
dioxid and other katabolic
products
of muscular
which
the blood,the respiratory
enter
ments
moveactivity
increased in frequencyor depth or both, as described
are
in Chapter IV (194),thus making possiblea more
rapidgaseous
lungs through an
exchange
between
action
usually so
is
contains
smaller
the
blood
and
efficient that
proportion
of
the
air in the
the
expiredair
carbon
dioxid
lungs. This
during work
it does
than
the total
that
eliminated
like
respiration,
is
much
is maintained
case
as
by
greater metabolism
Effectof
Since
muscular
As
greater.
work
the function
of
activity
lation,
circu-
in the former
action,it is true
greater
quantity
sitates
neces-
upon
proteinkatabolism
already indicated,knowledge
of the
details of muscular
katabolism
is still meager.
The
student of nutrition,
however,
is less directly
interested in these details than he is in knowing
the
and
performance of work
by the body
energy
exertion
be
upon
under
made
been
upon
the
penditure
ex-
varying
good by
devoted
the kind
to
and
WORK
of material
amount
will be convenient
the
upon
of
PRODUCTION
broken
537
in the
down
to
protein katabolism
and
second
work, first
the
upon
It
katab'olis
non-nitrogenousmaterial.
work
for
the
"
itselfwas
done.
have
to
seem
of which
This
Liebig'sview, although
was
based
been
for
natural
un-
it does
experimental
was
of
nitrogenousby-productsand an increased
protein in the feed,while the carbohydratesand
excretion
demand
actual
any
upon
He
creased
not
the subthat
stance
suppose
and yielded the energy
consumed
results.
of
the
to
early physiologists
of the muscle
not
Since
muscles, by means
is performed, consist largely
of protein,it was
Early views.
635.
regarded as simplyheat
were
fat
and
producing
materials.
636.
Analogy
with
engine.
between
(274^276)
VI
of itselflead
does not
do work
fuel
body
of this view.
truth
its own
by burningup
material,and
and
question the
to
one
the
The
"
if it is well
An
engine
ing
substance but by burnthe
constructed
due
wear
to
the work
an
as
the energy
the materials
the
indeed
Carl
and
least
at
of fuel material
into work
enteringinto its
under
case
Voit, whose
normal
equallycapable of
been
was
destroying
That
structure.
own
conditions
results have
without
ing
convert-
such
first shown
fully confirmed
by
is
by
later
investigators.
Voit's
and
liberal meat
work
diet.
foUowing tables,while
two
of
on
'
on
The
the
dog alternately
resting
treadmill both when
fastingand
a
upon
results
second
are
shown
in
results
the average
and
Voit 2
Pettenkofer
contains
by
man.
uber
y^ersuchunSen
Muskelbewegungen
Die
was
investigation1
doing considerable
upon
A/r
first
Ernahrung
2Ztschr.
f.
auf
den
der landw.
den
Einfluss
Stoffwechsel.
des
i860.
Nutzthiere,pp. 386-388
Biol.,2 (1866),478.
Summarized
by E.
v.
und
Wolff
der
in
538
Table
151.
Number
Effect
"
II
III
1500
Table
152.
Effect
"
of
Work
Grams
258
186
14.3
\Work
872
518
16.6
[Rest
123
145
II.Q
I Work
527
186
12.3
[Rest
125
143
10.9
fRest
182
1060
109.8
I Work
657
I330
117.
140
1081
109.9
/Work
\Rest
1500
Urea
Excreted
fRest
[Rest
IV
Dog
Grams
Grams
of
Urine
Excreted
Water
Drunk
Grams
Katabolism
Protein
on
Meat
Eaten
ment
Experi-
of
Work
of
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
on
412
03
164
114.1
6
no.
1040
Katabolism
Protein
of
Man
Urea
Ex-
creted
Grams
Fasting
26.5
Rest
Work
25.0
Average diet
33-6
36.8
Rest
Work
.
In
the
amount
case
in the
increase
no
meat
diet
attributes
only,
to
excretory
there
was
637.
in every
deficiencyof
Influence
of
nitrogen. With
case
the
dog fastingor
which
small increase
non-nitrogenousnutrients
on
and
not
Voit
to
the
exertion.
non-nitrogenous nutrients.
"
While
Voit's
animal
aroused
considerable
results
seem
controversy
as
to
the
source
of muscular
and
led to
energy.
an
extended
The
effect
WORK
of work
the
upon
539
protein katabolism
varied
the most
under
PRODUCTION
gated
repeatedly investi-
was
conditions
with
results which
observers
such
no
work, while in other investigations
The
key
these
to
conflictingresults
effect
to
seems
peared
ap-
found
following
apparent.
was
have
been
first
discovered
work
increased
was
to
in
sufficient
amount
an
to
cause
falling
sufficient to enable
the animal
upon
increased
without
to
perform
the animal
causing
any
could
increase
of
given amount
be correspondingly
in the
olism.
protein katab-
an
in which
starch and
of revolutions
in the number
of work
the amount
of the
153.
"
Effect
of
Starch
on
Protein
Katabolism
Horse
Landw.
of
performed is expressed
dynamometer
sweep
power
used.
Table
of
Jahrb.,8 (1879),701
; 9
(1880), 651.
of
Working
effect of
The
small
even
how
determine
ANIMALS
of work
excess
of the horse
nitrogen excretion
attempted to
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
540
was
increasingthe
sharp that
so
much
in
work
could
Kellner
be
even
performed
at
increase
an
cause
nitrogenexcretion
and
fall in live
weight.
number
considerable
is the
nutrients
which
katabolism
sometimes
of
that in the presence
of carbohydrateseven
that
chief
experimentshave fully
of non-nitroga deficiency
enous
of the increased protein
recent
more
conclusion
Kellner's
confirmed
of
cause
during work
occurs
sufficient amount
work
severe
and
have
shown
of fats and
especially
performed without
be
can
work
tinued
conIndeed, moderate
increasingthe nitrogenexcretion.
of days has in some
for a number
been accompanied
cases
by a gain of nitrogen,a fact apparentlyquitein accord with the
ercise.
common
experiencethat the muscles are strengthened by exIt is clear that the body normally uses
non-nitrogenous
of the energy expended in muscular
materials as the source
work,
nal
exactlyas it does in the case of the energy requiredfor its inter-
activities.
Only
when
the
materials
supplyof non-nitrogenous
to
the katabolism
of
of energy
for external work, precisely
as
exclusive
fastingor on
proteinfeedingas a source
source
638.
work
Gaseous
is its very
and
katabolism
effect of work
marked
effect in
upon
In
"
strikingcontrast
the excretion
of
nitrogen
the consumption of
increasing
of carbon
dioxid
and
water.
This
oxygen
increase
fact of such
for
matter
of non-nitrogenous
increased.
exchange
the excretion
is too
the
upon
the minimal
with
of energy
(339,407).
internal work
Effectof
protein as a
it does during
an
from
common
increase
was
shown
in the researches
lished
estabThe
of Lavoisier
confirmed
appear
to have
methods.
been
Their
results
regardingthe
accordingto
modern
influence of work
upon
WORK
PRODUCTION
541
Table
154.
639.
"
Influence
Effects
Work
of
Gaseous
on
Exchange
Man
of
mon
Experiment confirms the comobservation that the increased pulmonary exchange consequent
exertion
muscular
begins almost immediately,
upon
reaches its maximum
in a very
short time and
disappears
are
promptly when
absorptionof
immediate.
the work
"
This
ceases.
is
of which
considerable
no
oxygen,
to be stored up in the body in the free state.
of
the excretion
of carbon
dioxid,more
slightlag in
some
In
or
lymph
case
of this prompt
to the
adjustment of the respiration
of work, determinations
of the pulmonary exchange by
of the forms
one
of work
of
respirationapparatus
the katabolism.
upon
The
it possible
to compare
the gaseous
work with that of the same
animal
very
carbon
sharply the
dioxid
work.
excretion
use
in
described
studyingthe
of this method
effects
renders
rest
and
thus
to
additional
caused
in
mine
deter-
consumption
oxygen
amount
by a measured
and
of
The
ease
short
pears
ap-
In the
its excretion.
useful
are
Chapter VI (297-299)
especially
the
amount
view
amount
some
and
of the
true
especially
periods,and
oxygen
and
carbon
dioxid
be
can
for
OF
NUTRITION
542
work
investigations
upon
of this method
use
production.
material
non-nitrogenous
normal
under
Since
of
Nature
ANIMALS
determined, have
640.
FARM
muscular
conditions
katabolized.
exertion
does
not
"
crease
in-
taken
oxygen
be i.o.
On
of work
being readilyavailable
Sources
641.
Proteins
of
of energy.
sources
for
energy
matter.
sumption
Liebig's as-
"
in
protein katabolism
contraction
muscular
the source
impliedthat the proteinswere
for many
of the energy manifested,and this view prevailed
years.
Voit,in i860,
When
increase
an
of
work
muscular
non-nitrogenous
vs.
(635) of
as
the
(636)that muscular
showed
exertion
is not
necessarily
accompanied by
katabolism, the inference
materials
This
were
the
main
of
sources
muscular
energy.
radical to be at once
too
conclusion,however, was
in opposition to Liebig'sauthorityand numerous
cepted
ac-
genious,
in-
but not
alwaysconvincing,
hypotheseswere advanced to
explainthe observed phenomena on the assumption that the
of the energy expended.
proteinswere, nevertheless,the source
642.
Fick
however,
and
Wislicenus'
experiment.
"
The
first
attempt,
at
in 1866.
1
These
observers
Naturf.
Vrtljschr.
made
an
ascent
of the Faul-
tained
quantitiesof fat and glycogencon-
the small
from
Aside
work.
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
544
in the meat
could have
been
products.
These
to
largeextent
results show
a
as
of muscular
source
be used
clearlythat proteinmay
but
energy,
it is
theless
never-
particularly
is,as already
with farm animals, the
energy
of the feed.
stated,through the non-nitrogenous ingredients
It is by no means
however, that a certain amount
impossible,
in a muscular
tion.
contracbe necessary
of proteinkatabolism
may
of the protoplasm of
Such a contraction is a function
fibers and it is conceivable that a portion of the
the muscle
of the proteinsand nucleoarisingfrom the katabolism
energy
appearingas heat in the
proteinsof the muscle and ordinarily
off,so to speak,to aid in producing
restingmuscle may be switched
In other words, it is possiblethat a
the contraction.
in order
be necessary
certain level of proteinmetabolism
may
that
true
under
ordinary conditions,and
supply of
main
the
maintain
to
the
of
potentialenergy
Such
would, of
fact
the amount
of
the matter
"
2.
non-nitrogenous materials
have
course,
The
While
Body
an
Efficiency
the
of
the energy
expended
Body
as
at present
Motor
results
is immediate
substance
work.1
into
General
645.
transforming
for
conditions
favorable
most
in work
of
source
productionis
energy.
of
course
"
rived
de-
source,
ultimatelyfrom the feed consumed, its immediate
of body substance, and
stated in "i (630),is the katabolism
as
of labor in the
amount
animal may
an
perform a considerable
It will aid
fastingstate at the expense of stored-up material.
in the
discussion
of the
of the animal
as
efficiency
the
with which
efficiency
to inquirewhat
i.e.,
material
1
katabolized
Compare Armsby,
complicatedquestionof the
to consider first the
a prime motor
body utilizes this stored-up energy,
somewhat
production is
Principlesof
Animal
Nutrition,
of the
recovered
pp.
207-209.
body
in the
WORK
PRODUCTION
545
work
Mechanical
646.
regardedas
efficiency of muscle.
machine
mechanical
into
in somewhat
the
efficiency
engine or an electric motor.
the
muscle
does
is recovered
lifts a
0.2344 X
in the muscle
-f-
0.2344
Much
one,
0.4688
ten
therefore,speak"of its
as
of
of that
grams
of
if
Thus
done.
steam
shown
were
muscle
is,50
per cent
has
devoted
been
machine.
io"4
would
be
work.
study of
complicated
the
to
subjectis
The
of the total
mechanical
as
caused
0.4688
the
as
isolated
an
of
efficiency
experimentalwork
singlemuscle
and
sense
by its contraction
mobilized
energy
the
weight of
calories, the
gram
same
in the work
centimeters
gram
io-4 gram calories.
10
may,
energy
in this sense
is meant
By efficiency
the total energy mobilized during a contraction
proportionof
which
one
be
may
of chemical
and
work
muscle
"
unanimityof
nism
views upon it,especially
to the mechaas
been reached.
contraction,has by no means
of muscular
As
load
as
related
of
shortening.
647.
the
to
Mechanical
capacityof
efficiencyof
the muscle
the
body
as
of energy
mobilized in each muscle
performanceof a certain form of work were
amount
and
the degree
upon
whole.
"
concerned
known,
If the
in the
it is
ceivable
con-
of muscles.
group
The
conditions
for the
imum
max-
contract
maximum.
2
to
Some
varying extent
and
muscles, owing
to
under
their anatomical
re-
546
lations,work
vary with
of labor
which
the
by
of
notably
at
animal
secondary activities,
(633,634),
respiratory
organs
various
consume
the
to
sets
up
and
circulatory
the
work.
of the
performance
of these
Some
nature
of these
extent
and
severityof
the
ogous
analloss of energy
are
of a heat engine,
the cylinder
of
sources
comparable with
are
the
the
and
work,
rectly
di-
contribute
losses from
to the radiation
while others
with
varies
secondaryactivities
ANIMALS
nature
an
FARM
less mechanical
to which
the extent
the
OF
NUTRITION
engineitself.
afford
adequate
no
fore,
muscle, thereof
of estimating the efficiency
of the
efficiency
of the
Determinations
means
isolated
rect
body as a whole and the latter must be determined by diis made
by causing
experiment. Such a determination
of work under conamount
ditions
the animal to perform a measured
either directly
which also permit the measurement,
as
of indirect calorimetrydescribed in
heat or by the methods
Chapter VI, of the total body energy metabolized.
and Cathcart 1 upon
in experimentsby Benedict
Thus
a man
through the
ridinga bicycleergometer, the subjectbreathed
universal
respirationapparatus
mouthpiece of a Benedict
of which the oxygen
bon
consumption and the car(298),by means
the
data
could
elimination
dioxid
in the
metabolized
of energy
the amount
these
From
determined.
be
body
was
puted
com-
of mechanical
work done
compared with the amount
measured
as
by the ergometer. For example, in one of these
piratory
tests the energy
output per minute as computed from the resand
exchange
done
1.02
per
-7-
minute
6.32
recovered
as
equivalentto
was
1
was
6. 1
per
useful
In other
words,
of the
total energy
output
the remainder
taking the form
cent
work,
Cals.
1.02
work
was
of
heat.
648.
the
of
Gross
net
efficiency.
"
Comparisons
like that of
metabolized
It is
1
and
during
analogousto
Muscular
Work;
work
the
is recovered
of
efficiency
Carnegie Inst,
an
in the
useful work
engineas computed
of Washington,
Publication
No.
done.
from
187 (1913)-
PRODUCTION
WORK
comparison of
the
But
the brake
horse
body katabolizes
547
with
power
"
requirementfor
subjectof Benedict
experimentproduced during rest (lyingon a
Cathcart's
couch)
1.09
sumption.
con-
and
matter
and
steam
liberates energy
for
the performanceof external work,
it
i.e.,
other purposes
than
has a maintenance
work
the
The
If this maintenance
Cals. of heat per minute.
quirement
rebe subtracted
from the total energy
output during
work.
in this way
Computed
of
efficiency
an
1.02
output
nal
exter-
5.23
-?-
19.5 per cent results. This has been called the net efficiency.
It shows
the utilization of that portion of the energy
output
=
which
the
is
in the
expended
forms
of internal work
requiredfor
physiological
processes
as
distinct from
the various
requirement.
arises in
difficulty
In
in this way
computing the net efficiency
Thus
in an
decidingupon the proper deduction to be made.
subtract from
the
experiment like that just cited,one may
total energy
output of the body during work, not only the
metabolized
for
the
more
when
at
energy
rest.
requiredthe
Cals.
per
minute
work, from
performance
being 6.32 Cals.
that the
minute
per
The
be
of
may
same
when
regarded as the
the
per
useful
minute
energy
work.
The
during the
subjectmetabolized
1.13
riding without load than
added
fore,
experiment,there(1.09-f-1.13) 4.10
expenditureof 6.32
for the performance of
Cals.
of
1.02
=
"
an
of that metabolized
with
1
For
compare
Reach,
duringrest
Biochem.
and
Cathcart's
Ztschr., 14
compare
may
stead
in-
the remainder
done.1
Benedict
and
puted.
com-
base
also
548
NUTRITION
This
of
method
the engineer,and
is accustomed
a
FARM
estimate
usuallyemployed by
any
criticized
it
has
severely. The engineer
power.
horse power
comparison
exists,however,
of the
animate
is available.
It is
for
and
resistance of
indicated horse
if indeed
motor,
conception,and only
the internal
to
horse power
method
No
ANIMALS
computation is unlike
Schreber
to
engineby
an
OF
it
the method
of
of any
permits
comparison
responding
cor-
lined
justout-
if the
mated
engineer had no indicator and estithe efficiency
of his engine by deducting from the total steam
the engine empty
and compared
consumption that required to run
the
remainder
the
animal, however,
the
If,on
with
basis
as
the external
like that
work
The
done.
internal
work
of
engine, is largelymechanical.
in locomotion
computation of the efficiency
of Zuntz's
of
the
649.
while
Gross
the
efficiencyvariable.
efficiency
may
net
under
considerable
will vary
subjecthad
13.7
cent
per
Total energy
observed
if
Thus
as
gross
of work
much
(load)to
done
Benedict
and
with
per minute
would
been
have
efficiency
work
maintenance
1.09
Cals.
Total
3.71
Cals.
0.51
Cals.
in work
work,
0.51
"
done
efficiency
to the
point at
which
of the
has
for
efficiency
beginsto be affected,
increase with increasing
load as Benedict
This
experimentallyto be the case.
requirement
Arch.
the
upon
is identical with
that
in connection
with
of energy
already been called
material
cent
the net
maintenance
of the utilization
attention
2-62 Cals.
13.7 per
only
For
Up
the
cent.
mechanical
Gross
tenance
main-
Cathcart's
For
Recovered
that
stant
conregarded as substantially
ciency
variety of conditions,the gross effi-
his
efficiency,
net
same
be
be
requirements.
It should
"
products. If
the
159
Physiol. (Pfluger),
useful
work
(1914),276,
tion
computato
which
zation
the utili-
performed
WORK
be reduced
the gross
650.
to
of
efficiency
work
the
animal
example
549
in horizontal
also becomes
course
locomotion,
zero.
The
Efficiency per
show
efficiency
is being done.
net
for
as
zero,
PRODUCTION
machine
day.
"
the
when
demand
for work
ceases,
the
would
been
have
as
follows
"
Energy expended
480 minutes
work
960 minutes
rest
Cals.
"6.32
@
1.09
Cals.
Cals.
3034
1046 Cals.
4080 Cals.
Work
done
480 minutes
Cals.
1.02
Efficiency
per day
Cals.
490
12.01
per
cent
the other
Energy expended
60 minutes
1380 minutes
work
rest
@
@
6.32 Cals.
1.09
Cals.
379
1504
Cals.
Cals.
1883 Cals.
Work
done
60 minutes
work
1.02
Cals.
Efficiency
per day
In
discussions
61 Cals.
3.24
per
cent
of the
of a man
animal as a
an
or
efficiency
in comparisons with artificial motors,
motor, and particularly
it is essential to distinguish
whether the net, or the gross
clearly
is meant
and likewise to base the comparisons upon
efficiency
the
Since
apparently less
affected than the gross efficiency
by variations in the intensity
of the work, it appears
and duration
to be the most
logical
performance
per
day.
the
net
is
the most
651.
the animal
on
inclined
an
of ascent
work
into work
separately.The
addition
other
of
which
being
as
course
work, such
as
it
tally
horizon-
performs
locomotion, work
for
efficiency
is of
same
of
forms
the
and
well
draft,either
work
The
plane.
therefore be subdivided
draft and
without
or
as
"
locomotion, with
of
or
total work.
of
Analysis
means
may
ANIMALS
FARM
of
method
by
OF
NUTRITION
550
each
form
of
puted
com-
of man,
but in
true
turning a crank with
(stationarybicycle)or liftinga
of analyzing
weight directlymay be performed. The method
worked
of a quadruped has been
the work
out
especially
by
hands
the
with
or
the
feet
and
conveniently illustrated from Zuntz
Hagemann's investigationson the work horse.1 The methods
of indirect calorimetrywere
used, carbon dioxid production
Zuntz
and
be
may
oxygen
the animal
reduced
was
traveled
was
to
measured
that of locomotion
by
revolution
alone.
counter
The
and
tance
disin the
pulledagainst a dynamometer.
The
apparatus used is illustrated in Chapter VI, Fig. 33 (313).
This is an
locomotion.
652. Horizontal
important factor
in work
siderable
production, since it requires the expenditureof conof the body at each step
energy in successive liftings
thus
and
the overcoming of internal resistances.
The energy
chanical
expended does not ultimatelyproduce any work in the meThe work of locomotion,
as heat.
sense, but all appears
cident
innot useful work
therefore,is in a sense
althoughnecessarily
experimentson
"
the
to
If the
the
performance of
tread
total energy
power
be
output
set
by
be
the
work.
horizontal
the
subjectwill
the gross
from
during rest (standing)
the
iLandw.
Jahrb.,18 (1889),1;
and
driven
measure
motor,
what
may
(648),the gross
efficiency
Subtractingthe
23
by
total output
(1894),125;
energy
output
during locomotion
OF
NUTRITION
552
performance of
be
to be
0.004395
0.107041
follows
as
Since
"
"
0.4035
cals.
1.0795
cals-
of
and
be
can
computed
"
0.3746 cals.
the
that
values
is
kilogram meter
one
of work
formulated
equationsthe
these
ANIMALS
kilogram meter
one
followingequations may
From
FARM
6.5856 cals.
equivalentto
efficiencyin
net
cals.,it
2.344
work
of
the
ascent
lows
folwas
ured
comparing the remainder with the measresults given in the previousparaThe
graph
computed
expended in locomotion were
and
locomotion
of ascent.
work
for the
energy
this scheme.
according to
of draft.
Work
654.
by
the average
of maintenance
On
excess
traveled
meter
The
similar method.
horizontal.
in
"
in
efficiency
The
draft
was
puted
com-
tread
set nearly
was
power
of sixteen trials the total energy output
per kilogram live weight and per
of ascent
1.5021 cals.,the work
0.0051 15
and the work of draft 0.153127
kilogrammeters.
the energy
expended in the performance of 1
was
kilogrammeters
Lettingz equal
kilogram meter
be formulated
net
of work
of
draft,the followingequation
may
"
y +
0.005115
0.153127
1.
5021
cals.
655.
it was
found
that
speed.
for
the
"
In
experimentsmade
expenditureof
The
or
draft,it is
method
of which
1
to
necessary
of doing so is a method
need
not
be gone
is
walk
increased
energy per meter
is illustrated by the averages
at
more
the
take
of
fullyin a
of
efficiency
account
ing
succeedwork
of this fact.
approximation, the
into here.1
Animal
of
Nutrition,pp. 507-508.
tails
de-
PRODUCTION
WORK
Summary.
656.
separatedin
be
Table
155.
the
Net
"
from
the
the
efficiencyin
net
done
into which
of work
forms
summary
is apparent
As
body of the horse as a motor.
foregoingexplanations,the table shows
the
the various
of
regarding the efficiency
results
Hagemann's
and
of Zuntz
The
"
553
can
justdescribed (651,654).
manner
Efficiency
of
Horse
the
Forms
Different
in
of
Work
Work
at
Walk
Net
Effi-
Expenditure
Energy
Net
kgm. work
without
of 2.91 miles
Speed of 3.36 miles
Speed of 3.66 miles
with
The same
Speed of 3.36 miles
load:
per hr.
per hr.
per hr.
load on back
per hr.
Relative
Trot
Net
Effi-
Expenditure
Energy
ciency
of
Kgm.
cals.
Kgm.
6.8508
6.9787
2.9116
2.9660
34-3
7-36471
3-1300
6.502
2.7634
36.2
75190
3.1960
31-3
7.4240
4-393"
22.7
10.0780
10.3360
of Chauveau's
into
dextrose,with
its energy,
31-96'
33-7
3-iSSo1
4.28202
3i-7
'
23-4!
0.3256
0.5478 "
0.3666
0.3929
0.3914
utilization
view
0.6007 '
of
fats
and
elimination
before it
can
as
serve
carbohydrates.
first be
must
heat
of
for the
In
"
converted
considerable
as
directly
it becomes
physiological
processes,
relative extent
the energy
to inquireto what
carbohydratesis utilized in muscular work.
energy
Slow
cals.
'
portionof
10.7% grade
18.1% grade
For 1 kgm. work of ascent, with load:
iS-8% grade
For 1 kgm. work of draft:
1.5% grade
8.5% grade
Locomotion
per meter
per kg. mass
657.
at
of ascent, without
load
Speed
Net
ciency
of
For
Work
of
source
of much
terest
in-
of fats and
and
In Zuntz
in
in
individual
trials in
the
which
Singleexperiment.
Independent of speed.
Compare Armsby, Principlesof Animal
Two
same
kind
experiments.
of work
Work
Nutrition,pp.
was
per-
probably excessive.
153-154
and 399-405.
in many
also show
formed
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
554
this,however,
similar variations.
cases
the
ANIMALS
percentage of energy
standing
Notwithutilized did
tion
materiallyin these instances and there is no indicavary
be expectedaccordingto
of any such differences as would
not
theory.
question has also been
Chauveau's
The
in
associates
his
and
investigateddirectlyby
experiments on dogs and on man.
experiments,the
these
feed
consisted
Zuntz
In
largelyas possibleof
as
carbohydrates or fat,respec(protein,
tively),
its
that
metabolism
the
at
was
so
largely
body
expense.
method
of investigationwas
the same
as
substantially
the nutrient
The
be
to
has
that which
tested
metabolism
energy
Table
Proteins
156.
described.
The
kilogram and
meter
Nutrients
for
just been
per
Comparison
"
of
Work
were
"
Production
only
Chiefly fat
Chieflyfat (body freed from carbohydrates by
phloridzin)
Much
sugar
with
Much
sugar
and
The
proteins
little proteins
differences
are
quitesmall,while,as
for energy
pointsout,
Zuntz
if
when
it should,accordingto Chauveau's
carbohydratesare the source
clusively
theory,rise to about 3.68 cals. when the energy is derived exfrom
Later
and
conclusion.
and
fat.
elaborate
more
Atwater
Benedict
and
and
Cathcart
experimentson
man
led to the
Benedict,1 Benedict
3
also
report
and
same
Milner,2
experiments upon
men
U.
S. Dept. of
U.
S. Dept. of
Muscular
Work
Carnegie Institution
of Washington,
Publ. No.
187 (1913),145-
PRODUCTION
WORK
the
conclusion
if any
difference exists
of fats and of carbohydratesit
that
warranted
seems
is too small
be of much
to
practicalsignificance.
Conditions
efficiency
affecting
the
from
appears
of the animal
efficiency
Efficiency varies.
658.
(656),the
summary
As
"
net
is comparatively
high in the
motor
exceedingin
broad
instances
most
555
of the
case
about
generalway
body as a
horse,considerably
be said in
It may
cent.
30 per
foregoing
of the
one-third
(i.e.,
of maintenance
or
plus locomotion)is
It is also evident,
in the mechanical
work
done.
recovered
however, that the organism has no one fixed degreeof efficiency
wide range
but that the latter may
through a somewhat
vary
for
energy metabolized
of maintenance
in excess
under
form
specific
exertion
of muscular
different conditions.
grade, with
the
of
ascent
moderate
grade
cited
a
up
vestigat
yet in-
of work
draft.
without
or
The
"
done
work
largelyto
experimentsthus far
by walking horizontallyor
done.
of work
Forms
659.
refer
or, in other
words,
which
one
body by the legs,appears to
of over
is performed most
36
economically,a net efficiency
This
for man.
per cent being reported both for the horse and
percentage, however, decreases considerablyas the angle of
is increased.
For horizontal locomotion,
ascent
as alreadynoted
of 35 per cent.
Draft up a
(652),Zuntz computes an efficiency
in the
less efficiently
slightgrade was
performed somewhat
of the horse, the percentage being approximately 31,
case
done with an efficiency
while draft up an 8| per cent grade was
be the
of the
the lifting
of less than
Other
23 per
forms
cent.
of work
to
appear
be
performed
Thus
degree of efficiency.
experiments on
done by turning a crank with the
work was
decidedlylower
done
on
Benedict
efficiencies than
treadmill.
and
Cathcart
The
on
same
man,
those
was
true
in which
the work
the
work
was
Loc.
cil.,
p.
125.
was
done
figurescomputed
stationarybicycle,the maximum
of
from
net efficiency 6 subjects
ranging
20.4 to 25.2 per
1
the
experimentsof
:
less
shown
have
hands
in the
in which
man
in which
with
upon
for the
cent.
556
difference
The
Species.
"
of the human
and
body
differences in the
to
is done
ascent
finds that
the
660.
the work
of
traveled
show
example,Horse
expended
locomotion
utilized energy
but,
back
the
to
energy
locomotion
per
0.53 to
kilogramlive weight.
Hagemann's
experiments
than
differences between
in conformation.
given load
did Horse
on
No.
For
his back
with
Horse
III.
No.
to
slightlyless
a
extent
than
less
considerably
extent
hand,
like No.
XIII,
No.
ing
Ill in ascenddraft
in horizontal
carried
breeding opens
661.
Training
unfamiliar
up.
and
any unaccustomed
than it is later.
an
load
his
on
This
motions
of work
is due
more
exercise
of
of
group
is much
in part to
of
speculation.
experiencethat
familiar
fatiguingat first
the fact that in making
more
of muscles
called
are
groups
accessory
skill has been
later when
more
necessary
activitythan are
acquired. The experienceof
example
It is
fatigue.
form
questionsof heredity
field
interesting
"
into
cellent
bicycleis an exthis.
In the second
place,however, simple
crease
of muscles in a particular
to inseems
way
a
learner
on
the
their average
mechanical
efficiency.
This effect may
be illustrated by the results
of
former
horse,viz.,about
differences
carried
XIII
the
about
more
The
and
in horizontal
and
Zuntz
due
that
Klein
to
the other
on
but
of
and
grade
work
than
Horse
No.
Ill in horizontal
energy
less in trotting.No.
walk
but
II likewise
more
at
does
horse
individual
interesting
No.
expenditure of
distance and
meter
"
animals, presumably
II
than
Individuality.
the horse
efficiency
is evidently
due largely
in both cases.
equal efficiency
is performed by the ox with
ascent
calories,
per
0.55 gram
less
of work
kind
the
about
with
unit of distance
between
as
efficiency
by the
expends much more
energy
animal
ANIMALS
just noted
net
same
upon
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
experiments by
the
Gruber
carbon
dioxid
upon
himself
excreted
excreted
in
he
which
termined
dein
Thus
during work.
in twenty
series
of two
minutes
were
"
climbingwithout
climbingafter 1
^entbl.
practice
days'practice
40.98 grams
....
Physiol.,26 (1912),722.
32.22
grams
WORK
Series II
PRODUCTION
557
Hill
the less
of accessory
38-83 grams
.
muscles
31.00
is not
grams
the
only cause
is indicated by experiments
of this increase in efficiency
upon
shown
that
w
hich
have
the gradual strengthening
convalescents,
of the muscles
results in a more
economical
performance of
their work, largelyindependent of any
specialtrainingfor a
use
kind of work.
particular
Conversely,fatiguehas
been
shown
by
of metabolism
to
that it is
which
which
the
work
determines
the
not
have
to
seems
Intensity of
itself but
Work.
results
quired
re-
sion
conclu-
regarding
metabolism.
to
It has
"
effort
metabolism,
anticipatedHill's
tension
per
in the ment
state-
matter
the muscular
of
amount
observers
numerous
already been
shown
(649)
that this
be true
work
The
can
either the
would
one
663.
Influence
locomotion
evident.
of
speed.
involves
The
travelingthe
one
In
the
horizontal
case
or
with
increased
Ztschr. Biol.,33
at
energy
per
vastly
a
efficiency.
net
and
to
(1896),289.
more
about
than
results
Hagemann's
increased
an
energy
rate.
(652) show
walk
is
energy
travelinga mile
moderate
distinct increase up
1
horse, Zuntz
locomotion
expenditure of
at
It
increase of any
distance
same
of the
of ascent.
at
undue
diminished
That
"
an
angle
largelyincreased expenditure of
horse
race
result in
the
meter
at
trot
7^
miles
net
distance
showed
an
on
no
hour.
558
Much
study has
The
man.
Brezina
of the
influence
be
to
seems
of
the net
to be true
was
done
the
at
results
in
tial
exponen-
work
of ascent
that
the expenditure in
upon
available.
With
are
man,
found
power
distance in walking
experimentson
meter
of
tread
speed
just indicated.
been
found
velocities
at
Since
this
that both
the net
and
efficiency
the
speed.
efficiency
gross
be
In
much
siderably
con-
found
was
nearlyindependent of
high speeds,increasingvery
of
According to
increase of speed in
gait.
"
(656)an
of
gait from
in the net
energy
moderate
limit
up
to
on
Such
certain
tions
speed only slightvaria-
in
efficiency
horse
walk
to
expended
in
the
as
an
crease
in-
regarded as
of the
none
being
portant
im-
an
rapidly
more
speed.
increase
than
it became
their
Influence
at
that
beyond
Cathcart1
on
change
marked
mann's
by
that
of
664.
the
3
also have
must
factor
than
found
minute)
net
than
the maximum
and
done
on
clearlya
unit of locomotion
per
2
per
also of horizontal
Benedict
various
shows
kilogram and
independent
substantially
of ascent
form
per
the
upon
Reichel
expenditure
grade
in work
meters
upon
less marked
and
below
and
speed
results
No
Brezina, Kolmer
in work
energy
Reichel
while below
velocity,
much
locomotion.
Murschhauser
shown.
were
The
horizontal locomotion
in
upon
literature of the subject as
marized
sum-
expended
speed (about 80
function
up
and
ANIMALS
expenditure of
increases.
maximum
FARM
extensive
Benedict
in the net
speed
been
somewhat
by
that
OF
NUTRITION
causes
and
no
by
extent
is lifted
at
motions,
such
brought
into
are
further
doubtless
step and
swinging
play.
as
Carnegie Institution
Biochem.
Biochem.
Carnegie Institution
the
the
Washington, Publication
(1914),170.
of
notable
unit of
trottingspeed
With
man,
tion
find that locomo-
economicallyin running
able
brought about to a considerheight to which the body
degree to which extraneous
in rapid walking, are
arms
of
Ztschr., 63
Ztschr., 65 (1014), 16 and
per
increase.
Murschhauser
differences in the
each
involves
in the
increase
Hage-
for locomotion
trot
and
Zuntz
No.
231
No.
187 (1913),138.
(1915),pp.
12-28.
35.
Washington, Publication
560
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
Net
Grade
Efficiency
io%
20%
39%
31%
27%
30%
"
is the
As
needs
available
Requirements
Feed
in
case
be
to
3.
feedingfor
supplied with
form
with
and
proteinsand
ash
The
667.
the
Functions
Work
for
the
other purposes,
adequate
an
certain
working animal
of energy
amount
forms
specific
of
in
matter, particularly
ingredients.
requirementsof
of protein.
