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MEI TeachingSlides
MEI TeachingSlides
Resistance Measurement
Voltmeter and Ammeter
Methods
Two connections
Case 1: Voltmeter across
load
Error in current measurement
Applicable: R << R
with load
Error in voltage measurement
Applicable: R >> R
Substitution Method
3
Va Vb Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
For resistance measurement
Supply and detector: dc
Magnitudes are only balanced
capacitance measurement
Supply and detector: ac
Magnitude and phase both
balanced
At balance,
R
Q
Bridge Accuracy:
Q).
Sensitivity of G.
S P
Bridge Precision:R
Q
Bridge sensitivity depends on:
Supply voltage: E
Galvanometer resistance: rG
Current sensitivity of Galvanometer
Applicable: 5 to 1012
5
Bridge Sensitivity
R
S
R P S Q
r P || R Q || S
VR VS E B
Thevenin equivalent circuit
at G terminals
IG
R that produces smallest
IG to shift G pointer by 1 mm
on scale (sensitivity of G)
VR VS
r rG
method
High voltage DC supply
Voltmeter across supply (R >> RV)
if
A P
SP
Q
B R
R
i1 R i2 B I S
i1 P i2 A I Q
I Q P i1 i 2 A P
IS
R i1 i 2 B R
Applicability: 10 to 1
Thermo-electric voltage drop
Balance with supply polarity
switched
Take average
Measurement and Electronic Instruments
(EE 21004)
bridge
Cable fault detection
Inductor/Capacitor: Basics
At resonance :
VL VC and I
E
R
L
1
R
CR
VL VC
Q
E
E
Q
10
AC Bridge: Balancing
Both magnitude and
phase to be balanced
Two (or more) elements
are adjusted in turn and
iteratively
Bridge sensitivity
Defined and computed
11
Series RC Bridges
C x C1
4
Series-Resistance Capacitance
Bridge
Modified De Sauty bridge
R
R
RS R1 4
C S C1 3
Applicable: Rlow
3
D (pure) R4
capacitors
12
Parallel RC Bridge
Applicable: low D capacitor (with
R4
R3
RP R1
C P C1
R3 for mid D capacitors
R4
Also applicable
Note similarities:
Circuit elements in balancing
branches
Balanced equations
(R3 R4) as voltage divider
13
Schering Bridge
A series RC bridge
Standard low D air/mica C1
To balance, adjustable C3
RX R4
C3
C1
C X C1
R3
R4
D C X RX C3 R3
Applicable:
Small Cx at low E
High V capacitance
Guard ring to isolate leakage
current
Grounded screens: eliminate
stray C
Insulation/dielectric material
Substitution method
C X C S ( 2) C S (1)
14
Wien Bridge
Combination of series-
parallel RC
combinations
Balanced in a particular
frequency
Often R1 = R2 and C1 =
C2
Applicability
R3
R
C
1 2
R4 R2
C1
15
1
f
2 C1C2 R1 R2
frequency measurement
Inductance Comparison
Similar to series RC bridge
Bridge
R and R (or R ) are
1
adjusted in turn
Balancing Re and Im parts
Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
R4
RS R1
R3
R4
LS L1
R3
Maxwell Bridge
Accurate standard
RS R1
Q
R4
R3
LS C3 R1 R4
LS
R3 C3
RS
variable C is more
available than standard
variable L
Note: series RL and
parallel RC to nullify
phases
Most suitable: low Q
factor coils
Q is limited by size of
standard variable R3
Sometimes called
Maxwell-Wein bridge
17
Hay Bridge
Standard capacitor is series RC
in Maxwell bridge
Balance equations simpler with
parallel RL representation
As phases nullify
Form is same as Maxwell bridge
Convert back to series RL form
RP R1
Q
R4
R3
LP C3 R1 R4
18
RP
1
LP R3 C3
R1 R3 R4 2C3
RS
2
2
1 2C3 R3
LS
R1 R4C3
2
2
1 2C3 R3
Anderson Bridge
balance
First balanced with DC supply:
varying (R1, R3, R4)
Second balance with AC supply:
varying only R5.
