OPERATIONAL DESIGN

Rail Operation Design

The purpose of this section is to give an elementary

idea of how the concepts of capacity, volume, headway,
and safety considerations are used in rail and bus operation
design.
We have seen that volume may be defined as the
number of vehicles passing a fixed point on the guideway in
a unit of time. Volume is related to headway given by
3600
V
h

(9)

Similarly, capacity is related to headway as given by the equation

3600
cv
hm

(10)

where cv , is the theoretical vehicular capacity or maximum volume

(veh/hr), and hm is the minimum headway (sec). Theoretical
passenger capacity is given by

3600 pN
c p pNcv
hm

(11)

where
cp = theoretical passenger line capacity (number of passengers)
p = vehicles/train
N = maximum passenger per vehicle

If practical vehicular capacities are to be considered, the ratio

of practical to theoretical vehicular line capacities is introduced.
This ratio, called the guideway utilization factor, is denoted by .
Therefore, actual vehicle capacity is given by
c

3600
hm

(12)

A load factor is usually used to express the percentage of vehicle

occupancy; hence,
Actual passenger capacity

3600 p N
hm

(13)

where is the load factor. When the load factor = 1, it denotes

that the vehicle is fully occupied. The maximum number of
passengers who can theoretically be squeezed into a vehicle is
called its crush load, and therefore the load factor can exceed 1.00
during, say, rush hours.

In rail design particularly, safe stopping distance is a

major concern. A safety factor is used for safe design on the
brick-wall-stop (BWS) concept. Say, for example, that when
the lead vehicle on a track stops instantaneously, the
following vehicle must be able to stop safely, with a factor
of safety of K. K can be assumed to be 1.5. The following
vehicle in such cases is considered to stop with constant
deceleration. Based on this principle,
Minimum headway,hm

Kvo pL

2d
vo

where
vo = cruise speed (ft/sec)
L = vehicle length (ft)
d = deceleration rate (ft/sec2)

(14)

Therefore, w e can now write the theoretical capacity

equation as
cp

3600 pN
Kvo 2d pL vo

(15)

For maximum capacity, we differentiate cp with respect to

vo and obtain
vo

2 pLd
K

for maximum capacity

(16)

and if we substitute vo in Equation (14), we get

hm

2 pLK
d

(17)

and the maximum theoretical capacity 2546N pd LK

The basic line-capacity equation tells us that if we wish

to increase the line capacity, we could achieve it in one of
five ways (Yu, 1982):
1. Increase the number of passengers carried by each
vehicle.
2. Increase the length of the trains.
3. Decrease the minimum allowable headway.
4. Improve the load factor.
5. Improve the guideway utilization.

Example 4: Rail Operation Design

A transit authority needs to design a rapid rail line to meet

peak-hour demand of 10, 000 passengers per hour, with a required
speed of 35 to 40 ft/see (24 to 27 mph). The following assumptions
are made: deceleration 2ft/sec2. safety factor K =1.35; minimum
headway = 120 sec; maximum headway = 240 sec; load factor = 0.9;
guideway utilization factor = 0.6. station platform limit =10 vehicles
(maximum); car length =70 ft; car capacity =130 passengers. How
many cars should a train consist of to provide adequate passenger
volume capacity? What will be the corresponding headway?

Solution

1. Determine headway
cx 3600 px

N
hx

10, 000 3600 0.6 0.9 px

Therefore, px 0.03957 hx

130
hx

2. Examine computed headways and train size. From the brickwall-stop (BWS) concept:
vo

2 pLd
K

and

hx

2 pLK
d

3. Evaluate. Examination of the preceding table should be based on

three criteria: (a) computed speed should be in the range 35 to 40
ft/sec; (b) minimum headway = 120 sec; (c) BWS ho should be less
than 120 sec.
4. Conclusion. Six-or seven-car trains are all right.
Six-car train: speed 35.28 ft/sec. hx =151.63 sec
Seven-car train: speed 38.10 ft/sec. hx =176.91 sec

Discussion
These results are meant for peak-hour service. Naturally, for
off-peak hours, the train lengths will be different, depending on
what policy headways are needed.

