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Guideline On Structural Fire Engineering Part I - Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature Under Fire Struct
Guideline On Structural Fire Engineering Part I - Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature Under Fire Struct
SEBGL OTH6
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CONTENTS
Content Page
1.
Introduction ..... 1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
References .... 85
Annex A
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1.
Introduction
1.1
There has been a large body of work written on the subject of performance
based structural fire engineering. Unfortunately, most of this information is
scattered throughout technical journals from different countries and
organizations, and not easily accessible to the practicing engineer. The
purposes of this Guideline are therefore to provide project officers in our
Department:
a)
b)
c)
d)
1.3
b)
Part II will first describe the heat transfer mechanisms from the fire to
the structural members, and the procedures to obtain the temperature
of the members during a fire. It will then focus on the structural
design of steel structure, reinforced concrete, composite structure and
timber exposed to fire, which will again be followed by design
examples.
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against all fire aspects for approval. As government buildings are exempted
from the Buildings Ordinance, the design of these government buildings in
theory are not necessary submitted to Buildings Department; yet, our
Department is always required to submit to Fire Services Department. The
requirements and installation of fire protection systems are monitored by the
Fire Services Department. Buildings Department has issued the following
codes governing different aspects for fire safety:
1. Buildings Department (1996), Code of Practice for the Provision of
Means of Escape 1996 (Hong Kong: Building Authority).
2. Buildings Department (1996), Code of Practice for Fire Resisting
Construction 1996 (Hong Kong: Building Authority).
3. Buildings Department (2004), Code of Practice for Means of Access for
Firefighting and Rescue 2004 (Hong Kong: Buildings Department).
These three codes have just been replaced by the following unified code:
Buildings Department (2011), Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Buildings
2011 (Hong Kong: Buildings Department).
This unified code consists of the following parts:
Part A
- Introduction
Part B
- Means of Escape
Part C
- Fire Resisting Construction
Part D
- Means of Access
Part E
- Fire Properties of Building Elements and Components
Part F
- Fire Safety Maintenance and Management
Part G
- Fire Safety Guidelines
There is an annex Guidelines from Licensing Authorities to the unified
code.
Fire Services Department issued the following two codes on active fire
protection system or fire services installation:
1.
2.
Professional Associations
1. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) (www.sfpe.org/) is the
professional association of the US for fire protection engineering, and
published the following comprehensive text describing the fire science
that underpins fire protection engineering, and providing information in
the areas of the fundamental science and engineering concepts that are
applied in fire protection engineering, fire dynamics, fire hazard
calculations, design calculations, and fire risk analysis:
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
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2.1
A properly designed fire safety system of a building greatly reduces the loss
of life and property during a fire, or in the neighborhood of the building.
Nearly all building regulations and/or codes specify requirements for
buildings to be designed in such a way that they exhibit an acceptable level
of performance in the event of fire. Similar requirements have been
specified as Regulations 41(1), 41A, 41B, 41C and 41D in the Building
(Planning) Regulations and Regulation 90 of the Building (Construction)
Regulations. Over the years, Buildings Department and Fire Services
Department have issued the following codes on the performance
requirements complying the statutory requirements:
a) the Code of Practice for the Provision of Means of Escape 1996 (the
MOE Code);
b) the Code of Practice for Fire Resisting Construction 1996 (the FRC
Code);
c) the Code of Practice for Means of Access for Firefighting and Rescue
2004 (the MOA Code);
d) the Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and
Equipment; and
e) the Code of Practice for Inspection and Testing and Maintenance of
Installations and Equipment.
2.2
The MOE Code sets out the requirements on the provisions for the
protection of buildings from the effect of fire by providing adequate means
of escape in the event of fire and other emergency. This is achieved by
recommending the assessment of population density of floor, the type of
usage, the minimum number of escape routes and their widths, the
maximum travel distance, the construction of escape routes and appropriate
signage etc. The MOA Code seeks to achieve the objective of assisting in
firefighting and in saving life of people in buildings by ensuring adequate
access for firefighting personnel in case of fire and other emergencies. This
is achieved by recommending adequate emergency vehiclur access, access
staircases, firemans lifts as well as fire fighting and rescue stairways
according to the area, use and height of buildings. The FRC Code provides
guidance on compliance with the requirements for fire resisting construction
stipulated in Part XV of the Building (Construction) Regulations. It sets out
the provisions on protection of buildings from effects of fire by inhibiting
the spread of fire and by ensuring the integrity of structural elements and the
overall stability of buildings. This is achieved by specifying a minimum fire
resistance period (or fire resistance rating in the FS Code) in accordance
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with the type of use, the maximum compartmentation area or volume and
requirements on protection of adjoining buildings and separation between
different uses and occupancies (Table 1).
Table 1 Fire Resistance Rating for Premises of Different Occupancies
Class
1
2
3
4
Use
Domestic
Hotel bedroom
Institutional
Commercial
Fire Resistance
Rating
Compartment Volume
No limit
60 mins.
2
60 mins.
Place of public
entertainment
60 mins.
Educational
establishments
Exceeding 2500 m2
but not exceeding 10500 m2
120 mins.
6b
7
2.2
120 mins
60 mins.
FS Code
Buildings Department has just issued the Code of Practice for Fire Safety in
Buildings 2011 (the FS Code), which consolidates and replaces the
requirements of the MOE Code (now Part B of the FS Code), the FRC Code
(now Part C of the FS Code) and the MOA Code (now Part D of the FS
Code). As the FS Code has already replaced these three codes, reference in
this set of Guideline will be based on the FS Code. The objectives of the FS
Code are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
2.3
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inspections and tests which installations and equipment must normally pass,
and provides guidance on administrative procedures for application and for
inspection and testing and how these systems can be appropriately
maintained and inspected throughout the building life.
3.
3.1
3.2
There are two broad aspects in the fire engineering: fire prevention
(designed to reduce the chance of a fire occurring) and fire protection
(designed to mitigate the effects of a fire should it nevertheless occur). Fire
prevention includes eliminating or protecting possible ignition sources in
order to prevent a fire from occurring. Fire protection measures may be
passive or active. Active measures include detection and alarm, fire
extinction, and smoke control. Passive measures include structural fire
protection, layout of escape routes, fire brigade access routes, and control of
combustible materials of construction.
The term fire protection
engineering therefore comprises active and passive ways of providing
satisfactory protection level to buildings and/or its contents from fires.
Figure 1 shows the role of active and passive fire protection measures
during a fire.
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Project officers should therefore note that the term fire engineering (or
fire safety engineering) embraces all aspects of fire prevention and fire
protection. Besides predicting the performance of structural elements under
fire, it also involves the study of the means of escape, smoke control, fire
spread control, design of sprinkler, alarm, fire-fighting systems, etc.
Structural engineering design mainly concerns passive fire protection. This
Guideline will focus on the structural fire engineering, rather than on the
architectural or BS aspects.
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3.5
4.
4.1
There are two approaches for complying with the statutory requirements for
fire safety, namely: Prescriptive Provisions and Alternative Approach.
