Pelatnas IESO Geologi Struktur 2013

Deformasi Rapuh

Salahuddin Husein

Jurusan Teknik Geologi

Fakultas Teknik Universitas Gadjah Mada
2013

Fractures : Finite Element

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Types of Brittle Deformation

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Types of Brittle Deformation

common during shallow deformation of

porous rocks and sediments

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occurs during deformation of wellconsolidated sedimentary rocks

and non-porous rocks

Fossen (2010)

Types of Brittle Deformation

Intragranular fractures (restricted to

single grains) in cataclastically deformed
porous sandstone

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Intergranular fractures (extend across a

number of grains) in metamorphic rock

Fossen (2010)

Tensile Cracks

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A crack in a crystal lattice. The crack is a plane of finite extent

across which all atomic bonds are broken.

Griffith cracks : preexisting microcracks and flaws in a rock,

which include grain-scale fractures, pores, and grain boundaries.
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Tensile Cracks

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The importance of preexisting

cracks in creating stress
concentrations.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Tensile Cracks

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Development of a throughgoing
crack in a block under tension.

When tensile stress (t) is applied, Griffith cracks open up.

The largest, properly oriented cracks propagate to form a
throughgoing crack.
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Tensile Cracks

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Longitudinal splitting.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Modes of Crack Displacement

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Mode IV (closing mode) is

sometimes used for
contractional features such as
stylolites
Fossen (2010)

Modes of Crack Displacement

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Extension fractures:
Joints; have little or no
macroscopically detectable
displacement.
Fissure; when filled with air
or fluid.
Veins; mineral-filled
extension fractures.
Dikes; magma-filled
fractures.
Stylolites: contraction
fractures or closing fractures
(anticracks)
Fossen (2010)

Fracture Growth

Propagating shear-mode crack and

the formation of wing cracks.

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fracture Growth

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Fossen (2010)

Fault Surface Veins

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Stepped calcite slip fibers on a

fault surface; pencil indicates
displacement direction.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Surface Veins

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Fracture formation

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Joints

Joint Morphology

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The dimple
of a joint
origin,
controlled
by an
inclusion.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Joint Morphology

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Fossen (2010)

Joint Morphology

Arrest lines and plumose structures

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Fossen (2010)

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Joint Morphology

Elliptically arranged arrest lines

Joint Morphology

En-echelon hackle fringes

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Fossen (2010)

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Fossen (2010)

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shddin 2012

Plumose Structures

Straight plume

Curvy plume
Multiple
arrest

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Joint Arrays

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Joint Arrays

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Joint Arrays

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Joint Formation Sequence

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Joints form in a random sequence, but with

regular spacing.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Stress Shadow

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Stress shadow defines the joint interval.

Stress shadow formation.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Joint Origins: Unroofing Joints

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Joint Origins: Hydraulic Fracturing

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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shddin 2012

Joint Origins: Fault-related Joints

Formation of joints in the

hanging-wall block of a
region in which normal faulting
is taking place.

Formation of joints
above an irregularity in a
(reverse) fault surface.

Pinnate joints along a fault.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Joint Termination

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Horsetailing at the end of a shear

fracture in gneiss.

Fossen (2010)

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shddin 2012

Joint Termination
Compressive stress

Extenxional stress

Fossen (2010)

Joint Termination

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Joints terminating without

curving when they approach
one another.

Joints curving into each other

and linking.

Map view sketch illustrating how

joint spacing is fairly constant
because joints that grow too
close together cannot pass
each other.
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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shddin 2012

Vein Arrays

Simple en echelon array.

Sigmoidal en echelon veins.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Vein Fills

Blocky vein fill

Fibrous vein fill.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Vein Fills

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Deformation Bands

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Cataclastic deformation band,

Navajo Sandstone

Cataclastic deformation band,

Nubian Sandstone
Thin section of
cataclastic
deformation band,
Nubian Sandstone

Fossen (2010)

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Mechanism of Deformation Bands

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Develop by shear-related disaggregation of

grains by means of grain rolling, grain
boundary sliding and breaking of grain
bonding cements.
Disaggregation bands can be almost invisible
in clean sandstones, but may be detected
where they cross and offset laminae.

Fossen (2010)

Deformation Bands

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Very dense cluster of cataclastic

deformation bands in the Entrada
Sandstone, Utah.

Fossen (2010)

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shddin 2012

Deformation Bands

Conjugate (simultaneous and oppositely

dipping) sets of cataclastic deformation
bands in Entrada Sandstone, Utah.