R4
RS R1
R3
LS C3
19
low Q inductance
measurement
R4
R5 R1 R3 R1R3
R3
Rae
R1 R5 R5 R3 R1 R3 N
R3
R3
Rce
N
R1
Rac
N
R5
Owen Bridge
Another modification of
Maxwell bridge
Fixed standard C3
Variable C1
C1 fixed: if adjustable R2
used
Applicability: Wide range of
LS C3 R1 R4
RS R4
C3
C1
inductance measurement
20
C3
R2
C1
Carey-Foster Bridge:
bridge
Note: one arm is shorted
At balance: VZ1 = VZ2 = 0
M balances in Z1
Applicability: Measurement
of
Mutual inductance (M) when C3
VZ 1 VZ 2 0
is standard
C3 when M is standard
i1 ( R1 j L1 ) (i1 i2 ) j M
VZ 3 VZ 4
R j
3
i2 i1
21
M C3 R1 R4
C3
R4
R
L1 M 1 3
R4
Multifunction bridge
constructed with:
standard resistors
Examples:
Wheatstone bridge
Series or parallel RC
bridge
Maxwell bridge
Hay bridge
Commercially available
multifunction bridges:
Switch connections as
needed
22
Min. capacitive/inductive
coupling
Null might not be true balance
Substitution
solved
Unknown ZX in series or parallel
combination with a similar but
known ZS (e.g., Schering bridge)
23
Unbalanced bridge
If a bridge is in unbalanced
condition
to be balanced
Often Mag-Phase balancing in
polar coordinates simplifies
an extra element to be
added
adjustable
Often an iterative method
To find currents/voltages:
Apply KCL, KVL
24
Potentiometers
Instrument Calibration
25
Measurement
Measurementand
andElectronic
ElectronicInstruments
Instruments
(EE
(EE21004)
21004)
DC Potentiometer: Basics
AB: Slide wire
uniform resistance per
unit length
Scale to read voltage
C: Sliding contact
B1: normal battery
G: Null detector
Sensitive, center-zero
Protective shunt
resistance
VBC = VB2 and VBC= VX
Standardization
Open-circuit terminal
voltage
26
DC Potentiometer: Switched
Extending: accuracy and range
resistors
Precision resistors: initial
adjustment
Rotary slide-wire: final
adjustment
Vx = VR11 + VR12 + VBC
Voltage divider:
VR3 = VB2
Extends range
Iterative adjustment:
B1 closed-circuit voltage drifts
(F, C) and (R1, R2) and repeat
27
DC ammeter calibration:
Instrument types
Potentiometric
Absolute instruments
Rayleigh current
balance
Secondary
instruments
Standard (ref.)
instrument
Comparison method:
Standard instrument
Accuracy: > 4 times
Calibration chart: error
adjustment
Precise values of
resistance and
voltage
Shunt box
28
Shunt box
Precision resistors
Movable contact (actually rotary switch), Left-side carries ammeter current
Right-side no current when balanced (null). No effect on measurement
29
DC voltmeter calibration:
Potentiometric
Comparison method
Precision voltage divider
Not required for small voltage
range
Volt-box
Simple multi-level voltage
dividers
30
Volt-box
Voltage divider
Line voltage: across voltmeter
31
DC Potentiometer for AC
measurements
Conditions
AC voltage to be measured should be derived from
32
AC measurement: DC pot.
Standardize using
DC setup
Both switches at 1
Measure I1dc
Rebalance with AC
setup
Both switches at 2
So that, I1ac (rms) =
I1dc
Then make G2 null
Phase balance
makes it possible
33
Polar AC Potentiometer DC
1.
standardization
2. Make Iac same
as Idc
irrespective of
rotor = 0, 90,
45
By R2, R3, C1
3. Connect VX.
4. Get G2 null
By (Y1-Y2) and
rotor
34
Co-ordinate AC
Potentiometer
1. P1
standardized
by DC (& R2).