4.2
Prescriptive Provisions
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for most buildings with straightforward construction, layout and use, and are
therefore adopted in the majority of cases.
4.2.2 The FRC Code (or the FS Code Part C), which applies to elements of
construction (including structural frame, fire barriers, fixed lights, fire doors,
fire shutters or other components, etc) specifies that one or more of the
following three criteria to be satisfied (details being specified in Table C2 of
the FS Code) in a fire:
1)
2)
3)
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Elements of
construction
Method of
Insulation Exposure
Stability
Integrity
Structural frame,
beam or column
Exposed faces
only
Floor including
compartment floor
Each side
separately
From
underside
Each side
separately
External wall
Each side
separately
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4.2.5.3 The required thickness of the alternate materials for fire protection of
structural steelwork can be determined from the performance data sheets,
published in Fire Protection for Structural Steel in Buildings (ASFP 2002),
which is commonly referred to as the Yellow Book. The Yellow Book
provides a comprehensive guide of proprietary materials and systems of
fire protection to structural steelwork. For each type of fire protection
system, the thickness of fire protection is usually based on the Section
Factor (denoted by A/V (surface area divided by cross sectional area) or
Hp/A (heated perimeter divided by cross sectional area)) of the structural
member, since the rate at which the structural element will heat up is
proportional to the surface area of steel exposed to the fire and inversely
proportional to the mass or volume of the section. In a fire, a member with
low section factor will be heated up at a slower rate than one with high
section factor.
4.2.5.4 Detailed specification on the submittals, the alternate materials and the
workmanship has been included in the Clauses 15.66 15.72 of the
General Specification for Building 2007 of our Department. Project
officer are required to specify the type(s) of material and the fire resistance
ratings to suit his project.
4.2.5.5 In the choice of the appropriate type of material, project officer should note
that sprayed mineral coating is the cheapest option, and can be rapidly
applied. Sprayed mineral coating is therefore a preferred option. However
due to its undulating finish and hence aesthetically unpleasant, it is usually
preferred in surfaces which are hidden from the view (e.g. concealed
behind false ceiling). The properties of the sprayed material shall also
cope with the use of the structure. For example, where vibration or large
deflection is expected, more demanding sprayed material with higher dry
density and cohesion properties should be used. Moreover if the
environment is moist (e.g. exterior steel stair or above a swimming pool),
then the sprayed mineral coating option is not advisable, as there is the
possibility of water seeping into it (because of the porous nature of sprayed
mineral). Proprietary fire protection board is an expensive method, and
may also susceptible to the effect of moisture. Hence, its application is
also restricted to indoor steelwork with dry environment. Intumescent
fireproofing is a layer of paint which is applied along with the coating
system on the structural steel members. Intumescent coating is applied as
an intermediate coat in a coating system (primer, intermediate, and
top/finish coat). Because of the relatively low thickness of this
intumescent coating (350-700 micrometers), nice finish, and anti-corrosive
nature, intumescent coating is a preferred option when aesthetical
appearance is required. Moreover, intumescent coating is the option that
can be applied to steelwork in moist environment.
4.2.6 Prescriptive Provisions for reinforced concrete and timber
For reinforced concrete, fire protection is typically achieved by the
minimum dimensions and concrete covers to reinforcement for a given
standard fire resistance rating. Clause 4.3 of the HK Concrete Code states
that the covers to steel reinforcement for fire protection shall follow the FRC
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
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Alternative Approach
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different aspects. The focus of this set of SEB Guideline will be, however,
on application of Alternative Approach to assess the actual performance of
the structural members under fire. This set of Guideline will particularly
stress on such the application of Alternative Approach on structural steel, as
one of the distinct advantages of Alternative Approach for structural steel is
that it may be unprotected, provided that the performance of the structural
steelwork can demonstrate to meet the statutory requirements of fire
resisting construction.
5.
5.1
5.2
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6.1
As stated above, one of the main reasons for the research and rapid advances
on structural fire engineering is to eliminate fire protection to steelwork.
That is, structural steel members can be unprotected, as fire protection to
steelwork can represent a significant part of the total steel structural cost and
the elimination of fire protection to steelwork therefore represents a
significant saving in construction cost to the client. Another benefit of
unprotected steel is to have more choices of architectural
finishes/appearance of the steel thus enhancing the aesthetic effects. In a
structural fire engineering study, it is therefore required to predict the
structural performance of unprotected steel members under a real fire, so
that an equivalent level of fire safety can still be maintained.
6.2
Project officers should, however, note that in a small compartment with the
usual design fire load, the fire will likely to be fully developed. In such
circumstance, it may be safely assumed that the results from a structural fire
engineering study will not eliminate the fire protection to steelwork, and
project officers are advised to adopt Prescriptive Provisions for the structural
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Project officers should further note that roof structure is not classified as an
element of construction as briefly discussed above, and hence no
structural fire engineering study is required to eliminate fire protection to
such steelwork.
6.4
b)
c)
6.5
6.6
6.6
External steelwork
A structural fire engineering study is also warranted for external structural
steelwork or other load bearing members located outside the facade of the
building. There may be flames coming through windows and doors or heat
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Photo 2(b) Steel Beams in External Corridor in Lei Yue Mun Park
Localised fire
Localised fire may be caused by vandals or disposal of lit cigarette, resulting
the burning of an isolated item in an area with plentiful supply of oxygen,
where flashover is unlikely because of the limited fire load. Structural fire
engineering study will usually show that the structural integrity of the
building will not be affected by such localised fires. Effects of such
localised fires have been studied in the projects of Improvement Works to
Lei Yue Mun Park and Holiday Village (Photo 3) (for the burning of carton
exhibit and a/c unit).
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Photo 3 Items for Localised Fire on the Verandah Lei Yue Mun Park
6.8
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7.1
7.2.1 Figure 7 shows a typical compartment fire before flashover phase. During
this period the fire begins as either a smoldering or flaming fire depending
on availability of oxygen for combustion. During this stage, the fire is
localised and temperature distribution inside the enclosure is highly nonuniform. If this fire is promptly discovered and/or effective fire fighting is
activated, it can be easily controlled. Even if there is no intervention, but
the first burning item is sufficiently far away from other combustible
materials, the fire may die out due to the difficulty of igniting other
combustible materials.
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7.2.2 The connective plume of hot gases above the burning object will rise to the
ceiling and spread horizontally to form an upper hot layer, called the
ceiling jet. At this stage, the enclosure may be approximately divided into
two zones: an upper zone of hot smoke, and a lower zone of cold air. The
division between the upper and lower zones is the neutral plane, above
which smoke flows out of the enclosure and below which fresh air is
supplied into the enclosure. As the fire continues to burn, the volume of
smoke and hot gases in the upper layer increases, reducing the height of the
interface between the two layers. As this happens, the temperature of the
hot gas layer increases further. The rate of burning may also be significantly
enhanced by radiant feedback from this hot upper layer. Over time the
combustion products will start to flow out the door opening when the
interface drops below the door soffit or open window of the compartment
(Figure 7). Hot gases will then leave the room through the openings, and
fresh air from the surrounding spaces will rush into the compartment to
make up for the air leaving the hot gas layer and continue to feed the fire. If
there are insufficient openings in a typical compartment, the rate of burning
will decrease, and it may self-extinguish even the fuel is not fully consumed.