As
"
matter
shown
in
Chapter IX
(418),
per
nance
dailyprotein requirementof the horse for simple mainteis apparentlyabout
the same
that of other farm
mals,
anias
crude protein
0.6 pound of digestible
viz.,approximately,
1000
pounds live weight, although the experimentaldata
are
rather
scanty.
"
of this
pended
chapter(641-643)that the energy exin muscular
work
is practically
derived from the katabolism of carbohydratesand fats,the protein katabolism
being
of
unaffected by work
so
long as an ample supply
enous
non-nitrog-
It
in
appeared
nutrients
is available.
One
might
at
first
thought be
inclined to
in order
to
maintain
the muscle
as
an
efficient instrument
for
nervous
system
should
the demand
especially,
high level. Since the
introduced
into
the
of
blood
body,
not
be
the
animal
is the
an
overlooked.
for
vehicle
adequate
In
oxygen
by which
stock
of
fast work
reaches
oxygen
blood,
is
or
561
PRODUCTION
WORK
be necessary and
of haemoglobin, would
particularly
to assist in securing this.
liberal supply of protein seems
more
conjecturesshould
role
not
insignificant
any
of these
may
work
play
without
evidence
any
If
the proteins
to be true
prove
in the production of muscular
of the
fact
appearing
in the total
nitrogenexcretion.
specificinvestigations
regarding the minimum
proteinrequirement of the work horse
been
to have
seem
made, but the extensive experiments of
and
others referred to on
Wolff, Grandeau, Muntz
previous
668.
The
protein requirement.
afford numerous
pages
results were
obtained
althoughin
instances
from
none
"
in which
rations
of them
No
was
entirely
satisfactory
comparativelylow in protein,
the
supply reduced
to
the
tensive
requirement. Similarly,in Langworthy's exx
in
of
rations
fed
amples
expractice,numerous
compilation
of low protein rations are
to be found.
fact,it would be difficultto compound from ordinaryfeed-
maintenance
In
below
much
these
however,the
experiments,
than
the amounts
which
in
Even
efficiency.
proteinsupplywas much higher
loss of
doingonlylightwork.
1
2
U. S.
to
fice
suf-
at rest
562
requirements.
Ash
669.
As
"
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
in
pointed out
ters,
previouschap-
the ash
growth, at least,the
So
is necessary.
in the ration
however,
of these
far
sufficient data
no
the
as
working horse
available
seem
of
substances
of certain accessory
presence
sideration
con-
for
is
cerned,
con-
cussion
dis-
topics.
The
energy
requirement
preceding
of
between
the efficiency
made
section certain comparisonswere
and that of artificialengines.
the animal body as a prime motor
but includes
The animal body, however, is not only a prime motor
Economic,
670.
or
over-all
efficiency.
In
the
in which
and
"
in this
for
Just
respect
the energy
as
of the
fuel of
as
locomotive
resembles
locomotive,
is
subjectto
to
contraction.
expendituresare largelyunavoidable,
they constitute part of the energy requirementsof the work
of
animal, and from the economic point of view the efficiency
the animal is measured
by a comparison of the total feed energy
ciency,
effidone.
This might be called the economic
with the work
of a steam
plant as
comparable to the over-all efficiency
computed by a comparison of coal consumption with the brake
obtained.
horse
Any such comparisons, of course,
power
Since
must
animal
basis
Few
these
take
losses and
account
of
the
maintenance
requirement of
the
the
therefore be made
on
doing no work and must
of the 24-hour output of work
(650).
ciency
effiof the economic
satisfactorydirect determinations
of the relation
animals in the foregoing sense, i.e.,
of work
of the work done to the feed (ortotal feed energy)required
when
yet been
reported.
WORK
The
extensive
heim
by
have
been
the
on
investigations
Kellner
continued
and
referred
Chapter
requirement,were
requirementsfor work.
work
under
to in
Wolff's
and which
direction,
(386 a) in their bearing upon
intended
primarilyto determine
Unfortunately,however, as there
VIII
the maintenance
the energy
noted, the measurements
563
PRODUCTION
of the work
done
in the earlier
experiments
In the comparatively
subsequentlydiscovered to be inaccurate.
few later experiments of 1891-94, various
mixed
rations were
fed.
the total energy
consumed
could
While, therefore,
per unit of work
be computed, only few and uncertain
data
for individual feeding
stuffs can
be deduced
and the results are therefore of small general
value for the particular
phase of the subjectunder discussion here.
were
671.
Net
values
energy
for
work
production.
"
of the energy
requirement of the work animal
be approached in a somewhat
different way.
The
expended
energy
(630,631),is derived
The
is to
tion
ques-
may,
ever,
how-
in work
production,as alreadystated
stances.
primarilyfrom the katabolism of body sub-
function
replacein
The
of the feed
so
far
as
energy
is concerned
the
loss of
working
by
body
the
net
purpose
to which
it prevents or makes
good
to external work.
Conversely,the
extent
due
energy
value
energy
animal
of this close
in maintenance
warranted
two
and
in work
are
purposes
with a steer
between
similarity
the functions
of feed
energy
values of
feedingstuffs for
these
the same.
in an
Thus
substantially
iment
experalreadydescribed (364) it was found that one
,
pound
of
of the animal.
If the
Cals. of external
work
net
same
and
had
564
NUTRITION
katabolized
hay would
it would
been
have
Cals.
containing 167 4- "
502
that one
be anticipated
pound of timothy
sufficient to replacethis energy in the body.
=
the performance of
Similarly,
would
horse
to
supply about
In
brief,the
in the
manner
Cals. of external
1000
by a
body
3000 Cals. of
would
have
to support this work
available
Cals. of net
3000
work
of about
the mobilization
cause
and
energy,
ANIMALS
substance
body
and
of energy
FARM
OF
energy.
how
much
be
must
perform a
known
in
energy
mobilized
of its maintenance
excess
in the
horse, e.g.,
of
work
of mechanical
amount
of
body
quirement
re-
to
kind.
specific
Thus
the
net
horse
in
hauling a
load
the horse
of
efficiency
his feed
in addition
must
the
to
in draft to be about
have
4321
to mobilize
-5-
0.313
10,929 Calories,
of net energy
other purposes.
of
The total expenditure
or
by
the
hauls
load
it be
of
supposed that
2000
horse
pounds, having
weighing 1100
horizontal
draft
WORK
565
PRODUCTION
100
is
follows
as
Table
Draft
158.
Ascent
"
Example
"
5280
100
15
The
of
amount
in the
body
the mechanical
to
the
0.265 Therms
2.830 Therms
of
in
Table
in locomotion
which
energy
work
percentages
2.565 Therms
of this
performance
Done
Total
Work
of
foot pounds
7,920,000
264
3100
Computation
of
metabolize
accordingto
same
net
ergy
en-
"
Table
159.
Example
"
Computation
of
For
draft
For
ascent
2.565 -f0.265
For
locomotion
0.262
-r-
Net
of
that
0.343
0.773
Therms
3.930
Therms
15
4.356 Therms
be
of
rations.
are
it is evident
horse
if the net
of feed stuffs
but
as
we
(775-778)
For
data
regarding the
(760,773, 774),but
JThe
computation
energy
the ox,
net
energy
in this
animal's
could
be
case
body
on
correspondingration
of the feedingstuffs
the
of the
case
very
in work
as
way
requirement
net
of
may
to be
horse,the
energy
values
been
mined
directlydeterlations
complicated calcusatisfactory
contrary,fairly
somewhat
of work.
such
some
States,such
the
Therms
energy
of the
efficiency
values
now
the
are
net
that the
of the United
animal
work
principal
the
in
Unfortunately,
known.
in
Having
"
computed
used
17.254
Calculation
the work
8.195 Therms
Total
673.
Requirement
0.313
(385)
For maintenance
Energy
are
available
few determinations
of the
simplifiedby
assuming
uniform
net
566
NUTRITION
the indications
although
reported,
different from
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
(659)that
are
it is not
widely
of the horse.
that
Using the net energy values for the horse obtained by Zuntz and
Hagemann's method of computation and contained in Table VIII
of the Appendix, rations may
readilybe computed for this animal
in the same
pending
as for any
other,their accuracy degeneralmanner
of the net energy values used.
Thus,
upon the accuracy
in the case
just supposed,the requirement of net energy was
the figuresof the table it is easy to comFrom
pute
17.254 Therms.
the
ration
would
the
that
meet
following
requirement.
Table
160.
Example
"
Ration
of
for
Work
Net
10
lb. meadow
10
lb. oats
hay
Energy
3.270
8.820
Therms
5.164 Therms
17.254
The
Therms
in practicelies in
principaldifficulty
of the amount
of
of work
at
work
more
possibleto make
performed which
done.
farm
With
computation
any
would
the determination
animals
it
less irregular
intervals,
or
of
Therms
the
doing
riety
va-
hardly
seems
mechanical
work
be
are
would
work
for the
degreeof
and
in
compute
It appears
lead to considerable
consideringthe
(392),a surplus of
animal
to
Feeding
estimates
be
formulated, as
has
fairlyreliable
not
it
of the
estimates
unlikelythat
reasonable
such
tations
compu-
economy,
the
medium,
light,
been done by
horse.
and
to
stimulate
this
expenditureof
an
for
conditions
requirements with
unnecessary
activities.
standards
for
uniform
especially
apt
seems
and
muscular
under
maintenance
feed
restlessness
in minor
674.
feed
accuracy.
might
out
to
of work
make
possible to
seem
done
kind
same
"
More
heavy
various
work
writers.
or
ergy
en-
less
may
bitrary
ar-
also
568
efficiency
gross
from
case
work
and
per
OF
NUTRITION
to
the
of
day,
i.e.,
will
it
hours
stopped
for
computed
work,
of
up
on
modern
with
keep
and
Therms
45.230
motor
work
was
basis,
being
are
done
would
to
for
be
24
hours
6.26
if
portion
be,
as
or
as
of
to
the
cent,
an
internal
although
the
about
hours
or
the
of
about
ditions
con-
to
necessary
were
if
and
ment,
require-
practice,
it
idle
machinery
reduced
per
the
is
animal
might
during
continuously
run
only
be
actual
In
for
the
bodily
of
tenance
main-
to
maintenance
be
much
work
engine
an
efficiency
very
steam
his
would
locomotive.
of
were
as
animal
supposed,
24-hour
over-all
this
animal
head
imagine
vary
intensity
the
useful
case
necessary
the
steam
an
full
energy
we
his
of
the
hours,
18
only
feed
total
the
If
day.
the
of
In
will
percentage
hours
ratio
the
as
remaining
with
him
charge
that
the
of
number
varies.
per
this
with
increase
the
vary
requirement
worked
will
with
ANIMALS
however,
body,
It
case.
decrease
FARM
time.
bustion
com-
actual
"
PART
IV
THE
FEED
SUPPLY
XV
CHAPTER
Part
of
Sources
676.
the
III
animals
and
STUFFS
FEEDING
THE
feeding stuffs.
the several
In
"
In
chaptersof
husbandry, such
more
feeding
United
of the western
the range
or
as
met
by
ing
products of the soil. Increaspopulation and rising land values, however, inevitably
tensive
intend to the displacement of pastoralagricultureby more
forms in which
a much
greater variety of feedingstuffs
is available for domestic
animals.
Forage crops are grown
the
for
consumption
use
of the
in the winter
natural
and
supplement the
to
consumption and
excess
utilized
deficiencies of the
as
stock feed ;
for
as
finally,
this
consider
either the
the
of
of agronomy
the technical
stuffs or
which
brief consideration
principalclasses
to
province of
problems
production of feeding
manufacturing processes
feeds,but
the
fall within
not
yield the
of the
feeding stuffs
discussion
of the
details of the
various
by-product
of the
generalproperties
desirable
seems
as
an
duction
intro-
principlesdetermining their
nutritive values
677.
Classification.
"
The
three main
classes of
feedingstuffs,
the coarse
fodders,
of
divers
industries.
The
members
57i
of
these
three
classes of
OF
NUTRITION
572
FARM
ANIMALS
serve
may
of this discussion.
of feedingstuffs
Classification
Roughages,
or
fodders.
coarse
Dried
Grasses
Legumes
Straws
Fresh
Grasses
Legumes
Silage
and
Roots
tubers
Concentrates
Farm
products
Cereal grains
Leguminous grains
Oil seeds
Dairy products
By-products
By-products of milling
industries
By-products of fermentation
By-products of oil extraction
By-products of starch and glucosemanufacture
By-products of sugar manufacture
By-products of the packing house
classes of
of these various
following characterization
feedingstuffs is reproduced without material change from an
The
earlier article
"
by
the writer.1
i.
Roughages,
or
Coarse
Fodders
terized
characroughages are
large percentage of crude
chemicallyby a relatively
of the plant. They usually
fiber,which forms the framework
this ingredo not contain very much
dient
protein,although in some
shows
a
fairlyhigh percentage. The proportionof crude
678.
General
characters.
Bailey'sCyclopedia of
American
"
The
THE
FEEDING
STUFFS
includes much
along with
more
besides
573
true
fat.
or
The
sugar, includes
nutritive
value
nitrogen-
of other
stances
sub-
is
belonging
to
both
these classes
may
be
used
for fodder
when
but
lowed
partiallymature
(hay, maize forage),or they may be alto ripen, the grain may
be removed, and the residue
(straw,stover)used for feeding.
The
The
grasses.
of
source
"
forage
in
the
United
States,maize,
Indian
or
which
is utilized.
thin
In
growing
young,
consist of nearly pure
and
filled with
active
at
fiber and
low
relatively
sample
of young
Table
162.
Comparison
of
Pasture
Grass
and
oats
Oats
"
NUTRITION
574
the
As
plant
and
more
the
At
ANIMALS
cell walls
the
matures,
thicker
grow
more
time,
same
FARM
OF
soluble
more
carbohydrates, as
and
come
be-
material.
starch
and
the
to occupy
protoplasm comes
but a small part of the cell. The
fullymature
forage,
in
i
s
crude
rich
fiber
of
resistant
contains
a tough,
therefore,
sort,
much
carbohydratematerial in generaland tends to be poor in
proteins. For example, three samples of meadow-grass, cut
the followingcomposition,reduced
at different dates, had
to a
are
sugar,
uniform
percentage of
Table
163.
water
Composition
"
of
"
Hay
Cut
at
Different
Dates
June 26
(over-ripe)
Water
15.0
Ash
6.2
Crude
protein
Crude
fiber
7.2
32.4
...
Nitrogen-free extract
Ether
extract
36.9
2-3
IOO.
Accompanying
In
digestibility.
resistant
this
the
the action
change in compositiongoes
first place, the crude
fiber
of
the
decrease
becomes
in
more
digestiveorgans.
Furthermore,
the less soluble crude fiber seems
to have
a
tendency to protect
the contents
of the cells from
At
digestion.
rate,
any
of the protein,and, to a less dethe percentage digestibility
gree,
that of the other ingredientsalso suffers. The percentage
to
164.
Percentage
"
Digestibility
of
Hay
Cut
samples of
:
at
"
Different
Dates
26
June
%
Crude
protein
Crude
fiber
55-5
61.
...
Nitrogen-freeextract
55-7
Ether
43-3
extract
576
NUTRITION
the other
On
hand, of
FARM
the
course,
diminishes
(stover)
plant grows older.
leaves
alone
the
as
OF
681.
of
Proportions
ANIMALS
of the
digestibility
as
vegetative
in the
of other grasses
case
organs.
stalks and
The
"
composition
and
affectingthe
relative
proportion of leaves,tend
from
the
The
it, extremely
9.8 per
The
cent.
are
grasses
made
grass, or of the hay or silage
variable.
American
analyses of timothy
follows
as
166.
"
total
"
Protein
and
Fiber
in
Grasses
Various
Total
Protein
Per
Kentucky
Meadow
....
blue-grass
fescue
Orchard-grass
Maize forage x
Crude
Fiber
Cent
Per
these variations
in
differences
in
Cent
5.9-10.4
24.0-31.8
5-3-12-9
17.7-26.8
4.5-11.8
20.8-31.9
28.9-38.3
6.6-10.4
Oats
That
factors
Table
Red-top
affect
to
composition of
combined
also
2.7-
6.9
7-5-24-7
5-2-
9-5
23.1-30.9
responding
compositionare accompanied by corhas
been
pointed
digestibility already
out.
Moreover, the percentage of crude fiber in roughage
index of the relative expendito be a fairly
accurate
appears
Entire
plant,usually containingconsiderablymore
water
than
hay.
STUFFS
FEEDING
THE
577
of energy in digestion
(770). Not only does coarse, woody
matter, but what it does contain
forage contain less digestible
ture
rived
animal, pound for pound, than that defrom forageof a better quality.
the clovers,
682.
The
alfalfa,
legumes
peas, beans,vetches,
of forage second only to
constitute a source
and the like
the grasses in importance, while their value
as
renovating
a
peculiarpositionin agriculture.Broadly
crops gives them
speaking,leguminous forage may be said to differ from that
main
tions
of the grasses in two
points. First,under like condiit is notably richer in proteinsthan the latter. Second,
is less valuable
to
the
"
"
there is
difference between
marked
more
the
physicalproperties
stems
likewise lower
to
an
greater extent.
even
consists of the
Straw
materials
straw
extent
from
the leaves
and
materials in
will be poor in digestible
and the degree to
of seed formation
proportionto
which
the
the seeds
in
poor
amounts
of
digestible
carbohydratesand
siderable
incon-
stances.
related sub-
value
is therefore
2
low.
Wheat
and
rye
straw
stand
at
the
578
foot
NUTRITION
the
of
OF
list,while
Sheep
the upper
parts. The
are
and
FARM
ANIMALS
and
uable.
valare
more
barley straw
ing
especially
adapted to utilize straw, consumvaluable
the coarser
more
parts and rejecting
oat
(stover) constitutes
of maize
straw
valuable
however, it
is necessary
to cut
the additional
questionedwhether
been
cut
is worth
fodder
legumes is
molds
"
Contain
Roots, Tubers
2.
much
the
water.
coarse
convenience
cucurbita.
other
on
from
8o
other.
fiber in their
low, and
hand
one
and
them
With
They
are
In
the
the
centrated
con-
cluded
be in-
may
crops
(ofwhich
less water,
potatoes
and
their
(beets,
proper
like)the percentage of
tubers
to
root
erties
prop-
the
fruits,notably pumpkins
characterized
by
especially
A second
66 to 82 per c^nt.
of these feedingstuffs is the low
also
the
constitute
certain
The
95.
chief representative)
contain
vary
of
straw
tubers
and
the
on
the
largeproportionof water.
turnips,
carrots, mangels and
may
in the
Fruits
and
Roots
"
fodders
feeding stuffs
for
eaten
feeding stuffs,
differing
markedly in their
distinct class of
from
cutting. The
it has
fiber,with
other hand, it
684.
material
it,and
richer in
in
contain
of
labor
the
shred
or
water
are
the
the
being aprange
proximat
acteristic
charequallymarked
percentage of crude
nutritive value.
685.
source
of
carbohydrates.
of the
crops consists largely
In the tubers starch is the
beets,especially
sugar
and
this substance
nutritive
has
more
"
The
dry
matter
of these
readilysoluble carbohydrates.
predominant carbohydrate,while in
beets,cane
sugar occupies this position,
been
shown
to have
lower
distinctly
FEEDING
THE
bohydrates, whose
There
are
or
more
STUFFS
nutritive
exact
579
value
is
still uncertain.
in fruits,
also present in roots, and
particularly
nutritive value is low.
In
less organic acids whose
of their succulent
consequence
and
tender
nature, tubers,and
be
and may
especially
roots, have a high degree of digestibility
presumed to require little energy for their digestion. They
of carbohydratematerial,even
therefore a valuable source
are
inferior
ingredients are of somewhat
of tubers is more
In general,the dry matter
value.
valuable
than that of roots.
On the other hand, the dietetic effects of
of labor
roots are especially
prized,but the considerable amount
though
of
some
requiredfor
their
their cultivation
"
686.
Comparison
3.
with
tends
restrict their
to
use.
Concentrates
The
roughage and
with
roots.
"
The
centrated
con-
"
feedingstuffs,or
plies,
imconcentrates,"as their name
of nutriment
those which contain a large amount
in
are
small weight and bulk.
a
They stand in contrast, on the one
is accompanied
hand, with roughage, in which the real nutriment
tible
by a largeproportion of woody fiber and other indigesmatter
which
adds
the
to
weight and
bulk
without
rially
mate-
water.
concentrates
are
therefore
the main
reliance for
the
The
rapid, intensive production of meat, milk or work.
be subdivided
into farm
concentrates
products and the
may
by-productfeedingstuffs.
Farm
687.
The
recent
and
indeed
cereal
grains.
products
"
times,the main
are
still in many
The
'
grains were,
reliance of
sections
until comparatively
of concentrates,
of the United
States.
users
"
the highesttype
representing
of
vegetablefood."
Their
580
OF
NUTRITION
is
FARM
ANIMALS
the form
chieflyin
of true
proteinsof
recognizednutritive value, their carbohydrates are largely
starch,and their ether extract
chieflytrue fat. Being closely
related to the nutrition of the young
plant,the composition of
smaller variations
seed shows much
than
the properlymatured
fodders.
The
that of the coarse
degree of maturity of the
seed,however, materiallyaffects its compositionand in much
nitrogenous matter
the
as
way
same
earlystages
that
of the
fodders.
coarse
'
the
In
of seed
from
ripeningof
it does
dantly
formation, the proteinand ash flow abunthe vegetativeorgans to the seed, while later the
which
therefore,
Any influences,
of the seed, such as drought
produce a seed
Light,shriveled
richer in
accumulation
check
or
of
carbohydrates.
the normal
development
proteinand
poorer
to
in
carbohydrates.
high in protein.
grain,therefore,tends to be
of unripe seeds differ to a considerable
Moreover, the ingredients
The
from those of ripe seeds.
extent
ample,
nitrogen,for exis to a largerextent
in the form of non-proteinrather
and the carbohydrates
in the form of sugars
than true protein,
are
rather than starch,as in the ripegrain.
of one
sort or another
688.
and
Composition
of cereals.
digestibility
"
cereal
The
by a medium
percentage of protein
(8 to 14 per cent),chieflycomposed of true protein,a rather
low percentage of fat (1.5to 6 per cent) and a high percentage
of carbohydrates,
largelystarch. Their ash is small in amount
and in it potassium and phosphorus acid are prominent,while
Maize
contains
rather less protein
but littlecalcium is found.
than the other cereal grains,
with correspondingly
high percentages
grains are
characterized
of starch
and
of fat.
While
it has
been
shown
that the
proteincontent
breeding,the
6 and
of
corn
can
be
of fat.
The
hulls
They therefore
in-
THE
proportionof
the
crease
581
FEEDING
STUFFS
crude
fiber in the
grain,and
spondingly
corre-
its
"
of
fullythe demands
productivedairycow.
rapidlygrowing animal
the
or
the
highly
leguminousgrainsshare the
and like
of the naked cereal grains,
generalphysicalproperties
them
contain feed materials (proteins,
carbohydrates,fats)of
the highestgrade. They are especially
trast
characterized,in conwith the cereal grains,by their relatively
high percentage
of protein,ranging according to American
analyses from 20
of them, as the soybean and the lupine,
Some
to 42 per cent.
690.
grains.
Leguminous
"
The
of fat,but
also carry notable amounts
richer in this substance
than
not
are
than
richer in ash
acid and
lime.
concentrated
rations in
they are
the
more
common
ones
cereals.
They are
regardsphosphoric
cereals,notably as
Their digestibility
is generallyhigh. Like the
the
valuable
cereals,they are
a
the
as
sources
of total
feed
digestible
protein. Aside
the most
from
certain
available materials
technical
in
also to enrich
by-products,
"
as
directly
feedingstuffs because
value.
seeds contain a high perof their commercial
These
centage
in
of
of protein,while
the carbohydrates
placeof much
of the cereals and legumes a largepercentage of oil is found.
Flaxseed
contains
considerable quantity of so-called
a
cilage,"
muwhich swells up with water
and has a
to a slimy mass
is
the digestive organs.
Cottonseed
very soothingeffect on
fed to cattle to some
extent, usuallyeither boiled or roasted,but
rape,
are
commonly
not
used
"
is
regarded
as
582
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
By-products
Nature.
692.
by-productfeedingstuffs
The
"
by which the
processes
preparedfor man's use, either as food
of technical
are
the residues
products
of the soil
for other
or
purposes.
ing
technical processes are : the millmore
important
of cereal foods ; the manufacture
of grains; the manufacture
of starch and gluof alcoholic liquors
cose
; the manufacture
of these
The
of
By-products
693.
wheat,
stuffs.
according to
Milling residues,particularly
milling.
"
of the
familiar
ing
by-productfeedsecured in cleaningthe
screenings
the bran and
middlingssecured in the
screeningsare an exceedinglyvariable
sides
bethe qualityof the grain, containing,
grains,a great varietyof weed
seeds,
the most
among
They include the
are
lightand broken
fragmentsof straw, sand and earth,as well as
While some
fungi,and dirt of all sorts.
feedingvalue, the possibledanger to
animals, and
through
the
the infestation
of
of oils.
the extraction
; and
of sugar
manufacture
; the
of
are
the health
fields with
the
great caution
demand
manure,
of
ous
spores of numerof these have undoubted
in
as
screenings
to
is
be
to
weed
the
seed
use
feed.
bran
of the
of
dition
Its ad-
middlings
regarded as an
or
adulteration.
Bran
"
The
bran of wheat
of
essentially
the seed-coats of the grain,
the layerof so-called gluten
cells immediately beneath
them, and a proportionof
the inner,flourypart of the
grain varying with the perfection
of the milling. The
seed-coats of the graincontain
or
Fig. 43.
"
Partial
section
(Bailey'sCyclopedia
i,
coat.
of wheat
American
grain.
ture.)
Agricul-
richer
the
of
in
proteinsthan
the
the
as
therefore,
flour,does it become
inner
bran
at
once
is
rye
consists
most
while
the
part of the
more
of its crude
fiber,
gluten
cells
kernel.
In
are
portion,
profrom
perfectly
separated
richer in
proteinand
in crude
584
OF
NUTRITION
which
becomes
rancid
rather
FARM
ANIMALS
easilyand
often
renders
the
terial
ma-
be
unpalatable. It is asserted that this ranciditycan
the
bran or polishas soon
as produced.
preventedby kiln-drying
Uses
of
regard
to
milling by-products.
the
than
has
millingby-products largelyas
it is true
While
There
"
whole
sufficient to
that
the bran
wheat
or
enable
tendency
of
sources
protein.
and
other
them
been
marked
degree
any
the deficiencies of other ingredientsof the ration in this respect.
of digestible
They are to be regarded primarilyas sources
not
to
the
whole, with a tendency to increase somewhat
with the good
proportion of protein in the ration.
Familiarity
its comparative safetyas
qualitiesof wheat bran in particular,
its good dietetic effect have
a feed in inexperiencedhands, and
tended
to an
it rules
When
exaggerated idea of its feed value.
high in price it is usuallypossibleto substitute other feeding
stuffs for it,partially
or
wholly,which will furnish both protein
matter
as
and
energy
cheaply.
more
Buckwheat
contrary, often
cheap
a
the
middlings,on
of
source
ration
furnish
protein for
otherwise
deficient
in it.
694.
Breakfast
ture
manufac-
the
In
"
dues.
food resi-
foods,now
a
of
the
on
considerable
quantity
by-products
the
In
most
oatmeal,
lates.
accumu-
of the
case
of
common
the
ket,
mar-
these,
residue
of
chiefly
sists
con-
the hulls of
the oats
togetherwith some
the lighter
grains.
of
Oat
Fig. 44-
"
Partial
section
(Bailey's Cyclopedia of
of
American
oat
grain,
Agricul-
ture"-)
o, Hull,
cells.
Seed
(Jordan.)
coat.
4,
Gluten
cells. 5. Starch
"
hulls
The
have
themselves^
scarcely
than
feeding value
more
the
i,
hulls.
straw,
11
resemble
"
in
which
they
"
,"
composition,
proportion of lightoats
the
while
to
in the
but
market
hulls
Oat
585
STUFFS
FEEDING
THE
is
sufficient materially
not
rarelyoffered
are
usually disposed of
are
in
such
as
of
one
two
and
by
are
advertisingtestimonials.
worthless,it is evident that the oat
means
no
offered under
are
various
While
abundant
with
no
feeds
These
be described.
to
of the addition
because
valuable
more
names
they
are
hulls themselves
to
them
of other
ing,
ultimatelypays the cost of mixand advertising. The second
to which
use
transportation
oat-hulls are
pecially
put is the adulteration of the mixed feeds, esand oat feeds, which
are
freely offered on the
corn
considerable
market.
Since it is difficult to recognize even
a
materials,while the
adulteration
only
from
consumer
of known
manufacturers
guarantee
as
mixed
feeds should
or
integrity
be
purchased
under
factory
satis-
purity.
to
of pearled
by-product of the manufacture
barley,is similar in feedingvalue to oat hulls.
of hominy from
Hominy feed. In the manufacture
corn,
the hull,the germ and the more
starchyparts of the kernel are
rejectedand constitute hominy feed, or hominy chop, which
Barley feed, a
"
is similar
the whole
to
except that
has
compositionand digestibility,
its
somewhat
become
to
kernel in
695.
of
By-products
of
the
fermentation
industries.
"
The
in the
liquorsconsists essentially
of the starch of grainsor potatoes into sugar and
conversion
of this sugar by means
of yeast.
the subsequent fermentation
be consumed
The resultingliquor may
directly(beer,ale) or
manufacture
distilled,
yieldingthe
be
it may
alcoholic
The
"
are
of
of
the
one-third
about
from
roots
malt, by
growth
the
The
sprouts.
of
distilled
alcohol.
liquorsor commercial
Malt
concentrated
more
long, and
these
barley,they
have
the
they
sprouts.
Being young
generalpropertiesof
all young
586
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
of
much
nitrogen,
of
of
"
Somewhat
recently,economical
quality of the milk.
cesses
profor dryingit have been perfected,
and the dried brewers'
grainsconstitute a valuable feed which can be shipped like
other
any
dried feed.
Distillers7 grains.
alcohol,the liquidis
alcohol
fermented
with
in contact
the
grainsand
tillers'
disas
off,leavinga residue known
wetter
slop. This residue is much
grainsor distillery
less
than brewers'
but
is
grains,
subjectto fermentation,since
the sugar has been more
Large quantities
completelyremoved.
of it are now
put on the market in the dried form, both under
the
its
no
then
the
In
"
distilled
of which
contain
trade names,
some
It constitutes
suggestionof the real nature of the material.
and
name
own
valuable
of stock
source
regarded
quality.
are
as
various
feed.
The
grainsproduced
those from
maize
as
from
rye
of the best
the starch of
objectis to convert
the grain as completely as possibleinto sugar and then into
This results in increasing
the percentage of all the other
alcohol.
ingredientsin the residues.
They contain accordinglya high
In
the
fiber than
somewhat
greater percentage
the
By-products
oils from
called
value.
oil cake
Of
or
of oil extraction.
various
oil
in
meal,
the
The
extraction
seeds
oil-bearing
these,cottonseed
extensivelyused
"
some
and
United
of which
leaves
have
linseed
meal
States
and
are
are
of
mercial
com-
by-products,
high feeding
the
only ones
typicalof
the
FEEDING
THE
seeds of cotton
The
others.
is extracted
pressure,
meal.
The
At
"
fat,the
by the
or
oil
The
of
use
fat and
8 to 9 per
of fat.
cent
therefore
very
being ground
cottonseed,which
have
of the
true
Linseed meal.
pressure and
removed
at
by
low
fiber.
Cottonseed
tough,
black
meal
hulls
feeding value.
of
This
is
the
is
pecially
es-
cottonseed
grades of commercial
lower pricethan the standard grade.
naphtha, the
of
means
latter
resultingoil-meal and
being
pletely
com-
recovered
from
the
"
"
of extraction removes
the fat
process
"
"
old process
of pressure, and the
the
in fat and contains
is somewhat
poorer
new
again. The
completelythan
resultinglinseed meal
proteinthan
more
the
very
Linseed
"
the
inferior
sold
are
from
is made
44
little crude
contain
meal
only by
cottonseed
to
40
extensivelywith
adulterated
somewhat
cake
meal, which
oil is extracted
cotton
present
more
35 per cent
variable.
somewhat
proteinand
by pressure
residue still containing some
resultinghard
the
use
of each
protein.
Cottonseed meal.
by
cent
30 per
from
solvents,leaving a
rich in
fat and
are
contains about
per cent
22
rich in both
flax
latter
and
and
cottonseed
Hulled
protein.
587
STUFFS
of extraction
by
years, however,
meal
new-process
is
old-processmeal.
the
The
for
cess
pro-
in recent
pressure has been so far perfected
that the difference between
and
the old-process
Other
from
the
seeds
palm
and
the
not
appear
the United
The
697.
the
to
as
have
States
two.
also manufactured
peanut, the
common
commercially
soybean,the oil
yet found
as
to
also be
mentioned
classed
of
glucoseare
access
considerable
any
meal
By-products
and
are
palm.
cocoa
corn-germ
feeds may
Oils
"
of
extensivelyused
Starch
the
reduce
as
starch
made
an
to
of
extent.
in connection
with the
gluten
oil-meal.
and
glucose manufacture.
in the United
States
"
chieflyfrom
588
NUTRITION
The
maize.
starch
is
being
with acid.
of the starch
ANIMALS
grinding and
coarse
carried
off in
the
suspension and
is manufactured
Glucose
to settle out.
FARM
separatedby
starch
of water, the
use
OF
lowed
al-
further treatment
by
In the
are
from
which
the starch
cannot
be
completelyseparated.
Corn
The
{maize)bran.
hulls are comparativelylow
"
in
protein and
contain
fiber.
siderable
con-
sold
When
called
separatelythey are
com
position
bran,althoughthe comof commercial
indicates
Fig. 45.
4,
Outer
layer of skin.
germ
"
contains
ture.)
Agricul-
of
1,
ture
admix-
some
of the germs.
Germ
meal.
The
kernel.
"
ples
sam-
about
30 per
has
a
oil, which
value
cent
mercial
com-
is secured
and
by pressingthe
residue
per
constitutes
cent
of
oil,and
which
meal,
germ
in the
The
germs.
about
still contains
7
neighborhoodof
1 1
of crude
cent
per
protein.
and
and
meal
feed.
The
under
the
"
approximately24
crude
fiber and
germs
are
sold
cent
per
or
are
dry.
made
gluten feed,which
of
of crude
of fat.
cent
protein,6
Sometimes
the
"
and
under
diverse
of
hulls and
"
"
or
names
sold
tains
con-
cent
per
the
sugar feed
In fact,various mixtures
togetherunder
feed,"either wet
main
products
starch
of the three
commercial
invariably
glucose products should
purchased on a guarantee as regardscompositionand purity.