2. P2
standardized
by P1 (& R1,
C1, R3) to give
specified V3
Null in ac G
3. Vx connected.
Gall Tinsley potentiometer
Two separate potentiometers: (R 1, C1) give 90 phase shift
V3 in phase with P1 supply as M nullifies (R 1, C1) phase shift.
When standardized, IP1 and IP2 are equal but at 90 phase
shift
If phase > 180 , then terminal connections are reversed.
35
Null in ac G
by Y1-Y4.
4. Read P1 and
P2 .
36
Electromechanical
Instruments
Deflection instrument, PMMC meters,
Electrodynamometers
37
Measurement
and
Electronic
Instruments
(EE
Measurement
Measurement
and
and
Electronic
Electronic
Instruments
Instruments
21004)
(EE
(EE21004)
21004)
Deflection instruments
calibrated scale
Three forces:
Deflecting force
Controlling force
Damping force
PMMC
Electrodynamic instruments
Magnet replaced by stator coil
Moving iron: repulsive force
Electrostatic: attractive-
repulsive
Thermoelectric:
thermocouples
38
motion
spring
39
Damping force:
Aluminum former
Only during coil motion.
Eddy current (PMMC):
nonmagnetic conductor
Under/over/critical damping
Suspension
Jeweled bearing
suspension
Breakable: to sudden
socks
Sock-absorbing springs
40
suspension
Two flat metal ribbons
Phosphor bronze or platinum
alloy
Controlling force
Coil current conducting
Soft-iron core
Increase field uniformity
magnetic field
Controlling spring
Between coil and zero
adjustment screw
Counter-weights
Mechanical balance
Nullify gravitational
effects
Polarized instrument
Positive/negative
deflection
Only for dc.
For ac, need rectifiers.
41
Permanen
t magnet
core
Torque equations
Faradays law
I : current (Amp)
B : magnetic flux density (Tesla)
L : length of coil (meters)
D : diameter of coil (=2r)
N : number of coil turns
F : force = 2 B I L N (in Newton)
TD : deflection torque = F r
Nm)
TC : control torque = K x
deflection angle (K: spring
control constant)
42
At equilibrium: TD = TC
Improper zero
adjustment
Control screw to adjust
pointer
Advantages
Linear scale: deflection = C x
I
Low operating current
voltmeter, or ohmmeter
Core-magnet PMMC:
magnetic shielding
Disadvantages
dc measurements. Ac with
rectifier.
More expensive to
manufacture
43
DC Ammeter
Ammeter circuit
Shunt resistor:
4-terminal Precision resistor
Smaller RS: larger I measured
copper coil
Made of Manganin or Constantan
Same for shunt resistor also
Burden voltage
Ammeter voltage drop
44
parallel
Ayrton shunt
Different resistance in series and
parallel
45
DC Voltmeter
46
0.7V
rms
Linear scale
Variation in VF affects low voltage
measurement
True for pure sinusoids
For other AC signals: rescale
starting from Iav computation
47
parallel
ISH >> Im means ID is
large
Diode biased beyond
knee
in linear V-I zone
Small VF of D2 ensures
Low reverse leakage
current of D1 through M
Protects M against
reverse Voltage
Iav = 0.5 (0.637 Ipeak)
48
R2)
D2 reverse biased
both
49
50
Electrodynamometer:
Permanent magnet is
construction substituted by
stationary field coils
Same or different currents
vane
Air-tight enclosure, air
passing slowly
Eddy current loss in AC: so,
not used
51
Electrodynamometer:
Operation
meters.