However, it may grow again if fresh air is supplied into the enclosure. In
more dramatic situations, a sudden fresh air supply to an under-ventilated
fire may lead to the so-called back draught ( ) phenomenon,
posing serious hazards for fire fighting.
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7.3
Flashover
As the fire grows in size and the layer of gases develops, owing to a lack of
oxygen in the smoke layer, a large quantity of partially burnt fuel will also
accumulate in the smoke layer. Meanwhile, the burning flame will become
larger and penetrate the smoke layer. Flame spread becomes quicker when
it is aided by the partially burnt fuels in the smoke layer. The radiation from
the burning flames and the high temperature smoke layer will increase the
burning rate of the existing fire. All this will accelerate a positive burning
loop. A point will be reached when the incident radiation on the unburned
combustible materials in the enclosure becomes so high that objects distant
from the seat of the fire become ignited at almost the same time. If there is a
sufficient supply of air, this will result in full involvement of all combustible
materials in the fire. The transition from localised to fully developed fire
tends to be rapid and is known as flashover () (Figure 8).
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1)
2)
3)
7.5
Decay phase
The production rate of volatile gases is decreased as the fuel content in the
compartment is depleted (typically occurs when 70% of the fuel has been
consumed), and the decay phase of the fire will then begin. During this
period the temperature in the room decreases as the fire intensity decreases.
With burning thermoplastics and liquid hydrocarbon fuels, the decay phase
can be extremely short. However, with cellulosic materials, such as wood,
which chars, the decay stage is much longer and is of primary interest when
examining the fire resistance of structural elements of a building.
Ultimately, the decay rate will be a function of the quantity and physical
arrangement of combustible contents (such as the size and shape of openings)
within the compartment, and the thermal properties of the room boundaries.
Typically, as a fire enters the decay period it begins to change from a
ventilation-controlled fire to a fuel-controlled fire.
Fire Modelling
8.1
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1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8.2
8.3
Fire model
Complexity
1. Nominal
fires
Compartment fire
2. Time
equivalence 3. parametric 4. localised
Simple
Intermediate
Fire behavior
Post-flashover fires
Pre-flashover
Temperature
distribution
Non-uniform
along plume
Input
parameters
Design
methods
Fire type,
no physical
parameters
Fire load,
ventilation conditions,
thermal properties of
boundary,
compartment size
Fire load
and size,
height of
ceiling
Spreadsheet
Simple
equations
Simple equations
5. Zone models
6. CFD
Two-zone/
models
multi-zone
Advanced
Complete
Pre-flashover or
timelocalised
temperature
relationship
Time and
Uniform in each
space
layer
dependence
(varying)
Fire load,
ventilation
conditions,
Detail input
thermal
for solving
properties of
the
boundary,
fundamental
compartment
equations of
size,
the fluid
detailed input
flow
for heat & mass
balance of the
system
Computer model
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8.4
8.5
Advanced models take into account properties of gas and the exchange of
mass and energy. Zone models are simple computer models that divide the
considered fire compartment into separate zones, where the condition in
each zone is assumed to be uniform. Two zone models exist in which the
height of the compartment is separated into two gaseous layers each with
their own temperature cycle. Three zone models exist in which there is a
mixed gas layer separating the upper and lower gas levels. Two-zone or
multi-zone models are used for pre-flashover fires. When a pre-flashover
fire develops into a post-flashover fire, and the two-zone model will become
a one-zone model. A number of zone models have been programmed and
are available via the internet. The most commonly used ones are CFAST
(available: http://www.nist.gov/) and OZONE (www.ulg.ac.be).
8.6
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Design Fire
9.1
In order to carry out structural design under fire, the selection of a suitable
fire of assumed characteristics, which is referred to as the design fire, is
one of the most important steps in this process. A design fire is generally
considered to be a quantitative description of temperature of a fire with time
based on reasonable assumptions about the type and quantity of
combustibles, ignition method, growth of the fire and its spread from the
first item ignited to subsequent items, and the decay and extinction of the
fire.
9.2
9.3
9.3.1 The nominal time-temperature curves are a set of curves with no physical
parameters taken into account. That is, these curves are independent of
various parameters known to affect fire intensity including fire load,
ventilation areas, building thermal properties, etc. The standard timetemperature curves were originally derived from measurements of tests
taken early in the 20th century, and involves an ever-increasing air
temperature inside the compartment, even when all combustible fuel is used
up. The standard fire is primarily used in experimental fire tests, as
although it does not resemble a real fire, it can be replicated in a controlled
environment. By using a standard fire, manufacturers can test their building
product and find a fire resistance time that can be compared to other
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
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building products. Since all products are tested and exposed to the same fire
they can be compared due to the consistency in the tests.
9.3.2 Most internationally recognized codes (including the Eurocode 1 and ISO
834) contain defining equations for three distinct fire curves: standard,
external and hydrocarbon (Figure 10). The formula describing the standard
time-temperature curve for the ISO 834 fire is:
T = 345 log (8t+1) + To --- (1)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.4.1)
where T is the temperature (in oC) at time t (in minutes), and To is the
ambient temperature (taken as 20 oC in Eurocode 1).
The standard fire curve represents a typical fire based upon a cellulosic fire
in which the fuel source is wood, paper, fabric, etc. This form of timetemperature relationship has, however, a limited similarity to the
temperatures in real compartment fires, and was indeed not intended to be
representative of a real fire scenario, but instead it is an envelope that
represents maximal values of temperature during fire that may occur in
buildings. It is conservative for long duration fires, as it has no decay phase,
whereas in a real fire compartment temperature will reduce with the duration
of the decay phase. However, for shorter duration fires, particularly where
upholstered furniture and thermoplastics may be involved in a real fire, the
standard curve may be non-conservative. Such a realistic fire can be more
severe than the standard fire in the early stages of fire development, when
evacuation and rescue activities are required to be undertaken. This point
should be considered together with the trend that the wood furnishing used
in the old days have been replaced by high fuel loads from polyurethane
furniture, plastics and other synthetic materials nowadays resulting in large
and fast growing fires.
Nevertheless, although this curve does not really represent the temperature
build-up in a real fire, this has become the standard design curve used in the
furnace test of components. Most European countries have standard fire
curves similar to that in ISO 834 standard fire, and across the Atlantic, the
US and Canada also use the standard fire curve in ASTM E119 which is
similar to those in ISO 834.