Fossen (2010)

Faults

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shddin 2012

Fault Terminology

Fault

Fault zone

Fault splay

Anastomosing
fault

Shear zone
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Terminology

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Fossen (2010)

Fault Terminology

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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shddin 2012

Fault Terminology

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Elemen Sesar

shddin 2008

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Identifikasi Sesar

Fault Terminology

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Fossen (2010)

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Fault Sets

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Normal Fault Characteristics

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Older rocks in HW
over younger rocks in
the FW.
Stratigraphic omission

Hangingwall
Footwall

Normal fault (extensional)

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shddin 2012

Reverse (Thrust) Fault Characteristics

Younger rocks in HW
over older rocks in the
FW.
Stratigraphic repetition

Footwall

Hangingwall

Reverse (thrust fault)

Slip and Separation

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Slip - actual relative displacement between two points that

occupied the same location before faulting
Separation - apparent relative displacement between two points
that may have occupied the same location before faulting

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Fault Terminology

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Fossen (2010)

Fault Terminology

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Symbols
Map symbols:

Reverse/thrust faults

Normal faults

Profile symbols:

Strikeslip
faults

Normal faults

Sinistral faults
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Normal Fault Zone

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Normal fault
sense of drag

Watchett, North Devon, England

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Normal Fault Zone

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Chiang Muan, Thailand

Growth Fault

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Rotational Faults

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Listric Faults

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Duplex Faults

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Duplexes are imbricate fault systems linked on both sides by

major faults, all faults must have been active synchronously

Duplex Faults

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Fault Offsets

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Geometry

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Bends
Restraining
bend

Releasing
bend

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Anatomy

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Fossen (2010)

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Fault Anatomy

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Fossen (2010)

Fault Anatomy

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D=1000CT and D=10CT,

meaning that the fault core is
statistically around 1/100 of the
fault displacement for faults with
displacements up to 100 meters

Fossen (2010)

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shddin 2012

Fault Displacement

Fault displacement is about 3% of fault length.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Stick-Slip Behaviour

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Laboratory frictional sliding experiment on

granite, showing stick-slip behavior. The
stress drops (dashed lines) correspond to slip
events.

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Displacement

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Fossen (2010)

Fault Displacement

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Fossen (2010)

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Fault Terminations

A. Fault merging
B. Fault horsetailing
C. Transfer onto ductile deformation

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Terminations

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Ramp merging on a basal detachment

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Terminations

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Tip line: boundary between the slipped and unslipped region at

the end of a fault.
Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Damage Zone

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A fault is contained within a damage zone, which means that there is a

(process) zone ahead of the tip where the rock is processed prior to fault
Propagation.

Fossen (2010)

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shddin 2012

Damage Zone

Hanging-wall rollover (fault-bend fold) related to bend in the main fault. The
damage zone is unusually wide due to the complications posed by the fault
bend. Synthetic and antithetic shear bands are separated by color.

Fossen (2010)

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Damage Zone
Schematic illustration of how a damage zone can grow periodically. This
repeats itself as the fault grows.

Fossen (2010)

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Subsidiary Faults

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Systems

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault Systems

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Imbricate

Duplex

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Fault Systems

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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shddin 2012

Fault Population

The development of curved fault

systems in unconsolidated sand.

Fossen (2010)

Fault Population

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Fossen (2010)

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Fault Population

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The Wasatch fault zone near Salt

Lake City, Utah, crudely indicated
by white dashed line.
Note the curved fault geometry,
indicating a history of segment
linkage.
Sketches of various stages of
plaster extension experiment
indicate how such fault zones can
form.

Fossen (2010)

Overlap Zones

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Fossen (2010)

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Fault Rocks

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Sibson (1977)

Fault-related Folds

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault-related Folds

Folding in a fault zone

Folding in a fault zone

Detachment fold

Drape fold over faulted basement

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Change with Depth

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Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

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Fault and Stress

Andersons theory of faulting

(high-angle) normal faults

(low-angle) reverse faults

(vertical) strike-slip faults

Pluijm & Marshak (2004)

Conjugate Faults

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Conjugate Fractures

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Norway

Formation of Conjugate Faults

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Conjugate Faults

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Jerudong, Brunei Darussalam

Conjugate Faults

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Jerudong, Brunei Darussalam

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Listric Faults

Listric Faults

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Listric Fault Geometry

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Listric Fault Geometry

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Listric Fault Geometry

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Fault Growth

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Fault Growth
Faulting preferentially initiated in
sandstone unit.
Mechanical contrasts due to
changes in lithology are
enormously important to
understanding structural style in
numerous ways.

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Fault Growth
Two end members for
fault growth:
Radial tip
propagation (a)
Segment linkage (b)
early stage and (c)
late stage

Morley (1999)

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Growth of Boundary Fault

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Growth of Boundary Fault

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Faults and Morphology

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