698.
to
Sugar has come
By-products of sugar manufacture.
names.
be
6 per
name
These
various
"
be manufactured
from
sugar-beetsto
considerable
extent
in
THE
United
the
from
FEEDING
States, while
is
cane
sugar
589
STUFFS
in certain
regionsthe
important industry.
an
from
"
process.
known
as
residue
beet
pulp, which
to
90
about
to
85
to
87
is
commonly
those of roots
be
may
Its
pressing.
by
cent
and
the
the fresh
In
of water, which
cent
per
finely
beets minus
essentially
sugar
95 per
to
similar
are
properties
is
the
the diffusion
some
it contains
state
as
from
The
and
sugar
manufacture
duced
re-
general
it occupiesmuch
the
Its digestible
matter
consists chiefly
place in the ration.
of pectinsand gums,
of carbohydrates belongingto the group
inferior to the sugar of the beets but, according to
somewhat
recent
investigation,
fullyas valuable as the digestiblematter
same
of
The
mangels.
but
beet
wet
be
may
portation,
pulp is too heavy to bear long transpreservedin the neighborhood of the
however, dried
dried beet pulp, containing not more
is now,
factoryby ensiling. It
market
as
of
on
the
5 to
10
put
than
about equally
pulp is relatively
valuable with the wet pulp,especially
if soaked in water, as it
should be before feeding.
cent
per
Molasses.
beets
sugar
molasses.
water.
or
of true
with
sugar
This
dried
In
"
50 per
cent
The
and
cane,
contains
to
20
of sugar,
cent
protein,and
other substances
of
25 per
cent
scarcelymore
8 to
per
10
of doubtful
of
cent
of water, approximately
than one-half per
non-protein,
along
nutritive value.
It is
tially
essen-
easily soluble
carbohydrates, principally
Beet
laxative
molasses, in particular,has a marked
sugar.
action,commonly ascribed to the potassium salts present in it
but perhaps due quite as much
For this reason,
to the sugar.
is required to accustom
animals to it graduallyand not to
care
overfeed with it. Its laxative qualities
said to be valuable
are
a
source
used in small
when
for horses in
amounts
preventingattacks
of
colic.
Molasses
is an
the
"
inconvenient
so-called
These
A
feeds.
Owing
material
molasses
consist of molasses
large number
to
to
feeds
its
molasses
physicalproperties,
handle.
To avoid this difficulty,
have
dried
of concentrated
down
been
on
put
some
on
the
market.
suitable material.
feedingstuffs
have
been
used
this
for
and
purpose,
proportion
of
yields
value
especial
%,
80
small
of
amount
of
rendering
blood
of
fat,
rich
in
is
tankage
be
is
while
bought
other
the
ash
in
on
vary
a
which
of
are
poultry.
of
which
digestible.
the
it
contains
contains
It
and
it
method
bones
of
than
protein
its
composition
centage
per-
it
renders
calcium
of
the
considerable
contains
especially
after
scrap
less
contains
in
left
residue
much
which
guarantee.
house
packing
ash.
hand,
widely
value
slaughtering
modern
contains
the
of
the
made.
are
The
trimmings
from
with
are
"
protein,
is
ingredients,
to
they
and
of
bone
obvious
feeds
by-products
swine
little
scraps,
the
these
the
which
Tankage
on
likely
of
but
meat
but,
As
always
the
in
essentially
house.
packing
dried
all
and
consists
Tankage
rich
together
which
nitrogenous
of
dried
house.
scale
feeding
fat
of
packing
large
practically
All
out
especially
is
been
pulp.
highly
the
in
blood
Dried
the
of
ANIMALS
also
the
on
number
FARM
materials
of
animals
meat
over
the
to
By-products
699.
has
it
molasses
forming
pulp,
beet
in
OF
NUTRITION
590
and
tively
rela-
phorus.
phos-
manufacture,
and
should
ANIMALS
FARM
The
afforded
for
OF
NUTRITION
592
compute
the
"
beautiful
each
To
in
feedingstuff a
short
time
nite
defi-
had
one
the most
mation
inforexact
gave
of the most
diverse feedingmaterials
which
constructed
regardingthe value
in comparison with hay. Anything which
appeared in any way
its place in the table and
each new
suited for feedingfound
feeding stuff which the progress of agronomy
provided,directly
likewise quickly incorporated. It went
or
was
so
indirectly,
far that even
the salt suppliedto the animals was
computed in
*
hay values."
in part on the results of pracThaer
himself based his figures
tical
carried
subsequentinvestigators
experiments. Numerous
direct comparisons of feedingstuffs on an extensive scale
out
formulated.
and not one
but several tables of hay values were
Unfortunately,these tables differed widely from each other,
of them givingtwo or three times as great a hay value as
some
another
to the
grain or
and
roots
for
of the feed
content
into account
out
hay, was
estimatingthe hay
that
the
limited
un-
modifications
methods
of
values.
as
the
somewhat
also
evident
was
of different classes of
substitution
of
It
feed.
same
elaborate
fiber and
of crude
method
in
an
Wolff
attempt
to
worked
retain the
The
for a feed.
reckoning with a singlenumber
of this,however, graduallycame
to be recognized,
impossibility
and the hay values have now
only a historical interest.
convenience
701.
hay
Practical
values
relative
of
has
feeding trials.
become
nutritive values
comparisonsof
obsolete
of
the results
Settegast, Die
Die
"
But
while
the idea
of
system
of
determining the
Fiitterungslehre,
1879, p. 4.
1861,
Fiitterungslehre,
landwirtschaftliche
the
pp. 455-456.
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
STUFFS
593
in
vigor. A very considerable share of the investigations
stock feedingduringthe last two decades,especially
perhapsin
the United
States,has consisted of experimentsintended to
full
determine
in
one
ration.
garded,
aspects of the subject. Re-
as
however, simplyas
mination
deterquantitative
feedingstuffs it is subjectto
for the
means
generalled
is
to
true
as
uncertainties
the old
as
tempt
at-
determine
to
It
limitations and
same
the effect of
it is fed and
in which
the conditions
under
which
it is used.
702.
Feed
units.
An
"
fundamental
within
conception of
and
restricted field,
is found
in
thus
relative value
expressingthe
and
interesting
attempt to revive
hay values in a modified form
of
to
the
and
advantage of
singlenumber,
retain the
feed
by
Sweden.1
feed unit system, like that of hay values,is essentially
a
system of empiricalequivalentsaccordingto which feeding
stuffs may
replaceeach other. Instead of hay, the basis of
The
and
Henry
1
For
more
unit
Morrison
as
follows
"
compare
consin
Woll; Wis-
NUTRITION
594
Table
167.
Amount
"
of
OF
FARM
Different
Feed
ANIMALS
Feeds
Unit
Required
to
One
Equal
Feed
Required
Unit
Equal
i
to
Feed
Average
FOR
DAIRY
Range
COWS
Concentrates
1.0
Cottonseed
0.8
Oil
meal
Wheat
malt
sprouts
I.I
Hay
feeds
1.2
straw
2.0
i-5-
3-0
Mixed
Green
alfalfa
Green
corn,
sorghum, clover,peas
and
oats,
nery
can-
refuse
Alfalfa
Corn
silage
silage,
pea
vine silage
brewers' grains
Potatoes, skim milk,buttermilk
Wet
Sugar beets
Carrots
Rutabagas
Field beets,green rape
Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey
Turnips,mangels, fresh beet pulp
The value of pasture is generallyplacedat 8
the average,
units per day, on
varying
kind and
and
The
those
10
with
condition
in Wisconsin
to
cows
Circular,No.
horses
the values
37.
are
as
those
revised
given
in the
by Woll
Danish
for American
valuation
table
feeding stuffs
RELATIVE
Table
VALUES
Amount
167.
"
feed
and
Logical basis
unit values
FEEDING
Different
of
Feed
703.
OF
Unit
of feed
have
Feeds
STUFFS
Required
595
Equal
to
One
{Continued)
unit system.
The
"
Scandinavian
broad
relative
net
values
energy
except that
rich feeds.
they
ascribe
discussed
somewhat
in
the
followingchapter
to protein-
higher values
Chapter V (263),feed
has two
incommensurable.
are
value of
in all such
feed
as
as
distinct functions
It is as
of
source
As
systems.
shown
was
and
impossibleto
same
in
these functions
combine
the
source
singlenumber, as
and water
A protein-richfeed like cottonto a starvingman.
seed
meal, for example, will necessarily
produce a greater effect
a
when
to
added
an
deficient in
matter
deficient in
abundance
values, under
fed in mixed
of that
the
protein precisely
when
ration
containing
one
material
As
to
added
ingredient;with
reverse
would
be true.
contain
over
certain
596
OF
NUTRITION
of
minimum
pointedout,
x
protein."
digestible
"
different farms
and
crops
priceof purchased
the
and
Henry
similar
region where
small
As
feed unit
The
ANIMALS
FARM
Morrison
evolved
have
in
paratively
com-
the
on
grown
feeds does not vary
are
writer
the
feed
unit
and
units
energy
those who would
to
system
values.
net
agree with
in this country
able
is not
feed
of
Comparison
704.
with
"
introduce
its wide
variety
of the feed
The applicability
feeding stuffs and conditions.
the presence
units, as just pointed out, is conditioned
upon
As thus limited,however,
of sufficient protein in the rations.
of
theypractically
attempt
to
measure
as
sources
equallyaccurate,
First,the
energy
based
on
to their
lead
units
it is far inferior in
of
causes
extent
hand, aim
expectedfrom
of the
of energy
body
maize
per hundred
fed
as
part of
of
which
it
this
can
the
They
show
what
to
which
than
"
contribute
of
new
an
one
ration,would
would
to
the maintenance
age
Thus, if avervalue of 85 Therms
tissue.
energy
that
of fat and
amount
85 Therms,
to discover
attempt
no
worse
or
the amount
means
maintenance
an
comparisonsof
tablish
others,but esfeed and product. Energy values,on
buildingup
example,has
meal, for
pounds,
with
weight of
unit
accuracy,
Second, the feed
direct
on
differences.
to show
to the
or
of the animal
value
to the
pedagogic value.
is better
relation between
the other
amount
or
increase in numerical
some
observed
the
feedingstuff
one
no
be
further
different materials
their very
which may
investigation
are
not
and
discovery of new
of comparison. The feed unit,on the other
is concerned,
dead end so far as investigation
leadingto nothingbeyond
while
advantages.
values.
empirical
investigationsand
physiological
great improvement
constitutes
immense
rational and
are
to stimulate
stillbetter methods
hand,
values
net
They are
tend
imperfections
hundred
conserve
pounds
in the
proteinhaving
otherwise
be
an
burned
of
it,
body
energy
up
to
that, if
support the vital activities. Furthermore, it means
added to the maintenance
ration,the maize will furnish ma1
Woll, loc.
cit. p. 13.
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
STUFFS
597
terial sufficient to
an
energy
by which
these facts
also show
established
are
pounds of maize
gross energy of 100
unused in the various excreta, while about
the nature
product
expected. Such
be
to
value and
expressedin
"
of
are
as
data
connected
as
different
entirely
an
these
as
the
words, they
In other
well
with
have
pendent
inde-
an
from
nature
those
Based
Values
Relative
2.
of the
out
Therms
approximately187
show
that
Composition
on
and
Digestibility
705.
Chemical
composition.
"
Sprengel and
chemical
others
to
by Davy, Einhof,
made
were
indeed
earlier
the
rise of the
the
feeding stuffs
compare
analyses,and
before
Even
the basis of
on
hay
values
were
for
comparisons (700). The methods
of feeding stuffs were
the chemical analysis
graduallyimproved,
although they stillremain quiteimperfect,but along with this
in
based
part
improvement
problem
a
the
came
is at bottom
Physiological functions
the nutrition
on
basal facts
fats and
the
of
and
physiological
nutrients.
not
In
"
particular
of carnivora
served
to
establish those
carbohydrates,
regarding the functions of proteins,
ash in nutrition
by
question.
Voit
clearer
of relative values
chemical
706.
such
on
later
which. have
and
investigations
have
confirmed
been
been
outlined
and
in
tended
ex-
ter
Chap-
V.
and
to
have been
the
credit
and
appears
the values of
of nutrients.
nutrients
found
1
2
by
chemical
analysisand
were
comparatively
i860.
Gesetze der Ernahrung des Fleischfressers,
Vortrage iiber Agriculturchemie,1858.
598
soon
the
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
data based
accurate
replacedby more
nutrients.
digestible
on
determinations
of
investigations. It is to
Henneberg's and Stohmann's
1
the fundamental
investigationsof Henneberg and Stohmann
at the Weende
Gottingen, that we
Experiment Station,near
indebted for the inauguration of a system of comparing the
are
with little material
has endured
values of feeding stuffs which
the
change up to the present time. These investigatorswere
in studying the nutrition of herbivfirst to apply systematically
for other
the physiological
ora
already demonstrated
principles
707.
"
and
classes of animals
determinations
their
base
to
the
upon
Their
earlier
of the
body.
of feedingstuffs
digestibility
experimentsdeal chieflywith
of investigation,
Later
and
rations.
a
comprehensive scheme
outgo
well
as
as
the
upon
income
the
of the
includingdeterminations
and
begun
Table
168.
but
of
Computation
Clover
Chemical
Ash
Protein
Digestible
Nutrients
Maize
Hay
Meal
15-03
13-73
5-49
125
8.80
10.24
1.36
Non-protein
0.25
1.89
28.61
fiber
Nitrogen-free extract
Ether
of
composition
Water
Crude
laid out2
was
completed.
never
Example
"
excreta,
gaseous
36.98
70.44
364
2.29
extract
100.00
Percentage digestibility
Protein
Non-protein
Crude
fiber
Nitrogen-free extract
Ether
18.40%
66.43%
100.00%
32.40%
97-75%
95-74%)
46.48%
53-19%
100.00%
50.27%
68.94%
65.02%
Ash
extract
Digestiblenutrients
5.49X0.4648=
Ash
Protein
10.24
1.36 X
Non-protein
Crude
Ether
28.61
fiber
Nitrogen-free extract
extract
1. 000
0.5027
0.6894
X 0.6502
36.98 X
2.29
0.5319
2.55%
5.45%
1.36%
14-38%
25.49%
1.49%
1.25
0.1840
8.80
0.6643
0.25
1.000
1.89 X
0.3240
0.9775
3.64 X
0.9574
70.44
0.23%
5-85%
0.25%
0.61%
68*.85%
3-48%
der Wiederkauer,
i860
6oo
OF
NUTRITION
Table
170.
ANIMALS
Nutrients
Digestible
"
FARM
Reduced
Carbohydrate
to
Equivalent
Clover
Hay
Maize
Meal
5-85%
Digestibleprotein
Digestible carbohydrates equivalent
to
enous
non-nitrog77-54%
nutrients
Total
709.
nutrients
The
50.03
nutritive
ratio.
By the method
"
83-39%
just illustrated
is expressed
matter
digestible
which correspondto the two functions of the
by two numbers
nutrients alreadydescribed
(263) The digestible
proteinshows
the structural
contribute towards
the feedingstuff can
what
needs of the body, while the carbohydrateequivalentof the
non-nitrogenous nutrients shows what portionof the
digestible
of fat or of energy.
nutrients can serve
digestible
only as a source
The ratio between
these two quantities
gives a useful indication
of feedingstuffs is suited
stuff or mixture
as to whether
a feeding
for forms
of productionlike growth or milk production,which
requirea considerable supply of protein,or whether it is better
adapted for those which, like work or fattening,make special
the content
of
in
feeding stuff
demands
This
so-called
"
nutritive
ratio
"
710.
For
clover
hay,
5.45
For
maize
meal
5.85 :
Significance of results.
44.58
77.54
"
1 :
1 :
Under
8.2
13.3
the stimulus
of Hen-
tables
of averages
have
been
publishedby
RELATIVE
VALUES
OF
FEEDING
601
STUFFS
various
of the agricultural
authors,includingmany
experiment
for the feeder to learn what
stations,and it is an easy matter
and
amounts
kinds of digestiblenutrients
given feed or
any
ration
In
will
view
that
the
should
supply.
of the
understood.
the
feed
tables it is
As
units.
is inferior to
these
In
crudely,to
feedingstuffs in
that
methods
the
compare
the animal
which
of
matter
mere
nutrients
digestible
on
of such
use
of the results
significance
exact
be
extensive
actual
body.
the
on
based
the
important
they embody
logicalconception,
basis
hay
on
of their
values
or
ever
attempt is made, howeffects
produced by
determination
of
the
tibility,
diges-
as
is
to
necessary
evident
becoming increasingly
the
truth.
The
essential
comparison outlined
units of energy
a
basis of the
introduction
accurate
to
this volume
to
their
seek
methods
to
than
"
as
its content
" 3.
newer
is not
that
but
and
in
of matter
and
on
the
in
body
so
in
the
lumina
ilthe
These
1870.
elaborate
were
at
were
Stohmann
"
Beitrage
determine, by more
Conditions
they employ
stitute
they con-
that
discussed
were
Neue
but part of
methods
of
express
the
basis of
of
and which
early methods
a
manner
by Henneberg
methods
newer
feature
they
comparison
the logical
conceptions which
as
return
in
that
and
ers,
experiment-
of the animal
as
energy.
Affecting
Digestibility
Digestibilityvariable.
Uber
stationen
auszufuhrenden
die Methode
"
der
Not
auf
den
landwirtschaftlichen
thier-physiologischen
Untersuchungen.
Versuchs-
602
NUTRITION
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
in
tor
next
the
constituted
feces
greatest,
the
although not
in the
in the
only,loss
of
by the feed.
of a feeding stuff or of its several
The percentage digestibility
constituents,however, has not a fixed and invariable value,
of a chemical
compound, but may be
analogous to the solubility
less by a varietyof conditions,although to a
affected more
or
the
than is frequentlysupposed. This arises from
less extent
in Chapter III (155) that portions of ingredients
fact noted
tract
capable per se of solution and resorptionin the digestive
and reappear
in
actuallyescape digestionfor various reasons
in
the feces.
Any conditions which influence the digestibility
this way, however, necessarilyaffect the value of the feeding
method
stuff by whichever
determined, and the more
tant
imporchemical
suffered
energy
be
of them
may
conditions
in this connection.
convenientlyconsidered
to
which
the feed.
Conditions
712.
which
Variation
factors
various
of the
found
be
must
to
at
different
borne
in
mind
the animal
times.
in
"
An
studying
important fact,
the
influences
of
upon
same
vary
relatingto
more
or
has
been
shown
Landw.
Vers.
Stat.,29 (1883),129,
147
and
153.
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
603
STUFFS
FEEDING
made.
No
could be traced
connection
singletrials were
and the condition of the animals.
the variations in digestibility
between
L
similar
The writer
observed
difference in two experimentsupon
a
one
sheep with clover hay while the other sheep of the pair showed
the feces
In later experiments 2 in which
difference.
no
significant
of three steers were
quantitativelycollected daily for periods of 56
that the digestibility
it was
shown
and 27 days on identical rations,
3
and nitrogencomputed from overlappingtenof the air dry matter
ment
day periods,varied at times from the average for the whole experiexperimental error.
by amounts
greater than the estimated
4
Hall
Emmett
likewise
and
observed distinct
Mumford, Grindley,
with
obtained
in
coefficients
the
cattle in sucfluctuations
cessive
digestion
of
from
to
two
weekly periodsfollowingpreliminaryperiods
of
number
four weeks.
713.
of the digestive
differences in the anatomy
of different speciesmight naturallybe expected
Species.
organs
The
"
to
speciesis digested.
of the feed whose
This
which
of those ingredients
especially
is due to the action of
digestibility
is true
so-called
organized ferments
to
less
or
which, therefore,will be more
dependent upon the opportunitieswhich the digestivetract
affords for the stagnationof the feed and so for the activity
of these organisms.
direct comparisons of
Few
714.
Species of ruminants.
the digestibility
of the same
feedingstuff by different species
and
"
of ruminants
are
alimentarycanal
find
to
record.
on
in these
comparatively
identical
view
species,one
small
feeding stuffs
In
are
of the
would
of the
similarity
naturallyexpect
to
digested.
way
In
general
which
this
Amer.
Penna.
The
of
4
small
error
due
to
lack of exact
(1914).
and
there
is
bility
possi-
Fiitterungslehre.
604
of nine
comparisons
that
considered
of ruminants
and
the
be
Such
made
similar
obtained
others
been
generally
one
species
with
without
the favorite
is
as
it has
material
error
imal.
experimentalan-
available,however, leads
to
of this conclusion.
modification
some
this sort
been
evidence
direct
have
experiments.
applied to
goat has
or
Hall
digestioncoefficients
may
sheep
American
ANIMALS
and
comparisonsof
the basis of
On
FARM
cattle and
on
OF
NUTRITION
and
experimentalresults,while
The
when
consistent,seem,
and
extensive
not
taken
in connection
togethe
al-
not
with
the
the conclusion
general comparisonspreviouslymade, to warrant
ence
that as regardsthe better grades of roughages the differbetween
cattle and sheep is not marked
in digestivepower
results,
and, with the exception of Zuntz's rather remarkable
be the case
the same
to
would
as
seem
regards concentrates.
of the coarser
On the other hand, it would appear that in the case
forms of forage a distinct difference exists in
and less digestible
favor of cattle.
is inclined
Kellner
greater percentage of
the
intestine of cattle
action of
extensive
The
715.
as
horse
Wolff9
The
most
in Hohenheim
in the
water
this difference to
of the
contents
compared
ascribe
to
made
and
"
number
more
of
of identical
digestibility
by sheep as representingruminant
extensive
from
ruminants.
favors
lower
of
the
trials of
1877
to
1884
this sort
but
were
Tangl
and
made
by
Weiser10
of several
samples of
compared the digestibility
hay by horses and by sheep or cattle and Langworthy11has
compiled the results of a largenumber of digestionexperiments
also
have
U.
(1900),90.
3
Eighth Rpt. (1895), 79.
Expt. Sta.,Rep. 1890, 58.
Bui.
'Maine
5Landw.
Vers. Stat., 63 (1906), 313.
(1904).
no
Sta.,
Expt.
6Landw.
35
(1906), 205.
Jahrb.,
7 Jahrb. Ver.
in Deutschland, XII
(1912), 324.
Spiritus Fabrikanten
8Landw.
Jahrb., 45 (1913), 422.
9
Grundlagen fiir die rationelle Futterung des Pferdes, 1886.
10Landw.
Jahrb., 35 (1905), 159.
11 U. S.
Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas.,Bui. 125, p. 44.
2
Penna.
Table
171.
Digestibility
"
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
Sheep
by
by
and
605
Horses
Digestibility
Percentage
Number
of
NitroCrude
Dry
gen-Ether
Crude
Organic ProExments Mattract
free
ter Matter teinFiber Extract
Experi-
ROUGHAGE
Wheal
straw
Sheep
45
Horse
20
23
57
59
Meadow
hay
"
Horse
hay
"
.......
hay
Meadow
"
54
68
62
46
23
47
47
57
39
56
56
59
57
56
62
51
47
48
57
36
55
24
62
64
65
63
65
54
42
57
20
average
Sheep
Horse
37
18
inferior
Sheep
Meadow
27
59
superior
Sheep
10
5o
5i
62
Sheep
65
76
73
80
76
65
Horse
54
62
69
57
66
13
55
56
50
61
56
37
63
29
Horse
Dried
Red
pasture grass
clover hay
5i
5i
56
56
58
59
7i
45
66
4i
58
58
73
40
70
14
70
7i
68
80
30
76
83
66
21
74
7i
87
90
87
79
9i
84
85
87
86
65
93
13
Sheep
90
89
66
93
75
Horse
80
83
Sheep
Horse
Alfalfahay
Sheep
12
Horse
Oats
Sheep
13
Horse
Beans
Sheep
Horse
Peas
77
89
97
78
78
94
5i
5i
27
79
62
9i
85
63
Lupins
Sheep
Horse
7i
72
Maize
Sheep
Horse
90
as
9i
78
100
of questionable accuracy.
94
606
both
on
OF
NUTRITION
horses
rilminants.
contained
are
In
and
general,the
of ruminants
FARM
ANIMALS
The
results
parisons
com-
in Table
171.
have
shown
comparisons
over
of Wolff's
horses
in the
distinct
superiority
roughages,especially
and
tract)
exnitrogen-free
a
digestionof
(crude fiber
regards those ingredients
so-called digestionis wholly or in part a fermentawhose
tion.
in the better grades of foragethe crude fiber was
Even
the whole
on
by horses than by
considerablyless digestible
ruminants, although three of Tangl's experimentsare exceptions,
while less difference appears
as
regards the nitrogen-free
and scarcely
extract
any as regards the crude protein. On the
other hand, little difference was
observed
in most
in the
cases
of the total organicmatter
and nitrogen-free
extract
digestibility
as
of
In
concentrates.
fiber
the
the
the
latter
of
digestibility
the
crude
also
attaches
this difference.
to
The
rather
than
excretory
from
any
products
real difference
digestibility.
Comparisons of
the digestibility
of identical feeds by swine and by sheep have
been reported by Honcamp,
the feedand Milliner,1
ing
Neumann
stuffs being wheat, rye and the by-products of their milling.
Although the results upon the individual animals of the same
age
speciesfluctuated somewhat, as is not unusual (718),the averresults showed
the part of either
material superiority
on
no
species.
716.
Swine
Owing
to
compared
the small
with
ruminants.
of
percentage
crude
"
fiber contained
in the
this
Bretsch, Losche
Fingerling,
to
especially
1
Landw.
Vers.
test
and
the relative
Stat.,81 (1913),205.
Arndt,2
in
signed
experiments de-
digestive
powers
of
sheep and
2Ibid., 83 (1913),181.
6o8
of
OF
NUTRITION
ether-soluble
more
also
or
the
higherthan
even
of
fiber
in
some
of crude
concentrates
cases,
but
are
in others
for ruminants.
obtained
those
view
crude
swine
with
materiallylower
equal to
figuresfor
The
animals.
ANIMALS
FARM
In
the
of the latter.
717.
of
collectingthe
feces
of
determinations
few
who
Bartlett,1
made.
Owing
fowls separatelyfrom
with
compared
Fowls
has
swine.
upon
in all recorded
Table
173.
number
"
Digestibility
the
the
difficulty
paratively
urine,com-
have
of such
been
ments,
experi-
digestioncoefficients
average
experimentsup
to
animals
these
reporteda
"
to
by
1910.
Fowls
Ether
Extract
Bran, wheat
Beef scrap
Beef (leanmeat)
.
Barley
Buckwheat
Maize,
Maize,
37.00
95.00
86.30
67.86
89.22
whole
88.11
cracked
Maize
Clover
87.60
87.60
India wheat
35-50
83.80
85.71
Millet
Oats
Peas
87.89
80.01
Wheat
53-oo
22.60
Rye
Potatoes
Maine
1910.
RELATIVE
VALUES
FEEDING
OF
609
STUFFS
to be relatively
difficultof digestion
fiber appears
by
this ingredientwere
able
varifowls and the results obtained
upon
Crude
apparentlycapricious. Aside
and
of
results with
for swine
those
from
this,a comparison
quite a close general
shows
classes of animals.
the two
agreement between
differences
718. Individuality. In addition to the specific
"
justconsidered,differences
of the
digestibility
same
species. To
such
also
to
seem
In their
in the
or
this may
be due to abnormalities,
chronic diseases of the digestive
animals
distinct individual
differences
occur.
compilationof
Jordan
evidence
extent
some
in normal
but
organs,
observed
same
defective teeth
as
likewise been
have
and
Hall
of such differences in
unable
were
experiments,
digestion
find conclusive
to
and
digestivepower
inclined
are
largely
to attribute
experiments by G. Kiihn,2however,
The
of
is true
grade Shorthorn
steers
Carmichael, Newlin
observed
under
to
afford indubitabl
cited in
were
also
seem
possibility,
instances of individual
same
which
(712).
observation
differences
significant
in which
the
three
at different times
wise
Grindley4 have likethe digestive
of
powers
and
in
individual
made
any
consistent individual
The
differences.
it somewhat
(712)renders
digestibility
an
observed
difference
in the
an
made
results
over
1
2
3
4
is liable to
be
and
misleading,
to
correct
secure
of trials or
trial extending
a
requires either a number
is ordinarily
a longerperiod than
employed. On the
(1900),88.
Penna.
Mexico
Expt. Sta.,Bui.
91
(1914).
610
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
conclusion
ANIMALS
that
justified
seems
differ to
animals
of
in their
digestive
that these individual differences are probably less
power
than appear
to be indicated by the results of singledigestion
much
trials and are certainly
in any degree
too small
to account
extent
some
but
observed
three
Breed.
of
differences
Wolff
as
by
and
the differences
Even
digestiontrials rarelyexceed
"
been confirmed
and
cent
render
to
breed
four per
or
719.
differences in animals.
are
regards digestion,and
this conclusion
the
of
experimentsof Haubner
Armsby and Fries.3 The
taken
and
or
Hofmeister,1
recorded
material
has
data
difference in the
between
pure-bred and
scrub animals.
There
which
exists
show
somewhat
generalimpression that
animals
themselves
animals
are
able
to
feed than
and
can
the
extract
superiorindividual
more
nutriment
inferior animals.
The
animals
from
reasons
within
given weight
for the
doubted
un-
economic
of some
individuals over
others
superiority
have
in previouschapters. So far as differences
been considered
in digestive
are
concerned,however, the experimental
power
evidence
gives littlesupport to the popularimpression.
of the
720. Age.
Comparisons of the digestivepower
animals
made
same
(lambs) at different ages were
by Wolff 4
"
in
1871-72 which
six
and
fourteen
the
the ages of
of the
digestibility
that between
percentage
is
this conclusion
unchanged and
practically
taken
confirmed
by the results of an experimentby Weiske 5 underprimarilyfor another purpose.
the effect of the performance
721. Work.
on
Investigations
of work
of rations have
the digestibility
naturallybeen
upon
feed
remained
"
3
4
2 Landw.
Jahrb., 1 (1872),533.
Stat.,12 (1869), 8.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim.
Indus., Bui. 128.
5
Landw.
Ibid.,9 (1880), 205.
Jahrb.,2 (1873), 221.
Landw.
Vers.
RELATIVE
made
been
the
upon
VALUES
horse.
and
FEEDING
Experiments
and
reportedby Wolff
Grandeau
OF
LeClerc
6ll
STUFFS
this
upon
subject have
and
by
Paris.
at
Wolff's1
instances
draft of 60
effect
the
on
of the
digestibility
mixed
rations
employed
was
observed.
Grandeau
several
and
LeClerc's
different horses
experiments
both
at
upon
made
investigations2were
upon
of the Paris Cab
and included
Company
work
and others upon
motion
simple loco-
walk
and
together with
trot
rest
periments.
ex-
The
The
draft
was
about
half of that
of work 3 was
experiments and the total amount
less,ranging in most cases from 400,000 to 600,000
considerably
in one experimentof
kilogrammeters per day, with a maximum
in all the
was
785,000. Its amount
approximatelythe same
experimentsin each series and was not greater at a trot than
at a walk.4
Finally,correspondingto the main purpose of the
to study the feed requirements of cab
experiment,which was
horses,the rations in the periodsof work or of walking exercise
of Wolff's
heavier
than
in those in the
Landw.
L'alimentation
Not
The
total work
in the former
case
was,
of course,
in trottingas
somewhat
compared
account
greater on
with walking (664).
6l2
NUTRITION
of the different
the
feedingstuffs
except in
same,
OF
FARM
in the
few
very
rations,however, remained
cases.
ANIMALS
the
in
irregularities
and
LeClerc's
at
even
the
results
results
somewhat
agree
rapid
does
work
as
not
such,since
experimentsand
the measured
not
was
horizontal
mere
greater
at
at
less than
was
than
at a
trot,in
some
trot
locomotion
produced the
to have
least,seems
amount
walk.
over,
More-
instances
which
effect,
same
in Wolff's
at
apparently
to
the difference in
in the
than
The
walking periods.
influence of work
1
and
by Tangl
after 36 hours
hours
by
of
later and
and
has
Scheunert.2
A
the
fasting and
the
analyzed.
animal
of
contents
On
also been
the
killed from
was
and
stomach
the
to
one
small
five
intestines
of the
crude
none
assumption
of
the
was
portion
alimentary tract,
the results show
the
of
the
that work
feed from the
delays
passage
stomach to the intestines,
especially
during the first one or two hours.
the gastricjuicepenetrates the largermass
As a consequence,
of the
feed more
of it is neutralized
slowly and more
by the saliva,so that
the stage of starch digestionis prolonged and that of proteindigestion
shortened, the result being that more
carbohydratesand less protein
are
digested. In the later stages of digestionthe differences tend
the intestinal
to equalizethemselves, while
the effect of work
upon
weighed
digested in this
found
digestionwas
that
to
be small.
Scheunert
was
digestibility
As
considerablyincreased by
noted, however, the results cover
only
of digestion. The
and
one
themselves.
question of
1
Arch.
Arch.
the
Only
method
of
results show
actual
comparison
very
computes
the
performance
the
first five
is
upon
Physiol. (Pfliiger)
; 65 (1896), 545.
Physiol. (Pfliiger)
; 109 (1005), 145;
or
confessedlyan
considerable
digestionexperiments
mate
approxi-
variations
suffice to
among
decide the
digestion.
Landw.
805.
Jabrb.,34 (1905),
VALUES
RELATIVE
OF
Conditions
722.
rations
the
by.
of
Quantity
regard
the
feed.
relatingto
"
Current
of
digestibility
consumed.
amounts
FEEDING
As
the
613
STUFFS
feed
methods
of
computing
stuffs
unaffected
as
feeding
regards exclusive feeding
of exnumber
periments
roughage, the results of a considerable
by various investigatorsappear to justifythis view.
mixed
fewer exconcentrates
rations of roughage and
With
periments
been
have
made, but the results indicate a distinct
with
the
ration
when
percentage digestibility
the
in
decrease
is increased
considerably above
the
that
of
amount
requiredfor
maintenance.
on
earlyexperimentsof Henneberg and Stohmann
in which
of clover and
cattle include several cases
varying amounts
the digestibility
fed and in which
meadow
was
substantially
hay were
and
the
found
unaffected
to be
same
was
by the quantity consumed,
of
Hohenheim
in
number
true by Wolff at
a
experiments on sheep.1
2
the
Later
same
on
investigator
sheep
comparative experiments by
confirmed
his earlier results,
have
also those of
and horses have
as
while
Tangl and Weiser 3 upon sheep fed alfalfa hay or alfalfa silage,
4
distinct effect of the quantity
likewise found
and Girard
Miintz
no
of alfalfa hay by the horse.
In
the digestibility
consumed
upon
5
each of two steers
subthree experimentsby Armsby and Fries
on
a
ration of timothy hay was
maintenance
slightlybetter digestedthan
five
of
ration in
out
cases
a maintenance
six,but the differences were
small, amounting to from 1.0 to 2.7 per cent on the dry matter.
Later unpublished experiments have given similar results. In earlier
authors on different amounts
of clover hay,
experiments 6 by the same
observed.
differences were
no
practically
Kellner 7 obtained
Mixed
the followingresults in four
rations.
ration consisting of
of a mixed
periods in which varying amounts
meadow
hay, dried molasses beet pulp, rye bran and cottonseed meal
Roughage.
"
The
"
fed
were
and
to cattle.
Compare
Wolff, Die
Ernahrung
der
landwirtschaftlichen
Nutztiere, pp.
63
64.
Landw.
Vers. Stat.,21 (1878),19.
Jahrb., 1 (1872), 533;
and
3Landw.
Vers. Stat.,74 (1911), 277
282.
4 Centbl.
Agr. Chem., 27 (1898), 756.
5U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bur. Anim.
Indus., Bui. 128 (1911),p. 27.
6U. S. Dept. of Agri.,Bur. Anim.
Indus., Bui. 74 (1905),pp. 12-13;
2Landw.
101
7
(1908),pp.
11-13.
Ernahrung
landw.
p. 49.
Bui. No.
6 14
Table
174.