Bus Operation Design

Buses in mixed traffic represent the most common operating
scenario in North American cities and rural areas for small and large
buses, both standard and articulated, and for both fixed-route and
demand-responsive services. Exceptions occur when busways or
downtown bus lanes are provided in larger cities with very high
capacity routes. Because a bus operates much like other vehicles in
traffic lanes, its impact on the overall vehicle capacity of the lane
may be calculated as if it were another vehicle, using methods given
in Chapter 7. Bus vehicle capacity is calculated in similar manner as
that for exclusive urban street bus lanes, except that the
interference of other traffic on bus operation must be accounted for.
This traffic interference is greatest when off-line stops are used and
buses must wait for a gap in traffic to merge back into the street.
Some states have laws requiring motorists to yield to buses
reentering a roadway; motorists'compliance can reduce or even
eliminate the reentry delay.

For the purpose of determining capacity, a bus lane is any lane on a

roadway in which buses operate. It may be shared with other traffic or it
may be used exclusively by buses (TRB, 2000).The capacity of a critical bus
stop located along the lane significantly influences the vehicle capacity of
a bus lane. Typically, the stop with the highest volume of passengers or an
insufficient number of loading areas is the critical stop. Bus lane capacity
is also affected by the following:

Bus lane type: The vehicle capacity procedures identify three types of bus
lanes. Type 1 bus lanes have no use of the adjacent lane; Type 2 bus lanes
have partial use of the adjacent lane, which is shared with other traffic;
and Type 3 bus lanes provide for exclusive use of two lanes by buses.
Skip-stop operation: Bus lane capacity can be increased by dispersing bus
stops, so that only a portion of the buses use the bus lane stop at a
particular set of stops. This block-skipping pattern allows for a faster trip
and reduces the number of buses stopping at each stop, although it
increases the complexity of the bus system for new riders and may
increase passenger walking distances to bus stops.

Platooning: When skip stops are used, gathering buses into

platoons at the beginning of the skip-stop section maximizes the
efficiency of the operation. Each platoon is assigned a group of
stops, and the platooned buses travel as trains past the skip-stop
section. The number of buses in each group ideally should equal
the number of loading areas at each stop.

Bus stop location: Far-side stops provide the highest bus lane
capacity, but other factorsfor example, conflicts with other
vehicles, transfer opportunities, and traffic signal timingalso must
be considered when siting bus stops.

The design of a bus route is somewhat different from rail

design operation and the differences will be evident from the
description that follows. Ultimately, an operation plan would
contain information regarding the adopted headway, cycle time,
terminal time, fleet size, and the commercial speed.
Again, the capacity of a transit route is the product of the
passenger capacity per vehicle and the maximum number of
vehicles that can travel on that route. The last term is usually the
capacity of the busiest stop on the route. An expression for the
headway of a bus stop is

hm 2td 60

(18)

where hm is the minimum headway between buses (minutes), and td

is the average dwell time in seconds.

Dwell time is the amount of time a bus spends while

stopped to service passengers. When buses operate in
mixed traffic and stop in a travel lane, the reduction in the
roadway capacity is directly related to the amount of time
the buses stop. It is the time required to serve passengers
at the busiest door plus the time required to open and
close the doors. A value of 2 to 5 seconds for door opening
and closing is reasonable for normal operations.