9.3.3 External and Hydrocarbon Fire Curves
Where the structure for which the fire resistance is being considered as
external, Eurocode 1 gives a similar external fire curve. This is the nominal
time-temperature curve to be used for structural members located in a faade
outside the main structure but can be exposed to external plume of a fire
coming either from the inside fire compartment, i.e. from a compartment
situated below or adjacent to the external wall. The formula describing the
external fire curve is:
T = 660(1 - 0.687e-0.32t 0.313e-3.8t)+20 --- (2) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.6)
In situations where petrochemicals or plastics form a significant part of the
overall fire load, Eurocode 1 gives a hydrocarbon fire curve, representing a
fuel load of 200kW/m2. The formula describing the hydrocarbon fire curve
is:
T = 1080(1- 0.325e-0.617t 0.675e-2.5t)+20 --- (3)(Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.7)
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
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The external and hydrocarbon fires are similar in shape but the hydrocarbon
fire curve has temperatures 75% higher temperature due to the higher
calorific values of petrochemicals or plastics.
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0.04 (0.055)
0.055 (0.07)
0.07 (0.09)
Note: Values in brackets are those given in the UK National Annex to Eurocode 1.
Parametric Fires
9.4.1 Parametric fire model is a simple means to take into account the most
important physical factors that may influence the development of the fire.
The parameters that are required to represent the time-temperature
relationship in the model include:
1)
the fire load present in compartment;
2)
the ventilation condition (including ventilation area) of the
compartment;
3)
compartment size; and
4)
the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the construction material.
9.4.2 However, it should be noted that the temperature in the compartment of the
model is assumed to be uniform which limits the application to postflashover fires. Figure 12 shows the typical behaviour of a compartment
fire with highlights at points of flashover and the decaying point, and the
parametric fire model only gives the time-temperature relationship from the
point of flashover onward.
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qf,k
m
q1
q2
and
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Examples of Occupancies
Art gallery, museum, swimming
0.78
pool
Offices, residence hotel, paper
1.00
industry
Manufactory for machinery &
1.22
engines
Chemical laboratory, painting
1.44
workshop
Manufactory of fireworks or
1.66
paints
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E)
Table 4(c) Fire activation risk factor due to fire fighting measures
ni Function of Active Fire Fighting Measures
Automatic Fire Suppression
Automatic
water
extinguishing
system
n1
0.61
n2
1.
0
0.87
0.
7
By
heat
By
smoke
n3
n4
0.87 or 0.73
Automatic
alarm
transmission
to fire
brigade
n5
0.87
n6
n7
0.61 or 0.78
n8
0.9 or
1.0 or
1.5
n9
n10
1.0 or
1.5
1.0 or
1.5
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Occupancy
Dwelling
Hospital (room)
Hotel (room)
Library
Office
Classroom of a school
Shopping centre
Manufacturing
Manufacturing and storage
Hospital (storage)
Notes:
2
3
Average Fire
Load Density
(MJ/m2)
780
230
310
1500
420
285
600
(300)
(1180)
(2000)
Fire load densities for other occupancies can be found in Table 3.4.1a of
International Fire Engineering Guidelines (ABCB 2005). Project officers should
note that average values are given in International Fire Engineering Guidelines,
and a multiplier should be applied to get the 80th percentile fire load values.
Values in bracket are given in PD 7974-1.
Gumbel distribution is assumed for the 80% percentile values.
where
qf,k
Af
Mv
Hv
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Other products
Chemicals
Solids
Combustible Materials
Wood
Other cellulosic materials
Clothes
Cork
Cotton
Paper, cardboard
Silk
Straw
Wool
Carbon
Anthracit
Charcoal
Coal
Paraffin series
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Olefin series
Ethylene
Propylen
Butane
Aromatic series
Benzene
Toluene
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanol
Ethyl alcohol
Fuels
Gasoline, petroleum
Diesel
Pure hydrocarbons plastics
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
ABS (Plastic)
Polyester (plastic)
Polyisocyanerat and polyurethane (plastics)
Polyvinylchloride, PVC (plastic)
Bitumen, asphalt
Leather
Linoleum
Rubber tyre
Value of Hv (MJ/kg)
17.5
20
30
50
45
40
30
45
40
35
30
25
20
40
20
20
30
(Source: Eurocode 1)
Hv, the calorific value or heat of combustion, is the amount of heat released
during complete combustion per unit mass of fuel. The net calorific values,
denoted by Hv (in unit MJ/kg) for a range of common fuels are shown in
Table 6.
9.4.4.3 The fire load density for total area qt,d (MJ/m2) is then obtained from the
fire load density for floor area qf,d by the following equation:
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where
and
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Ah
i i
heq =
i =1
Av
where Av = Ai
i =1
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tmax = max
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.7)
, t lim --- (9)
O
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s
s1
b1 + 1 1 b2 --- (14) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.4b)
slim
s lim
is the thickness of layer i
= i ci i
is the density of the layer i
is the specific heat of layer i
is the thermal conductivity of layer i
si
bi
i
ci
i
where
0.1 10 3 q t ,d 1160 2
and
lim=
--- (19)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.8)
0.04
t lim b
If O > 0.04m0.5 and qt,d < 75MJ/m2 and b < 1160J/m2s0.5K, then lim should
be further multiplied by k as given by:
O 0.04 q t ,d 75 1160 b
k= 1 +
Page 41 of 87
t*max=
0.2 10 3 qt ,d
O
<2
*
*
t lim / t max if t max = t lim
--- (21)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.12)
1
Ms Margaret Law MBE is the pioneer in structural fire engineering field and her method is a
classic in the field and also forms the basis for that in Eurocodes.
Page 42 of 87
9.5
9.5.1 In the previous discussion, it has been assumed that there would be uniform
temperatures at any level within the compartment. Eurocode 1 states that
the design equations for the parametric time-temperature curve are only
valid for compartments with floor area up to 500m2 and headroom up to 4m.
In addition, the enclosure must have no openings through the ceiling and the
thermal properties of the compartment linings must be within a limited
range. As a result, common architectural layout in our Department, such as
large enclosures, high ceilings, atria, large open spaces, multiple floors
connected by voids, and glass faades, are excluded from its range of
applicability.
9.5.2 PD 6688-1-2:2007: Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN
1991-1-2 suggests that designers can ignore the Eurocode 1 limitations on
floor area and compartment height, and can expand the range of the
compartment lining values. However, fires in such large compartments will
tend to travel within the compartment as fuel is consumed at a rate governed
by the available ventilation. This causes variation in gas temperatures
within such compartments. The compartment is too large for a condition
right for a flashover to develop and so the fire remains a localised fire which
is moving throughout the entire compartment with different speeds and areas
engulfed at the same time depending on how much fire load is available and
how fast the fire load is consumed. These fires have been labelled
travelling fires. Such a fire could be a critical design case for the structure
as the heating and cooling of the structures occurs at the same time
relatively close to each other. Such travelling fires include the infamous
ones in the World Trade Center Towers in New York in September 2001
and the Windsor Tower in Madrid, Spain in February 2005.
9.5.3 Cooke (1998) conducted a series of fire tests with uniform fire loads in a
4.58.752.75m high compartment in which ventilation was provided at one
end. He found that there had been a progression of temperature within the
compartment. Peak values occurred near the source of ventilation early in
the fire and then progressed away from the opening as fuel was consumed.