52
Multiplier resistance
Ammeter
Field coil current is measured I
Thermal effect not important
Deflection torque
Energy (W): 0.5 If2Lf + 0.5 Im2Lm + If
ImM
TD = If Im dM/d(theta) : Theta =
deflection (in radians)
Nonlinear scale
53
Attractio
n type
Repulsio
n type
Concentri
c-vane MI
54
W = 0.5 I2L
TD = 0.5 I2 dL/d(theta) : Theta = deflection (in radians)
Advantage
Terminal non-polarized can be used in AC and DC
Can be used as ammeter or voltmeter
Inexpensive
Robust
Disadvantage
Nonlinear scale
Larger operating current than PMMC
Limited ac frequency operation
Higher power consumption
Errors due to hysteresis and stray magnetic fields
55
Electrodynamic Wattmeter
Field (current) coils
single coil symbol
Moving (voltage) coil
Multiplier resistor to restrict
current
Reversed polarity: still positive
Transfer instrument
Calibrated in DC: P = V I (in watts)
In AC: actual P = Vrms Irms cos
59
Wattmeter: Errors,
Burdens of the coils
compensation
Compensated wattmeter
Field coil: Thick copper wire
Compensating coil: Thin, reverse-
way
60
Multirange wattmeters:
Current coils: series parallel
Multiplier: different values
Check: neither coil to be overloaded
Often, V is constant: W linear to I.
Neg. deflection: reverse one coil
polarity
Not suitable at high frequency
Using instrument transformers
61
Three ammeter
method
62
wattmeter
63
3-phase 2-wattmeter:
Phasors
65
66
Energy Meters
Energy: (V I cos ) t
Induction watt-hr meter
adjustment.
Breaking (high current), creep (zero current),
thermal effects, bearing friction, supply
voltage change.
Connections same as in different wattmeter
connections
67
divider
Voltage drop: relay accuracy
Tuning Inductor
Resonance at power freq.
Nullify capacitive drop
68
underdamped
Called: subsistence
transients
69
Drainage reactor
50Hz: small drop
CVT performance intact
RF: high impedance
RF signal blocked
CVT blocks RF from
secondary
Tuning pack
Relay operation control
Ferroresonace
Single-phase fault in 3-
phase system
Frequency, magnetic flux,
voltage, fault-time, circuit
loss
Dangerously high voltage
70
Semiconductors
Germanium or Indium
antimonide: measurable
I N q vbt
FB q v B q v B sin
FE q E H
&
EH
I B sin
Nqbt
q E H q v B sin 0
I B sin
VH E H b
K H IB sin
Nqt
71
antimonide:
Measurable (V or mV range)
-ive (electrons) and +ive (holes)
carriers
Amplifier circuit
Applications:
Electrical measurements:
Flux (B), current (I)
Hall-effect multiplier (small power)
Electronics measurements:
Type of carrier: n- or p- type doping
Carrier concentration,
72
B or I measurement
Non-contact type
measurement
B Im
I
Im
73
J v I
wd
VH Bvd BJd
BI
74
Nq
J = current density
Sigma = conductivity
= mobility
N = carrier
concentration
Electronic level
multiplier circuits
Analog Oscilloscopes
Cathode-ray Oscilloscopes (CRO), Dual trace CRO,
Probes, Displays
75
Cathode-Ray tube
76
Electrostatic Focussing
lines
A2 : focusing ring
77
Deflection
Sensitivities: cm/volts
Deflection factor: volts/cm
78
Deflection Amplifier
79
Waveform display
signal
Need of synchronization: Repetition and sweep
Deflection sensitivities
80
discharging of C1
Schmitt trigger points
Upper (UTP)
Lower (LTP)
Numerically equal
Controls ramp
amplitude
Saturation of op-amp
UTP = (Vcc -1)
(R6/R5)
source
I1 = (Vb1 Vbe)/R3
V1 = I1 (T/C1)
81
Automatic Time-base
Synchronizatio
n
Schmitt trigger
Inverting type
Zero-crossing
detector
Positive clipper
Sweep gen.
Sync i/p
inverting
-ive spike sync
Hold-off ckt.
For multiple
cycles
S1 switches
triggering
waveform
82
Synchronization
Negative spike
and inverting
input of Schmitt
in sweep gen.