Effect
"
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
Amount
of
ANIMALS
Mixed
of
Ration
Consumed
on
Digestibility
of mixed
rations sufficient
digestibility
thirteen
months
and
for maximum
milk production,
later,when the
ration of the same
of
mixture
cows
were
dry, that of a maintenance
of the ration
feedingstuffs. About thirtyper cent of the dry matter
from hay, thirty-six
derived
was
per cent from silageand thirty-four
per cent from grain.
Eckles
Table
175.
Mumford,
of four
the
determined
Digestibility
"
Grindley,Hall
different
mixed
Mixed
of
and
determined
Emmett3
rations
cattle
of
Rations
and
hay
than
Cows
by
the
grainby
digestibility
pairsof
four
maintenance
receivingrespectively
slightly
One animal of
one-third feed,two-thirds feed and full feed.
lower digestivepower
than the
fed pair showed
a
distinctly
more
all the
periods
two-thirds
animal
feed
in this
the
same
case
are
shown
true
was
and
of
periods.
one
The
in the table in
ration,
animal
the fullother
receiving the
the other
results upon
parenthesis:
"
Bui. 4.
3
in
(1914).
6i6
would
One
NUTRITION
OF
naturallybe
of heavier
rations
rapid passage
more
the
through
lessened
consequent
It would
in
the
been
on
resorbable
feces.
Some
indicated
in
ANIMALS
extent
that
seem
and
digestible
appear
to
FARM
the
bacterial
liberal rations
may
of the
thus
reasons
in part to
tions.
fermenta-
material
as
tially
poten-
digestionand
escape
for
discussingthe feces
digestibility
relatively
this have
a
ready
al-
feed residue
of undigested
(155). The presence of considerable amounts
grains or fragments of grain in the feces of heavilyfed animals
is readilydemonstrated
but
by washing out the finer portions,
actual
the extent
of this
digestionexperiments to determine
loss have not yet been reported.
723.
of carbohydrates.
It has been established by
Excess
numerous
experiments that an undue
proportionof carbohydrates
in a ration tends to reduce its digestibility,
especially
by
ruminants.
The effect is most
distinct when
bohydrates
carpure digestible
added
also when
to a ration,but is manifest
are
large
of
amounts
feedingstuffs rich in carbohydratesare introduced.
An
example of the former is afforded by an experiment by
1
divided
into three periods,
in
It was
G. Kuhn
two
on
oxen.
the first of which
the animals received a dailyration of 9 kgs.
of hay to which, in the second
and third periods,
2 kgs. and
3.5
adcfed.
of
starch
the
were
Assuming
kgs. starch,respectively,
of
been
the
to have
followingamounts
completelydigested
the several ingredientswere
computed to have been digested
from the hay by Ox V.
"
Table
178.
Nutrients
"
Digested
from
Hay,
with
and
without
Starch
Ether
Ex-
Period
tract
Grams
No
II
kgs. of starch
41
III
38
starch
Landw.
No
Vers.
starch
40
Stat.,44 (1894),470-472.
could
be detected
in
microscopically
the feces.
617
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
in
the feces
Exnressed in another way,
which ,
of hay ingredients
the followingamonnts
coined
ac-
digestible
escaped
be regarded
must
the results of Period I,
of the addition of starch
which under the influence
as
cordme
but
to
digestion.
Table
179.
Escaping
Hav
or
Nutrients
DtoEsxiBLE
Feces
in
NlTROORGANIC
Matter
Dry
Matter
Period
^f
Pro-
CRTOE
Fiber
free
Kgs. starch
starch
3.5 Kgs.
II
III
232
217
44
635
632
15"
example of
foregoingis a typical
The
IGrams
I Grams
Grams
Grams
tract
Extract
Grams
"THER
Ex.
GJW-
tein
Grams
76
180
299
on'
siir
^erimtnts
^"t,hay
added
cellulose
magnitude
mted
Other thingsbeing equal,
^"^*X
usuallyincreased,
total
in which
ruminants
substances
and
to
ana
to
been
have
even
"-
the
of the
rations.
in
as
effect has
has
amount
Its
added.
tityof carbohydrates
vara
con
Jerably
in different f*^""*""%?Z"
"
uniformly the
been
has
of
depression
coefficientsare
of
theseTn
stances
or
of
to
Wolff,1swine
appear
of carbohydratesthan are
Grandeau and Alekan
and
ruminants
"
by
or
crease
of
be
so
as
^s""
that
well
as
the
same
such
:=
terial
ma-
adecan
^"""jU"
six experimentswith
Stat., 19 (1876),273.
Chem., 49 (1906),350;
A
gr.
Jahresber.
iLandw.
few
nkewi*
apparently
clearlyfollowed
carbohydrates. Thus
"
as
in
may
some
to tins influence
ve
indicate
to
seem
in
r lations
althoughthe quantitative
digestibility,
always
not
that
""*""""
to
^Feeingst^rich
carbohydrates,
Isstarch
sugar,
MgJ
carbohydrate(starch)
less sensiU
be much
diges ion
potential
ha
course
be noted, however,
It should
more
tne
constitutes
since, of
digestibility,"
in the feces.
matter
This
same.
beet
molasses
'
Vers.
Ann.
T
I, 30,
33c
by
6i8
OF
NUTRITION
Lehmann
like
and
by Kellner
later trials
of the crude
the
substance,
depressionin
basal
only effect
this
the
ration,but
was
the
on
gestibil
di-
in two
digestibility
fiber.
questionhas
Wolff in
that
showed
carbohydrates, caused
pure
of all the ingredientsof a
the
The
Kellner
by
one
ANIMALS
FARM
been
regard to the
of these materials
however, by
especially
investigated,
feedingof
tubers
and
ing
Heavy feed-
roots.
is
Wolff's
quantitiesof
had
extensive
roots
been
potatoes
or
were
added
to the ration
of
increasing amounts
180.
Computed
"
the
as
is
the
to
seems
compute
the
assumption
case
(161)and
show
Wolff
has
series of
any decrease
carried out the
as
Sugar
as
the
feces contained
the
see
sugar
beets
"
method
of
Hay
of
with
and
whether
comparison, however,
in the
roots
of
digestibility
to
the
the
first instance
hay, just as
on
in the
proportionof
this
roots
fed is increased.
manner
singletrials.
Landw.
that
Beets
computation in
experiments,numbering in all no
1
that
Digestibility
of the
digestibility
of unaltered
of concentrates
found
was
increased,the
follows
reasonable
more
it
assumption
Percentage
without
What
was
and
previouslydetermined,
of roots
amount
series of
Vers.
158-175.
The
aver-
RELATIVE
VALUES
OF
FEEDING
619
STUFFS
is,of
It
in which
roots
of the fecal
added
are
matter
determine
to
is derived
in
digestion
experiment
from
the
roots
and
tion
propor-
what
from
the
may
of both
the
on
or,
impossibleto
course,
showing
hay.
To
reasonable
the
the
the
writer,the former
althoughit should
course,
experimentsthe
increased
was
by
consumed,
appears
an
absolute
amount
amount
on
the whole
be added
of crude
the
that in
more
some
of
in the
thus
of other
It is
with them.
feeding stuffs consumed
to be remembered, however, that roots
contain not altogether
inconsiderable quantitiesof crude proteinwhich, as shown
in a
following paragraph (727),tends to offset the effects of their
carbohydrates.
725.
Cause
of
diminished
of protein.
digestibility
"
tion
Atten-
620
OF
NUTRITION
proximately25 grams,
is digestedfrom
digestionmay
have
not
ANIMALS
that
apparently25
basal
ration,while
so
the
FARM
been
affected.
less of programs
tein
in reality
the true
in Kiihn's
Thus
iment
exper-
while
the
actuallyfound
excess
was
44
the
grams,
difference
being insignificant.
The
is
agreement
instance
and
in
been
cited
was
so
close
as
the addition
experiments on
protein determined.
seems
justifiedthat at
influence
the
of
bohydrates
car-
digestibility
true
Nevertheless, the
least the
in this
general
largerpart
of the
of
bohydrates
carbohydratesand of feeding stuffs rich in carof the proteinof the
the apparent digestibility
on
to the fact that,when
added to a basal ration,they
feed is due
increase
the
the
other
the
true
(167),the apparent
pointed out
of
have
always
means
the
conclusion
the
no
of the
none
which
(166) of
by
real
advantage
its feed.
derived
the
Whether
in the
feces
by
which
digestibility
the
increased
animal
from
excretion
measures
the
of
digestion
nitrogenous
after
carbohydratefeedingbe due to an
to both
bined,
comor
apparent or a real depression of digestibility,
it is none
the less a loss of protein from the body.
In general the depression in the percentage digestibility
of
matter
the
protein is greater
As
justifythe
the
*
Kellner
gredient
the basal ration is in this inpoorer
has pointed out, however, this does
grams
The
of
statement
digestibleprotein.
fact that
apparent
the
addition
of
digestibility
readily explicablefrom
1
Landw.
the
this
Vers.
of
VALUES
RELATIVE
OF
FEEDING
621
STUFFS
iments
the addition
would
carbohydrates.
of
when given in
non-proteins,
especially
vegetablematerial and roots, likewise increase
The
of the feces,but
the
tent
nitrogenconreview of the literature of the subjectl
of the proteins,
the increase consists,
case
that,as
least in largepart, of metabolic productsand does not indicate
of the protein,
although
digestibility
diminished
of
Cause
available
the amount
of
digestibility
to
the
organism.
carbohydrates.
"
The
more
entirely
an
cesses
pro-
observed
insoluble carbohydrates
of
comparatively
less of the
or
the feed
to
already been
It has
due
in the fermentation
modification
be
to
appears
chieflyon
of
of green
in the
shows
at
the form
the
alimentary tract
is
due,
dioxid,methane
shown
and
the
and
that when
are
sugar,
organic acids.
the
soluble
more
introduced
of
methane.
It
can
of the
is due
like
carbohydrates,
organismsand undergo
amounts
the
the
scarcelybe
same
they
are
attacked by
fermentation, yielding
responding
cor-
characteristic
doubted
that
product,
gaseous
gestibil
the decreased di-
less soluble
to
starch
carbohydratesunder these
partialdiversion of the activityof
cumstance
cir-
the
organisms to
ferment
cellulose and
The
the like.
action of
effect of
an
excess
explainedas
"
the maltose
Compare
Anim.
Indus., Bui.
139-
62
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
and
organisms and so stimulatingtheir multiplication
and the fact that readilysoluble nitrogenousmaterials
activity,
salts seem
acids or ammonium
like amino
to be particularly
action
of
The
effective is quite in harmony with this view.
nitrogenous materials in stopping the excretion of undigested
starch,on this view, would be explainedas due to an increase
of the proportionfermented, leavingless to be acted on by the
juicesof the intestines.
digestive
for the
of
addition
of
Effect
727.
protein.
"
It
shown
was
in
the
bohydrates
containinga largeportion of cardeficient in protein,i.e.,
therefore relatively
and
those having a wide nutritive ratio,are
likelyto show an im-s
Correctingthis
especially
by ruminants.
paired digestibility,
paragraph that
last
rations
by increasingthe proteincontent
condition
increase
of such rations
tends,
their
digestibility.
of the effect of
by
investigators
the addition of nearlypure protein(wheat glutenwith 78 per
fish meal with 96 per cent of crude
of crude protein,
cent
or
proteinin the organic matter)to a basal ration. In general,
of the
such an addition has had littleeffect on the digestibility
nants
proteinof the basal ration,but in several experimentson rumiof crude fiber,
increased digestibility
cases
an
and, in some
with
of the nitrogen-free
extract, has been observed,especially,
in protein. In other
basal
rations poor
instances,however,
in protein was
when
the deficiency
less marked,
particularly
this effect has been either slightor entirelyabsent and the
is true of such experimentson
swine
have
been thus
as
same
the
record
in which
also on
far reported. Experiments are
addition of feedingstuffs rich in protein,such as oil cake or
of the crude
increased
the digestibility
legumes,has distinctly
be
would
as
expected,to
Trials have
of
fiber
has
basal
Effect
ration
excretion
stopped an
728.
made
been
of
as
and
of
others
"
of
in which
undigested starch
non-protein.
of ruminants
extracts
several
The
addition
digestible
non-proteinin
rule tends
to
diminish
such
an
addition
in the feces.
to
the basal
the form
the apparent
tion
ra-
of
plant
digestibility
of the
this effect.1
1
Compare
U.
S. Dept.
Indus., Bui.
139
(1911),pp. 14-28.
624
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
same
and
a
Caldwell
stantiall
by sub-
cow
same
The
sheep.
in
Table
average
While
181.
earlier
the
the whole
the conclusion apon
particulars,
pears
of forage is not
warranted
that the digestibility
very
and
diminished
removal
of
that
water
materially
by the simple
the lower value of ordinarydry roughage as compared with green
forage is largelydue to differences in maturity and composition.
of coarse
ders
fodThe digestibility
730.
Cutting of roughage.
is not increased
ficult
by cutting,and, indeed, it would be difin
criticism
some
"
conceive
to
in either
since
that
how
the feed
case
the same
practically
experiments by Kellner
extent.
to
chaff
and
was
carried
Table
182 shows
straw
cut
731.
182.
Grinding
to
his
into inch
Table
in
of
This
the
which
the extent
of
have
such
effect,
an
during mastication
in
shown
strikingly
preparationof straw
is
grindingit to
fine meal.
grain.
"
solvents,their
Cut
The
and
outer
Finely
coats
Ground
of seeds
are
When
Landw.
sistant
re-
purpose
iPenna.
to
Digestibility
"
external influences.
could
process
is comminuted
VALUES
RELATIVE
FEEDING
OF
STUFFS
625
animals with
imperfectteeth,
and, protectedby the
more
or
unacted
tract relatively
outer
coats, passes through the digestive
intact grainsof corn, oats, etc., still
Such apparently
upon.
of
are
a familiar sightin the droppings
capableof germination,
amounts
greedy feeders
to
or
to
mastication
less of it escapes
Such
are
not
confined
of whole
crushed
grain as
well.
to the
to
feeding
cracked
or
cattle
tract.
receivingcracked
corn
or
other
separation
necessarily
imperfect.Not only may the sieve
but it is likeother things than fragments of grain,
wise
that any undigestedfragments of the latter which
by washing
hold back
clear
is
through and
be lost,so that fine meal or well-masticated grainmight suffer
a
greater loss through incompletedigestionthan would be
indicated by such tests.
While it is to be supposedthat smaller
fragments will undergo more
rapid solution in the digestive
of passage
tract than largerones, it is evident that the rapidity
are
smaller than
through the
the meshes
organs
is
an
grainmight
be
almost
the results
Qualitatively,
'
well
as
even
paratively
com-
circumstances, escape
digestedas
when
ground.
reached
U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas.,Bui. 77, P- 97Centbl. Agr. Chem., 25 (1896),
729.
626
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
340
oats
"
Table
183.
Digestibility
Percentage
"
of
Oats
by
Horse
Ether
Extract
Whole
40.90
....
Crushed
.
59-46
54.78
Ground
Gain
by crushing
18.56
Gain
by grinding
13-88
While
results
the
just cited
are
or
more
less
variable,and
of the nitrogen-free
digestibility
in Gay's experiments seem
extract
peculiar,the results as a
whole
by swine and
clearlyshow an increased digestibility
that the
horses as a result of grinding,while they also show
less perhaps than
difference is apparently not
great
very
would have been expected.
Gay also reports the followingresults of similar experiments
a
sheep weighing 81 kilograms and eating500 grams of
upon
of alfalfa hay:
oats and
750 grams
"
"
Table
With
184.
the
"
Percentage
exceptionof
it is difficult
to
Digestibility
the
determine
ether
no
Oats
extract, whose
by
Sheep
digestibility
accurately(165),the percentage
is practically
identical
digestibility
as
of
in the
three
cases.
So
far
RELATIVE
it does
whole
not
other
more
lacking,but
are
should
ruminant
627
STUFFS
feeding stuffs
surprisingthat
completely than
appear
grain
with
and
other ruminants
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
non-ruminant.
digest
As
as
of whole
digestibility
the relative
in the amount
effect of variations
grain and
of
coarse
fed upon
fine
or
meal.
732.
Acids.
extensive
The
"
of
use
silagelends interest to
the digestibility
of
on
of meadow
hay with and
digestibility
acid (0.75
without the addition of sulphuric
per cent SO3) by one
sheep,using two periodson each ration,and obtained almost
crease
absolutelyidentical results,with the exceptionof a slightinin digestibility
of the ash and ether extract of the acidified
hay. Kellner 2 added a much largerproportionof lactic acid
(2.67per cent)to a ration of hay and maize fed to a sheep and
likewise observed practically
effect on the digestibility.
no
of organicacids as are ordinarily
Apparently,then, such amounts
in silageand other feeds are without effect
consumed
on
digestionin the case of ruminants and this conclusion is to
a certain extent
supportedby the generalresults of experiments
which have shown
that ensiled forageis fullyas digestible
as
of acid conthe same
The amounts
material carefully
dried.
sumed
under normal
pared
conditions are after all not largeas comized
and neutralwith the quantitiesproduced in the rumen
l
Weiske
compared
by the
stimulate
and
for
saliva.
be
be
Condiments.
excessive
amounts
of
acids
may
example,may
able
That
and
peristalsis
it may
733.
the
increase
so
sensitive
more
"
One
to
of the
exaggerated claims
proprietarycondimental feeds
of
materiallythe digestibility
is that
made
they
are
rations to which
they are
added.
Jour. Landw.,
Landw.
Not
the
2
Ernahrung
(1885),21.
Vers. Stat.,62 (1905),41-57.
33
628
both
added
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
ordinaryfeeds
to
ANIMALS
and
flavorless materials
to
ration made
showed
effect upon
no
of abnormally
up
the percentage
digestibility.
Water
734.
writers
drinking.
the
on
by
particularly
feeding tends
after
feed
his animals
Even
far from
sort
of
of farm
drinking on
been
that
asserted
gastricjuiceand
the
numerous
feeder has
digestion,
drinking
to wash
been
the
advised
to
would
be
warranted, since
the
stomach,
serves
being the sole organ of digestion,
largelyas a
reservoir
the
and
extensive intestines
(119),
preliminary
animals
afford ample opportunityfor the digestion
of
substances
any
by
drawn
conclusions
and
laid
before
the
were
It has
dilute the
to
of the stomach
out
water
the
horse.
been
of water
supposed effect
the
has
Stress
"
of
matter
dilution
which
may
fact,however,
occurs
has
as
been
has
As
supposed.
already been
semi-solid rather
of the stomach
are
(131),the contents
than
much
less
liquidand, as shown
by their stratification,
mixing of them takes placethan is sometimes imagined. Scheul has
shown
that in the horse the largerpart of the water
nert
stated
drunk
well
is
filled with
in
retained,but
stomach
water
has
and
feed.
no
contents
which
did
exceed
the
enters
the
In
case
material
no
stomach
and
This
intestine.
of the
passes
and
contents
contrary
the
about
effect in the
the
of
small
is
stomach
is
water
more
total- dilution
io
duodenum
case
its
around
the
entire
the
Moreover,
per cent.
is rather
rapidlyresorbed
of feed into the
transportation
largeintestine.
In
of
view
these facts it is
few
a
trials which
have
digestion
decrease
in digestibility
as
a
Gabriel and
Weiske
difference
in the
hay, whether
organic matter
1
Arch.
Landw.
the
was:
been
surprisingto
show
made
evidence
of
result of
cant
experimentson two sheep found no signifiof a ration of oats and
percentage digestibility
2
the water
before
not
in
was
given
animals.
The
before
or
after
percentage
feeding or kept
of the
digestibility
"
; 151
stantly
con-
(1913),396.
629
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
RELATIVE
II
Sheep
Water
Watered
before
Watered
after
Tangl,1
found
in
feeding,
nearly
and
water
tended
Jahresber.
to
on
before
when
in
this
found
that
in
the
secretion
decrease
animals
Chem.,
to
seem
on
28
the
(1899),
be
in
effects
661.
dog
general
of
water
Expt.
was
restricted
gastric
of
supply
of
with
Rec,
going
fore-
those
in
drinking
Sta.
results
The
juice.
accord
or
less
also
the
are
water
during
digestibility
of
of
watered
connection
the
horses,
consumption
were
corresponding
Suggestive
who
the
they
different
four
upon
drinking,
than
the
that
studies
Agr.
experiments
less
case.
extensive
of
was
and
Lambert,2
results
Hawk's
watered
and
every
Foster
number
when
irregular
after
in
feeding
feeding
that
was
animals
the
before
constantly
25
of
man.
(1911),
16.
CHAPTER
PRODUCTION
THE
"
General
the
By
"
chapter,is
weight of
the
FEEDING
OF
STUFFS
Considerations
the
relative values
the actual
meant
of
production values
from
distinguished
stuffs,as
the last
VALUES
i.
Definition.
735.
XVII
feeding
in
discussed
effect produced by
unit
in
substance
nutrients,"such
have
become
only the
as
have
familiar
relative and
It is true
that
to
been
in vogue
for many
years and
show
all students of the subject,can
to
the absolute
not
the
extent
which
to
values
of
it may
be
feedingstuffs.
assumed
that
the
nutrients as determined
digestible
by analysesand digestion
experiments actuallyconsist of proteins,carbohydratesand
fats,their
furnish
may
value of the material consumed.
amount
useful clue to
Even
the
nutritive
then,however, it affords
expected,while in
of most
the case
as
appeared in Chapters II and
feedingstuffs,
material has been but very
of the digested
III,the actual nature
incompletelyinvestigated.Neither the chemistryof feeding
quantitativemeasure
no
stuffs
nor
the
of the
results to be
of their various
behavior
constituents
in metabolism
is
made
736.
the
a
in this direction.
Determination
production value
unit of
of
production values.
is the effect
produced upon
consideration.
630
"
The
By
definition
the animal
by
generalmethods
632
to in Part
referred
III
evident that,
renderingit increasingly
are
quite aside
from
of
the
nature
and
intensityof
energy,
the
course
its value
it appears
substances
may
growth,
while, on
supply of
the
the
feed
more
or
as
ticular
par-
yet ill-defined
observations
to
the
on
clusive
ex-
may
the
regardedas
consumption of feedingstuffs ordinarily
definite a
It is important,therefore,
to secure
as
of these new
facts
as
possibleof the significance
relation to the older conceptionsof productionvalues.
sive
exces-
ful.
healthtion
concep-
in their
738.
that
and
in
limitingfactor, particularly
diseases,
development of specific
products(499)seem
of wheat
use
In
processes.
of certain
absence
material
profoundly influence
metabolic
the
constitute
structural
may
lead to the
may
the other hand, McCollum's
or
effects of
as
of
that
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
the
"
"
accessory
summary
indicated
in the
for the
term
various
venient
con-
classes of substances
last
of substances
associated
support normal
In
of minute
mixture
certain
with
growth.
"
such
to
amounts
some
these
"
material,but
nor
power
consumption of
conduce
A
The
so
to
the
fuel to
which
be
enable
more
production of
power
used
efficiently
largeroutput.
case
raw
material
would
and
from
the
therefore
ably
justsupposed might conceiv-
derived
pass
or
both
of two
ways.
as
whole
machine
through
it in
given time,
PRODUCTION
THE
VALUES
FEEDING
OF
633
STUFFS
certain more
delicate parts of the
might affect specifically
and cause
of the machine
machine and so reduce the efficiency
it
or
it
to
In
determined.
been
in the
two
ways
"
have
of these
unit of
of
case
"
deficiencyin
an
It would
stances
sub-
accessory
to
appear
however, that,
probable,
seem
young
material consumed.
raw
acts
of
substances
would
or
decrease
corresponding
follow.
presumably
eaten
actually
was
as
requirementmight
have
In such
be
just as
in feed
in
excess
efficient in
as
In other
"
in
may,
sense,
considered. In
accessory
regulated
by
has
producing gam
m
the
"
The
normal
not
stances
sub-
accessory
rather than
the
has been
the
of the
appetite
been reported.
the
even
and
ration.
all reported
investigations
practically
upon
"
influence of
ration.
consumption
of the maintenance
of the
efficiency
physiological
in which
.note any experiments
body
into
it is quite conceivable
case
as
been
of feed
animal
and
in
many
stances
in-
undoubted
ot
importance of the accessory ingredients
writers,to a tendency
feedingstuffs has led,on the part of some
which as yet appears hardly justified
the signifito minimize
cance
values in the older sense.
The subject
of the production
and the field too broad to warrant
is too new
clusions,
dogmatic con-
The
but
it stillremains
feeding stuff is
that the
prime
to
function
and
in this respectare
potentialities
the
body, and
its
productionvalues.
its
true
That
the
results attained
energy
for
in
expressed
by its use
long been
in
of
some
may
show
a
high nutritive effect per unit and yet the use of the
feed be inadvisable. The presence of toxic substances might
Naturally such
specificmetabolisms
1
metabolisms
an
upon
634
NUTRITION
prevent the
and
yet
tolerance
of
use
the
OF
ANIMALS
nutritive
might
FARM
effect of the
feed
to
within
be
profitable
the
limits of
be considerable.
Production
of balance
values,then, if determined
by means
experimentsmade under normal conditions,are to be regarded
as
of
showing the potentialvalues of feedingstuffs as sources
and energy, i.e.,
their worth as constituents of a ration
matter
which
contains
sufficient amounts
"
are
The
study of
"
important group
of feedingstuffs
potentialities
that in the future
already outlined
for the various
"
the
the normal
ensure
"
of factors
energy
the
influencing
for
be
must
ash, protein
of
purposes
Production
Values
Energy
extent
which
to
to
(or amino
the
It is possible
the
ments
require-
acids) and
the requirementsfor
feeding,
necessary
organs
Regards
as
apparentlyvery
added
"
efficient functioning
of the cells and
2.
in the broadest
actuallyutilized.
are
there
substances
accessory
"
gredient
inaccessory
of metabolism.
course
substances
accessory
has revealed an additional and
of the term
sense
to
necessary
"
of whatever
to
the
secure
of the
Energy
most
body.
"
Net
Values
"
that
It
the
animal
is apparent
from
those
discussions
that
the
net
productionvalue of
defined in the preceding
a
as
feedingstuff
section.
It appears
desirable at this point,therefore,to recapitulate
of the
the general facts regarding the energetics
in previous chapters, and
animal body which
contained
are
the production
in greater detail their bearingupon
to consider
of a certain amount
values of feedingstuffs,
at the expense
even
of repetition.
energy
value
is
for the
PRODUCTION
THE
740.
Gross
contained
energy.
FEEDING
supply of an
energy
chemical
and
the
energy,
as
635
STUFFS
The
"
in its feed
OF
animal
is
maximum
amount
by
VALUES
This
associated
741.
has
been
the
Losses
of
substance.
energy.
rarely,if
proportionof
unutilized.
These
ever,
happens, howpractically
every
ever,
effect is realized.
smaller
larger or
It
"
In
the chemical
losses of energy
energy
are
of
of two
intestinal fermentations.
The
742.
in the
of
derived
not
the
none
ration
With
Chemical
"
undigestedfeed
constitutes
must,
chemical
of
on
the latter
the feed
consumed,
they carry.
immediatelyfrom
loss of
less,be
the energy
herbivorous
energy
energy
residues
portion is
but
in feces.
Losses
in the
both
losses
incompletelykatabolized matter, it
included in estimatingthe net effect
balance of the body.
animals,
the
excretion
in
the
feces
stitutes
con-
in Table
187
636
NUTRITION
is
(749). This
much
contain
the
With
the
The
FARM
ANIMALS
materials
because
OF
loss
swine
former
through
it is
animals
"3
of the
with
feces is
the
the
The
herbivora
on
trates.
concen-
the
upon
alreadybeen
urine
gestible
di-
more
siderable.
conrelatively
conditions
has
digestibility,
previouschapter.
feces,i.e.,
upon
roughages,which
influence of various
the
of
losses in
discussed
in
is
the vehicle
especially
from
the body of the end products of protein
for the removal
is the most
familiar and frequently
katabolism, of which urea
abundant.
Numerous
other nitrogenoussubstances,
the most
the purinsand,
however, are contained in the urine,particularly
in herbivorous
animals, hippuric acid.
Moreover, as stated
in Chapter V (224,225), the urine of herbivora
in particular
contain
considerable
quantitiesof non-nitrogrelatively
enous
may
of
which
little
excretory products regardingthe nature
is known.
All these substances
carry off a portionof the gross
743.
in
Losses
urine.
"
nitrogencontent
The
loss of chemical
satisfactorily
computed from
has alreadybeen pointedout.
be
in the
energy
urine, as
from
appears
187,
constitutes
"
of
amounts
chemical
unused
energy,
one
of combustion
heat
gram
of
of 13.344
Calories.
The
methane
Armsby
extent
to
fermentation
and
Fries
greater
the
same
which
the
be
to
appears
observed
that
have
light than
on
carbohydratesare
on
medium
likewise observed
authors
1
a
3
attacked
somewhat
with
cattle
by
the
variable.
tinctly
it is dis-
(1915),445.
viAud
difference in this
Zuntz
and
in
instances
reportedstriking
m
particular
fermentation
methane
associates" have
Ms
theextent
whkh
Recently
animals
respect between
637
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
of the
Tasteen
markedly affectedby
especially
by the order
in which
the feeds
and
the rations
make-up of
the
consumed, while
were
the practical
stress upon
"
laid much
his associates have
differences
results. No such marked
importance of these
but the range
Fries' experiments
observed in Armsby and
It is perhaps too ear y
not so wide.
eedhig stuffs used was
but they should
of Zuntz's results,
udge of the full significance
and
V61U
were
Tf
to
C
It
held by not
of
and
as
digestion
of
coefficientas
digestion
the other
On
few,
notion,
the
to correct
serve
hand, however,
it
"?^!%""*
process
perfectly
definite
sort
constant.
of chemma
quitepossibe
seems
to
over-
Simate
the effect of such
Joule
net
energy
to
they appear
of far less
be
other factors to
than
significance
%rpSceentagerof
"JntLgases',
as
""""
greatest
It is naturally
large
^iSri-l^te^espeda^toea-l
verv
neimental
S,
the
While
ex
and
losses in feces
determination of the energy
simple
relatively
easy task, requiring
comparatively
annhances
the
teTthe of
sfta
use
the
piratTon
apparatus.
to
it is possible
ever
losses.
fermentation
Computation of
745
of accuracy
degr'e
somewhat
of such
apparatus,how
an
losses with
methane
experiment
The
neces-
and costlyrescomplicated
In the absence
from
losses
fair
ordinarydigestion
of cattle
Xly the carbohydrates(135,140) and the of methane
duced
prothat the
shown
particular,
it has
of total
proportionalthe
is in general
digestd
fcrudeand nitrogen-free
Shydrates
in
amount
been
extract
fiber
with
experiments
Kellner3 in forty-four
the average
car
amount
to
rations found
methane
excretion
cattle
to
Landw.
7SHS0
765 ; Landw. Vers. Stat.,
Jahrb.,44 (1913),
(1913),3*5Jahrb.,44 (1913).68S; 45
Landw.
Vers. Stat.,S3
.Landw.
in
case
415(1900),
on
mixed
be 4.2 grams
(."), 78..
638
NUTRITION
for
100
estimated
in
methane
of
addition
Fries
and
for
for concentrates.
4.7 grams
In
basis.
With
the
age
unpublished experiments,Kellner's l averLater experimentsby Armsby
to 4.3 grams.
given slightly
higheraverages, viz.,4.8 grams
roughages and
it may
that
on
later
have
computed
were
increased
was
ANIMALS
of total carbohydratesdigested,
and the
grams
results for ruminants
recorded
in Table
188 for the
each
losses
FARM
OF
been
have
(128). Since
ccecum
of the feed
similar
sults
re-
reportedbut probably
be
is the colon
No
fermentation
methane
the
hydrates
soluble carbo-
more
ing
or entirely
digestedbefore reachlargely
these organs,
methane
is much
less copiouslyproduced
than in the case
of ruminants
and may
be regardedas derived
of crude fiber.
chieflyfrom the fermentation
In respiration
rations
of oats, hay
experimentson mixed
and
the
Lehmann,
straw,
result
of
of
gram
more
of methane
fiber and
hydrogen
recent
and
Zuntz
eight rather
total excretion
crude
are
discordant
of 4.73
in addition
per
observed
experimentsan
grams
per
100
as
average
grams
gested
di-
excretion of 0.203
digestedcrude fiber. In
an
average
100
grams
experiments,Von der
Hagemann
Heide, Steuber
and
Zuntz,4
obtained
using a Regnault-Reiset respiration
apparatus (298),
for the methane
excretion
digestedcrude fiber
per 100
grams
on
9.06 grams
hay and 2.28 grams on straw
pulp. Using
the average
of these rather
mentatio
discordant
experiments,the ferlosses in the case
of the horse may
be approximately
of crude
fiber digested.
computed from the amount
Swine with their simpleralimentarycanal suffer but small
losses from fermentation in the digestive
tract.
5
and
found
of
the amounts
Reinhardt
Fingerling,Kohler
combustible
their
form
Klein
obtained
gases excreted
of Pettenkofer
in three
the
small
too
to
apparatus.
experiments with
followingresults
be
Von
determined
der
Heide
with
and
Regnault-Reisetapparatus
"
p. 94.
3
Landw.
Landw.
Jahrb., 23 (1894),125.
Stat.,84 (1914),197-
Vers.
640
NUTRITION
tract
digestive
the
OF
in the
or
ANIMALS
FARM
of metabolism
course
in the tissues.
As
in
VI
Chapter
"
"
"
Method
747.
of
determining.
is apparent
As
"
from
the
of the metabolizable
foregoingparagraphs,the direct determination
of a feedingstuff or ration requires
the measurement
energy
of the
and
of the
outlined
and
amounts
solid,liquidand
in
heats
of the feed
of combustion
excreta
by the methods
gaseous
These
quantitiesbeing known,
a
Chapter VI.
Thus
the
simple subtraction gives the metabolizable
energy.
results of the experimentused as an illustration in Chapter VI
detailed form, were
more
as follows :
(322),
put in a somewhat
"
Table
187.
Example
"
Determination
of
Heat
of
Combustion
Dry
or
Matter
per
Gram
Daily feed
hay
Linseed
meal
Daily
Energy
Energy
Feed
of
of
Excreta
Cals.
Cals.
Timothy
Energy
Metabolizable
of
4,556
Cals.
27,727
1,811
5,iii
excreta
Feces
4,831
0,23c1
Urine
Methane
14,243
1,210
1,896
13,344
Metabolizable
By difference
energy
.
29,538
748.
Correction
for
loss
gain or
gained
stored
Per
protein.
"
In
the
foregoing
66.6 grams
of fat and
15.2 grams
up in its body equivalent amounts
protein,5.7 Cals.
fat,
9.5 Cals.
1
of
12,189
29,538
66.6
15.2
gram
380 Cals.
144
fresh urine.