Non-uniform heating across a compartment floor can cause a failure
mechanism in the structure, which may not occur if uniform temperatures
were applied to the structure. An example was quoted by Rein and SternGottfried (2011), when a cool, unheated bay in a multi-bay structure can
produce high axial restraint forces, which can result in failure of a heated
element. However, there has not yet been any suggested new approach to
deal with the design fire for structural fire engineering in such fire scenarios.
In such large compartment, probably a CFD model should be used.
9.6
Localised Fire
9.6.1 Localised fire is the burning of an individual fire load in a localised area and
transfer the heat energy to the structural member by conduction, convection,
or radiation. Scenarios where localised fires are most likely to occur include
(IStructE 2007):
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First Issue Date : December 2011
Page 43 of 87
a)
b)
c)
large high spaces with relatively limited fire load (e.g. in atria,
shopping malls);
areas where there are high levels of ventilation (e.g. hotel entrances);
areas where fire load is relatively of low levels or spaced such that fire
cannot readily spread from one area to another.
Eurocode 1 Annex C gives the procedures to predict the gas temperature for
a localised fire using fire plume models.
9.6.2 In a localised fire, it is assumed that the fire is well ventilated and fuelcontrolled similar to the fire that occurs in open space. The rate of burning
is therefore characterized by the type, amount and configuration of the fuel.
Eurocode 1 gives two methods to calculate the temperature effects of a
localised fire depending on the relative height of the flame and of the ceiling,
i.e. whether the flame impinges the ceiling or not.
9.6.3 Flame not impacting the ceiling
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(Figure 17), the net heat flux h net (W/m2) received by the structural
elements at the level of the ceiling is given by the difference between the
.
flux received by the member h and the heat energy lost by the member to
the environment by convection and radiation,
.
;
h = 136300 121000 y when 0.30 y 1.0 and y =
z '+ H + Lh
1.7
150000 y
when 1.0 y
--- (29)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.4)
r = the horizontal distance between the vertical axis of the fire and
the point along the ceiling where the thermal flux is calculated;
H = the distance between the fire source and the ceiling;
2
2
*
*
*
Q
2.4 D (QD 5 Q D 3 ) when Q D < 1.0
z' =
and Q D* =
;
2
1.11 10 6 D 2.5
2.4 D (1.0 QD* 5 ) when Q D* > 1.0
and
--- (30)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.7)
* 0.33
Lh = the horizontal flame length = 2.9H( QH ) H;
--- (31)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.5)
Q
Q H* =
--- (32)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.6)
1.11 10 6 H 2.5
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h net =0, such that the flux received by the member h is the same as the heat
energy lost by the member to the environment by convection and radiation,
i.e.
.
4
0 = h c ( max 293) m ( max
293 4 )
hk =
--- (36)
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The heat release rate Q in the pre-flashover stage of a fire has been
empirically derived, and has been found to be proportional to the square of
the time (the t-squared fire) as follows:
t
Q = ( ) 2 --- (37)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. E.5)
k
where k (sMW-0.5) is the fire growth constant and t is the time (s). Hence,
the relationship between E and Q is given by:
2
3E
Q = ( ) 3 --- (38)
k
Figure 18 shows the times t to reach Q=1050kW for typical t-squared fires
together with examples of combustible materials as given in National Fire
Codes NFPA 92B (NFPA, 2000), and Table 8 therefore gives the typical
values of fire growth constant k. Once E and k are found, Q can be derived.
Page 47 of 87
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11.1 External structural members can be exposed to fire through the windows or
openings of the compartment. The temperature of the external members
depends on:
the maximum compartment temperatures;
a)
b)
the size and temperature of flame from openings;
c)
the heat transfer parameters of radiation and convection;
The direction of the fire flame from the opening can also be deflected by
wind. Eurocode 1 Annex B provides procedures for the determination of
the size and temperatures of the flames emerging from the openings to
calculate the temperature of external members located outside a
compartment. The method is based on the original derivation by Law and
OBrien (1989). The procedure is first to determine the shape of the
emerging or venting flame, then centre-line temperatures and finally heat
transfer effects to the structural members.
11.2 Ventilation Condition
11.2.1 As a plume vents from an opening, its shape is affected by the enclosure's
ventilation conditions as well as the window shape. The plume often
surges out of the window, curling back to make contact with the external
wall some distance above the opening, depending on its aspect ratio. The
overall height and width of the venting flame will depend on the window
aspect ratio, as well as whether there are any horizontal or vertical
projections above or beside the window. Fire behaviour is also influenced
by the amount of air that can reach and take part in the fire. In most
common situations, the entry of air for combustion takes place through
windows from which the flames are emerging. This is called a nothrough draught (or no-forced draught) condition. If there are windows
on opposite sides of a compartment, such that a through-draught (or
forced draught) condition is possible, or if additional air is being fed to
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
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Page 49 of 87
the fire from another source, the flames will tend to emerge from the whole
area of window. In this through- or forced- draught condition, not only
does the flame shape tend to be different, but also other relationships (e.g.
the fire temperature and the temperature distribution along the flame axis)
are found to change.
11.2.2 Law and OBrien (1989) investigated the effect of no-forced and forceddraught conditions on flame shape and behaviour. Correlations of flame
height and width were developed for both of these ventilation conditions as
a function of compartment and window size, and burning rate. Generally,
the flame for a forced-draught condition was found to emerge from the
entire window area, its width being slightly wider than the window width
and at an upward angle. Project officers should further note that the
compartment may initially be in no-forced draught condition when some or
all windows are close; but will change to through-draught condition when
some of the windows break at elevated temperature. Such possibilities
should be considered in the structural fire engineering study.
11.2.3 The following paragraphs will be divided into two parts: forced-draught,
and no-forced draught conditions, in which the flame dimensions and the
temperature of the flame for each condition will be calculated.
11.3 No-Forced Draught Condition
11.3.1 Temperature of the Fire Compartment
The rate of burning or the rate of heat release Q (MW) is given by:
A f q f,d
heq
Q = min
; 3.15 ( 1 - e - 0.036 /O )Av
D/W
F
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.4)
--- (40)
where F is free burning fire duration (which may be taken as 1200s for
free burning of most types of furniture found in buildings).
The temperature of the fire compartment Tf (K) is given by:
Tf = 6000 (1 - e-0.1/O) O0.5(1-e-0.00286) + To
--- (41)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.5)
A f q f,d
where is given by =
and To (K) is initial temperature (= 293 K).
Av At
11.3.2 External Flame Shape
Eurocode 1 gives the following expressions to calculate the flame
dimensions (Figure 20):
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(a)
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Lx ( Av )1 / 2
)(Tw T0 ) + T0 --- (56) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.25)
Q
where Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the
calculation is made.
Tz= (1 0.3325
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Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to column face i;
z,i is the emissivity of the flames with respect to face i of the
column;
i is the column face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
Ci is the protection coefficient of member face i.
where
and
The emissivity of the flames z,i for each of the faces (1), (2), (3) and (4)
of the column should be determined from the expression for z,i given
above.