Hold-off circuit
Otherwise just
one cycle
Compare ramp
level to ignore
unwanted
spikes
83
commence at
any level
Blanking
Fly-back
suppressed
Short -ive pulse
makes grid ive
during sweep
(max-to-min in
ramp)
84
85
86
period T
DC shift added
intentionally
Alternately
and repeatedly
displayed
High switching
frequency:
displays seem
simultaneous.
Except at low
frequency
88
frequency
89
Oscilloscope controls
90
difference
Vernier knob should be in CAL position
91
Pulse measurements
source (Rs):
92
t ro 2.2 RS Ci
t rd
tri 2 tro 2
t ri 3 t ro
OR PW 10 t ro
Oscilloscope Probes
Typically CRO input
very high
Vi = Vs Ri /(Ri + Rs)
To avoid significant
attenuation or phase
shift, signal
frequency < (3dB
cut-off frequency)/10
At 3dB cutoff (f2),
resistance =
reactance
Assuming deflection
amplifier cutoff is
much higher
93
Attenuator probes
Compensating C1 = C2 (Ri/R1)
94
Probe calibration
particular CRO
Front panel control
Active probes
FET voltage followers: Electronic amplifiers to
Display of device
characteristics
Lissajou figures
One signal
Same frequency, different phase
Different frequencies (with ratio = rational
number)
Z-Display
Z-input (backside) for intensity modulation
(fm)
Number of gaps = fm/fp
97
Oscilloscope specifications
Sensitivities
Horizontal/vertical
2mV/div 10V/div
0.5 s/div 200 ns/div
Probe ratio (1:1, 10:1)
Time-base mignifier
Generally 8 mV 800 V
Accuracies
Voltage measurement:
V/div: 3%
Time/div: 5%
Reading: 5% of one div.
Rise-time specification
T_ro = 0.35/f_hi
T_ri > 3 x T_ro
98
Oscilloscope performance
99
Special Oscilloscopes
Analog and Digital Storage Oscilloscopes,
Sampling Oscilloscope
100
Bistable ASO
Need:
Persistence
(ms)
Transient
events
Storage layer
of phosphor
for secondary
emission
Write-gun
+ive charge-
path
Flood gun
Low energy
electrons
Collimator
Metal film
Slightly +ive
101
Variable-persistence ASO
Waveform sampling
103
Sampling Oscilloscope
Staircase generator
Ramp starts every time staircase voltage changes
Sampling gate: Hold circuit
Unblanking pulse to display only dot sample at that
moment
104
sample and
display
certain
portion
Bias voltage
and stair
density
defines
location and
sensitivity to
detect signal
details
105
sampling
Amplitude
Quantizati
on
Analog to
digital
conversio
n (ADC)
106
108
LCD display
passing
Either ON or OFF
column)
Dot waveforms: dpi concept
Digitized sample can be directly fed
in
109
concept
Memory size
Num. of
samples
(bytes)
stored
4000 words
(4K)
Interpolation
Linear
Sinusoidal
110
Tsignal/Tsampling =
fsampling/fsignal
Real-time sampling
Equivalent-time
sampling (high
freq)
Aliasing utilized
Real-time and
storage
Oscilloscope (RSO)
10 or more samples
Min. rise time <
sampling time
Trise(min) =
1/SamplingRate
111
DSO: Applications
Autoset
Multichannel
112
display
Waveform
processing
Pre-triggering
Post-triggering
Zoom
Time delay selection: Time
expansion
Restart
Zoom + resampling
triggering
Max/Min level detector
Baby sitting mode
Roll mode
Slow processes, slow
113
bench
instruments
Equivalent
circuit
determinatio
n
Terminals
Test
Frequency
Bias voltage
or current
114
Q-Meter
RF range (L,C)
Resonance property
VL = VC and I = E/R
Q = L/R = 1/ CR
Q = VL/E = VC/E
Fixed E
Linear Q scale
Variable E
Multiply-Q-by scale
Calibrated C dial
Coil inductance meter
Residuals
High impedance
measurements
Parallel connection
Low impedance
measurements
Series connection
115
Spectrum Analyzer
Tuned for RF
Signal
harmonics
116
Applications
117