Cals.
of
of
PRODUCTION
VALUES
Cals. of energy
contained
THE
The
144
actuallytransformed
not
into other
transformation had
such
641
STUFFS
fat,however, although
in the
capableof
requiredit,
forms
of energy, were
of the organism
demands
the
FEEDING
OF
their energy
been katabolized,part of
grams
bolic
escaped in the resultingnitrogeneousmeta-
Had
is different.
case
these
have
66.6
lean meat
katabolism
The
would
of the 66.6 grams of protein,
therefore,
chemical energy of the urine by 83 Cals, while
the
Cals. would
have
transformed.
been
This
When
respiration
apparatus
combustible
from
the
outlined
an
of
case
with
as
loss of protein
amount
to
possible
the
olizable
estimate the metabfrom
has
of the
visible excreta.
the
been
additional labor
The
thus
that
in future
possible
in this way
the
results do
not
show
(750),they constitute
the
values
production
of the rations
an
their
more
determination.
exact
Experimental
749.
limited
number
Results.
of
from
the
There
considerablylargernumber
estimated
"
are
experimentswith
have
respectively
methane
a
ready
al-
manner
ordinary digestion
experimentto which
of combustion
such
mated
esti-
added
and
of the
be
may
measured
carbohydratesin
digestible
that it is
only 297
evidentlybe subtracted.
their
available,
not
so
(745),
energy
results of
is
gases
In
creased
in-
of 83 Cals. must
amount
consequentlybe added as a
in computing the metabolizable energy.
from the body a similar correction must
have
on
what
some-
cattle and
in the
determined
record
few
feces,urine and
while
directly,
have
in
been
digestible
carbohydrates(crudefiber plus
claimed to be
fairlycomplete.
2
an
exhaustive
which
were
compilationof data,
carried
but
is believed
642
NUTRITION
several
off in the
which
OF
FARM
the percentages
and, by difference,
excreta
metabolizable.
were
The
organic matter
digestible
it forms a
subsequently,
of
gram
appear
of metabolizable
of it
energy
metabolizable
is also
added, since,as
convenient
when
energy
basis
for the
per
will
putation
com-
direct determinations
available.
not
are
ANIMALS
Table
188.
"
Apparent
Metabolizable
Energy
3a
a s
"
Author
So
"
"
o
Cals.
Cattle
Roughages
hay
Meadow
hay
Timothy hay
Red clover hay
red
Mixed
timothy and
clover hay
Alfalfa hay
Hay from irrigatedmeadows
Ensiled hay
Tangl,
Armsby
Armsby
et al.
Armsby
Armsby
Tangl,
Tangl,
and
Fries
3-390
and
Fries
3-605
3.600
3.698
Oat
Kellner
3-740
3-3IO
Meadow
Kellner
....
straw
Wheat
straw
Kellner
Straw
pulp
Kellner
Maize
stover
Armsby
3-5oi
3-437
and Fries
3.487
and Fries
3.486
et al.
et al.
3-640
and Fries
3-45Q
Average
3-529
Concentrates
Maize
meal
Wheat
bran
Hominy
chop
grains No.
grains No.
Mixed
Mixed
i
2
Millet
meal
Palmnut
Distillers'
slop
molasses
Beet
molasses
Distillers'
residue
Fries
4-075
Fries
3-9io
Fries
3-879
3-787
4.849
536i
Kellner
3-473
4.519
et al.
Kellner
4.287
3-603
Kellner
4-792
Starch
gluten
2.703
et al.
Tangl,
Tangl,
Wheat
3-954
from
beet molasses
3-797
Fries
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
Pumpkins
grapes
Fries
(from
potatoes)
Beet
Armsby and
Armsby and
Armsby and
Armsby and
Armsby and
Tangl, et al.
Voltz, et al.
Average
4.078
Estimated.
Not
corrected
to N.
equilibrium.
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
Table
FEEDING
STUFFS
643
(Continued)
Energy
Metabolizable
Apparent
ii
OF
Author
Sheep
Roughages
hay
hay
Meadow
Meadow
....
....
from
peat meadows
alkali soil
from
same,
Hay from
Hay
Hay
irrigated
Alpine hay
TangI, el al.
Voltz, el al.
Tangl, el al.
Tangl, el al.
Tangl, el al.
Tangl, et al.
Average
Tangl, et al.
Alfalfa hay
Average
Dried potato vines
Same
fruit
with
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
....
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
vines
Wheat
straw
Average
Concentrates
Oats
Tangl, et
Millet
Tangl,
Tangl,
Corn-and-cob meal
Palmnut
Distilleryslop from
molasses
et al.
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
meal
Lentils
Beet
al.
el al.
toes
pota-
Voltz, et al.
Voltz, et al.
....
23-2
18.6
Average
Horses
Meadow
Roughages
hay
....
peat meadow
alkali soil
Hay from
Hay from
Hay from same, irrigated
Alpine hay
Sour meadow hay
Silagefrom same
.
Tangl, et al.
Tangl, el al.
Tangl, et al.
Tangl, et al.
Tangl, et al.
Tangl, et al.
Tangl, et
19
0.8
59-3
1.61
2.0
50.4
al.
55-1
66.1
50.1
1.61
66.4
1.5
70.0
1.61
"
39-4
29.4
45-4
43-
44.6
28.4
24.7
3-707
3-854
3-803
3-741
3.915
3.607
3-352
3-712
Average
Concentrates
Oats
Distillery residue
grapes
Tangl,
et al.
41.4
Tangl,
et al.
66.9
3.7
0.21
54-7
4-493
from
0.8
30.9
4-76i
4.627
Average
Estimated.
Not
corrected to N.
equilibrium.
644
Table
88
(Continued)
Energy
Metabolizable
Apparent
"
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
Losses
Percentage
Author
In
Urine
In
Feces
In
Meth-
ane
O
M
w
hi
w
u
o
n
P*
"**
,
"
Oats,
Oats,
Oats,
Oats,
hay
hay
hay
hay
Oats, hay
Oats, hay
Horses
Rations
Mixed
and
straw
Zuntz
and
Hagemann
4-474
and
straw
Zuntz
and
Hagemann
3-236
and
straw
Zuntz
and
Hagemann
3-403
and
straw
Zuntz
and
and
straw
Zuntz
and
straw
Zuntz
Average
Hagemann
and Hagemann
and Hagemann
3-803
3.980
5-Q52
3-991
....
Swine
Concentrates
Tangl,
Tangl,
Millet
Pumpkins
Barley and
gluten
Starch
pulp
Straw
Sugar
oil
Peanut
dried yeast
Same
palm oil
dried
Computed
Computed
Whole
potatoes
for oil
dried
milk
milk
Skim
milk
and
saccharified
and
raw
and
al.
4.908
4.076
al.
3-952
al.
3-75o
al.
8-997
V. d. Heide
and Klein
4-237
V. d. Heide
and Klein
4.442
V. d. Heide
and
4.160
V. d. Heide
and Klein
V. d. Heide
and Klein
Klein
9-552
toes
pota-
starch
Skim
5.629
al.
milk
Skim
4.521
al.
...
for
al.
and
3-460
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
meal
Wheat
4-335
et al.
little flesh
meal
Flesh
et al.
starch
4.111
9.8
4-7
Wellmann
3-4
11.3
4-519
Wellmann
3-8
10.5
3-825
Wellmann
3-5
7-5
fat
.
5-467
Wellmann
5-994
Averages
Flesh
meal
and
wheat
5. 269
gluten
Whole
5-467
milk
....
Peanut
Other
oil
.
8-997
rations
4-055
Geese
Maize
Millet
Tangl,
Tangl,
et al.
23-9
3-753
et al.
43-8
2.723
Tangl,
et al.
53-6
2.323
Ducks
Millet
Estimated.
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
Significance of
750.
olizable energy,
metabolizable
the
645
STUFFS
energy.
metab-
By
"
simply the
body, with no implication
in the
transformation
proportionof
the
to
as
FEEDING
already explained, is
as
capable of
energy
OF
meant
transformed
thus
energy
utilized
which
not
be
can
enter
metabolizable
The
of
energy
classes of losses
two
estimation
is thus
its chemical
rejectedunused.
of the metabolizable
important step in
value as regardsenergy, and constitutes an
since
simple determination of digestibility,
and
Real
751.
energy
in the
manner
of
so
regardsenergy
on
one
the
of
obtain
as
thus
energy
advance
it takes
the
over
account
of
by
of
digestibility
urine
the
The
"
olizable
metab-
the basal
were
respectively.By
272.3
here used, the algebraic
of these
sum
the
is subtracted
from
its metabolizable
computed
the
energy.
expresses
the
net
The
time
amounts
of
putation
com-
is virtually
from
metabolizable
body
and
the
of the latter
energy
energy
in the
the
by 1865.9
method
losses of energy
gross
ried
car-
ration that
increased
the
molasses
amount
Cals.
and
to
as
of energy
135.8 Cals.,while at the same
the
regarded as representing
molasses
more
or
determination
digestive
processes.
Kellner's experimentsbeet
Cals. and
one-half
fixing
depressed the
amounts
in
factor
it
is subject.
feedingstuff exerts
For example, in
to
well
as
apparent metabolizable
aggregate effect as
added
methane
of
only one
feedingstuff is,
ascertainingits production
energy
therefore,an
ure
meas-
energy
The
of
not
of
account
Obviously,however, it is an essential
from one-fourth to
value,since frequently
that
or
which
to
does
feedingstuff
may
of
be called
nutrients
digestible
corrections
for these
recorded
in the next
energy
clude
paragraph in-
secondaryeffects. They
aim
to show
646
NUTRITION
the actual
OF
FARM
ANIMALS
of metabolizable
amounts
energy
of its
digestedportionsof the feed irrespective
i.e.,to
"
give a
express
more
in the
contained
Such
energy.
energy is better
of questionsof feeding.1The
adapted for
use
Computation
While,
"
metabolizable
in the
absence
of
the parent
apin a discussion
distinction is similar
that
nutrients.
energy
while
feedingstuff regarded by itself,
metabolizable
752.
figures
of metabolizable
accurate
suppliedby the
secondaryeffects
energy
of
from
to
real and
digestible
respiration
apparatus,
to determine
energy
the heats
of combustion
the visible
excreta, and
no
in the
of energy
is the
more
fact that
the
gases excreted.
urine of herbivora
material (224)than
non-nitrogenous
carnivora.
or
combustible
Compare
Penna.
Landw.
The
The
is the
Nutrition,pp.
son
rea-
second
291-293
with
on
and
man
swine
333-335.
648
NUTRITION
Table
190.
OF
Metabolizable
"
FARM
ANIMALS
Energy
Digestible
of
Nutrients
per
Gram
Cattle
Protein
(N
From
6.25):
wheat
gluten
wheat gluten (N
From
beet molasses
From
mixed
From
Cals.
From
mixed
and
From
Cals.
Cals.
4-958
3-984
ration
Swine
4.894
5.7)
X
.
grain
Horse
4.083
of
oats, hay
3.228
straw
meadow
From
hay
timothy hay
From
straw
1.272
3-"57(?)
(?)
Fat:
From
peanut oil
8.821
...
From
hay (etherextract)
Carbohydrates :
Starch, Kellner's experiments
Starch, Kiihn's experiments
Nitrogen-freeextract (assumed)
of straw
Crude fiber,
pulp
of hay fed alone
Crude fiber,
Crude fiber,of hay added to basal
8.322
3-763
3.648
4.185
3.606
3-3H
ration
Crude
3.606
Crude
753.
Computation
Crude
3.001
3-523
metabolizable
from
energy
digestible
organic
matter.
"
of
3-437
the
differences shown
the
gross
energy
due
are
chemical
and
energy
methane
more
in Table
of different
chieflyto
188 between
feedingstuffs
the
which
differences in the
feces,while
percentages of
are
lizable
metabo-
proportionof
the
lizable
Accordingly,the metaboorganicmatter necessarily
energy
per unit of digestible
exhibits much
smaller
variations than
that per unit of dry
a
matter, and in fact shows
strikingdegree of uniformity.
Selectingthose averages which appear most trustworthy,the
results may
are
far
more
be summarized
uniform.
as
follows
"
Table
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
191.
Energy
Metabolizable
"
OF
FEEDING
per
Kilogram
649
STUFFS
Digestible
ganic
Or-
Matter
Mean
Therms
Roughage
Cattle
3-53
Sheep
3-56
Horse
3-7i
Concentrates
Cattle
4.04
Sheep
3.85
Horse
4.62
Swine
4.40
mixed
rations
Table
192.
when
degree of uniformityappears
similar
compared,as
are
"
Organic
Matter
in
on
:
"
Digestible
Rations
Mixed
Number
Single
Trials
of
Kilogram
per
results
shows
following
summary
the
Energy
Metabolizable
the
Minimum
Maximum
Therms
Therms
Mean
Therms
Cattle
Kellner and
Kdhler
Armsby and
Voltz, et al
Tangl, et al
Fries
All
3-72
3-48
3.60
26
3-89
3-5i
3-73
4.12
3-76
3-98
_8
4-H
3-"4
3^5
76
4.12
3-48
3-67
16
4-30
3-5"
3-79
19
4-Q5
3-i5
3-79
35
4-30
3-i5
3-79
4-47
3-24
3-99
4-3i
4-19
4-25
4-43
3-48
4.06
experiments
38
Sheep
Tangl, et al
Voltz, et al
All
experiments
....
Horse
Lehmann,
Zuntz
and
Hage
mann
Tangl,
All
et al
experiments
14
....
much
oil.
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
650
the latter,
Feeding stuffs,rich in proteinand fat,especially
naturallygive higher values,as is illustrated by the following
Table
193.
from
taken
likewise
results,
Table
Energy
Metabolizable
"
188.
Organic
Kilogram
per
Matter
meal
Palmnut
4.85 Therms
3.98 Therms
Cattle
Sheep
Wheat
Digestible
gluten
4.79 Therms
Cattle
Flesh meal
5.63 Therms
Swine
of
can
unit for
the
of
venience,
practicalconit is believed
that for the approximate computation
of ordinary feeding stuffs or rathe metabolizable
tions
energy
is known
of digestibleorganic matter
whose
content
or
be estimated,the following
factors may be used,at least for
the
Taking
pound
ruminants, without
Table
194.
as
serious
error
"
Energy
Metabolizable
"
reasons
Pound
per
Digestible
ganic
Or-
Matter
Horses
Therms
Roughage
Mixed
1.683
rations
roughage and
"
1.810
concentrates
Concentrates
Grains
similar material
and
less than
With
With
more
Oil meals
digestiblefat
fat
5 per cent digestible
materials high in protein
5 per cent
and
Losses
It
energy
of
losses of
losses
energy
second
in
stated
was
of
a
2.096
is
heat
production
subject to
into
discussed
two
classes of
the
gross
losses,
viz.,
in the excreta
and
energy
heat.
The
losses of chemical
chemical
conversion
been
feeding stuff
through
in
energy
untransformed
have
than
now
in the
to
precedingparagraphs. The
be considered.
754.
feed
of
Influence
from
is evident
"
of
has become
OF
to increase
of the
and
of
wide
rather
nitude
mag-
limits
according
and physicalproperties
less difference of
or
and
As
"
physiology. The
is still more
Zuntz
causes.
metabolism.
on
the chemical
opinionas
"
animal
speciesof
the
to
651
STUFFS
Chapter VIII
commonplace
FEEDING
consumption
feed tends
consumption of
animal
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
called
"
creased
digestion and have attributed it largelyto inand
and glandularactivityof the digestive
muscular
in this field have
Numerous
investigations
excretory organs.
it
of
work
made
been
carnivora
on
is consumed.
have
to
organs
is but
"
the increase of
in which
man,
on
is not
the metabolism
appear
or
small
is not
factor and
fortunate
that
With
one.
the
"
term
herbivora
of digestion
work
and
especially
ruminants,
mechanical
the other
factor is of greater
Results
755.
on
(364,449) the
on
cattle.
As
"
significance.
illustrated in
earlier chapter
an
effect of feed
of Kellner
maintenance
but
rations.
computed
indicated
manner
few
Only
from
data
from
in
and
Kohler's
The
heat
the
experiments were
productionwas not
balance
Chapter
of their results
regarding a few
Kellner's book, the increments
VI
have
of
of
carbon
and
made
measured
on
super-
directly,
nitrogen
in
other
of heat
experiments
production may
contained
be
in
computed.
Landw.
Vers. Stat., 47 (1896), 275; 50 (1898), 245; 53 (1900), 1-474.
Ernahrung der landwirtschaftlichen
Nutztiere, 6th Ed., Berlin, 191 2.
2
Jour. Agr. Research, 3 (1915),435.
1
the
Die
652
NUTRITION
supermaintenance rations
calorimeter.
respiration
from
derived
Table
the two
195.
and
summarized
elsewhere
As
FARM
ANIMALS
and
Armsby
OF
series
the heat
measured
was
of
Heat
Production
and
directlywith
Increment
"
submaintenance
both
by
results
:
"
Cattle
Roughage
Timothy
hay
Red clover hay
Red
clover hay
Mixed
hay
Alfalfa hay
"Grass
hay"
Meadow
hay
Rowen
Maize
stover
Barley
Oat
straw
straw
Wheat
straw
Straw
pulp
Maize
meal
Concentrates
feed
Hominy
bran
Wheat
Grain
mixture
No.
Grain
mixture
No.
:
.
meal
Cottonseed
....
meal
Linseed
meal
Palmnut
meal
Peanut
molasses
Beet
Starch
oil
Peanut
Wheat
In
Kellner
2
gluten
this and
and
Wheat
following tables,A"F
signifies
Armsby
and
Fries
and
K"K
Kohler.
bran, 14.28
per
cent;
corn
meal, 42.86
per
cent;
old
process
linseed
cent.
10
per
cent.
per
cent
crushed
oats, 30
per
cent
; old
process
linseed
meal,
Results
756.
In
"
FEEDING
respiration
experiments
Wattenberg, reported by
and
of
varying amounts
Henneberg and Pfeiffer,1
basal
of
ration
from
of flesh meal
conglutinor
of
in the form
barley meal.
hay and
the recorded
shows
the
Table
amount
196.
lost
Increment
of
as
writer2
has
basal
ration
difference between
tein
proto
puted
com-
metab-
and
the
the
two
heat.
Heat
Production
by
Sheep
results
"
of energy
added
experimentsthe
the
to
nearly pure
were
The
results of these
of the additions
olizable energy
of the resultinggain. The
energy
653
STUFFS
series of
Kern
sheep by
two
upon
sheep.
on
OF
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
are
"
swine, although
abundant
than
those for
more
3Ztschr.
Principlesof Animal
654
NUTRITION
and
cockle
be made
may
due
hardt3
feed
to
der
of Von
and
Kornauth
by
Heide
and
toward
of
Neither
of
Arche
FARM
ANIMALS
the
upon
nutritive
value
of
consumption, while
and Klein,2of Fingerling,
Kohler
and Reindirected more
Wellmann,4 were
specifically
study of
OF
the energy
relations.
the two
first mentioned
included any
investigations
the same
but by substantially
method
determinations,
as that
energy
appliedin the previousparagraph to experiments with sheep,assuming
maintenance
an
requirement, the heat increment per
average
be computed.
unit of feed may
Von der Heide and Klein, in Zuntz's laboratory,
have measured with
of
of
the
the aid
a respirationapparatus
Regnault-Reisettype (298)
of three swine on
the metabolism
than
basal ration slightly
a
more
sufficient for maintenance
of barleymeal, dried potatoes
and consisting
and
two
to
this basal
ration
the
in live
of
basal ration
without
(i.e.,
higher results.
Kohler and Reinhardt, in experimentson two growing
Fingerling,
swine about
old, added approximately pure nutrients
eight months
(starch,peanut oil,straw pulp, wheat gluten,flesh meal and sugar)
of ground barleywith a littleflesh meal.
to a basal ration consisting
The animals gained steadilyin weight. By a comparison of the first
and
last periods,on
the
the basal
ration,the authors compute
of body surface to
meter
fasting katabolism per square
average
have been
1044.67 Cals.,which
fairlywell with the average
agrees
(377), viz., 1089 Cals. per square
computed in Chapter VIII
meter.
Taking the average of the first and last periodsas the basal
ration,in order to eliminate the effects of the increase in live weight,
and subtractingit from the results of the intermediate periods,the
in proportion to the surface of
fastingkatabolism being estimated
weight) gives somewhat
computed
while
by
the small
in the
manner
increment
due
illustrated
per gram
1
Landw.
Vers.
Landw.
Vers.
dry
matter
in the
Stat.,40 (1892),177.
Stat.,84 (1914),149.
nutrients
in the
added
for starch
the
to
? Biochem.
4
Landw.
be
followingtable,
last periodsfor
ration,the
barleymay
may
energy
diture
expen-
likewise be estimated.
Ztschr., 55 (1913), iQS-
Jahrb.,46 (1914),499.
656
NUTRITION
the
in heat
cent
contrary, caused
of swine
FARM
OF
production.
fullyas great
in that
ANIMALS
an
Straw
pulp,on
of cattle.
Fingerlingexplainsthis
that the straw pulp was
rather
fermented
the supposition
upon
than digested. He failed,however, to find any corresponding
excretion of methane
(745),and Von der Heide, Steuber and
x have
small evolution
of comobserved only a relatively
Zuntz
bustible
as
this
from
gases
material
in
of the
case
horse.
The
as
fermentation.
Table
198.
Increment
"
of
Heat
Production
by
Swine
Heat
In-
cremen
per
Experimenter
100
LB.
DRY
Matter
Eaten
Therms
Grains
Rice
Barley
Barley
Dried
Meissl,et
al.
al.
Meissl, et
et
Fingerling,
V. d. Heide
potatoes
Flesh meal
al.
and
Klein
et al.
Fingerling,
Mixed
rations
Meissl,et al.
41.
Kornauth
and
Arche
Kornauth
and
Arche
Skim
milk
and
flour
Wellmann
24.4
27.9
60.9
Single nutrients
Starch
et
Fingerling,
al.
31-93
Cane
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
al.
47.22
al.
60.56
al.
Si-67
Straw
Wheat
Peanut
Palm
sugar
pulp
gluten
oil
V. d. Heide
oil
Biochem.
Ztschr.,74 (1916),161.
al.
and
3Q-3S
Klein
105.92
758.
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
Experiments
the
on
OF
horse.
FEEDING
No
"
657
STUFFS
experimentson
this
have
considered
been
in
(385). On
Chapter VIII
periments
ex-
they compute
net
values discussed in
energy
759.
Results
(365,366)
carnivora.
Mention
"
in
subsequentparagraphs (775-778)
was
carnivora,as
made
well
in
as
Chapter VIII
in herbivora
and
omnivora,
the
on
energy
action.
of Lusk
It is evident
that
experiments
virtuallydeterminations
were
no
direct
like those
of net
of Rubner
and
bearing on
farm animals, these
values of
Table
199.
Increment
"
of
Heat
Production
by
Dog
on
Fat
Diet
658
NUTRITION
OF
per
stated in
in substance
which
are
in Table
shown
different
somewhat
form
ANIMALS
FARM
that used
from
identical with
remarkable
figuresappear somewhat
is
with
that the comparison
virtually
body
that the
means
for maintenance
valuable
of feed
energy
as
are
by Rubner
but
his.
in view
These
it
which
199,
fat.
fat is
of
the
fact
preted,
Literallyinter-
only 87
per
cent
as
of mobilized
the energy
body fat plus a
true, it implies a larger expenditure of
protein. If this be
in the digestionof fat or a greater stimulatingeffect of the
energy
cell activitythan now
resorbed fat upon
seems
probable, since the
katabolism
of resorbed feed fat can
hardly differ greatlyfrom that of
body fat. Rubner 's figureis the result of a single experiment and
unfortunatelyit enters into the computation of all the other results.
little
It is
much
heat
lower
in which
an
additional
heat
for fat.
increment
of olive oil
emulsion
interest,therefore,that Lusk
of much
matter
elimination
be
to
In two
calorimetric
given
was
0.92
per
to
and
cent
found
experiments
he
dog
has
found
1.49
the
per cent
of energy
Rubner's.
Both
Rubner
find the
and Lusk
effect to be
marked
most
an
by protein. In two other experimentsby Rubner
maintain
fed.
the dog was
meat
nearly sufficient to
a
small
of
amount
fat, the
average
In
of lean
amount
The
metabolizable
produced
meat
tained
con-
energy
of
"
In fat
4.95
Cals.
61.65 Cals.
200.
"
Increment
of
the
be
Heat
ment
experiment on fat,the heat increcomputed as follows :
"
Production
13
by
(1912),38.
Dog
on
Meat
Diet
those
his method
Lusk's
should
"
Table
201.
that
"
of the feed
As
portion of the
after
net
in
Stated
It
following table.
figuresare not applicable
of herbivora.
Energy
there have
been
due
those
results from
gross
Available
considered
the
the increased
to
the
its
of
energy
deductingthese
value, or
energy
Rubner's
erroneous.
the
consumption of feed.
in the introductoryparagraphs of this section,
pointed out
that
although
way,
values
and
excreta
substantially
for Dogs
energy
previousparagraphs
in the
losses of energy
heat productionwhich
as
659
STUFFS
same
Metabolizable
of
Net
the
in
these
Results
Average
In
the
computation
Percentage
"
in
contained
nutrients
digestible
FEEDING
computed
of
are
averages
OF
clearlyunderstood
be
to the
when
of Rubner
they regard
and
Lusk
and
Williams, Riche
with
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
feedingstuff
mains
re-
two
production value
different
slightly
which
the net
way,
as
energy
regards
energy.
value is
equal
the metabolizable
minus
the increment
of heat proenergy
duction.
It differs from
the relative value, based
the
gestible
dion
to
nutrients
or
the
metabolizable
Net
values
energy
foregoingdiscussions
and
than
net
energy
for any
other
for cattle.
that
values
to which
are
the
data
much
speciesof
farm
in
count
taking acthe feed is subject.
energy,
It is apparent
"
from
regarding losses of
more
abundant
animals.
the
energy
for cattle
Combining
the
66o
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
of Table
data
heat
in the
energy
(749)gives the
Table
202.
results
Net
"
contained
Values
Energy
Per
in
recorded
excreta
Hundred
of
Pounds
another
in
the
form
of
increased
chemical
in Table
188
followingtables,1the
Stuffs
Feeding
of Dry
to
for
Ruminants
Matter
Net
Energy
Values
Therms
Roughage
Timothy hay
Red
clover hay
clover hay
Red
Mixed
hay
Alfalfa hay
"Grass
hay"
Meadow
hay
48.63
Rowen
33-88
46.64
36.79
43-37
34-io
Maize
stover
Barley
Oat
36.43
41.69
40.23
33-89
26.03
straw
straw
Wheat
straw
Straw
pulp
11.07
89-54
Concentrates
Maize
meal
.
92.58
feed
Hominy
97.84
bran
Wheat
60.51
Grain
mixture
No.
78.79
Grain
mixture
No.
83.82
84.79
82.93
meal
Cottonseed
Linseed
meal
Palmnut
Peanut
meal
78.89
meal
81.56
Beet
molasses
Starch
Peanut
Wheat
82.10
81.89
oil
161. 71
gluten
Penna.
68.45
142.
Estimated
from
digestible
organic matter.
THE
VALUES
PRODUCTION
OF
FEEDING
the
the
gross
losses and
of
energy
the net
(745,749, 756), it
the
energy
appears
net
As
probable that
may
66l
STUFFS
dicated
alreadyin-
these values
without
serious
error.
Table
203.
Distribution
"
of
Energy
of
Feed
in
Ruminants
Net
Energy
Value
Roughage
Timothy hay
24
....
Clover
hay
Mixed
hay
Alfalfa hay
Meadow
hay
Maize
Oat
23
21
17
stover
....
21
....
20
straw
Wheat
!3
straw
Extracted
....
straw
48
"
.
Concentrates
Maize
meal
Hominy
Wheat
46
feed
46
....
bran
Grain
29
mixture
No.
mixture
Grain
No.
37
40
Beet
molasses
49
....
Starch
Peanut
Wheat
761.
form
43
oil
38
gluten
Net
27
....
energy
values
for
swine.
"
Combining
of the heat
in the
same
increment
by
the
"
662
NUTRITION
Table
204.
Net
"
OF
Values
Energy
Per
Stuffs
Feeding
of
Pounds
.100
ANIMALS
FARM
for
Swine
Matter
Dry
Net
Energy
Values
Experimenters
Therms
Grains
Barley
Meissl, et al.
Meissl, et al.
Fingerling,et
Dried
V. d. Heide
Rice
Barley
potatoes
158.7
121.9
al,
120.5
and
Klein
Flesh meal
....
Meissl,et
and
al.
149.6
and
Kornauth
Arche
milk
flour
and
138.3
Kornauth
cake, barley
maize
Skim
190.2
and
maize
and
al,
Rations
Mixed
Rape,
1OI.3
et
Fingerling,
and
Arche
139.2
Wellmann
I35-0
SingleNutrients
Starch
Cane
sugar
Straw
pulp
Wheat
gluten
oil
Peanut
Palm
oil
Fingerling,et
al.
151.
et
Fingerling,
al.
119.0
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
Fingerling,et
al.
92.O
V. d. Heide
al.
152.3
al.
386.7
and
Klein
762.
results
of
of
Comparison
3I4.7
roughage and
in
recorded
concentrates.
The
"
age
aver-
crease
foregoingtables for the total inin metabolism
resultingfrom the consumption of a unit
work
of digestion
i.e.,for the so-called
dry matter
the
"
"
"
in the widest
we
sense
are
"
scarcelyin
accord
Unconsciously misled
by
have
to think
been
1
accustomed
Omitting
one
very
an
with
common
unfortunate
of the
restless animal.
more
ceptions.
con-
nology,
termicoarse
664
NUTRITION
in
effect of maize
marked
and
Hagemann's
effect of maize
also made
This
result
is of
observations
metabolism
of the
on
activitywas
stimulating
horse, which
were
increase in the
no
Grain
reported.
of maize
interest in view
the
on
the
upon
the standinganimal, although
muscular
minor
ANIMALS
the metabolism,
noticeably
increasing
during standing.
especially
of Zuntz
FARM
OF
mixture
No.
i,
likewise showed
meal,
a similar
containing43 per cent
No.
although with grain mixture
effect,
2, containing60 per
less marked, possiblyon
much
of maize, it was
cent
account
lower
of the
per
protein(12.5as
with
compared
17.5
cent).
Influence
764.
of
the
of feed
of amount
the
that
and
of
content
consumed.
foregoingparagraphs it
both
the
increment
losses of chemical
has
In
"
been
the
cussions
dis-
sumed
tacitlyas-
in the excreta
energy
of heat
This
rations
the
one.
Part
not
seems
are
to accord
less
relatively
fat animal
with
the
effective than
less
It became
III, of
generalbelief
that
lighterones
than
efficiently
clear,however, in the
the feed requirements for
course
of the
various
forms
heavy
and
that
the
thin
study,in
of production,
to
this fundamental
question.
ence
might influthe net energy
value of a feedingstuff either by affecting
the extent
chemical
is lost in the excreta
to which
(i.e.,
energy
the metabolizable
the magnitude of the
energy)or by affecting
losses due to increased heat production.
Obviously,differences
in the
amount
consumed
That
in mixed
rations the
Influenceon metabolizable energy.
suffer more
less on heavy feeding has already
or
digestibility
may
been shown
in Chapter XVI
(722),notably in Eckles' and Armsby and
"
experimentsin which
rations varying in amount
should be noted
that
maintenance
moderate
or
the other
On
of 8 to
decreases
hand, however,
it
was
found
the
within
the
unmistakable
in the
body
in mind
by
the
that
unit
weight
in the
digestivetract
exchange
energy
of feed.
amount
fermentation
extensive
more
as
in the latter
experiments
distinctly
greater on
were
in the amount
of feed
sumed,
con-
the
considerable
used.
were
of these
limits
effect upon
from
10
production rations
losses of energy
in the methane
the lighterrations so that the differences
that
665
STUFFS
observed
per cent were
by from 42 to 186 per cent, although it
in Armsby and Fries' later experimentsonly sub-
Fries'
on
FEEDING
OF
VALUES
PRODUCTION
THE
heat
Moreover,
of the additional
of the
of fermentation
does
borne
secured
energy
lighterration
and
be
it must
is liberated
not
enter
into
occur
in
more
liberal
of the
say.
however,
Influenceon heat
some,
the
metabolizable
that, aside from differences in digestibility,
etc.,
derived
from
the
feed
is
utilized on
less efficiently
actually
energy
than
rations
and
fat
than
thin
on
animals, i.e.,
light
heavy
by
by
less
that a unit of metabolizable
supplied yields
product.
energy
creased
far
the inThis does not
So
as
exactlyprobable,a priori.
appear
heat production is due to mechanical
work
of digestion,
it
that it would
be substantiallyproportionalto the
would
appear
of dry matter
amount
consumed, except possiblyon extremelyheavy
rations.
So far as it is due to a stimulation
of the body metabolism
by the digestive products resorbed
(367 e) it would appear more
in
with
accordance
the general laws of mass
action, it
likelythat,
be
function
of
the
would
a
diminishing
quantity present. Certain
Grafe and Miiller,
authors, especially
have, it is true, reportedexperiments
"
which
on
to
appear
It has
are
heavy
claimed
to demonstrate
rations
of
the writer
so-called "luxus
carbohydrates,but
tion"
consump-
their results
scarcely
entirelyconclusive.
heat
in Chapter X (450) that any
already been shown
production arisingfrom a synthesisof body substance, such as that
of fat from carbohydrates,for example, and which might be supposed
of the feed energy
to result in a decreased
on
supermainefficiency
tenance
as
compared with submaintenance
rations,is apparently not
of
sufficient in amount
values
affect
the net energy
to materially
as
1
the writer has elsewhere
discussed
feedingstuffs. As regards cattle,
the results of Kiihn's and Kellner's
respirationexperiments in their
bearing on this question, reaching the conclusion that their general
1
Principlesof Animal
Nutrition,pp. 466-471.
666
OF
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
tend
confirm
to
of
be in favor
to
seems
in the
of the latter
amount
the whole
On
the
most
set
by
the
seem
probabilities
of feed
capacityof
feed
rather
over
wide
Influence
765.
of
range
as
the
be
in herbivora
at
least,is
similate
alimentarycanal to digestand asby the capacityof the organism to
it
to
the
by
organs
of resorb-
values may be
strictly
constant, at least nearly so
to be the case,
regarded as being, if
to
energy,
transmitted
If this proves
tion.
the
than
of feed
heat
distinct evidence
no
increased.
was
efficient use
the
afforded
conclusions,since they
these
increase
an
the
of
not
feeding.
of age,
and
breed
individuality.
"
That
ferences
dif-
"
"
to age,
breed
reached
of any
marked
growth
of very
766.
Influence
or
animals.
of kind
of
production.
It will not
"
have
caped
es-
that the
XIV
and
in the
present chapter
seem
render
it
(1915),472-476
and
Fig.
2.
THE
PRODUCTION
VALUES
OF
FEEDING
667
STUFFS
available,although it appears
probable that they are higher
than the corresponding values for tissue production. A tentative
method
but
of
" 3.
767.
Computation
The
of
Net
It is apparent
energy
there
to
puting
com-
proposed (605),
be desired.
Energy
from
in
values
Values
the
foregoingparagraphs
that the number
of actual experimentaldeterminations
of net energy
values as yet recorded is comparativelysmall
and that it can
hardly be increased very rapidly,while it is
method
to apply the laborious
of respiration
obviouslyimpracticable
and calorimeter experimentsto all the great number
of feedingstuffs now
in use.
Determinations
of the metabolizable energy, in which at least the energy of the feedingstuffs
and
Importance.
of the visible
energy
has been
excreta
while there
numerous,
of
"
are
determined, are
on
were
statistical data
It is
rather
more
great
ber
num-
determinations
no
the
of
of
mass
thus
in tables of
accumulated, and summarized
the compositionand digestibility
of feedingstuffs,
should not
be
incontinentlythrown
point of view has revealed
contrary, it should
connection
with
overboard
more
be utilized
the
as
results of the
the
net
been
more
energy
subjected
nutrients
Computationfrom digestible
768.
attempt
feed
as
Kellner's
to
make
the
source
metabolism
amount
of
investigations.