11.5.2.2 Beam Engulfed in Flame
The radiative heat flux from the flames Iz (kW/m2) is given by:
Iz =
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 )d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
where
and
2(d1 + d 2 )
--- (59)
Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to beam face i;
i is the beam face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
Four cases are to be distinguished to calculate Iz,1, Iz,2, Iz,3 and Iz,4.
Case1 (no forced draught with top of flame above the top of the beam):
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and
where
and
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz,24
Iz,3 = C3z,3(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
Iz,4 = C4z,4(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
z,i is the emissivity of the flames with respect to face i of the
beam;
Tz,1 is the flame temperature (in K) at level with the bottom of
the beam;
Tz,2 is the flame temperature (in K) at level with the top of the
beam.
Case 3 (forced draught with beam parallel to the wall, but not
immediately adjacent to it, or with beam perpendicular to the wall):
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az =
--- (67)
(Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.20)
3
where z,1, z,2 and z,3 are the emissivities of the flame for column faces (1),
(2) and (3).
For beam engulfed in flame, the absorptivity az of the flame should be
determined from
az = 1 e 0.3 h --- (68)
(Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.26)
where h is the height of the window.
11.5.6 Average Temperature of Steel Member Engulfed in Flame
After obtaining Tz, Iz, If, and c, the average temperature of the engulfed
steel column Tm (K) is given by equating the flux received by the member
with the heat energy lost by the member to the environment by convection
and radiation, i.e.
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz --- (69) (Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.2)
where Tz (K) is the flame temperature;
Iz (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the flame;
and
If (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the corresponding
opening.
This is an equation involving the 4th order of Tm, and in order to solve for it,
iterative method may be used. Example 6 and Example 7 in Section 13
shows how to employ the above procedures to get the temperature of a
steel member on the external faade of a compartment.
12.
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12.3 SEB has engaged structural fire engineering experts to carry out structural
fire engineering study for a number of projects, including Tin Shui Wai
Public Library cum IRC, Improvement Works to Lei Yue Mun Park and
Holiday Village, and A Permanent Planning and Infrastructure Exhibition
Gallery at City Hall Annex. Annex A contains a sample brief showing
clauses that may be included in the invitation documents, and project
officers may also approach the office of Chief Structural Engineer/1 for
advice.
13.
Design Examples
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=222
= 8 m2;
= 10 15
= 150 m2;
= 2 (10 3 + 15 3 + 10 15)
= 450 m2
Fire load:
The characteristic fire load densities, qf,k is 1824 MJ/m2.
For a total of 150 m2 floor area, using Table 4(a) the factor for taking into
account the fire activation risk due to size of compartment,
q1 = 1.1 +
The factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the type of
occupancy, q2 is given as 0.78 (Table 4(b)).
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (5), the design fire load is given by,
qf,d = qf,k m q1 q2 n = 1824 1.0 1.322 0.78 0.4
= 753 MJ/m2
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 753 (150/450) = 251 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O is given by:
he
2
O = Av
=8
= 0.025 m0.5
At
450
Time to reach maximum temperature
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Page 63 of 87
Using (9), the time to reach maximum temperature, tmax for tmin = 25 min. is
given by,
0.2 10 3 q t,d
0.2 10 3 251
max
, 0.416
tmax = max
=
, 0.416
0.025
Fv
conc c p k
=
=
= 1749 J/m2s0.5K
For plaster layer of wall,
plaster c p k
bplaster =
=
2 0.5
= 1080 J/m s K
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
b=
(b
Aj )
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For t*max < 0.5, using (20), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase T is given by:
T = Tmax 625 (t* t*max. x), where x = 1 for tmax > tlim
= 826.2 625 (0.223t 0.448) = 1106.2 139.4t
Time when temperature drops to 20 C
Since
Part II of this set of Guidelines will show that the steel temperature
follows more or less the gas temperature for unprotected steel, and
hence there is no advantage from the fire engineering study.
13.3 Example 3 Compartment Fire (Low Fire Load)
This example will determine the parametric fire curve for a fire
compartment in an office which is of relatively low fire load level. The
walls have two openings in total, each of 2m(B)2m(D). A layer of plaster
of 15mm thick has been applied to all surfaces of the walls. The floor area
of the compartment is 2020 m2 and the height of the compartment is 2.5m.
The thermal properties of the materials are:
Reinforced concrete
= 2400 kg/m3; cp = 750 J/kgK; k = 1.70 W/mK
Plaster:
= 2700 kg/m3; cp = 900 J/kgK; k = 0.48 W/mK
Automatic water extinguishing system, automatic smoke detector and
excellent safe access route are provided. For combustion factor, m = 1.0.
Area of Compartment:
Area of opening Av= 2 2 2 = 8 m2;
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Page 65 of 87
q1 = 1.5 +
Using Table 4(b), the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the type of occupancy, q2 is given as 1.00.
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (5), the design fire load is given by,
qf,d = qf,k m q1 q2 n = 511 1.0 1.527 1.0 0.4
= 312 MJ/m2
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 312 (400/1000) = 125 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O is given by,
he
2
= 0.011 m0.5
O
= Av
=8
At
1000
Time to reach maximum temperature
Using (9), the time to reach maximum temperature tmax for tmin = 25 min. is
given by
0.2 10 3 q t,d
0.2 10 3 125
, 0.416
tmax = max
, 0.416 = max
0.011
O
conc c p k
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bplaster =
plaster c p k
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
(b
b=
Aj )
Page 67 of 87
Page 68 of 87
Using Table 9, the rate of heat release of the fire of a Christmas tree is:
Q = 0.65 MW
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 500kW/m2 is used for library.
