NorthAmerican Indigenous WarfareHASTA 115

L4678
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CONTENTS
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Erno.o s. B.urio I,.
L4679
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C __ I-,,\\Wfu-ciAdoo H ___ Bar Rcp
aw-Iooo A. Bishop and V_
P.l.,:!wya
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. "nol\Varfare "" .... NonhwatC-. Did .... PotIokh
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19yA.lr4k
L4684
L4685
Sol!!bwa'
114
l'oIly S.huf...,.
L4686
ColKllUa ond ,II< f vidcn: for La.. I're-Columbian W. , in ,II<

Noub Amaia" Midmmi"rRI
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L4687
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L4689
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160
182
I F.m<nee rOO" Ind" ....... Warfare in Nor,h

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L4690
A,tlf , id ~";rorul"ltn'oI"";obIet tha, undmi ..... queorion of wily the
natift peo:>plc$ of Nooth Arnerica have .~ in wuf.... and rilUll
Bod. A""' ......, p"pl" ,bure """
.... -.han ............. ochoIarIy dwac.ttriulioonl of the ~ """
...... """'" ... dornim ... _~ bodyof p >blic p< ... ption. rqud_
a., Nonb AmctI<aII """w' ~....d nnw . -...... AI a....w."
" fwwI . ... "toI d ..n ''8'' '" the ...... quo _
Ihru..... 10
<h<riohod -" .-p600 ...... mioguido:d beIidt
inform .... rrg .,;'"
.... . . . , _ m of ...... , W... a ..",. ond It''''eb7 ............ cdiliooo ""
whio::h .... "",hetyp< of rll< NobIo Savage is <=oed. It . x l of ""Pitift
'"
.-1 ............ ,0""'''''' ,;.-..
11
t'a'arWo: and Vi *"'" ;n No,d.
The pl of rhlt ..,Iurne Is
,ha,
]ll
AI .. ".dAn";!. .""" 271'

1M... 21'9
V1
c ........
.+
di""",.nce """.berates thmughou, ,he ~my IDn. cenrnn.. of ",hoU..hip.nd IX'I"'b.
Ion:.o... one IIidc of ,hi. divide mnd too..: who dogm.1tk.lI y adhere to
thr cn<kmic rultunl"re.Ji'Y" of Amorit><!i..,,......ru,, .t><! ritu,.] violence;
on the other ... 0<1 tbooc revi.ionisu who sc<:k to co-opt the orgumcnt
.Jtogcther. For those: .. ttmpling"HI imp:uti.J, or ........,.bly impartial,
...... mcnt of Amctindi.n vioI.nt<. thr Iandscapc of """pcting rocial.
rultu...!,:and tl1tion.tiltic io',=" :and Woo.. hu brcom. iO<fft.ingly
""I"il nd highly poIiriciud.
To oddmo. the f""C""lLng chollcnga,. diJItingui.hcd group of",ntt ...
to ",v',ew ,h. utha>logiocal. <th
dilCiplinuy ochobro "'m<
nohist<>tial.,hnographic: nd fut,:".ic: eo"idct>Cc fur indigt"rIOUS :mnod
<ooIiict :and rinW vioIencc in North Arner""" Th.io voIum . tho =u.h of
OU' .1I"0n, .... n.ureo well bqood.ho .... n.i.J q.... ' ion. >nd revi.ioni"
......1<0 .ru., dullong< thr
notion ,ru.. ru-cindi .... <Ve' ongogod in
signi~. 1..... 1. of otg.ni.<d viol<nce: pr;or to.he Europe.n in_ion .
A. contributon, we: indi.;.!u.Jly . nd <olk.:riv<ly explot< .booc <ou""
.nd <OfIO!U<~ .h.. und<tH. indigenous ronRic:t in Nonh A"...,;.;.
bo,h pas' on<! p..... nL Although Inrfon: h.s Ilkn dc~nl m vm.ty
of """yo. "" adopt .he d<fi..;,;oo of wufu< .. "socially orpniud arm..!
comb .. """,... n ..... m"" .. of dill"..... n. "'ttilorial uni" (communi.;'" 0<
aggn:g>ta of rommuni.icsn Embe. at><! