ME ENGINEERING DESIGN

ED7008 ADVANCED METAL FORMING

TECHNIQUES

SYLLABUS

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO
THEORY OF PLASTICS AND
FORMING

TOPICS

PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Dislocations and their role in
plastic deformation

Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation is a permanent
unrecoverable deformation. When
the load that caused the deformation
is removed, the material will not
return to it's original shape but will
maintain it's newly deformed shape.
Plastic deformation is caused by
dislocation movement.
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What are dislocations?

Dislocations are line defects that
exist in metals
There are two types of dislocations:
edge and screw
The dislocation density in annealed
metals is normally = 106/cm2

Edge and Screw

Dislocations

In an edge dislocation, localized

lattice distortion exists along the
end of an extra half-plane of atoms.
A screw dislocation results from
shear distortion.
Many dislocations in crystalline
materials have both edge and
screws components; these are
mixed dislocations.
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Types of dislocations
Screw

Edge

Dislocation motionplastic
deformation

Note:Dislocationsnormallymoveunderashearstress
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Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion leads to plastic deformation.
An edge dislocation moves in response to a shear stress applied in a
direction perpendicular to its line.
Extra half-plane at A is forced to the right; this pushes the top halves
of planes B, C, D in the same direction.
By discrete steps, the extra 1/2-plane moves from L to R by
successive breaking of bonds and shifting of upper 1/2-planes.
A step forms on the surface of the crystal as the extra 1/2-plane
exits.

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c08f02
Formation
of a step
on the
surface of
a crystal
by the
motion of
(a) edge
dislocatio
n and (b)
screw
dislocatio
n.
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How does a dislocation

move?

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Slip

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The process by which plastic deformation

is produced by dislocation motion is
called slip (movement of
dislocations).
The extra -plane moves along the slip
plane.
Dislocation movement is similar to the
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Stress field of a dislocation

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When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction

(roughly 5%) of energy is retained internally; the remainder
is dissipated as heat. Mainly, this energy is stored as strain
energy associated with dislocations. Lattice distortions
exist around the dislocation line.

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Analog to an electric charge

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Modes of deformation
Slip
Twinning
Shear band formation

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Slip

Dislocations move on a certain

crystallographic plane: slip plane
Dislocations move in a certain
crystallographic direction: slip
direction
The combination of slip direction
and slip plane is called a slip
system

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Slip Systems
Dislocations move more easily on specific planes
and in specific directions.
Ordinarily, there is a preferred plane (slip plane),
and specific directions (slip direction) along which
dislocations move.
The combination of slip plane and slip direction is
called the slip system.
The slip system depends on the crystal structure
of the metal.
The slip plane is the plane that has the most
dense atomic packing (the greatest planar
density).
The slip direction is most closely packed with
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atoms (highest linear density).

Slip System

FCC
example
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Slip Plane {111}:

most dense atomic packing,

Slip Direction 110 :

highest linear density,
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Slip..
Slip planes are normally close-packed
planes
Slip directions are normally closepacked directions

Recall for fcc close-packed planes are {111}

Close-packed directions are <110>
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Deformation by Twinning

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In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can

occur by twinning.
A shear force can produce atomic displacements so that on
one side of the plane (the twin boundary), atoms are
located in mirror image positions to atoms on the other side.
Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote
dislocation movement.
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Strengthening
The ability of a metal to deform plastically
depends on the ability of dislocations to
move.
Hardness and strength are related to how
easily a metal plastically deforms, so, by
reducing dislocation movement, the
mechanical strength can be improved.
Greater mechanical forces will be required
to initiate further plastic deformation.
To the contrary, if dislocation movement is
easy (unhindered), the metal will be soft,
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easy to deform.

Strengthening
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Mechanisms
1. Grain Size Reduction
2. Solid Solution Alloying
3. Strain Hardening (Cold
Working)

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Stress and Dislocation Motion

Edge and screw dislocations move in
response to shear stresses applied
along a slip plane in a slip direction.
Even though an applied stress may be
tensile, shear components exist at all
but the parallel or perpendicular
alignments to the stress direction.
These are resolved shear stresses
(R).
Crystals slip due to resolved shear
stress.

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Dislocation interaction
Positive

Positive

Positive

Repulsion

Negative
Attraction
&
Annihilation

Note:Morepositivepositiveinteractionsinreality

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Positive-positive dislocation
interaction
Results in more stress to move
dislocations (or cause plastic
deformation):called work hardening
This type of interaction also leads to
dislocation multiplication which leads
to more interactions and more work
hardening

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Twinning
Common in hcp and bcc structures
Limited deformation but help in
plastic deformation in hcp and bcc
crystals
Occurs on specific twinning planes
and twinning directions
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Compare slip and twinning

SLIP

TWINNING

HOMOGENEOUS

LOCALIZED

COMMON IN FCC

COMMON IN HCP &

BCC

OCCURS UNDER
STATIC LOADING

OCCURS UNDER
SHOCK LOADING
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Shear band formation

Limited non-homogeneous
deformation
Very large localized strain ~1 or
100%
Occurs especially under high strain
rates
Mechanism of deformation still

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Plastic deformation movement of

dislocations

Strengthening methods

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Cold working
Deformation at temperatures below
0.4 Tm
Dislocation density increases from
106/cm2 to 1010-12/cm2
High dislocation density results in a
large number of dislocation
interactions which results in high
strength and hardness
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Solid solution
strengthening

Interaction between stress fields of

alloy atoms and dislocations
This is the purpose of alloying

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Grain size refinement

Small grains result in higher
strength
Small grains is equivalent to a
large number of grain boundaries
in the same volume
Grain boundaries act as barriers to
dislocation motion
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Mechanism

Strength is inversely proportional to grain size

= 0 + kyd-1/2
Hall-Petch equation
Smaller grains have more boundary area and hence more
barriers to dislocation motion

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Precipitation hardening
Precipitates are second-phase
particles
Hard precipitates act as barriers to
dislocation motion
Applicable only to some alloy
systems
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Distortion Energy
Static Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile
Materials
Shear
Best predictor of failure
2
Diagonal

for ductile materials

under static loads or
under completely
reversed normal, shear
or combined
stresses.
2
2

Sy

Sy
Sy

' 1 2 1 2

= von Mises stress

Failure: > Sy
Sy

Distortion

Design: d = Sy/N
ANALYSIS:

Sy

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von Mises Stress

Alternate Form

' 2x 2y x y 3 2xy
For uniaxial stress when y = 0,

' 3
2
x

2
xy

Triaxial Distortion Energy (1 > 2 >

3)

'
2

( 2 1 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 ( 3 2 ) 2
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Distortion Energy
Predicts that yielding that occurs
when the distortion strain energy per
unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion energy per unit volume for
yield in simple tension or
compression in the same material

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 av

1 2 3
3

Also
known as
deviatori
c stress

1
u
2
u

1
1 1 2 2 3 3
2

1
12 22 32 2 1 2 2 3 1 3
2E

Strain energy: Simple tension

Strain energy: figure (a)

Strain energy: Principal

stresses
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3
1 2
uv
2E
2
av

Strain energy for producing

only volume change found
by replacing av for 1 , 2 ,
3

Volume change strain energy

becomes
2
2
2
1
2
3
1 2

1 2
uv
2 2 3 1 3
6E

distortion strain energy becomes

2
2
2

1 1 2 2 3 3 1
ud u ud

3E
2

Note: ud=0 if 1 =2 =3
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For a simple tensile test:

1 = Sy and 2 = 3=0 so:

1 2
ud
Sy
3E
General state of stress:

1 2 1 3 2 3

1/ 2

Sy

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Von Mises Stress

1 2 1 3 2 3
'

1/ 2

Sy

In plane stress this reduces to:

' A A B B
2

1/ 2

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1
x y 2 x z 2 y z 2 6 xy2 yz2 xz2
'
2

' x y z 3
2

1/ 2

2 1/ 2
xy

These are the forms of the von Mises or DistortionEnergy or von Mises-Hencky theory

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Distortion Energy (DE) Failure

Theory

Originated from observation that ductile materials

stressed hydrostatically (equal principal stresses)
exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of
expected values.
Theorizes that if strain energy is divided into
hydrostatic volume changing energy and angular
distortion energy, the yielding is primarily affected
by the distortion energy.

Fig. 58

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Distortion Energy (DE) Failure

Theory

Theory: Yielding occurs when the

distortion strain energy per unit
volume reaches the distortion strain
energy per unit volume for yield in
simple tension or compression of the
same material.

Fig. 58
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Deriving the Distortion Energy

Hydrostatic stress is average of

principal stresses

Strain energy per unit volume,

Substituting Eq. (319) for principal
strains into strain energy equation,

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Deriving the Distortion Energy

Strain energy for producing only volume

change is obtained by substituting av for
1, 2, and 3
Substituting av from Eq. (a),

Obtain distortion energy by subtracting

volume changing energy, Eq. (57), from
total strain energy, Eq. (b)
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Deriving the Distortion Energy

Tension test specimen at yield has 1 = Sy

and 2 = 3 =0
Applying to Eq. (58), distortion energy for
tension test specimen is

DE theory predicts failure when distortion

energy, Eq. (58), exceeds distortion
energy of tension test specimen, Eq. (59)
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Von Mises Stress

Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress

For plane stress, simplifies to

In terms of xyz components, in three dimensions

In terms of xyz components, for plane stress

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Distortion Energy Theory With Von Mises

Stress

Von Mises Stress can be thought of as

a single, equivalent, or effective
stress for the entire general state of
stress in a stress element.
Distortion Energy failure theory
simply compares von Mises stress to
yield strength.
Introducing
S y a design factor,
n

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Elastic Stress-Strain
Relationships
CON 251
Materials Testing

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Stress and Strain

Stress: Intensity of the
internal force,
measured by force
per unit area
Strain: Elongation per unit
length
Nominal Stress: Force divided
by the original cross sectional
area
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Formulas for Stress and

Strain
For an axially loaded member:
P

Nominal (or Engineering) Stress

P

A0
Ao
True Stress
P

A
A
P
Where = stress, psi or pascal
P = magnitude of the applied force, lb or N
Ao = original cross sectional area, in2 or m2
A = cross sectional area at the moment the stress is
calculated, in2 or m2
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More Definitions
Stress vs. Strain Diagrams:
Plot of stress vs. strain for a given
material.

Linear (Elastic) Range: Range

of stress-strain diagram in which
stress is (generally) proportional to
strain.

Nonlinear (Plastic) Range:

Range of stress-strain diagram in
which stress is NOT proportional to

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Linear and Elastic

Linear

Stress

is
proportional
strain.
0

to

Elastic

after

unloading,

no

permanent
deformation.
0

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The Linear (Elastic)

Range
The slope of the line in
the linear (elastic) range
is the elastic modulus, E,
and is the constant of
proportionality between
the stress and the strain.

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Modulus of Elasticity
Constant of proportionality (slope
of a line) in elastic range.

E
2
Unit: lb/in

It is also called as Youngs

Modulus.
For a linear material, the
relationship between stressand

strain: E
E
and

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Typical Stress-Strain Curves for

Materials

(a) Mild Steel

Iron

(b)
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(c) Rubber

Strength in Elastic
Range
Proportional limit: The point
beyond which stress is no longer
proportional to strain.
Elastic Limit: The point beyond
which permanent deformation
will result when the load is
removed.

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Stress Strain Terminology

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The End

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