The fire surface required to release a power of 0.65MW is thus given by:
Afire = 0.65/0.5 = 1.3 m2
Assuming a circular shape of the fire yields a diameter, using (39),
D = (4 1.3 / ) 0.5 = 1.29 m
Using (25), the length of the flame
Lf = 0.0148 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.0148 (0.65 106)0.4 1.02(1.29) = 1.81 m
Using (27), virtual origin of the fire source
z0 = 0.00524 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.00524 (0.65 106)0.4 1.02(1.29)
= -0.208 m
Using (26), temperature on the flame axis
(z) = 20 + 0.25 Qc2/3 (z-z0)-5/3
= 20 + 0.25 (0.8 0.65 106)2/3 (1.8 + 0.208)-5/3
= 526C
In Section 9.6.5, it has been noted that the UK National Annex to Eurocode
1 specifically states that the method in Eurocode 1 is not applicable to
localised fires, and directs designers instead to refer to the method in PD
7974-1. Hence, the example of a Christmas tree in a library will be
calculated using PD 7974-1as follows:
Using Table 9, rate of heat release of fire of a Christmas tree is:
Q = 0.65 MW
The geometric data of the library are as follows:
H = 3.4 m, W = 2.9 m, L = 3.75 m, = 0.15 m
with opening size of he = 1.3 m and b = 1.2 m
The thermal properties of reinforced concrete as wall materials are as
follows:
= 2450 kg/m3, c = 0.75 kJ/kgK, = 0.0017 kW/mK
Using (34), the thermal penetration time
2
c
2450 0.75 0.15
tp = =
= 6080 s
2
0.0017 2
As tp is greater than the fire exposure time of a library, using (35), the
effective heat transfer coefficient
0.5
hk
0.5
c
= 0.0017 2450 0.75
=
t
6080
= 0.02267 kW/m2K
Using (33), the rise in temperature above the localized fire
1
Q2
= 6.85
A h 2h A
w e k t
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First Issue Date : December 2011
Page 69 of 87
3
650 2
= 6.85
2
(1.3 1.2 ) 1.3 0.02267 (2.9 3.75)
= 593 C
The temperature of the flame
T = 593 + 20 = 613 C
The results are then checked using the computer software CFAST, which is
free for downloaded. The compartment is simulated using the data from the
above case. CFAST is a two-zone fire model that can be used to calculate
the evolving distribution of temperature throughout compartments of a
building during a fire. These can range from very small containment vessels,
on the order of 1 m3 to large spaces on the order of 1000 m3. A
compartment is divided into two control volumes, a relatively hot upper
layer and a relatively cool lower layer, each of which is internally uniform in
temperature and composition. The modelling equations used in CFAST take
the mathematical form of an initial value problem for a system of ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). These equations are derived using the
conservation of mass, the conservation of energy (equivalently the first law
of thermodynamics), the ideal gas law and relations for density and internal
energy. These equations predict as functions of time quantities such as
pressure, layer height and temperatures given the accumulation of mass and
enthalpy in the two layers. The user need to input data about the building
geometry (compartment sizes, materials of construction, and material
properties), connections between compartments (horizontal flow openings
such as doors, windows, vertical flow openings in floors and ceilings, and
mechanical ventilation connections), fire properties (fire size and species
production rates as a function of time), and specifications for detectors,
sprinklers, and targets (position, size, heat transfer characteristics). The
model of the compartment used in this example is shown as follows:
The time-temperature graph of the fire of the Christmas tree at the ceiling of
the compartment from the software is plotted as follows, and the peak
temperature is at 623C.
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623
3E 3
3 200 3
) =(
) = 2.08 MW
k
200
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 500kW/m2 is used.
The fire surface required to release a power of 2.08MW is thus given by:
Afire = 2.08/0.5 = 4.16 m2
Assuming a circular shape of the fire yields a diameter, using (39),
D = (44.16 /) 0.5 = 2.30 m
Using (25), the length of the flame
Lf = 0.0148 (2.17106)0.4 1.02(2.30) = 2.67 m
Using (32),
QH* = Q / (1.11106 H2.5) = 2.17106/(1.111062.62.5) = 0.179
Using (30),
QD* = 2.17 106 / (1.11 106 2.302.5)= 0.231
Using (31), horizontal flame length
Lh = (2.9 H (QH*) 0.33) - H = (2.9 2.6 (0.179) 0.33) 2.6 = 1.67 m
Q=(
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The maximum temperature of the steel member can be read out from the
Page 72 of 87
Area of Compartment:
Area of opening Av = 22 = 4 m2;
Area of floor Af = 1015 = 150 m2;
Total surface area, At = 2 (10 2.5 + 15 2.5 + 10 15) = 425 m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O = Av
he
At
=4
2
= 0.013 m0.5
425
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A q
he
Q = min f f,d ; 3.15 (1 - e -0.036/O )A v
D / W
F
150(753)
2
= min
; 3.15 (1 - e -0.036/0.013 )4
7. 5
1200
= min[94 ; 6] = 6 MW
Temperature of the Fire Compartment
Using (41), the temperature of the fire compartment is given by:
Tf = 6000 (1 - e-0.1/O) O0.5(1-e-0.00286) + To
A f q f,d
150(753)
where To = 20 oC, =
=
= 2739 MJ/m2
Av At
4( 425)
-0.1/0.013
Tf = 6000 (1 - e
) (0.013)0.5(1-e-0.00286(2739)) + 20
o
= 704 C (977 K)
Flame Length
Using (42), the flame height is given by:
6
Q
LL = 1.9 ( ) 2 / 3 - he = 1.9 ( ) 2 / 3 - 2 = 1.95 m
wt
2
Flame width = window width, wt = 2 m
Flame depth = 2/3 he = 1.33 m
There is a wall above the window, and he = 2 m < 1.25 wt = 2.5 m.
Therefore, using (43a), horizontal projection of flames, LH = he / 3 = 2 / 3 =
0.67 m
Since LL > 0, and he = 2 m < 1.25 wt = 2.5 m, using (44), the flame length
along axis is given by:
Lf = LL + he/2 = 1.95 + 2/2 = 2.95 m
Flame Temperature at the Window
Using (45), The flame temperature at the window is given by:
520
Tw =
+ To
1 0.4725( L f wt / Q)
=
520
+ 20 = 991 oC (1264 K)
1 0.4725(2.95)(2) / 6)
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Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 1 of the column
is given by:
z,1 = 1 e 0.31 = 1 e 0.3( 0.875 ) =0.231
As 1 = 3 = 3, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 and face 3
of the column is as that of face 1 of the column, i.e. z,2 = z,3 = 0.231
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD
Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
Page 75 of 87
Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 4 of the column
is given by:
z,4 = 1 e 0.34 = 1 e 0.3( 0.205 ) =0.06
Radiative Heat Flux from the Flame
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 1 is given by:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tz4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 17.82 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 2 is same as that of
column face 1 i.e. Iz,2 = 17.82 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 3 is given by:
Iz,3 = C3z,3Tw4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1264)4 = 33.43 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 4 is given by:
Iz,4 = C4z,4Tz4 = 1.0 (0.06) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 4.63 kW/m2
Using (58), the radiative heat flux from the flames
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 ) d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz =
2( d 1 + d 2 )
(17.82 + 17.82)(250 / 1000) + (33.43 + 4.63)(250 / 1000)
=
2(250 / 1000 + 250 / 1000)
2
= 18.43 kW/m
Overall Configuration Factor from the Window
Face 3:
Two zones (zone 1 and 2) may be defined for face 3 of the member.