"
To
Kellner
is due
the
first
of the conceptionof
practical
application
of energy
to the body. In 1880, in his
the
vestigat
in-
work, which
expressedhis
to
the
animal
was
able to
results in terms
and
perform
of fat.
as
He
668
of the starch
called attention
of combustion
years
later,after
able
769.
of
point
Kellner
of
values
Energy
work
from
cattle
with
investigations
Sixteen
of
sociates
as-
the
Kellner
energy,
the extensive
undertake
standpointof
the
subject and
the
to
return
to
and
of the
determinations
feedingstuffs.
publishedhis fundamental
had
of the horse
metabolism
was
Rubner
useful work
as
and
of nutrients
replacement values
(385,651-656) had
the
recovered
was
of
desirability
the
to
heats
on
which
fat
or
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
frequentlycited
previouspages.
Taking as his
of feeding stuffs,
on
digestiblenutrients.
"
nutrients
departure the digestible
sought first to determine the net energy
of the
values
losses and
the energy
as
Kellner
as
which
include
and
whole
computed
whole
but
determinations
resorbed
Table
from
205.
"
values
energy
all its effects.
net
the net
of
Energy
his
ever,
howpurpose,
stances
values,not of these subFor
protein,carbohydratesand
showed
to have
digestibility
the followingresults.1
fat
of the
them, with
Net
energy
Values
of
been
Nutrients
Digestible
for
Cattle
Per
Per
of
100
Dry
Pounds
Matter
of
Cent
Metab-
olizable
Energy
Therms
Protein
Starch and
Cane
sugar
Ether
of
crude fiber
IOI.6
45-8
107. 1
8l.2
64.1
204.I
S4-i
227.3
56.8
258.6
64.6
51.6
extract
roughage
....
5 per
fat
xLandw.
95-159-
Vers.
Stat., 53
(1900),1-474;
cent
Ernahrung landw.
Nutztiere,6th Ed.,
PRODUCTION
THE
VALUES
obtained
those
dogs, and
on
by
nutritive
analogous
are
(759) in
Lusk
differences between
the
differences in the
the
and
by Rubner
669
STUFFS
FEEDING
OF
the
two
ments
experi-
sets
phasize
em-
of the
processes
two
species.
Kellner
then
proceededto
of these factors to the ordinary feeding
test the applicability
stuffs of cattle. With a certain number, notably the oil meals,1
of his factors
the net energy
values as computed by the use
of protein,carbohydrates and
from the amounts
fat actually
digestedshowed a close agreement with those found in direct
experiments with the respiration
apparatus. The digestible
for crude
Correction
770.
fiber.
"
of full value
were
as
compared with
starch,gluten or oil.
Table
206.
Net
"
Energy
Per
100
Values
Pounds
of
Dry
Oil
Meals
for
Cattle
Matter
Difference
meal
Cottonseed
Peanut
meal
Palmnut
Linseed
On
meal
meal
0.2
2.0
were
ranging from
30
2.1
hand,
by the
determined
with the
"
the other
afforded
1.8
per
cent
to
80
per
cent
and
being greatest
materials.2
Kellner found
digestible
this deficit to be more
nearly proportionalto the crude fiber
than to any other ingredientof the feeding stuffs,ranging
from 46.3 Therms
to 76.7 Therms
per 100 pounds of total fiber.
from the computed
the average
of 61.7 Therms
By subtracting
which
obtained
net
agreed well
values, results were
energy
coarsest
and
with
those
hays
but stillshowed
as
follows
secured
least
in
direct
"
Ibid., p. 162.
of the
straws,
670
NUTRITION
Table
207.
Net
"
OF
Values
Energy
Per
Pounds
100
ANIMALS
FARM
of
Dry
Roughages
Cattle
for
Matter
Differ-
ence
Per
Wheat
straw
Sample
Sample
Oat
Cent
straw
Barley
straw
Meadow
38.0
24.1
19.5
hay
Sample
Sample
Clover
Rowen
i-3
2.5
hay
hay"
"Grass
4.1
7-o
6.0
finer materials
For
expenditurefor
fiber
crude
cent
43-4
or
deducted.
was
of crude
more
scale
was
For
fiber the
green
same
foragecontaining16
deduction
was
for that
dry forageand
fiber,the
like
same
for
as
This
used.
correction
for crude
or
made
for
less of crude
limits
fiber
as
per
was
sliding
applied
only to roughage.
Kellner
to the
ascribed
mechanical
largely
portation
trans-
measure
of the
oil meals
and
ner's
energy
own
differences between
roughage.
less with
far from
roughages
work
factor in it.
than
such
as
the
It has
experimentsand
in this way,
concentrates
with
concentrates
and
that
the
chanical
me-
digestive
organs is probably a rather small
less net energy value,not
Roughages have relatively
of the
672
it.
from
bran
of wheat
*
Allen
by
Table
example,the
For
209.
"
net
values of alfalfa
energy
hay and
given
digestibility
compositionand
computed as follows :
having
would
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
be
the
"
Computation
of
Net
According
Values
Energy
per
Pounds
100
Kellner
to
AlfalfaHay
Digestible
protein
carbohydrates
Digestible
e
Digestiblether extract
10.58
10.75 Therms
1.071
39.98.Therms
2.041
1.016
X
X
37.33
1.38
2.82 Therms
53.55
energy
0.617
25.00
15.43 Therms
38.12 Therms
value
Value
(Relative
Bran
Wheat
protein
Digestible
Digestiblecarbohydrates
Digestibleether
%)
77
12.01
1.016
=12.
41.23
1.07
2.273
2.87
extract
20
energy
Starch
772.
62.88
value
values.
values, as
energy
obtained.
were
"
In
results
Kellner's
from
is evident
"-52 Therms
to
in
realitynet
which
by
avoid
Therms
48.42 Therms
were
method
the
order, however,
0.77
Therms
44.16 Therms
62.88
Net
Therms
the
use
they
of
"
starch
values."
them
for
starch
The
into what
use
practical
value
the
of
familiar
un-
he
feedingstuff
starch (assumed to
of
of pure
defined as the amount
briefly
value.
net
perfectlydigested)which has the same
energy
Thus, Kellner's table gives the starch value of maize meal as
or 81.5 pounds per 100
pounds.
81.5kilogramsper 100 kilograms,
has a
One
pound of starch,accordingto Kellner's results (769),
The starch value of 81.5 given
value of 107 1 Cals.
net energy
value
is equivalentto a net energy
for maize meal, therefore,
of 1071 X 81.5
87,286 Cals.,or 87.29 Therms, per 100 pounds
and converselythe starch values of the alfalfa hay and wheat
spectively.
bran of the previousparagraph would be 35.59 and 45.21, re-
may
be
be
1
2
values per
100
lb.
22
(Rev.), iooi,
values
pp. 8-9.
multiplied by
1.071
net
energy
THE
PRODUCTION
VALUES
FEEDING
OF
magnitude
those
as
and
yieldnumbers
alreadyfamiliar in
avoid
unfamiliar
have
It appears
use.
to
it
confusion
of
thought in connection
some
to
to
in
been
an
believes the
use
that
there
are
with
their
unfortunate
cession
con-
advantages
based
on
energy,
is readily
avoided
the Therm
(308).
expressed in Therms
pounds are of
per 100
order of magnitude as the familiar figuresfor digestibl
if 100
the
nutrients,and even
kilograms be made
same
basis of calculation
reasons,
volume
perts,
ex-
values
energy
these
for
even
manifest
erature
lit-
recent
of energy in terms
of
quantities
feeder can
intelligent
readilylearn
his computation of rations,as not a
going over
Net
in
express
units of energy in
few have alreadydone, and
to
nutrients
digestible
that
attempt
He
matter.
tables of
order of
same
instances
striking
is not always easy,
shown
avoid
to
of the
units.
ends,however, by ignoringthe
system is built up, while
673
STUFFS
they
values
energy
expressedin
are
inconveniently
large. For
feedingstuffs in the present
per 100 pounds.
not
are
of
Therms
Computationfrom digestible
organicmatter
773.
from
Independent
the
of chemical
composition.
"
It is
of Kellner's somewhat
foregoingdescription
method
that
it is
based
essentially
on
the
apparent
cated
compli-
digestible
fats of the
the total
dry
matter
or
total
matter
digestible
of the
Jour.Agr. Research,
(1915),486.
674
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
This
is
statement
comparisons based
The
for
no
the
problems
any lightthat
relations
energy
is that in whatever
methods
on
them
approach
only
phase
energeticaspects
to
by
of them.
their
that
and
complex
too
one
aspects, to
of
as
are
stigmatize
to
either valueless
be thrown
can
touch
degree
their chemical
from
methods
of nutrition
understood
be
to
means
chemical
to refuse
us
and
on
by
extent
we
can
or
fluous.
super-
difficult
too
any method,
The
point
be
separated
two
possess
pendent
inde-
them.
As
Method
from
of
that
the net
computation.
"
of
energy
similar
feeds, the
value.
Thus
remainder
in the
same
stuffs
is approximately
feeding
gestibl
pound of dion
previous
two
be for the
Therm, and
follows
as
as
case,
the
hay
0.5303
Therm
computation of
and
for
the
bran
0.5339
values would be
*
"
digestible
protein,carbohydrates and fats enter into the calculation simply
of obtaining the total digestible
organic matter
means
when, as is usually the
the computathis is not reported separately. If the latter is the case, then
tion
is,as stated above, independent of the chemical composition.
The
THE
Table
PRODUCTION
210.
VALUES
Computation
"
Armsby
to
Alfalfa
dry matter
Digestible
Total
Protein
.
Carbohydrates
Fats
Wheat
lb.
Bran
88.5 lb.
lb.
37-33
Pounds
100
12.01
lb.
41.23
lb.
1.38 lb.
2.87 lb.
lb.
56.11 lb.
digestibleorganic
Total
matter
Loss
energy
value
energy
production
in heat
The
49.29
....
Metabolizable
Net
per
Fries
and
10.58 lb.
Values
Hay
91.6
675
STUFFS
FEEDING
Energy
Net
of
According
OF
49.49
1.60
78.86 Therms
48.58 Therms
56.11 X 1.77
88.50 X 0.5339
99.31
Therms
47.25
Therms
30.28 Therms
52.06 Therms
computation is
of
method
same
91.60 X 0.5303
of
applicableto
course
data at hand
speciesthan cattle,so far as the meager
permit. The results of such computations, based upon the
of American
feeding
composition and digestibility
average
stuffs,are contained in the tables of the Appendix.
other
Computation of
Zuntz
775.
by
and
Zuntz
(758)is
energy.
"
for
the horse
The
"
method
ployed
em-
for
nutrients and
digestible
expendituredue to
energy
Metabolizable
method.
metabolizable
The
the
776.
values
energy
Hagemann's
and
Hagemann
from
net
from
energy
is estimated
it is subtracted
the
consumption
the
of the feed.
From
puted
com-
digestion
in
rations of oats, hay and
straw
1888 and
different proportions made
at intervals between
1891, they
of the total digestiblenutrients
the metabolizable
compute
energy
and
metabolism
experiments
on
average
3.96 Cals.
digestibleorganic
corresponding to 3.99 Cals. per gram
writer
in
Table
the
188
matter
as
(749). In the
computed by
nutrients were
not determined
experiments,the digestible
respiration
estimated by combining the results of the same
directlybut were
per
gram,
digestionand metabolism
experiments in various ratios according
consumed.
to the proportion of oats, hay and straw
777.
of heat
Increment
Experiments upon
production.
man,
made
by Magnus-Levy in Zuntz's laboratory,had previouslyshown
five
"
Landw.
676
NUTRITION
food
cent
of the metabolizable
assume
energy
effect than
estimated
by
means
that
consumption of more
being added for cutaneous
is ascribed
be
to
mastication
feed
of
of
per gram
of total crude
feed
the
by
brief,Zuntz
"
horse
be
to
estimated
energy,
at
equal to
the
obtain
energy
the net
the
to
of
sumption
con-
cent
9 per
rate
of
3.96 Cals.
for each
gram
these amounts
value.
energy
of
convenience, become
and
expended
energy
its
crude
fiber content,
to
net
compute
the metabolizable
and
is
in the
In
value.
energy
the heat production due
of
Computation
metabolizable
from
its amount
and
hay
The
total heat increment
0.565 Cals. per gram.
crude fiber,
at 2.65 Cals. per gram.
therefore,is estimated
of
The
ference
respiration.This dif-
fiber of the
at
Hagemann
from
tion
correc-
The
2.086
being estimated
the
intestinal
and
intervals
rations,a small
less diverse
or
crude
the
to
of the
determined
was
after the
and
Hage-
nutrients
digestible
the
from
of the Zuntz
778.
eaten.
9 per
and
marked
hay produced a much more
augmenting the heat production of the horse
found
grain in
did
as
per gram
by about
Zuntz
of the horse.
addition,it was
computed
of the food
of the feed
In
ANIMALS
FARM
that
mann
OF
for crude
of the heat
Table
fiber
for
Therms.
1.202
productiondue
211.
"
Computation
On
the
to
Net
or
for
1.796 Therms
energy
this basis the calculation
metabolizable
the
be
would
hay
Value
Energy
as
follows
per
100
"
Pounds
Horse
Digestible nutrients
Protein
Crude
1.25 lb.
lb.
fiber
12.39
Nitrogen-free extract
Fat (1.18 X 2.4)
21.29
37-72
Total
crude
fiber
Metabolizable
Increase
9 per
lb.
2.83 lb.
lb.
29.00 lb.
1796 Therms
energy
37.72
cent
Additional
of metabolizable
for crude
energy
fiber
.
67.75
Therms
0.09
1.202
Therms
29.00
6.10 Therms
34.86 Therms
Total
Net
67.75 Therms
of metabolism
energy
40.96 Therms
value
1
U. S.
26.79 Therms
Dept. Agr.,Office
of
Expt. Stas.,Bui.
125, p. 14.
THE
from
is evident
As
VALUES
PRODUCTION
the methods
believe it to be
which
of considerable
criticism,the
estimate,based
upon
for the
from
assumption
very
during the
considerable
is
relatively
greater
the first to point out
of
with
of
of
feed, as
roughage
that
values
the
his
on
practice.
second,
of 9 per
and more
for 24 hours
be
experimentson
have
Hagemann
increase
digestionof
estimating
two
comparativelyshort
and
the
the results of
were
strictly
exact, but
nutrients,and
digestible
Qualitatively,Zuntz
the
the factors
of
the results of
effect of the
the
which
by
677
close approximation
sufficiently
Hagemann's method
and
STUFFS
computationsof rations in
to base
Zuntz
FEEDING
of calculation is not
OF
with
be
stuffs.
in
than
may
cent
pecially,
esputed
com-
experiments.
respiration
demonstrated
clearly
metabolism
energy
well as
feeding
man,
the
horse
this increase
grain,and
they
into
account
taken
There
be
may
were
in
difference
opinion as
reached
1
to
in the
779.
the
just described.
manner
Wolff's
of
method
the
computation.
horse
made
"
His
extensive
Hohenheim
tions
investiga-
in
working
1877 to 1894
and antedating the investigationsthus far mentioned, led Wolff to
of estimating the relative net
still simpler approximate method
a
upon
at
nutrients
digestible
from
roughage
were
omitted
and
also that
this
less efficient
were
those derived
were
the
the
He
for maintenance.
necessary
the crude fiber in the rations of the horse
valueless and
fiber
crude
digestible
fiber-free nutrients
that
sons,
compari-
the fiber-free
comparisons,the ratio between
and
work
comparatively uniform
performed was
of
assumption yieldeduniform results for the amount
from
nutrients
than
the
of
number
that
the
therefore
remaining
apparently
was
digestiblenutrients
cluded
con-
might
be
garded
re-
amount
Wolff
of
of fiber-free nutrients.
is careful
to
say
that
the
crude
digestible
and virtually
valueless,
regards the
convenient
a
empiricalmeasure
amount
of the
fiber is
of crude
fiber
apparently
as
ing
furnish-
of
678
NUTRITION
OF
FARM
nutrients of roughage
digestible
the
ANIMALS
That
is
not
apparent.
Wolff's results
energy in the
fiber-free nutrients.
the
to
relative
are
of net
amount
differ
The
the
considerablyfrom
energy
net
Hagemann's method,
of 9
metabolizable
cent
per
assumes
of the
value of
uniform
method
of
gives the
less than
Wolff's method
exceed
" 4.
crude
and
Zuntz
Production
Differences
per
Values
in
by
Zuntz
and
the deduction
as
values
proteins.
"
if it has
negative value
Values
cent.
Hagemann's
Relative
780.
fiber
from
latter would
and
it
second, because
energy,
for crude fiber,
while Zuntz and Hagemann's
zero
55
of the
content
as
computed
energy
it does not include
first because
to
as
is doubtless
is the
gestibil
di-
according
computed
would
therefore
siderably
con-
figures.
Protein
Regards
of proteins
As
appears
from
the
sions
discus-
values.
and
The
more
physiologyof
recent
the
As has
change in the point of view.
in previous chapters (340,398, 465, 552),it
entire
been
is the
fullyshown
constituent
which
proteinsare splitin digestion
the materials
of which body proteinis constructed,and
out
are
the processes
quire
of maintenance, growth or milk
productionrefor their support, not
proteins as such, but certain
acids as cannot
and proportions
of such of the amino
amounts
amino
the
680
OF
NUTRITION
FARM
ANIMALS
tained
vegetableproteinsderived from seeds is known, those conin roughagesand in roots have not yet been investigated,
although a beginninghas been made l in determiningthe proportions
acids which
of the different groups of amino
are
yielded
ing
(crudeprotein)of various feedby the total nitrogenousmatter
of
stuffs.
tion
appeared in previouschapters,such informathe proteinrequirementsof farm
is available respecting
as
animals has been derived from experimentsin which only the
considered
without
total proteinsuppliedwas
reference to its
kind.
no
Practically
knowledge is available as to the amino acid
requirementsof the various farm animals for different purposes.
the productionvalues of the various single
were
Third, even
proteinsknown, it would not be possibleto estimate from them
the productionvalues of the mixed
proteinsof feedingstuffs,
since a deficiencyin one
proteinmight be compensated by a
higherprosurplusin another and the mixture show a much
duction
value than either of its ingredients
separately. Thus,
which lacks lysin,
as
alreadynoted, the value of wheat gliadin,
is practically
for growth, while as part of a mixture
with
zero
other proteinssupplyinglysinit may
have a high value,the
replacementof 25 per cent of it by lactalbumin,for example,
renderingthe mixture fullyadequate to support normal growth.
Each
particularmixture of proteinswould have its own
duction
proof the
value, which might differ widely from the mean
Second,
values
as
has
constituents.
of
sources
the purposes
to adhere
necessary
protein.
it stillseems
For
of the stock
fore,
feeder,there-
which
digestible
proteinof a feeding stuff as expressing
tually
approximatelyits productionvalue in this respect, thus virrations the protein
assuming that in ordinary mixed
each
balance
will largely
deficiencies of the different ingredients
regards
the
other, and
this method
has
been
followed
in the
Soc,
37
tables
of the
(1915), 1778
and
THE
VALUES
PRODUCTION
should
FEEDING
OF
68
STUFFS
be
Appendix.
scientific basis.
of maize
value
Low
The
proteins.
"
demonstration
of
proteinsof
maize
made
are
follows
approximatelyas
up
Zein
"
%
31%
22%
6 %
41
Maize
glutelin
Globulins, albumins
Insoluble
and
proteoses
in alkali
100%
Glutelin
the
yieldsall the
is probably true
same
amino
acids
of the other
which
zein
proteinsof
lacks
maize.
and
dently
Evi-
the results of
to be valueless
as
were
able
to
obtain
only maize
Osborne
mixture
of
manufacture
glutelinin
has
on
been
rats
Hart
confirmed
and
and
by
of Waters
McCollum
normal
Mendel
have
however, rendered
them
much
more
efficient and
induced
normal
growth.
'Jour. Biol. Chem.,
18
(1914),1.
Ibid., 19 (1914),373-
682
NUTRITION
Waters
manner
In
each
maize.
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
in
complete proteins,as
from
cases
blood
in
receivingonly maize
same
due
not
was
was
when
true
was
to
ash
lack
of
possible,derived in some
The
others from milk.
growth of the lots
either very slow or practically
and the
zero
was
added, showing that the failure to grow
nearly
and
so-
of
ash-free
mineral
as
When,
matter.
however,
plete
com-
added
normal
to the maize, steady and
proteinswere
growth
and
of
the
showed
a
carcasses
responding
corplace
comparative analyses
of
the
total
animals.
The
sults
restorage
body protein by
live
follows
to
as
:
weights were as
took
"
Table
212.
Influence
"
Nature
of
of
of
Protein
Supply
on
Growth
Pigs
Daily
Gain
Lb.
trial
Second
Maize
alone
Maize
and
ash
Maize
and
blood
O.21
0.19
albumin
.
Maize,
blood
albumin
Third
and
1.00
ash
1. n
trial
Maize
alone
Maize
and
ash
Maize
and
milk
protein-free
Maize
and
milk
protein
Fourth
trial
o.
o.
Maize
alone
Maize
and
ash
Maize
and
milk
protein-free
Maize
and
milk
Maize
and
casein
0.06
1.50
o-37
0.32
albumin
0.51
.
1.05
1-34
Fifth trial
Maize
alone
Maize
and
milk
0.25
ash
.
Maize
and
tryptophan
Maize
and
milk
Maize
and
casein
0.13
0.22
albumin
Proc.
Approximate.
Soc. Prom.
1.
19
1. 01
exact
initial
7.
weights are
not
given in
THE
784.
VALUES
PRODUCTION
Values
of other
cereal
FEEDING
OF
683
STUFFS
at the
Investigations
proteins.
"
Hart, Humphrey
alfalfa proteins for
to
20
much
growing
per
of
cent
McCollum
reports
proteinsof
milk
nitrogen balance
the
in
of
retention
of
mately
approxi-
for
maize,
no
did it exceed
case
in
utilizing
growth,
that
so
wheat
and
The
compared.
were
that
and
maize
the
series of trials on
effects of the
varied
comparisons of maize
institution.
same
on
in two
heifers observed
higher figuresobtained
the
at
24
Morrison
and
the author
the
presents
protein supply
for believing
reasons
the animal
amount
the results
not
are
was
affected
capable
in
the
manner
66 per
Hart and
in
cent.
3
Humphrey
have
compared
the
proteins of maize,wheat,
of protein
gluten feed, oil meal, distillers'grains and milk as sources
for milking cows
(587). Unfortunately,the effects were
chieflyon
the body protein,so that the only comparison possible is between
the algebraicsums
of body protein and milk protein. Computed in
this way,
for three animals
the average
percentage efficiency
was,
for milk proteins,59, for maize 40, for wheat
36, for gluten feed 45,
for oil meal 61 and for distillers'grains60.
785.
their
Alfalfa
proteins.
comparisons
(784),found
the
as
none
of
maize
the
and
alfalfa
and
Morrison
proteins just
in
tioned
men-
total
nitrogenof
of these Wisconsin
Hart, Humphrey
same
In
"
maize.
into account
2
in
Ibid., 19 (1914),323.
computing
684
NUTRITION
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
the
the
(415-417),
IX
of maintenance
in every case.
increased
distinctly
be concluded, therefore,that the low percentages
It cannot
computed by the Wisconsin investigatorsshow that only these
which
be
would
retained
were
rather
No
studies
Value
ofnon-protein
conclusion
previousparagraph (782)the
for the present the only available
In
that
of
values
is the
feeding stuffs
which
they
contain.
the
"
of
protein
digestible
tein
pro-
applicationof
proteinor
this method
the basis of
whether
decide
to
necessary
"
crude
shall be the
"
the
reached
was
of the
measure
total amount
In
itjbecomes
teins
pro-
true
"
son
compari-
protein as
termined
de-
(104-107)
; in other
shall be assignedto the
methods
by existingconventional
words, to decide what value, if
any,
-protein.
non
786.
"
the
non-proteinmake
of
matter
in
with
Following
investigations.
Early
substances
under
the
share
of
much
feeding stuffs,
numerous
of
their
determine
efforts to
that
considerable
up
grouped
the
true
collective term
the
labor
nutritive
proteins.
recognitionof
the
These
nitrogenous
has
been
value
as
pended
expared
com-
investigations
While
by the writer elsewhere.1
the generaltendency
much
diversityof opinionhas prevailed,
of questionable
value.
the non-protein
has been
to consider
as
in particular,regarded
Kellner,the leadingGerman
authority,
been
have
it
as
valueless.
787.
New
chemistry
1
summarized
viewpoint.
of the
of Animal
Principles
Bui. 139
(1911).
"
With
proteinsand
advancing knowledge
of the
chemical
; U. S.
of the
mechanism
of
Indus.,
THE
VALUES
PRODUCTION
protein nutrition,however, it
OF
has
FEEDING
become
685
STUFFS
evident
increasingly
the
presence
proper
proportions. For
amino
acid
to
ration
the
can
the
reason
be effective
ration happen
particular
that
same
only if
addition
the
of
an
proteins of
deficient in that
to be
in
buildingstones
one
stituent.
con-
of the non-protein
Furthermore, experimentswith ingredients
which do not form part of the proteinmolecule are of questionable
significance.For example,asparagin,which has been a
favorite subject of investigationfor reasons
of convenience,is
found among
the cleavageproducts of the proteinsbut benot
longs
the class of acid amides.
to
contribute
the
to the
formation
of
So far
as
proteinonly
it could
after conversion
into
related
that the
as
in
variety
addition
to
acid
amides
of
like
asparagin, a great
but remotely reare
lated
nitrogenoussubstances which
chemicallyto the proteinsand whose
at
appears,
nutritive
value
is
best doubtful.
It would
stuff
as
the
appear
source
non-proteinof a feeding
be determined
by precisely
the value of
thing which is believed to measure
individual protein or of the mixed
an
proteinsof feedingstuffs,
viz.,the kinds and proportionsof amino acids which it can
isting
yield,since there is no evident reason
why an amino acid exready formed in a feedingstuff should differ in value from
the same
substance splitoff from proteinin the process of digestion
If this be admitted, however, the distinction made
in
same
its amino
the kinds
and
amounts
of these
compounds
which
the
feeding
686
stuff
as
of whether
first
are
the
they
exist in
produced in
Indirect
788.
of
case
the
soluble,as it were
digestivetract of
of
utilization
consideration
the
of the
was
by herbivora.
value
digestive
processes of these
stated in Chapter III (141)that
nitrogenouscompounds
and
which
non-protein,
play
large
so
animals.
the presence
in the feed tends to stimulate
of
activity
In
"
factor
another
of the
organisms
part in the
It
the animal.
non-protein
to the ferment
viz.,its relation
a
furnish,irrespective
predigested,form or
of ruminants,
herbivora, especially
into
enters
ANIMALS
whole
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
of soluble
the multiplicati
these
The
of this conversion
extent
in the
to be relatively
greater
appears
salts and asparaginthan in that of
of ammonium
case
the
of
the
digested
indigestible
protein
of
to be
in the
products contained
to be
due
to
increase
an
feces,'caused by
vegetable extracts
upon
the
the
digestive
tract.
By
of its conversion
means
also
growth,
as
in rations
used
in these
deficient
U.
the
experiments were
S. Dept.
may
of
source
however,
Quantitatively,
bacterial
into
serve
protein for
in protein.
various
much
Anim.
protein
non-
tenance
indirectlyfor mainmilk, and probably
of
forms
inferior to
Agr., Bur.
protein,the
Indus., Bui.
a
139
non-protein
proteinand a
marked
(1911).
falling
688
involved
thus
higher
somewhat
of
since
than
difference
of
simply
in
if
It
deficiency
worst
make
to
computation.
the
at
the
tends
the
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
the
ANIMALS
protein
crude
the
protein
is, therefore,
protein
may
increase
tends
to
latter
respect
an
limit
on
seldom
of
the
the
the
considerable.
basis
safe
while
production
cost
rations
the
made
were
error
the
is
of
content
side,
a
ration,
plus
sur-
and
XVIII
CHAPTER
COMPUTATION
THE
"
Origin.
790.
As
"
Standards
Feeding
i.
RATIONS
OF
the
(700)gradually gave
cal
values of feedingstuffs based upon improved methods
of chemianalysisand upon investigationsinto the generallaws of
followed to express the nutritive
an
nutrition,
attempt naturally
instead of in terms
requirements of animals in a similar manner
Thus
of gross weight of feed or of hay values.
originatedthe
for different speciesof farm animals which
feeding standards
later came
to be popularlyregarded more
less in the lightof
or
or
prescriptions
recipesfor
791.
Early
standards.
"
successful
feeding.
earliest
The
l
originatedwith Haubner
in 1857, amplifiedthe suggestion,but
Lingethal,1
line
to
seems
1858
have
the first
was
formulate
to
about
1840.
Grouven2in
the requirements
specifically
*
farm
of
in terms
of dry matter,
animals, expressingthem
total protein,
total fat (etherextract),and
carbohydrates
in
material
soluble
acids
and alkalies).In other words,
(total
.
"
the crude
Wolff
nutrients
took the
were
"
standards.
step in advance
These
next
standards
attempted
to
formulate
protein,carbohydratesand
digestible
1
Quoted by Grouven
sel,1863, p. 327.
2
fats which
should
be
the amounts
68q
690
in
contained
for
rations
in order to secure
purposes
conditions.
Thus, the
average
various
Feeding
was
Cows
Milk
for
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
"
Day
per
and
Pounds
iooo
Live
Weight
24
Digestibleprotein
Digestiblefat
Digestiblecarbohydrates
.
0.4
that
means
of
mixture
any
pounds
pounds
pound
pounds
12.5
ratio
Nutritive
This
2.4
5-4
suitable
feeding stuffs
from
can
cow
The
Wolff
standards
few
years
later
and
others, and
and
found
with
wide
into
introduced
were
the
United
13
a
States
students
among
currency
feedingand
popular writers.
of the
Modifications
792.
standards.
Wolff
modifications
of investigation
progress
standards formulated
fifty
years ago was
1864
1896 Wolff's
to
Mentzel
and
standards
were
Lengerke'sKalender
von
with
That
"
should
be
the
in
made
expected. From
published annually in
unchanged.
practically
be
to
under
the charge of
continued
1897 to 1906 they were
additions and modifications,
some
Lehmann, who introduced
the principal
ones
being the subdivision of the standard for dairy
From
milk
accordingto
cows
and
milk
or
wool
breeds
793.
in the
constitute
These
yieldand
Kellner's
standards.
"
standards
for
growing
the
animals.
standards.
Wolff -Lehmann
Both
meat
Wolff
and
the
Wolff-
expressedin terms
standards,as already noted, were
nutrients.
of the so-called digestible
Kellner, in 1905, in the
Nutzfirst edition of his Ernahrung der landwirtschaftlichen
of starch
tiere,proposed the system of calculation by means
Lehmann
values
and
formulated
to
has
(772)which
this
new
since
table of
been
associated
feedingstandards
method.
1
Manual
with
his name,
ing
expressedaccord-
In
differ
one
and
ones
constitute
691
RATIONS
OF
COMPUTATION
THE
from
radically
ceding
prethe earlier
While
notable advance.
be
take
gestibl
di-
of those
account
in the values
differences
of nutrients
as
have
been revealed by recent investigations
which
energy
and
the needs of animals in this respect in
express
of
sources
in
are,
"
794.
was
Limitations
to
necessary
of
as
Requirements
feeding standards.
the outset
From
"
it
definite form
very
Feed
2.
which
the
were
feeding standards
sented.
pretended
inTheir authors insisted from the first that they were
adhered
generalguides and not as fixed rules to be rigidly
But
to.
in
the human
mind
craves
the animal
"
sort
feeding, to be aimed
ideal in
of moral
concessions
have
to human
to be made
and
of circumstances.
the pressure
fallibility
The difficulty
or
inherent,more
less,in all forms of feeding
in the earlier ones, is that they fail
standards,but especially
of the fact that the feedingof farm
to take sufficient account
animals
buy
is
some
an
economic
average
as
the
norm
problem.
for his
raw
material
of his
own
When
factoryor
maximum
amount
not
garded
might be reof the capacity
business,irrespective
of
amount
would
manufacturer
of the market
of
raw
which
find
material
finished
product.
dle
it profitableto han-
for the
and
so
to
reduce
the
692
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
capacityin order
to tide
over
bad
loss
case,
imum
max-
In somewhat
season.
be handled
like
in
machine
nevertheless,
factory,
has appeared in previouschapters,
it shows
as
a large
in its requirements both quantitatively
and
degreeof flexibility
fixed standard
is either physiologically
No single
qualitatively.
or
economicallynecessary for productivefeeding.
795.
cannot
feeder's
The
problem.
As
"
the
feeder
looks
at
his
worked
with
out
problem
is
Second,
some
of accuracy
and
relatively
simple.
in addition
his animals
degree
pose,
purbeen
to
maintenance
of matter
for the
the meat,
them
his task
productionof
to yield. Here
ration,he
milk
is much
of energy
work
which
and
or
supply
must
necessary
he desires
less
simple.
has been emphasized in
previouschapters,that the producing capacityof the animal
is the prime factor in the problem. No argument
is necessary
that a cow
to show
quires
producing thirtypounds of milk dailyreIt is evident
greater addition
to
her
maintenance
ration than
does
mediocre
those
or
poor
market
of animal
conditions.
As
for two
or
pricesof feedingstuffs
products rise,he
will tend
three
to
feed
fall and
more
in-
OF
COMPUTATION
THE
but here he
tensively,
The
dairy cow
of this.
the
encounters
law
of
affords,perhaps, the
increase in the
An
693
RATIONS
turns.
diminishingre-
lustrati
strikingil-
most
quantityof
increase in milk
ration may
be expected to cause
an
time an increasing
secretion but at the same
proportion of the
a
moderate
feed
extra
will be
diverted
fattening(606-610). Similarly,
to
erate
proteinsupply appears adequate to support modulus
milk productionbut largeramounts
to act as a stimseem
of the milk glands and to increase the yield
to the activity
but presumably at a diminishing
of milk (603),
The dairyrate.
man's
problem is to utilize these stimulatingeffects up to the
point at which the increase in yieldis offset by the added cost
the solution
of the ration,and
of this problem requires experience
in which littleaid can
and good judgment and is one
be afforded by feedingstandards.
of dairy feeding appliesin
is so emphaticallytrue
What
greater or less degreeto all forms of animal production. Even
a
rather small
there
though
may
be
decrease
no
in
of
utilization
the
the
diminished
digestibility,
physiological
sense,
incidental bodily activity,
or
position
changing com-
of
of
increase
tend
make
to
rations
heavy
effective than
less
protein rations relatively
or
high
moderate
more
ones.
What
is not
a
knowledge
various
a
so
much
conditions
of
is available
the
to
to
kind
and
he
capacityof
of
standards,as
requiredunder
of a unit of product
example, or a pound of
"
weight,for
the extent
knowing
can,
group
of feed
ligently
this situation intel-
meet
to
his
mation
this infor-
which
animals, proportion
each and
securing
most
assume
has
the
to
standard,or
given quality. To
the feed
fixed
of the amount
pound of increase
milk
in order
largelyprevailedin
of
to
the modified
feeding standards
conceptionof
ception
con-
feed
requirements.
796.
Feed
the first to
the feed
requirements.
apply this
idea
requirements for
1
Minn.
Haecker
"
to
appears
Expt. Sta.,Bui.
have
been
productionand to formulate
productionof a pound of milk
milk
the
to
79
(1903),pp.
104-107.