Dwell time can be assumed to be 60 seconds for central

business district (CBD), transit center, major on-line transfer point,
or major park-and-ride stops; 30 seconds for major outlying stops;
15 seconds for typical outlying stops. Dwell time, td, is best
measured in the field for determining capacity and LOS of an
existing transit line. Equation (19) can be used to compute dwell
time.

td Pata Pbtb toc

(19)

where
td = dwell time, s
Pa = alighting passengers per bus through the busiest door during
peak 15-min(P)
ta = passenger alighting time, sec/person (s/p)
Pb = boarding passengers per bus through busiest door during peak
15-min(P)
tb = passenger boarding time (s/p)
toc= door opening and closing time (s)

Estimates of hourly passenger volume are required for the

highest-volume stops. The peak-hour factor (PHF) is used to adjust
hourly passenger volumes to reflect 15-minute conditions.
P15

P
4(PHF)

(20)

where
PHF = peak-hour factor
P = passenger volume during peak hour (P)
P15 = passenger volume during peak 15min (P).
If buses operate at frequencies longer than four buses per
hour scheduled, the denominator of Equation (20) should be
adjusted accordingly. Typical PHF values range from 0.60 to 0.95 for
transit service with a value close to 1.0 indicating possible
inadequate service of the route.

Table 10-9 provides boarding and alighting times for base

conditions. If standees are present, 0.5 seconds should be added to
the boarding times shown. The base values are multiplied by 1.2 for
heavy two-way flow through a single door. Similarly the multiplying
factor is 0.6 and 0.9 for a double-stream door or for a low-floor bus,
respectively. The frequency of service is given by
f

n
N

(21)

where
f = frequency (buses/hr) required
n = demand for service (passengers/hr)
N = maximum number of passengers per bus
Usually, the bus company decides the minimum headway, and
this figure is set in multiples of 7.5 or 10 minutes for the sake of
coordinating the operation of several bus routes operating.

The capacity of a bus route is governed by four factors: the

street capacity, the bus station platform capacity, the vehicle
capacity, and the headway. Each of the first three factors is
independent of one another, and the headway is influenced by all
three. Vehicle capacity depends on two factors: seating capacity
and standing capacity. A load factor is often used to measure seat
availability, and a load factor of 1.0 indicates that every seat is
occupied.
The passenger capacity of a bus is given by

ct ca + cb

(22)

where
Ct = total passenger capacity per vehicle
Ca = vehicle seating capacity
Cb = vehicle standing capacity
= fraction of Cb allowed
Hence, capacity Rc of a bus routing during any time period is
Rc

60ct 60(ca cb )

hm
hm

(23)

The fleet size, or the number of vehicles needed to serve a particular

route, can be determined, based on the time it takes a bus to complete a
round trip. Thus,
tR

d
vc

(24)

where
tR = round-trip travel (hr)
d = distance of a round trip (mi or km)
vc = average vehicle speed or commercial speed (mph or km/hr)

A minimum layover and recovery time(say, 10 minutes) is provided at

the end of each round trip. The number of vehicles needed (fleet size) can
be determined from
tR
N f StR
(25)
h
where Nf is the fleet size, and S is the service frequency, which equal
1/headway.

Example 5

A bus system needs to be set up between the Washington

State University Campus and the University of Idaho, a distance of
8.5.mi. The operating time is 30 min. It has been estimated that the
peak-hour demand is 400 passengers/hr and 45-seater buses are
available, which can safely accommodate 20 standees. Design the
basic system and determine the fleet size, assuming that the policy
headway is 30 min and that the minimum terminal time is 7.5 min,
which may be revised if necessary.

Solution
Operating speed, v0 60 L / to 60 8.5 / 30 17.0mph; to operating time
Policy headway = 30 min (which is arbitrary)
Terminal time = 7.5 min
60(45 20)
Headway, hm 60ct / Rc
9.75 min(adopt 10 min)
400
Cycle time, T 2(t0 tt ) 2(30 7.5) 75 min
Fleet size, N f T / h 75 /10 7.5 8 vehicles
Revised cycle time, T ' N f / h 8 10 80 min
Revised terminal time, t ' (T ' 2t0 ) / 2 80 (2 30) / 2 10 min
Commercial speed, vc d / t R 120 L / T ' 120(8.5) / 80 12.75mph

In summary,
Headway, h 10 min
Cycle time, T 80 min
Fleet size, N f 8 vehicles
Terminal time, t ' 10 min
Commercial speed, vc 12.75mph