For zone 1:
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f =
(C1 f ,1 + C 2 f , 2 )d 1 + (C 3 f ,3 + C 4 f , 4 ) d 2
(C1 + C 2 ) d1 + (C 3 + C 4 )d 2
(0.058 + 0.058)( 250 / 1000) + 0.36( 250 / 1000)
=
(1 + 1)(250 / 1000) + (1 + 1)( 250 / 1000)
0.476
=
= 0.119
4
Absorptivity of the Flames
The absorptivity of the flames is given by:
z,1 + z,2 + z,3 0.231 + 0.231 + 0.231
=
az =
3
3
= 0.231
Radiative Heat Flux from the Opening
Using (67), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4 = 0.119(1)(1- 0.231)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 4.73 kW/m2
Average Temperature of Steel Column
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel column is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
-8
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (18.43x1000) + (4.73x1000) + 10(1080)
(5.67x10-8)Tm4 + 10Tm = 33960
Tm = 821 K (548 oC)
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Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 1 of the beam is
given by:
z,1 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 ( 0.25 ) = 0.0723
Similarly, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 of the beam is
given by:
z,2 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 (1.45 ) = 0.353
and, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 3 of the beam is given
by:
z,3 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 ( 0.875 ) =0.231
As 3 = 4, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 4 of the beam is
as that of face 3 of the beam, i.e. z,4 = z,3 = 0.231
1
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As z,4 = z,3, the radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 4 is same
as that to column face 3, i.e. Iz,4 = Iz,3 = 14.37 kW/m2
Using (59), the radiative heat flux from the flames
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 )d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz =
2(d1 + d 2 )
(10.46 + 20.34)(250 / 1000) + (14.37 + 14.37)(250 / 1000)
=
2(250 / 1000 + 250 / 1000)
= 14.89 kW/m2
Overall Configuration Factor from the Window
Face 1:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 1 of the member.
For zone 1:
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f,1
Face 2:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 2 of the member.
For zone 1:
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For zone 1:
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Face 4:
Owing to the symmetry, f,4 = f,3 = 0.1899
Therefore, the overall configuration factor from the window, f is given by:
(C1 f ,1 + C 2 f , 2 )d1 + (C3 f ,3 + C 4 f , 4 )d 2
f =
(C1 + C 2 )d1 + (C3 + C 4 )d 2
(0.216 + 0.206)(250 / 1000) + (0.1899 + 0.1899)(250 / 1000)
=
(1 + 1)(250 / 1000) + (1 + 1)(250 / 1000)
0.8018
=
= 0.2
4
Absorptivity of the Flames
Using (68), the absorptivity of the flames is given by:
az = 1 e 0.3 h , where h is the height of the window
= 1 e 0.3 ( 2 )
= 0.451
Radiative Heat Flux from the Opening
Using (64), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4
= 0.2(1)(1- 0.451)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 5.67 kW/m2
Average Temperature of Steel Column
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel beam is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
-8
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (14.89x1000) + (5.67x1000) + 10(1042)
(5.67x10-8)Tm4 + 10Tm = 30980
Tm = 798 K (525 oC)
14
References
Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) (2005), International Fire
Engineering Guidelines (Canberra, ACT: Australian Building Codes Board).
ASTM (1998), ASTM E-119: Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building
Construction and Materials (West Conshohocken: ASTM).
Babrauskas, V. (1998), Ensuring the Publics Right to Adequate Fire
Safety Under Performance-Based Building Codes, Proceedings of Pacific
Rim Conference and 2nd International on Performance-Based Building
Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, Maui, Hawaii, 3-9 May 3-9, p.16775.
Page 85 of 87
Page 86 of 87
Page 87 of 87
Annex A
Annex A
Sample Clauses in Engaging Structural Fire Engineering Consultant
Annex A
1.
1.1
1.2
The building is to be designed to comply with all current fire safety standards for its
intended uses.
2.
2.1
The Consultant is required to consider all limitations in the Study, and shall
complete the Study in an efficient and cost effective manner in accordance with the
programme specified and relevant Ordinances, Regulations and Codes specified in
Clause 6.
2.2
The objective of the Study is to investigate and outline options that would
demonstrate that the structural elements including connections in insert locations
would achieve an overall level of fire safety that is equivalent to the prescriptive
provisions of the relevant Codes specified in Clause 6.
2.3
The Consultant shall co-ordinate with the project team from the Architectural
Services Department (ArchSD), observe and address all physical or other constraints
for preparing the Study. It is anticipated that the preparation of the Study would
require iterative discussions and revisions between the concerned parties.
The
Consultant shall also incorporate all possible changes in the architectural layouts
and/or structural plans and details during the Study.
3.
3.1
To meet the purposes set out in Clause 2 above, the Consultant is specifically
required to :(i)
Assess the necessity of application of passive fire protection for the structural
elements in insert locations by carrying out necessary computational studies,
such as computational fluid dynamic analysis, fire scenarios, heat transfer
modeling, structural analysis and design at elevated temperatures to determine
Annex A
their structural responses (including the adequacy of the members and the
connections at elevated temperature) such that the equivalent fire safety
performance can be achieved as the prescriptive provisions of the Ordinances,
Regulations and Codes in Clause 6;
(ii) Recoomend any passive fire protection, if fund necessary, for partial or full
protection to the steel trusses under the Study;
(iii) Liaise with ArchSD Statutory Compliance Checking Unit (SCCU), ArchSD
Structural Checking Unit (SCU), and if necessary, Buildings Department, and
other relevant government authorities or parties. This shall include necessary
submission of the fire engineering reports up to the approval of the abovementioned government authorities;
(iv) Co-ordinate with other consultants appointed by ArchSD and advise the
Project Architect, Project Structural Engineer and Project Building Services
Engineer, and other consultants on matters arising from the Study;
(v) Present the findings of the Study and/or recommendations to relevant parties;
(vi) Submit the report(s) of the Study summarizing the findings of all the proposed
or recommended fire protection systems.
3.2
The Consultant shall ensure that suitably experienced professional(s) with both
4.
(a)
(b)
Annex A
Response to the Brief to show the understanding of the objectives and the
(d)
scope of service.
Methodology to show the preliminary idea about the approach to this
Study. It should also include examples of the Consultants deliverables,
such as drawings and calculation that would show the standard of
services provided by the Consultant.
5.
Deliverables
5.1
The Consultant shall produce the following deliverables as part of the Study to the
Employers Representative.
5.2
Final Report
The Consultant shall submit the Final Report and incorporate recommendations
from ArchSD SCCU, ArchSD SCU and, if necessary, Buildings Departments Fire
Engineering sub-committee. The Consultant shall respond to any queries having
been raised 6 months after the final submission of the Deliverables required under
the Study.
5.4
Presentation Materials
The Consultant shall, for presentation and consultation purposes, prepare suitable
visual and coloured presentation materials, photographs, slides, plans, sections,
visuals and perspective drawings and sketches with digital files illustrating the
submission proposals as required.
Annex A
5.5
3 copies
(b)
Final Report
5 copies
(c)
3 CD-ROMs
5.6
5.7
At the conclusion of the Study, all documents including reports, technical papers
and supporting notes, presentational materials, sketches, plans, drawings,
photographs, charts for the Study and all related computer tapes/disks shall be
delivered to and shall become the property of the Hong Kong SAR Government
with full copyright.
5.8
The Consultant should draw to the attention of the Employers Representative any
Deliverables that are under licence and any pre-existing copyright or patent on any
Deliverables and any other restriction whatsoever affecting the Employers use of
the same and, if required by the Employers Representative, to establish the
existence of any licence, copyright, patent or restriction.
6.
2.
3.
4.
Buildings Department (2005), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel,
Hong Kong: Buildings Department.