694
NUTRITION
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
modified
As
grades.
of different
tentative
statement
pound
of milk
per
of the
proteinand
containingfour per
ments
requireenergy
of fat and
cent
illustrated the
Morrison
and
have
included
Haecker's
standards
in their modified
requirements for
Wolff-Lehmann
milk
production and
also similar data, based
on
unpublished results by the same
.experimenter,for growing fattening steers, and have also
somewhat
widened
and
On
and
introduced
range
minimum
of
different
several
in
chapters of
of
consideration
of
terms
therefore
are
in
open
relative values
the
to
the
of
trients
nu-
sources.
Requirements
797.
and
ignoring differences
from
figures.
foregoingrequirements
Eckles',are expressedin
all of the
digestiblenutrients
criticism
poses
pur-
maximum
hand, however,
standards,with the exceptionof
of
for other
standards
and
the other
terms
The
of the
the
Part
feed
the
of
terms
III
protein and
devoted
were
requirements of
digestible
proteinand
of net
energy.
primarilyto
farm
"
animals
in
In the case
energy.
be regarded as to a
of
tain
cermaintenance, these requirements may
degree fixed and capable of computation upon the basis
of the size of the animal, being related either to its weight or
its
to
body
surface.
contrary, the
(in excess
of
therefore made
In the
of these
convenience
of the
head
1
8
3
6
estimates
for normal
Minn.
of
productivefeeding,on the
obvious
method
of comparison is that of feed
maintenance) with yield,and an attempt was
to estimate the feed requirementsper unit of
case
of the
growth
at
estimates
have
been
brought
different
weights and
ages.
S.
696
NUTRITION
in
reduced
latter
at
are
times
the
ANIMALS
with
may,
safety,be
siderably
con-
instances.
some
tables
the
Furthermore,
of
FARM
it is
and
OF
of the
Appendix
include
mates
esti-
no
ash
because
the
requirements. This is not
unimportant, for it is not improbablethat they may
be a controlling
factor,but simply because study
progressedfar enough
not
permit
of their
emphasize here
certain
to
formulation.
while it has seemed
But
defects
of
desirable to
feeds to vary
which he can
and
second, in the skill with
average,
the dailyresults and modify his feeding
interpret
in accordance
799.
Dry
ration
from
the
with
them.
matter.
contains
variable,has
also be
must
its limits.
indication
matter
amount
of feed which
total volume
dry
The
"
shown
an
In
of
taken
dry
into
which
matter
the
The
consideration.
although rather
requires,
venient
computing rations the most conanimal
of the bulk
of the feeds
is the
of Tables
percentage of
and
VII, VIII
IX
fair average,
while
for the
horse
smaller
amounts
will
be
appropriate.
An
examination
stuffs contain
to their
in
more
do
the
that concentrated
proteinand
the
ing
feed-
proportion
Evidently,then,
energy
in
forage crops.
is to give the animal all the
purpose
OF
COMPUTATION
THE
697
RATIONS
roughage may
predominate,because it is usually relatively
of feed in a bulk
cheaper and can supply the required amount
which
the' animal
"
can
consume.
Method
3.
the
examplesgiven on
The
following
pages
of
as
and
not
model
as
Computation
of
rations.
intended
are
Limitations
of the
simply
Appendix
forbid
space
who
the
tables
these
methods
the
and
of
computation do
differ
not
Consequently
in
smaller
the
than
percentages,
rations
feed
average
condition
meal.
and-cob
are
Such
should
therefore make
"
pounds
1000
of
bunch
head
per
be fattened
to
energy
the
therefore,
on
"
animals
it is
value
grow
make
the
clover
and
gain of
sufficiently
computed
and
(Table I) for
to
should
dailygain
To
the average
weight of
the maintenance
use
1250
corn-
weigh
not
quire
re-
3.5 Therms
of
pounds,
this must
be
as
the
be 7 Therms.
requirement,which will increase
accurate
than
in better
hay
400
requirementwould
For
to
pounds. They
2 pounds per day.
gain of 1 pound live
average
heavier.
"
feeders
and
for market
ready
an
the maintenance
added
somewhat
are
gain of
It may
be estimated (Table III) that a
weight by animals of this grade will requireabout
of net
mated
esti-
amounts
1400
the
as
succeeding pages,
on
required.
old,averaging
years
well
as
Total
800.
the
pounds, viz.,7
pounds
requirement
1200
Therms.
This
6g8
NUTRITION
total net
the
makes
hay,
it is
of Table
VII
of net
ANIMALS
on
requirement per day 14 Therms
of the whole feedingperiod.
that 2 pounds of grain will be fed for each pound
from
the figuresin the last column
easy to compute
the average
If we
assume
of
FARM
OF
the
as
energy,
energy
of feed
amount
follows
requiredto supply 14
Therms
"
Therms
In
100
In
200
In 300
In
To
supply
of total
14
Therms
38.68
151.60
190.28
634
requires14
feed,consistingof
pounds of
of hay and
This, of
pounds
course,
feedingperiod.
hay
pounds
and
14.72
numbers, 7J pounds
of meal.
At
22.08
of clover
7.36 pounds
meal, or, in round
corn-and-cob
15
0.634
4-
feed
beginning the
for
ration
will
the whole
naturallybe
the
too, the
in the
of the
course
assumed
was
that
decided
and
upon
required. Let us
and
whether
and
corn
digestion. Naturally,
proper
is given will usuallybe varied
feeding.
Improvement
801.
it
bulk
necessary
form
in which
the
of
ration.
the
the
feeding stuffs
attention
now
In
"
take
was
directed
the
up
of the
to
foregoingexample
be
used
the
simply to
question from
had
been
quantity
the other
end
ration may
not
study
yield some
suggestionof possibleimprovement.
meal,
According to Table VII, clover hay and corn-and-cob
contain
in 100
respectively,
pounds :
see
"
Total
Dry
Matter
Pounds
Clover
hay
Corn-and-cob
meal
Digestible
Protein
Pounds
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
87.1
4.9
38.68
89.6
5-7
75.80
THE
The
COMPUTATION
of clover
7J pounds
contain
OF
in
hay
699
RATIONS
the
will
ration
evidently
"
87.1
0.075
4.9
0.075
0.075
38.68
of net
Therms
2-9"
preciselysimilar computation
gives the followingresults :
value.
energy
for the
corn-and-cob
meal
"
89.6
0.15
5.7
0.15
75.8
Adding
X0.15
of
0.85 pound
11.37
these amounts,
of
pounds
13.44
Therms
dry
matter.
digestibleprotein.
of net
energy.
we
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
Clover
hay, 7! pounds
meal, 15 pounds
.
2.90
Corn-and-cob
n-37
Total
The
14.27
quantity
estimated
fixed
of
estimated
but
of such
fall below
IV
that which
is evident
VII
that
of
the
ration
is less than
were
that
advantage
the gain would
growth and
the
by
of the capacity
likely
most
anticipated.An
was
we
introduce
must
either of those
small amount
change
composing
we
or
meal,
of
one
in the ration.
old-processlinseed
meal,
needed
only a
marked
the
feeds,like glutenfeed
that
of feed
amounts
expectedto make
change in
any marked
protein than
Table
that
We
be
make
To
be
to
cattle for
might
in
basis.
digestible
protein in
in Table
corresponds with
course,
the
because
necessary,
weight. A ration
it probably would
and
of
energy,
that
on
upon
amount
be
to
of
meal
for
as
need
is
the oil
it.
one
On
consulting
of the
uct
by-prod-
Thus, if we
2
pounds
follows
"
substitute
to
2
also
effect
pounds
of the corn-and-cob
NUTRITION
700
OF
ANIMALS
FARM
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
hay, i\ pounds
meal, 13 pounds
Old-processlinseed meal, 2 pounds
Clover
2.90
....
Corn-and-cob
9-85
1.78
Total
14-53
802.
at
Computing
available for
ration
from
"
There
"
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
Corn
forage
hay
43-94
Clover
Corn
38.68
meal
85.20
Wheat
bran
53-"o
Gluten
meal
84.15
The
cows
previousyears
4
per
850 pounds
average
an
of
cent
requirement
of 20
average
fat.
According
of
approximately:
animals
such
per head
pounds
to
per
and
of milk
Table
day
produced in
day testing
have
I,
and
per
the maintenance
head
would
"
Digestibleprotein
0.43
Net
5.40 Therms
energy
pound
be
COMPUTATION
THE
For
productionof
the
20
OF
pounds of
be
RATIONS
4 per cent
"
pound
1.0
5.4 Therms
Net
total feed
The
701
are
therefore
Digestible
Protein
Pounds
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
For
maintenance
0.43
5 -4o
For
milk
I. OO
5 -4o
production
Total
1-43
mixture
The
and
of energy,
and
which
shall have
of
amounts
coarse
fodders.
digestibleprotein
suitable bulk.
The
IO.80
amounts
of
amount
which
animal
an
can
depends
can
from
12
to 14
pounds
of
dry
matter
is limited.
consume
Much
in the form
of
coarse
fodder.
digestible
protein and of
energy
shown
below
"
this
To
The
requirement.
will take, at
trial. We
to
the
pounds of
sufficient grainto
to add
have
we
amount
proper
a
venture,
bring the
we
pounds
Adding this
bran.
wheat
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
702
meal
corn
the ration
to
up
ascertain
must
of
ration
have
we
by
and
:
"
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
forage,10 pounds
Clover hay, 6 pounds
Corn meal, 4 pounds
Wheat
bran, 2 pounds
Corn
Total
1.06
18
II.
low in
the
is
requirement as
regardsenergy,
ample as
digestible
protein. The
that
shows
more
feed
may
rather
low
added
be
to
computed,
erably
consid-
but
figurefor dry
the
if
ration
but
desirable,
is not
is needed
totals with
these
the ration
rind that
matter
2.32
3-41
....
Comparing
we
4-39
more
Gluten
proteinalong with rather less energy.
this requirement,and substituting2 pounds of
meal answers
meal
it for 2 pounds of corn
gives a ration which, while still a
with the
trifle high in energy,
agrees as closelyas necessary
computed requirements. Thus :
supplyingmore
"
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
forage,
pounds
Clover hay, 6 pounds
Corn meal, 2 pounds
Corn
4-39
10
Wheat
bran,
Gluten
meal,
Total
This
whole
2
2
1.70
pounds
1.06
pounds
1.68
11.
....
ration
herd,
hardly need
correspondswith
since
be
and
milkers
2.32
it is based
said
that
it should
of
capacities
gettingmore
and
the average
its average
on
the
the
be
requirementof the
performance. It
modified
individual
ones
lighter
15
to
cows,
less.
suit the
the
quirements
re-
heavy
Let
a
us
ANIMALS
followingfeedingstuffs
:
pricesnamed
the
suppose
at the
dairyman
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
7"4
(40 cents
Corn
meal
per
offeedsper
ton
bushel)
$25
25
Wheat
bran
21
Wheat
middlings (flour)
24
brewers'
Dried
grains
Gluten
meal
Cotton
seed meal
23
27
(prime)
30
Old-processlinseed meal
supply of
The
animal
each
to
"
Prices
Oats
available
are
day
per
feed
coarse
32
33
farm
the
on
pounds
of
is sufficient to furnish
silageand
1000
pounds
hay ; the cows
average
to produce per day about
24 pounds
each
and
of milk
pounds
be
may
testing4.5
of clover
expected
per cent
fat.
the
compute, in precisely
first step is to
The
estimated
same
way
requirements of
in the
as
these
cows
"
Digestible
Protein
Pounds
maintenance
For
For
pounds of
24
Protein
Net
24
energy
Total
The
24
milk
according
to
of
Table
6.96
i-75
silageand
VII, the
digestible
protein,and
net
energy
value
"
Pounds
Clover
silage,32 pounds
hay, 8 pounds
Total
12.96
clover
Total
Dry
Matter
Corn
6.00
1.25
0.29
requirement
amount
Therms
0.052
X
0.50
Net
Energy
Value
8.42
6.97
iS-39
Digestible
Protein
Pound
0.19
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
5-09
"39
3-09
.58
8.18
COMPUTATION
THE
OF
RATIONS
705
various
the
feeds
of
unit
of energy
value at
sources
as
net
energy
and
see
lowest
the
which
nishes
fur-
one
price. This
"
Cost
of
Therm
Net
Energy
Value
Cents
I.85
Oats
Corn
meal
.
bran
Wheat
Wheat
I.98
1.60
middlings
brewers' grains
Dried
Gluten
meal
Cottonseed
2.15
1.60
1.67
meal
meal
Old-processlinseed
1.86
Evidently,if it were
the
I.41
"
animals,we
should
of the other
varietyto
the
feeding
ration,
in
proteinand
of this
and
It is not
pounds
to
of
meal
table shows
:
z
"
not
meal
next.
comes
great,
difficult to
coarse
very
is
corn
the
therefore
may
and
fodder
closelyto
we
shall
to
serve
is
ingredient,
glutenmeal
cottonseed
the two
one.
which
balance
the cheapest,
relatively
the
While
difference
naturallytry
determine
3^ pounds
ficiency
the de-
by
of
few
the
cheaper
trials that
gluten meal,
tween
be-
2"
in addition
sponding
available,will give a ration correthe following
the requirements,
as
706
NUTRITION
FARM
OF
ANIMALS
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
silage,32 pounds
hay, 8 pounds
Corn meal, 2" pounds
Gluten feed,3! pounds
Corn
5-09
Clover
3-09
Total
2.13
2-95
13.26
....
ration shows
This
close
as
could
proteinrequirement as
The
surplusof energy.
indicates that
ration.
computed
desired,but contains a slight
fodder
coarse
more
might
have
been
ter
mat-
used had
ration.
very economical
however, is nearly as cheap as a
a
of
source
meal,
more
as
glutenmeal, while it contains considerably
tein.
proit may
It seems
worth while, therefore,to see whether
the necessary
possibleto secure
cheaplyby
proteinmore
Cottonseed
be
the
priceand apparentlyhave
not
be
with
agreement
it been
energy
an
using a
smaller
meal.
Three
exactlythe
Making
pounds
same
this
of the former
amount
of
amount
substitution,the
ration
feed in
stands
as
follows
"
Net
Energy
Value
Therms
silage,
32 pounds
Corn
Clover
5-09
3-09
2.13
hay, pounds
meal, 2\ pounds
Cottonseed
meal, 3 pounds
8
Corn
2.70
Total
13.01
This
than
is
as
follows:
"
THE
RATIONS
OF
COMPUTATION
707
Second
Ration
meal
Corn
meal
Gluten
meal
Cottonseed
Total
It thus appears
expensivecottonseed
more
is
with
up
the somewhat
actuallythe cheaper.
The
difference,to
is
sure,
general,it
In
rate.
be
may
marked
of
Therm
there
no
very
value in
of energy
the ration,that one
are
"
each
day's ration
for
each
animal.
often
Individual
yieldvaluable
weighings of
information
and
be advantageously
the grain feed may
practicable,
in the desired proportionsin as large quanmixed in advance
tities
the
the storage capacityavailable and
tion
as
proper preservaof the materials will permit. Where facilitiesare available,
be
of grainrequiredfor all the animals may
the whole amount
ditional
adfor each feeding,without much
weighed out daily,or even
the individual
In distributingthe grain to
labor.
animals, regard,of course, should be paid to their productive
ration as
The
capacity and their individual peculiarities.
When
computed
shown
708
weighings
individual
Doubtless
useful
be
would
intervals,
at
control
as
ANIMALS
FARM
OF
NUTRITION
the
on
already
as
gested,
sugof
accuracy
the
distribution.
problem
simple.
fodder,
control
all
In
of
made
or
less
seek
in
actual
the
of
the
would
conducted
of
hundreds
be
will
play
animals
are
Finally,
animals.
rations
feeder
cannot
in
are
it
absurd
be
should
guides
wisely
using
the
the
place
of
take
fed,
being
be
and
not
resources
experience
to
or
go
feed
the
scale
important
an
would
which
sought
of
The
to.
amount
it
is
it
foolish,
be
to
in
the
They
recipes.
and
his
or
profitably
two
three
or
these
may
command,
good
feeding
scores
that
remembered
at
the
may
of
in
saving
Where
case
to
expense
the
exactness
more
therefore,
which
part.
an
best
at
be
can
more
than
upon
necessary.
that
estimate
but
would
apportioning
and
weighing
practicable,
is
sense
best
realizing
in
exactness
latter
the
It
if
weighed.
desirable.
very
requirements,
average
cut
or
comparatively
readily
not
common
expresses
silage
weighing,
matters
approximation.
an
extreme
the
is
ration
computed
The
is
contrary,
difficult
more
still
is
matter
is
however,
occasional
an
similar
and
these
the
feeding,
the
upon
usually
When,
the
on
here
even
bulk.
its
trucks,
in
Long
Nevertheless,
a
of
handled
is
is
fodder
coarse
account
on
fodder
as
of
weighing
The
judgment.
puted
com-
aid
but
the
they
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
712
III.
Table
.
Requirements
"
Growth
All
"
Species
for
"
in
Fattening
Addition
with
to
no
Considerable
Maintenance
the
Requirement
Table
IV.
Requirements
"
for
Growth
with
no
Considerable
Fattening
a.
Per
Pound
Weight, in Addition
Requirement
of Increase
in
Live
Estimated
from
Estimated
from
Estimated
proteincontent
protein content
experiments on
to the Maintenance
of increase.
fattening (456).
of increase.
APPENDIX
b. Per
Day
and
(2) Sheep
(3) Swine
Based
on
Kellner's standards.
713
APPENDIX
7i4
V.
Table
Add
pound
of milk
Table
VI.
for each
Requirements
"
Production
Milk
for
maintenance
the
to
Requirements
"
Per
Work
for
Production
Digestible
Protein
Net
Half work
One-fourth
8 hrs. per
4 hrs. per
"
"
work
"
AVERAGE
DRY
ENERGY
VALUES
day
day
hrs. per
day
2.0
18.2
1.4
11.
AND
PROTEIN
STUFFS
FEEDING
PER
7.6
1.0
DIGESTIBLE
MATTER,
OF
Energy2
Therms
Pounds
Full work
(674)
Horse
the
Live Weight
Pounds
1000
by
100
NET
POUNDS
able
recentlypublisheda very valuanalysesof feedingstuffs and of
compilationof American
the results of American
experiments,and on this basis
digestion
nutrients in a great
of digestible
have
calculated the content
varietyof feeding stuffs.
With the permissionof these authors and with the cooperation
of Assistant
Professor Fred Silver Putney, of The Pennsylvania
the writer has computed from their tables the net
State College,
Henry and
Kellner's
Feeds
and
Morrison
have
standards.
pp.
To
be
computed from
633-666.
Table
VIII.
APPENDIX
values
energy
of the
in
described
715
more
reportedin
ruminants
Station
Bulletin No.
142
Experiment
Department of Agriculture.Those
of the
459
vania
Pennsyl-
of the U. S.
tions
results,with a few addihere reproduced and the computaand
are
corrections,
tion
well
basis
the
also
been
has
as
extended, as
now
meager
available will permit,to the data regardingswine suppliedby
Henry
tables.
Morrison's
and
in part from
the
for
figures
The
and
source
same
the horse
are
rived
de-
the net
Hagemann's investigations,
gators
computed according to the method proposed by those investi(775-778).The tables show primarilythe net energy
values for maintenance
or
good reason
fattening.There seems
for believing,
however, that they may be taken without serious
and
to
error
net
energy
values
for
growth and
averages.
VII.
Table
"
Values
per
100
Pounds
for
Ruminants
Net
Energy
Value
Dried
and
Hay
Brome
Corn
grass,
Roughage
fodderfrom
40.83
smooth
(maize) fodder
(earsincluded, medium
dry)
Corn
(maize)
dry)
Therms
cereals
stover
43-94
(earsremoved, medium
Millet,Hungarian
Mixed
timothy and clover
Oat hay
31.62
34.28
27.65
46.96
40.85
32.25
APPENDIX
716
VII.
Table
Values
"
per
Pounds
ioo
for
(Continued)
Ruminants
Digestible
Net
Dry
Matter
Dried
Hay
Orchard
Prairie
Red
grass
hay
top
fodder, computed
Sorghum
to
80
cent
Timothy,
Timothy,
before
per
analyses
Timothy, early
bloom
to
full bloom
and
True
Protein
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
88.4
4-7
3-3
44-93
93-5
4.0
2.9
40.42
90.2
4.6
3-9
51.22
80.0
Therms
dry
matter
all
Crude
Protein
Roughage
fodderfrom cereals
and
Energy
Value
2-5
i-5
32.20
88.4
3-0
2.2
43.02
92.8
4-7
2.9
43-52
87.2
3-6
2-5
47.40
85-1
2.4
1.8
37-54
87.5
2.2
1.8
38.59
91.4
10.6
7-i
34-23
93-8
154
fodderfrom legumes
Alfalfa,all analyses
Alfalfa,before bloom
Alfalfa,in bloom
Alfalfa,in seed
Clover, alsike
Clover, crimson
Clover, red, all analyses
Clover, red, before bloom
Clover, red, in bloom
Clover, red, after bloom
white
Clover, sweet
all
analyses
Cowpeas,
92.5
.......
.....
Soybeans
10.5
6.7
36-23
32.33
6.2
32.23
7-9
5-3
34-42
89.4
9-7
6.9
87.1
7.6
4.9
36.21
38.68
89.6
8-5
87.7
89.6
10.3
11.6
5-4
42.17
86.1
8.1
5-3
39.12
77-9
6.8
4-5
34-51
6.7
38.98
91.4
10.9
90.3
i3-i
92.2
17.8
89.4
12.6
91.4
11.
9.2
37-59
12.8
33-54
9-5
39-n
44-03
Straws
Barley
Buckwheat
Oat
.
Rice
Rye
Wheat
0.6
36.61
85.8
0.9
90.1
4.2
3-2
4-55
88.5
1.0
0.8
92.5
0.9
0.4
34.81
23.63
0.7
0.5
17-59
0.7
o-3
7.22
'.'."'.'.'.
92.9
91.6
APPENDIX
Table
VII.
"
Values
per
100
717
Pounds
for
Rumtnants
{Continued)
Digestible
Net
Dry
Energy
Matter
Fresh
Green
Blue
fodder
before
heading
Kentucky,
headed
out
Kentucky,
grass,
Blue grass, Kentucky, after bloom
Buckwheat, Japanese
Cabbage
Cabbage, waste outer leaves
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, all analyses
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, in tassel
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, in milk
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, dough to glazing
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, kernels glazed
Corn
(maize fodder, dent, kernels ripe
Corn
all analyses
(maize fodder, flint,
Corn (maize fodder, flint,
in tassel
Corn
in milk
(maize fodder, flint,
Corn
kernels glazed
(maize fodder, flint,
kernels ripe
Corn (maize fodder, flint,
Corn
(maize fodder, sweet, before milk stage
Corn
(maize fodder, sweet, roasting ears or
grass,
....
later
ears
fodder
Orchard
Value
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Therms
23.2
2-3
23.8
36.4
43-6
36.6
8.9
Roughage
Blue
Oat
True
Protein
cereals,etc.
Green
Barley
Crude
Protein
grass
removed
2.0
14.08
3-7
2.8
2.8
14.82
2.2
17.77
1.9
1.6
21.01
2.2
i-5
17.78
1.9
i-3
8.87
14.1
i-7
1.1
23.1
1.0
0.8
14.9
1.1
0.8
9-52
19.9
1.0
0.8
13.64
25.1
26.2
i-3
1.0
17-35
1.1
0.8
16.74
34-8
i-5
1.1
22.48
20.7
1.0
0.8
10.6,
0.9
0.7
15.0
0.9
0.7
10.39
21.0
1.0
0.8
13-49
27.9
1.2
0.9
17.84
10.0
O.8
0.6
7.82
20.3
1.2
0.9
13.38
21.5
0.8
14.26
1.9
1.1
17.24
26.1
2-3
2.0
14.06
29.2
i-7
1.1
15.81
16.7
2.6
1-7
13-07
21.3
2.1
1.4
15-99
24.9
0.7
0.4
15-37
1.1
18.36
18.89
26.36
18.75
24.2
32.1
i-3
0.8
46.4
i-5
1.0
Wheat
27.4
2.8
1.9
Green
Clover, crimson
6.89
I.O
1.8
Alfalfa,before bloom
Alfalfa,in bloom
Alfalfa,after bloom
Clover, alsike
13-53
27.6
Rape
Rye fodder
Sweet
sorghum fodder
Timothy, before bloom
Timothy, in bloom
Timothy, in seed
fodder
7-05
14.60
legumes
.
19.9
3-5
1.9
9.20
25-9
3-3
1.8
11.50
29.8
2.1
i-3
11.
24-3
2-7
1-5
17.4
2-3
1.6
14.56
10.83
10
718
APPENDIX
VII.
Table
Values
"
per
ioo
Pounds
for
Ruminants
{Continued)
Digestible
Net
Dry
Matter
Green
Fresh
Green
Energy
Crude
Protein
True
Protein
Value
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Therms
26.2
2-7
1-7
15-87
2-7
1.8
16.74
17.30
10.42
Roughage
legumes
27-5
344
3-3
2.2
16.3
2-3
1-7
16.6
2.9
2.1
23.6
3-2
2.4
12-53
20.8
3-o
2-3
10.44
24.2
3-i
2-5
12.70
18.1
3-5
2.4
n-95
26.3
1.1
O.6
15.90
21.0
1.0
O.4
11.96
25-3
1.2
O.6
14.27
19.6
0.5
0.3
8.98
27.8
i-3
O.8
7.26-
Cowpeas
22.0
1.8
I.I
11.05
Soybeans
Sugar beet pulp
27.1
2.6
1-5
n-59
10.0
0.8
0.5
Apples
18.2
0.4
O.I
Beets, common
Beets, sugar
13.0
0.9
O.I
16.4
1.2
0.4
Carrots
11.
Cowpeas
Peas, Canada
field
9.78
Silage
Corn
Corn
Corn
Corn
(maize),well-matured, recent
(maize),immature
(maize),from
(maize), from
frosted
analyses
ears
field-cured stover
Clover
Roots, Tubers,
and
Mangels
9-32
Fruits
9.4
15-92
7.84
11.20
0.9
0.5
9.21
0.8
O.I
5-68
21.2
1.1
O.I
18.27
Potato
flakes
87.9
3-6
0.4
72.68
Potato
flour
89.4
1.4
0.1
80.09
1.1
0.6
6.05
Potatoes
Pumpkins,
field
8-3
1.0
0.3
8.46
1.0
0.4
6.16
90.7
9.0
8.3
Buckwheat
87.9
8.1
7.2
59-73
Corn
89-5
7.5
7.0
Rutabagas
10.9
Turnips
9-5
Grains
Cereal
grains
Barley
Corn
(maize),dent
(maize),flint
Corn
(maize) and
cob
meal
89.94
87.8
7-7
7.2
85-5"
84.00
89.6
6.1
5-7
75.80
APPENDIX
720
VII.
Table
Values
"
per
Pounds
ioo
By-Products
industries
Fermentation
Distillers' grains,wet
....
Malt
Malt
sprouts
Milling
Buckwheat
bran
Buckwheat
hulls
Buckwheat
middlings
....
feed
Hominy
Red
dog flour
Rice bran, high grade
....
Rice meal
Rice
polish
Rye
bran
Wheat
bran
Wheat
middlings, flour
middlings, standard
Wheat
....
Oil extraction
Cocoanut
Cocoanut
,.
hulls
Cottonseed
meal, choice
Cottonseed
meal, prime
oil meal, maize
Germ
Linseed meal, new
process
Linseed meal, old process
Cottonseed
....
cake
Palmnut
Peanut
cake from
hulled nuts
Sunflower
seed
cake
.....
Starch
Gluten
feed
Gluten
meal
manufacture
Starch feed,dry
feed,wet
Sugar manufacture
Molasses, beet
or black strap
Molasses, cane
Starch
for
Ruminants
(Continued)
APPENDIX
VII.
Table
Values
"
per
100
721
Pounds
for
(Continued)
Ruminants
Net
Energy
Value
By-Products
Therms
Sugar manufacture
Molasses
beet
pulp
pulp,dried
76.28
75-87
9-32
8.99
....
Sugar beet
Sugar beet pulp, ensiled
Sugar beet pulp,wet
Packing house
.
Dried
68.12
blood
Tankage
Over
protein
cent protein
cent protein
per cent protein
60 per cent
55-60
per
45-55
Below
per
45
VIII.
Table
"
93-Q4
83-58
72.96
54.16
Values
per
100
Pounds
for
the
Horse
Net
Energy
Values
Therms
48.82
Alfalfa hay
clover
hay
Timothy hay
Red
Wheat
straw
Beans
39-94
26.64
"
20.90
109.40
....
Corn
(maize),dent
112.80
Corn
(maize),meal
132.70
Oats
93-44
Peas
105.20
101.60
Linseed
Carrots
Potatoes
cake
16.60
....
3 A
35-7Q
APPENDIX
722
IX.
Table
"
Values
per
ioo
Pounds
for
Swine
Net
Energy
Values
Therms
Grains
106.08
Barley
Corn
(maize),
Corn
(maize)
meal
Corn
(maize)
and
118.82'
dent
120.25
cob
meal
.
Pea
meal
rough
Rice,
110.98
123.68
Rye
seed
Sorghum
100.59
JWheat
108.85
Milling
Red
103.30
122.43
products
flour
dog
107.02
Wheat
bran
Wheat
middlings,
74.95
standard
.
Oil
meal,
Linseed
old
meals
process
110.85
.
meal
Soybean
103.73
108.42
Sundries
Dried
blood
Tankage,
Potatoes
Skim
116.89
over
60
per
cent
protein
109.39
24.69
milk
14.74
APPENDIX
")
"
"S"
itMlOOM
to
"
723
t^
00
-"*
000
00
N*w
"n
"
t!-
t^Tj"u
"
c5
! I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I
xpq
O
"!
MOO
moo
to
doood
"*
"t
OOO
J-^OO
to
"
"
"
d\
ONt^OO
"
f".
c?" "* 00
c"
MOO
00
to
IO
O*
O*
to
o"
^-
toti
^tOH
"
IOO
ON
i-oo
N
t"
-*"*
N
o
O
O1O0
"
*t
en
to
O
OO
T*-
MOO
CO
NOl^WH
C"
t^"
r-
VO
to
lO
"N
t~.
(^M
o*
00
^OiN
NOi
cfi to
o\
"
lO
tO
Ol
in
lO
ON
IOM
W
ion
tO
"*
00
to
10
PQ
"
C/3
I*
OS 53 O
O " w
"
o
toO"o"o"otMtoooOMiomOMO
t~-Ovvr.
00O"m
tOMO
"
|OOtot^"*"NOoO"0"d-'^-t^t^.ioOio
M00NNM0"*NTJ-tON"ONM\O
Q
(i"
o
o
o
"s
ei
00
Ol
tO
OOO
t^OOOOOMQlOOOONMONNtOOO
tOO"NMtOMO"OMVOt^lOMON
OOOOOOmOOmtI-OOOO
tOO
KO
0s-
hOm"
OOO
(O
tf t"
to
NtOOO'tNNOOlOMOOMlOO'*
'tNONMN^tONMMlOtO'^t-"Ot--
^"0
10
c^
IOO
toO
OlN")*
53
"
tfl
IOM
10
O
to
N"l
WOM
NNtOONMMMM010"3-"3-OONMMM
o
"
68
OOO
too
00
NOONO\T)-ONOOOO"tJ-"ON'"+ONOOM
N
MOO
N
^t N
tO
"t 0\
MlO^tOOtOMMOONOMMMMMO^
"
C'O
lO
tt-NVO
N
OMO
"8
too
-tf- T
00
t^M
-t
IO
^l" O
Tt
ON
MOO
MOO
OOOOOOtoOMOM
OOOOOmOO
04
"
*t 00
NNOO"OOONOt^t^OM
to
"?
O*
*t
O
MO
fOtO^^N^fOi'N
-rj-
55
O
"o
On 00
O
to
00
lO
t"
00
votoooo
o
N00CO
tO
too
tO
tt)
to
to
68
Omhi^O*^OmOO^mOw^"mOOm
68
O
moo
"tN
to
M
0*0
"+"N
O
On
lO'*MtOO'*tOM^-M"NOOMNTl-NON
1000
to
o
O
o
O
o
OO
OmmmmOOO
"N
-t
t^oo
lO
00
tj-o
lOOO
VO
n-
tO
"N
O
"*
to
cn5
fi
to
O*
10
ifioinOiOoO
"3-00
MO00
r-
OONOr-OMOOOOOONtOfOO*ON"0"3-
ONtOTj-00"OMO\tOOOOON10"OOtOM"N
OO
m
r^.
rf
t^M
Tf
Om
-^-lOO
too
tO
\r"
tO
to
tO
X
w
"
.s a
60
J2
W)
00
"^
-m
"
"
,
J
K_
K^_
"^_
"^_
k_
60
""
\-"
o
W
o
W
u
QJ
3
^-^'
"
in
_?!
"jr *jt
*"
^^^^tS"UUUP.OQQpqSoWPii"
""
"
m*-"
_h
"
"""
""-"
"^"
724
w
u
"
H
C/D
5
en
p4
Q
o
o
o
Pn
Pn
P
H
C/3
O
55
i-i
Q
W
Ph
o
525
W
hh*
X!
"
APPENDIX
INDEX
80
Abomasum,
Accessory substances,348,
significanceof,632
Alfalfa proteins,
value of, 683
Alkali ratio of ash, 342
421
Alkaloids,37
Amids, 37
Acid:
hippuric,163
hippuric,synthesisof, 163
uric,synthesisof, 171
Acidity in ash, significance
of, 341
Acidosis,336
Acids
in plants,38
acids,37
from simple proteins,
28, 29
in plants, 38
occurrence
relative values for growth, 381
required for maintenance,314
Ammonia, formation of,in katabolism
proteins,165
of feed,influence on
Amount
occurrence
Amino
excretion of,338
influence
digestibility,
627
neutralization of, 337
nucleic,34
anabolism, 168
autogenesis,169
cleavages, 170
deaminization, 171
katabolism, 170
metabolism, 168
169
synthesis,
on
effects of temperature,
metabolizable
milk
net
production, 515
values, 664
energy
Amylase, 78, 86
Amylopsin, 78, 86
Anabolism, 145
of fats,171
nucleic acids,168
phosphorus, 180
of,in digestion,
40, 158
of, 159
Adipose tissue,
58, 424
compositionof, 59
160
simpleproteins,
Age:
best for
449
664
of methane, 665
in feeding stuffs,
40
metabolism
energy,
454
production,269
organic,40
formation
production, 443,
meat
Animal
fattening,
436
factor in meat
production,428
production, 470
composition of gain, 431
as prime motor,
192
cost of production of meat, 430
Araban, 15
610
digestibility,
Arabinose, 9
effects of temperature, 454
Arteries,126
for
requirements
nance,
mainteAscent, work of, 551
energy
307
efficiencyof body in, 551
feed consumption, 431
Ash, s
net energy
acid and basic,340
values,666
alkali ratio of, 342
production of lean meat, 433
relation of growth to, 373
balance, 216
relation of protein requirements to,
maintenance
of,339, 344
body, proportionof in bone, 48
445
in offal,56
Albuminoids,S3
Albumins, 33
bone, compositionof, 48
influence
as
milk
on
725
of
INDEX
726
Ash,
in
of feed, 332
content
of, in feedingstuffs,67
determination
digestionof, 101
effects of deficiencyof, 420
6
ingredients,
availabilityof, 417
balancing of, in ration,343
deficiencies in, 339
of, 118, 333, 343
digestibility
excretion of, 141
functions of, 187
skeleton
Body:
plant,567
comparison with power
compositionof entire,61
of, 178
of,338
reserve
as
fat- and
of, 334
of milk, 460
sources
of,468
outgo of, in milk, 520
proportionof, in animal, 5
in feeding stuffs,5
rate of storage of, in growth,
requirements for growth, 414
maintenance,
substances
physicalregulationof,262
Autogenesisof
441
on,
individualityon,
Balance
growth,
Bone, 47
ash composition of, 48
composition of, 47
proportionof body ash in,48
proteinin, 48
Bones
416
of breed
441
Breakfast
food
Breathing
residues,584
assimilative power,
matter,
expenditure,194
and
digestivepower,
202
nitrogen, 202
determination
of, 203
water,
216
energy,
216
experiments,
comparison
with
200
metabolism
.
practicalexperiments,244
441
440,
610
241
of, 137
338
ingredients,
of ash
reserve
of, 134
regulation of rhythm
Breed, influence on
carbon, 205
Balance
as
Bran, 582
rice,583
rye, 582
wheat, 582
mechanics
of ash, 216
energy,
regulation of,
chemical
263
supply
influence
for work,
544
"
332
Assimilative power
of energy
sources
temperature,
414
production,520
production,562
work
ash-free,65
fat-free,64
efficiencyof. (See Efficiency)
expenditure by, 192
schematic, 195
causes
milk
"
plasma, 125
platelets,
124
indispensable,
332
metabolism
experiments, continued
investigations,
agricultural
243
Balance
continued
"
milling,582
INDEX
728
Computation,
Dextrins,
continued
"
Concentrates,
72, 579
apparent,
by
roughage, 662
of digestibility
of, 115
proportionof, to roughage, 451, 696
determination
for,671
relative values
of,
influence
Condiments,
bility,
digesti-
on
627
Condition, influence of,
of gain, 438
on
economy
meat
production,438
rate of gain in fattening,438
601,
affecting digestibility,
Conditions
602, 613
Conditions, external, influence
on
milk
relation
Conformation,
of, to
meat
duction,
pro-
443
of energy,
Conservation
219
Corn
transformations
in,533
bran, 588
meal, 587
Cottonseed
264, 453
by feed consumption, 308
Crude
fiber,13
compositionof digested, 120
Critical temperature,
of
net
energy
values
for,
determination
heat
of, on
horse, 676
influence
production
of
Cutting
Cytoplasm,
42
Dairy rations
addition
influence on,
of acids,627
addition of protein,622
610
breed, 610
condiments, 627
conditions relatingto the animal,602
feed, 613
cutting of roughage, 624
drinking, 628
drying, 623
of carbohydrates, 616
excess
feeds rich in carbohydrates, 617
grindingof grain, 624
heavy feeding, 450
individuality,609
roots, 618
tubers, 618
water
drinking, 628
work,
cereal grains,580
determination
concentrates,
of nucleic
acids, 171
simple proteins,165
reversible,166
in ash
of,346
of
of, 115
maturity
on,
574
forage, influence
on,
of,
621
maize
proteinin, 506
correction
610
Deficiencies
ruminants,
604
species of ruminants, 603
swine compared with ruminants, 606
conditions
affecting,601
definition of, in
determination of, in,
114
influence of excretory products, 118
Deaminization
with
603
species,
669
Cutaneous
compared
non-protein,622
proteinsupply,447
quantity of feed, 613
lowered
correction
120
horse
age,
of,
production,453
production,478
meat
14
Dextrose, 8
(SeeNutrients)
Digestible nutrients.
Digestibility,in, 601
of, 697
of total feed required, 697
method
of maturity
575
INDEX
Digestion,
"
conversion
continued
colloids
of
729
of feeding, influence
Economy
into
loids
crystal-
in, 102
Efficiencyof body,
as
of, 112
time requiredfor, 113
of protein cleavage in, 98
extent
compared
economic, 562
intestinal,
87
gross
methods
molecular
of ash,
in, 103
simplification
motor,
and
544
544
with
conditions
in work
of individuality
472
on,
power
plant,567
affecting,555
net, 546
of ascent, 551
draft,552
101
carbohydrates, 89
cellulose,
89
disaccharids,95
electrolytes,
101
fats,88, 95
hemicelluloses,92
96, 100
non-proteins,
nucleic acids,99
pentosans, 91
phosphorus,
83, 88, 95
proteins,
by erepsin,
98
pepsin,96
101
trypsin,97
starch, 79, 88, 92
in intestines,
94
stomach, 93
sulphur,101
of, 77
general plan of, 77
organs
Digestivepower,
628
Dry matter, 3
of body, composition of fat- and ashfree,65
requirementsof,695
Drying, influence of, on digestibility,
623
Duodenum,
84
influence on,
of fatigue,556
forms
of work, 555
gait,558
grade, 559
individuality,
556
intensityof work,
load, 559
557
of fats in
for growth
digestion,95
of fats,19
Energy :
available,233
balance of, 216
example of, 240
in milk production, 493, 495
chemical, 218
outgo of, 229, 635
conservation of, 219
definition of, 216.
expenditurein,
internal work, measure
of, 256
feed consumption, 275
significanceof, 277
locomotion, 550
influence of speed on, 552, 557
for work, body substance
source
as
544
proteinas
forms
source
of, 542
of, 217
gross, 227, 635
income
of, 226
katabolism of, in fasting,
256
constancy of, 256
kinetic,218
measurement
of, 325
of,
INDEX
73Q
Energy,
continued
"
Energy,
continued
"
sheep, 292
swine, 285
235, 635
chemical, 299, 635
in feces,230, 635
fermentation, 230, 636
computation of, 627
heat
relation of temperature
milk
of
net
energy
values
with, 271
computation of,
from
223
transformations
in muscular
nutrients,646
digestible
utilization of,
in growth, 390
milk production,493
generalconceptionof, 231
on,
of amount
of, 218
contraction, 533
units, 220
influence
511
production,562, 564
supply, influence
comparison
production,
work
production,235, 650
to, 308
production,448
meat
work
of feed, 664
production,544
(See Net
Energy Values)
milk
of, on
of
values, net.
Environment,
in combustible
production,478
reactions reversible,150
Enzym
Enzyms as agents in metabolism, 148
digestive,78
extracellular,
148
intracellular,
149
in the body, 150
of determining, 640
method
nutrients,648
digestible
feeding stuffs,642
real and apparent, 645
of, 645
significance
for,
233
synonyms
net.
(See Net Energy)
outgo of, 229, 235, 635, 650
gases,
230,
636
influence
feces,230, 635
Epithelium,105
heat
production,235, 650
growth, 399
of cattle,
399
sheep,401
Ether
of ash
of age,
manner
140
water, 142
:
307
fattening,306
plane of nutrition,305
stage of fattening,362
temperature,
ingredients,
141
dioxid, 139
nitrogenous products,
Exercise
on
carbon
swine, 400
maintenance, 267
factors affecting,304
influence
extract
digested, 122
of, 119
digestibility
of feeding stuffs,70
Excretion, 123, 139
functions of kidneys in, 140
304
of stating,283
methods
of determining, 281
modified
conceptionof, 284
influence
milk
of cattle,288
357
farm
horses,295
Farm
INDEX
731
Fats,
Fasting :
katabolism
in, 251
functions of proteinin, 255
katabolism, 249
computation of, 282
conditions affecting,258
expended in, 251, 257
energy
energy
influence
reactions of, 18
digestionof, 88,
95
oils and, 19
distinction between
on,
fat, 252
external temperature, 262, 265
muscular activity,261
previousfeeding, 253
size of animal, 258
standing and lying, 262
substances katabolized,in, 249
carbohydrates, 155,
protein,168,
of body
174
173
of, 18
hydrolysis
katabolism
of, 176
melting pointsof, 19
metabolism of, 171
molecular
of, 17
structure
native, 19
proteinkatabolism
in, 251
normally small, 251
variable, 251
of in
and lean, proportions
Fat
continued
"
chemical
of,1
occurrence
of milk, 459
carcass,
atom,
177
physicalpropertiesof, 18
424
Fat:
96
of, in digestion,
saponification
animal,
of, 173
sources
body, influence
of
on
ism,
fasting katabol-
proportionof in offal,56
computation of gain or loss of, 205
compositionof
of exercise
on
527
Fattening, 350
best age for,436
252
yield
increase
529
net
production,protein
for,
nance,
requirements for mainte-
energy
363
proportionof, in
meat, 425
relative utilization of carbohydrates
352,
of,482
originof,466
percentage of, in lean meat, 356
milk, influence of feed on, 528
milk solids,influence of feed on,
unnecessary
in, 350,
353,354-364
306
for,360
values
energy
pigs,proteinrequirementsof, 41 1
proteinrequirementsfor,363, 446
rations,proteinin,364
requirements,350, 359, 361, 363,
44",
5i6
storage of, 172
Fatigue, influence of,
of, on energy
362
utilization of proteinin,364
efficiency of
body, 556
milk production,
482
Fats, 16
anabolism of, 171
animal, elementary composition of, 21
chemical changes in resorptionof, 108
Fatty acids, 17
Feces, 105,
as
109
excretory
product, 109
compositionof, 11
quirements,
re-
INDEX
732
Feces,
"
in, 635
in, 230
composition of, 66
determination
Feed:
as
stimulus to milk
production,522
crude
of,
production, 651
the
horse, 675
by
metabolism, 651
influence
on
heat
influence
on,
of age,
431
breed,
443
individuality,
443
significanceof
energy
protein in, 68
nitrogen-freeextract in,71
non-protein in, 69
protein in, 67
true protein in,67
,
water
in, 67
direct comparisons of, 591
ether extract of, 70
metabolizable
of, 639, 642
energy
production values of, 630, 634, 678
relative values of, 591, 597
rich in carbohydrates, influence of, on
crude
on
of
ash in, 67
consumption,
energy
continued
Feeding stuffs,
continued
"
losses of energy
outgo of energy
expenditure in,
277
digestibility,
617
e
ffects
of,448
specific
associated with fats,527
milk production, 523
on
of, 571
sources
sundry ingredients of, 39
digestibility,
practical,592
Feeding trials,
Fermentation
industries,by-products of,
from, in milk
diminishing returns
production, 515
dual function of, 183
influence of, on
composition of milk,
527
quantity of,
influence
of,
on
613
requirements, 691, 693, 694
for growth, 396
maintenance, 280, 313
production,445
meat
milk
production,
500
supply,569
aspects of, 631
two
total amount
449
unit system,
S85
Fermentation, losses of chemical
energy
in,636, 639
computation of, 637
Flavoring substances, 41
milk production,522
influence of, on
Fluids, digestive,78
production, Forms of work, influence of, on efficiency
of body, 555
Fowls
comparison of,
with
net
with
energy
for meat
production,451
horse,566
Kellner's,690
limitations of, 691
originof, 689
Wolff's,689
modifications
of, 690
Feeding stuffs,571
ingredientsof, 632
accessory
significanceof, 632
choice of, 703
classes of, 72
requirements for
maintenance
of, 301
production, 488
swine,
608
energy
values, 596
utilization of, in milk
the
by, compared
digestibility
units, 593
Fruits, 579
Fuel value, 283
Functions
carbohydrates, 186
fats,186
feed, dual, 183
non-nitrogenous nutrients,187
nutrients,182
597
physiological,
proteins,185
water, 190
Gain
in
fattening,
361
energy
content
of,
733
INDEX
Gain
growth,
in
energy
content
of,
373
dition,
of, in fattening,influence of con438
Gait, influence of, on efficiencyof body,
558
Galactans, 14
Galactolipins,23
Galactose, 9
Gaseous exchange increased by work, 540
in, 371
composition of, 371
involves storage of ash, 414
of, 375
measure
minimum
of protein for,446
nature
of, 371
values for,390
net energy
of cattle,energy
requirements for, 399
protein requirements for,404
requirements for,401
sheep, energy
protein requirementsfor, 407
swine, effect of insufficient protein
on,
409
requirementsfor,400
protein requirementsfor,408
energy
parotid,79
salivary,79
sublingual,79
submaxillary, 79
Globulins, 33
Glucose
manufacture,
by-products of,
587
Glucosids, 10
nitrogenous, 37
Glutelins,33
Gluten feed, 588
meal, 588
Glycogen, 14
computation of gain or loss of, 207
of body, 61
content
conversion of, to dextrose in the liver,
153
formation
gain or
muscle,
of, in liver,153
of gain of energy
374
in, 378
acids for,381
proteins for,381
retention of ash during, 416
retention of protein in, 382
influence
of energy
ages,
397
storage, 61
influence
rate
154
Gums,
Glycoproteins,35
Grade,
continued
"
increase
rate
Glands
Growth,
of,
on
15
efficiency of
Haemoglobin, 135
body, 559
Haemoglobins, 35
bility
Grain, influence of grinding on digestiof, 624
Hay values, 591
Grasses, 573
Heart, 125
measurement
influence of maturity on
of, 221
Heat
composition
energy,
unique, 220
of, 573
of combustion, 223, 228
digestibility
of, 574
Grinding of grain, influence of, on digestibility, outgo of, 235
of increase in, 275
production,causes
624
increased by feed consumption, 273
Gross energy,
635
of feed, 665
influence on, of amount
Group system, 477
crude
fiber,
Growth, 371
676
ash requirements for,414
feed consumption, 651
with fattening,396
contrast
by the horse, 675
centrates,
roughage compared with conrequirements for,399
energy
662
fattening during, 448
losses of energy
feed requirements for,396
in, 650
^
INDEX
734
feeding,influence of,
Heavy
on
450
net
continued
bility, Individuality.
digestimeat
production, 440
"
milk
values, 450
energy
production,514
values, 666
yield of milk, 471
Ingredients of milk, sources
of, 465
Initial and final states, law of, 223
ciency
Intensity of work, influence of, on effiof body, 557
Intercellular substance, 46
Horse :
computation of net energy values for, Intestine,large,85
small, 84
675, 676, 677
nants,
rumiwith
by, compared
Inulin, 14
digestibility
Invertases, 79, 78
604
Investigation,methods
of, 194
requirements for maintenance
energy
of details of metabolism, 194
of, 295
Ionic concentration, maintenance
of, 188
feeding standards
for,566
influence of feed consumption on heat
of, 181
Iron, metabolism
production by, 675
of, 6
occurrence
metabolizable
shelter
for,675
Isolation,
from, 457
energy
for
nance,
mainteprotein requirements of,
in
profitable
production,449
meat
net
energy
Hemicelluloses, 13
digestion of, 92
Hexosans, 12
Hexoses, 8
Hominy feed, 585
Jejunum, 84
329
influence
Humidity,
of,
temperature,
effects
on
of
Juice,intestinal,87
pancreatic, 86
455
losses of energy
in, 639
Ileum, 84
of a ration, computation
Improvement
of, 698
Income, balance of expenditureand, 194
of energy,
Increase
influence
226
of age
on,
431
composition of,
350,
352,
353,
364
of, 352
content
energy
proteinin, 364
substances
course
397
of
power,
441
of lactation,473
phosphorus, 180
digestibility,
609
digestivepower, 441
of feeding,472
economy
efficiencyof body, 556
feed
proteins,162
requirements,
of ammonia
in, 165
nitrogenous end products of, 162
two
stages of, 164
formation
consumption, 443
maintenance
in,249
intermediary, 157
in fasting,251
energy
constancy of, 255
fats,176
non-nitrogenous matter, influence of
Individuality:
feeding as related to, 444
assimilative
katabolized
of carbohydrates, 156
growth,
composition of, 371
content
of, 373
energy
on
262, 265
activity,261
previousfeeding, 253
size of animal, 258
standing and lying, 261
of proteinvariable, 251
temperature,
muscular
in fattening,
354,
fat, 252
external
influence
on,
of body
influence
Katabolism, 145
computation of per unit of surface,258
to standard
weights, 250
fasting,249
conditions affecting,258
computation of, 282
sulphur,179
442
products of incomplete,230
INDEX
736
Maltase, 79, 87
Maltose, 11
Manifolds, 80
Mannose, 9
Matter
"
of, 202
balance
dry, 3
requirements of,
for fattening,363
growth, 403, 414
meat
production, 445
milk production, 501, 520
work production, 560
Maturity :
definition of, 428
early,428
economic
significanceof, 429
of breed
influence
continued
Metabolism,
general scheme of, 182
influence on, of feed consumption, 651
investigations,comparison of, with
balance experiments, 241
of details of, 194
of ash ingredients,178
calcium, 181
carbohydrates, 152
fats,171
iron, 181
magnesium, 181
nucleic acids, 168
nucleoproteins, 168
organic acids, 159
on,
158
carbohydrates,
pentose
157
pentosans,
phosphorus, 180
444
influence
of,
on
composition of grasses, 573
maize forage, 575
of grasses, 574
digestibility
maize forage, 575
Meat, definition of, 424
fat-free,composition of, 52
proportion of fat in, 425
Meat
production, 424
animal as factor in, 428
combined
growth and fatteningin,448
requirements for,448
energy
factors of, 427
feed requirements for,445
feeding for,444
feeding standards for,451
in, 449
heavy feeding profitable
influence
on,
of age,
430
453
of, 424
in, 426
protein requirements for,445
involved
relation of conformation
to, 443
of feed for,449
Metabolism, 144
a gradual process,
analytic,146
definition of, 144
enzyms
as
Metabolizable
(See Energy)
energy.
Metaproteins, 35
of, 636
Methane, heat of combustion
influence of amount
of
feed
of, 665
losses of energy
in, 637, 639
production of, in digestion,90,
of investigation,194
Methods
Middlings, buckwheat, 583
wheat, 583
on
duction
pro-
94
Milk:
ash, 460
of, 468
composition of,461
carbohydrates, 460
origin of, 467
of, 459
components
composition of, 461
sources
temperature,
processes
sulphur,179
oxidative,146
average
condition,438
drinking water, 455
exercise,457
external conditions,453
shelter,456
nature
potassium, 181
proteins, 160
sodium, 181
147
generalconceptionof, 144
influence
on,
of breed, 473
INDEX
continued
Milk,
protein as stimulus to,
Milk
"
influence
of feed
on
in, 528
proteins,459
origin of, 465
secretion of,464
solids, composition
breed
influence
on,
502
percentage
of fat
of, influence
percentage
sources
production,459
periodicfunction, 476
animal
as
as
stimulus
to, 522
on,
of environment, 478
exercise,480
fatigue,482
flavoring substances, 522
frequency of milking, 478
individuality,
514
plane of nutrition,514
protein-richfeeds, 506
proteinsupply,
504,
507
shelter,484
stage of lactation,476
483
modifying factors,484
minimum
of fat for, 519
protein for, 501
values for,493, 497
net energy
equivalent fatteningvalues, 498
outgo of ash in, 520
physiology of, 459
protein as stimulus to, 502
requirements for, 501
relative values of proteinsfor, 492
temperature,
"
of
continued
on,
523
of katabolism
in, 515
supply of ash in, 521
utilization of,
in, 493
energy
feed in, 488
protein in,488
estimate of, 489, 491
Milking, completeness of, influence of on
composition, 480
yield,480
frequency of, influence of on composition,
479
yield,478
Milling, by-products of, 582
of, 584
uses
Mineral
ash
feed
of
on
production,
474
of feed
737
matter, 5
Molasses, 589
Molasses
feeds,589
Molecular
simplificationin digestion,103
Monosaccharids, 8
composition of, 8
Motion, tissues of, 50
Motor, efficiencyof body as, 544
Mouth, 79
Muscle
extractives,37
fat-free,composition of, 52
mechanical
efficiencyof, 545
Muscles, 50, 531
composition of, 51
structure
of, 50
Muscular
work, nature of, 531
Net
energy
below
critical temperature,
310
Net
673
importance of, 667
correction of, for crude
determination
of, 272
for cattle,659
fiber,669
different purposes,
279
fattening,360
growth, 390
of embryo, 393
older animals,
393
INDEX
738
energy
"
"
net
production,494, 497
equivalentfattening values,498
ruminants, 660
swine, 661
work
production,563
on,
of age,
666
of feed, 664
amount
breed, 666
heavy feeding, 450
individuality,666
of
kind
method
of
nutrients, 668
digestible
example of,203
Nitrogen factors,69
Nitrogen-freeextract :
compositionof digested,.121
of, 72
of, in feeding stuffs,71
Nitrogen, free,not excreted, 202
Nitrogenous products, excretion of, 140
constituents
determination
matter
influence of work
katabolized
on
in work, nature
of, 540
originof, 160
Non-proteins, 36
determination
of, in feeding stuffs,69
digestion of, 96, 100
generalpropertiesof, 36
of,36
groups
indirect utilization of, 622
622
influence of, on digestibility,
factors
for, 70
nitrogen
occurrence
of, 36
value of, 324, 684
for maintenance, 324
Nucleoproteins, 34
metabolism
of, 168
Nucleus
of cells,
42
Nucleic acids,34
digestionof, 99
t
Nutrients
digestible,599
energy
from, 646
as
measure
ratio,600
Oat
hulls,584
Offal,composition of, 55
proportion of body ash in, 56
fat in, 56
proteinin, 56
Oil extraction,by-products of, 586
Oil meals, 587
seeds, 581
fats and,
Oils,distinction between
19
ethereal,40
80
Organic acids,production of
of, 542
of urine, 159
216
energy,
effect,live weight
of, 196
total,195
Nutritive
Omasum,
katabolism
from, 667
of, 648
and
ing,
fattenrelative,for maintenance
361
of, 189, 335
Neutrality, maintenance
Nitrogen balance, 202
determination of, 203
energy
net
includes
production,666
of determination, 271
Non-nitrogenous
values
energy
metabolizable
milk
influence
continued
Nutrients,
continued
values,
suckling animals, 391
maintenance, 271
Net
in digestion,
90
Organic matter, 4
able
digestible,computation of metabolizfrom, 648
energy
values from, 673
net energy
subdivision
of, 4
maintenance
of, 188
Osmotic
pressure,
335
Outgo of chemical
in cutaneous
energy,
229
excretion, 231
feces,230
urine, 231
heat, 235
kinetic energy,
work,
235
235
INDEX
Peptids,30,
Peptones,
Period
"
continued
determination
of,630
of feeding stuffs,630 ,634, 678
Prolamins, 33
Proteans, 35
Proteases, 79, 86, 87
:
bility,
digesti-
622
of energy,
318, 542
to milk glands, 502
body, fluctuations of, 319
as
fiber,71
35
35
system, 477
source
stimulus
production,543, 560
work
insufficient,effect of,
swine, 409
katabolism,
on
growth
of
dependent on supply,322
in fasting,251
305
milk production,514
Plasma, blood,
125
Polypeptids,31
n
Polysaccharids,
chemical structure
terminology of, 12
Potassium, metabolism
of, 6
occurrence
of, 181
of body with,
S67
of, compared with body, 567
efficiency
Practical feeding trials,
592
Precipitation,shelter from, 456
animal
Production
as, 192
values,
regards protein,678
634
energy,
definition of,630
as
3B
variable,251
normally small, 251
in work, influence of non-nitrogenous
nutrients on, 538
influence on, of feed supply,316
,
of, 1
plant,comparison
motor,
values,
addition
respiration
apparatus, 212
Phosphatids, 22, 23
Phospholipins, 22
Phosphoproteins, 35
Phosphorus :
anabolism
of, 180
digestionof, 101
forms of, 7, 180, 421
inorganic,value of, 421
katabolism
of, 180
metabolism
of, 180
occurrence
of, 7
Pigs:
requirementsof, 400
energy
feeding standards for,412
gains by, in growth, 401
proteinrequirements of, 411
Plane of nutrition,influence of,on energy
requirements for maintenance,
Prime
Production
Protein
Pettenkofer
Power
739
work, 536
of,
for growth, 446
maintenance, 316,
minimum
milk
323
production,501
330
INDEX
74o
Protein,
"
continued
influence
of energy
on,
Proteins,
originof, 465
physical propertiesof, 25
putrefaction of, 99
relative values of, 678
for growth, 381
maintenance, 315
milk production, 492
simple, 25, 26
anabolism
of, 160
classification of, 32
cleavage products of, 28
composition of, 26
deaminization
of, 165
reversible,166
formation
of,
ammonia
in katabolism
of, 165
carbohydrates from, 167
fat from, 168
hydrolysisof, 28, 164
katabolism
of, 162
metabolism
of, 160
olism
nitrogenous end products of katabof, 162
non-nitrogenous residue of, 163
proportions of cleavage products in,
"
447
_
milk
Proteins,24
alfalfa,values of,683
cereal,values of, 683
chemical
changes in resorptionof, 107
coagulated, 35
coagulation of,26
conjugated, 25, 34
derived, 25, 35
primary, 35
secondary, 35
digestion of, 83, 88, 95
by erepsin,98
"pepsin,96
trypsin,97
formation
of fat
functions
of, 185
continued
"
supply,386
31
of, 27
synthesis of, 30
from digestiveproducts, 160
two
stages in katabolism of, 164
unbalanced, 679
Proteoses, 35
Protoplasm, 42
composition of, 44
Ptyalin, 78, 79
conditions of action of, 92
Pulmonary
exchange, investigationof,
structure
214
Putrefaction
of
proteins,99
Pylorus,83
Quantity of feed, influence
incomplete,679
tibility,
diges-
Raffinose, n
of growth, 373
Rate
at different ages,
from, 173
of, on
613
Quotient,respiratory,207
Rations
374
of milk, 459
for work
production,calculation of,565
INDEX
Rectum, 85
Regnault-Reiset
respirationapparatus,
209
values
Relative
of
597
Requirements :
for fattening,350, 359, 361, 363
growth, 396, 399, 403, 414
maintenance, 269, 280, 313, 332
production, 444, 445, 448
meat
milk production, 500, 501, 511, 520
work production, 560, 562
of ash,
for growth, 414
maintenance, 332
production,520
production,562
milk
work
105
Respiration,123,
apparatus,
132
influence of work
polish,583
456
precipitation,
457
wind, 456
of, on
209
on,
536
604
swine, 606
requirements for growth, 401
energy
maintenance, 292
influence of feed consumption on heat
production by, 653
pared
maintenance
requirements of, comwith cattle,294
proteinrequirements for growth, 407
production, 456
production,484
fasting
Size of animal, influence of, on
katabolism, 258
of ash ingredients,
Skeleton as reserve
influence
of tissues,136
Saliva, 79
action of, in stomach, 73
starch, 92
on
Saponificationof fats in digestion,95
Schematic
body, 195
Scleroproteins,34
Sheep :
by, compared with horse,
digestibility
sun,
208
iS3
696
in,
proportion of vegetative organs
576
Rumen, 80
Ruminants, digestibilityby, compared
with horses,604
swine, 606
speciesof, 603
values for,660
net energy
Rumination, 81
Rye bran, 582
Shelter from
in, 106
Pettenkofer, 212
Regnault-Reiset,
calorimeters,236
Rhamnose,
maintenance, 456
741
meat
milk
338
exchange through, 139
Skin, gaseous
Slaughter tests, comparative, 199, 351
of, 181
Sodium, metabolism
6
of,
occurrence
Solution of nutrients in digestion,101
603
Species,influence of,on digestibility,
of ruminants, digestibility
by, 603
dynamic action, 275
Specific
INDEX
742
effects
Specific
associated
on
on
fats,527
nucleic acids,169
production,523
milk
influence
Speed,
Synthesis
of hippuricacid,163
of feeds,448
with
of,
on
160
of, 161
seat
energy
Standing
digestive products,
simple proteinsfrom
efficiency of
552, 557
and
lying, influence
of,
on
in the
Syntheticprocesses
body, 146
fastingkatabolism, 261
Starch, 13
digestionof, 79, 88, 92
in intestines,
94
stomach, 93
fermentation
of, in digestion,94
manufacture, by-products of, 587
values, 672
Steapsin, 79, 86
Stomach, 79
of hog, 81
horse, 81
ruminants, 80
sheep, 80
of feed from, 83
passage
Straw, 577
values for
Suckling animals, net energy
growth of, 391
Sucrase, 79, 87
Sucrose, 10
Sugar beet pulp, 589
Sugar manufacture, by-products of, 588
Sulphur,
digestionof, 101
katabolism
of, 179
metabolism
of, 179
occurrence
of, 7
Sun, shelter from, 457
Sundry ingredients of animals,
chemical
regulation of, 263
physical regulation of, 262
critical,
264, 453
lowered
by feed consumption, 308
effects of extremes
of, 266
external,influence of age, on effects of,
body,
454
humidity, on
live weight
fastingkatabolism,
influence of, on
262, 265
requirements for
energy
nance,
mainte-
304
production,453
meat
milk
of
production, 483
modifying factors,484
drinking water, influence
of,
on
production,455
requirements for
meat
Tissues
animal,
39
45
classification of, 45
per
unit
connective, 49
elastic,49
epidermal,57
composition of, 57
of, 57
functions
digestibility
by, compared
on
on
maintenance, 308
Tendon, 49
Tissue, adipose, 58
compositionof, 59
of, 258
Surplus feed, disposalof, 350
with
fowls,
608
ruminants, 606
effect of insufficient proteinon
growth
of, 409
requirements for growth, 400
maintenance, 285
influence of feed consumption on heat
production by, 653
values for,661
net energy
protein requirements for growth, 408
maintenance, 329
energy
of ration
amount
plants,40
Surface, computation of,
computation of katabolism
Swine
Tankage, 590
Temperature,
of alimentation, 54
chemical
compositionof,55
motion, 50
58
supporting,46
reserve,
Tonus,
534
Total
feed
required, computation
of,
697
Training, influence
body, 556
of,
on
efficiencyof
Triglycerids,
17, 19
elementary compositionof,20
*HE
following pages
books
by
the
same
contain
author
or
advertisements
on
kindred
of
subjects
of Feeding
Farm
Principles
By
SLEETER
Associate in Animal
Animals
BULL
$1.75
illustrated,
i2tno,
This volume
is
outgrowth
an
students
author's
in
from
class manual
written
for the
in stock
general,elementary
feeding.
underlying the art of feeding animals have been
will not only be suitable
that the book
presentedin such a manner
for collegecourses
in general feeding,but will also
for use
text
a
as
who
has not
had
the opportunity of a
be valuable to the farmer
education
in
technical
agriculture.
The
course
scientific facts
first discusses
author
The
them
presenting
presented rather
classes of
in
definite rules
livestock
standards and
feeds, should
simple,
the
which,
the
concise
taken
discussion
subject,
Following that are
manner.
in
of the
connection
nutritive
with
value
the
different
the
of the
feeding
different
the
enable
factory
satisinexperienced feeder to formulate
rations.
Also, in treatingof the feeding values of the different
the
statements
binations
feeds,
regarding the amounts, proportions and comof feeds
in the
rather
specific
are
animals
speciesand
has, in
of each
and
order
of the
trations
illus-
avoid
to
the different
duplication,
principalfeeds
for the
classes of livestock.
of corn, its
colts,pigs and lambs;
discussion
cattle,horses,hogs
use
animals
of valuable
included.
the author
separatelythe
different
In
been
classes of farm
large number
of
classes of farm
discussed
of different
rations
general.
tables have
and
Instead
than
is
in the
For
rations
addition
rations,the
to
author
the stockman.
"The
book
ought
to be in the
libraryof
every
farmer."
"
Farmer's
Mail, Topeka.
fail to find wide
"It cannot
by the two classes of people
range
the feeder."
and
desires to reach, namely, the student
the author
Chemical Society,Washington, D.C.
Journal American
"
THE
Publishers
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
64-66
Fifth
Avenue
New
York
The
Feedingof
By
Animals
WHITMAN
New
HOWARD
York
JORDAN
AgriculturalExperiment
volume
has
been
revised
to
illustrated,
463 pages, $1.75
incorporatethe
knowledge concerninganimal
recent
Geneva
at
This
Station
the text
into
nutrition
convenient
more
more
and
form
to
ganize
or-
for student
use.
As
with
the former
I deals
Part
parts :
edition,the
with
classes of farm
volume
will be useful
who
have
animal
nutrition.
such,
who
students
studies.
treatise
"A
the
at
time
helpfulin
valuable
and
the
with
Part
such
II
work
with
serving the
gives
attention
the nutrition
attention to
no
given considerable
farmer
into two
of the
By this arrangement
for classroom
same
have
The
animals.
given littleor
is divided
chemistr
general principlesof bio-
practicalside of feedinganimals
relate specifically
as
to
principles
various
as
the
text
those
the
dents
stu-
bio-chemistry
interest of those
attention to chemical
practiceof
contribution
animal
husbandry.
agriculturalliterature.
Not
of rules or details of practice,but an
statement
a
effort to present the main facts and principles
fundamental
to the art of feedinganimals."
New
England Farmer.
to
"
"A
book
around."
"
to take
Farm
THE
Publishers
down
Stock
and
MACMILLAN
64-66
COMPANY
Fifth
Avenue
New
York
year
Scientific
Feedingof Animals
The
Translation
Authorized
WILLIAM
KELLNER
0.
Professor
By
by
B.Sc,
GOODWIN,
Ph.D.
Lecturer
on
$1.75
Cloth,i2mo,
An
English translation
authorized
of Dr.
generallaws
feeding of animals
underlie the
which
scientific foundations
work
It
Kellner.
O.
of the valuable
which
upon
the
the
the
and
of
principles
animal
valuable
books
Animals.
The
nutrition rest.
"I wish
that it is
to say
English language
in the
is
author
He
planned
Feeding
on
in
extremely lucid
statement.
and
covers
such
as
of the most
one
concise
expressionand
his field in
will
Farm
give
the
that
manner
reader
most
is well
excellent
Kellner's
"Dr.
in this
to
be
subjectis
needed,
have
to
P.
Ohio
S. Plumb,
Charles
standing as
too high for
I feel
and
done
sure
service in
any
State
student
words
and
investigator
of commendation
rendering this
work
"
Publishers
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
64-66
Fifth
Avenue
fessor
Pro-
University.
students."
Professor
English and American
Armsby, Pennsylvania State College.
THE
in
New
York
and
lisher
pub-
available
Henry
Breedingof Animals
The
By
Professor of Animal
B.
F.
Husbandry,
Dean
of the Experiment
text-book
methods
The
animal
notable
achievements
in modern
how
of the
the constitution
to
heritanc
in-
ment
develop-
of the most
one
through man's
be
been
representedin
thus transmitted
and
germplasm
the
qualitieshave
to
come
breeding.
from
parent
The
principleswhich
scientific
all be
breeding may
development. The
which
of animal
described and
The
The
breeding.
practice of
animal
inheritance,reproduction and
text
the basis of
recognizedas
are
the
govern
classified under
well established
been sufficiently
of
is
man
valuable
qualitieshave
these
to
agriculture.How,
acquired,and
animal
resultingin
qualitiesuseful
highly specialized
of
questionsof
peculiar to
are
of the domestic
improvement
pages, $1.75
practiceswhich
and
illustrated,
304
the fundamental
plants and
to
common
Director
i2tno,
This
M.S.
MUMFORD,
to
afford
physicalbasis
of
practice
the
are
illustrated.
to the practice
physiologyof reproductionand its applications
art
development which
heredity and
of the breeder's
an
are
discussed.
The
constitute
practicalquestionsof
and
sterility,
crossbreeding,
grading,fertility,
in the
lightof
the
most
modern
sex
development
of
science.
THE
Publishers
COMPANY
MACMILLAN
64-66
Fifth
Avenue
tions
interrela-
New
York
are
breeding
in-
sidered
con-
biological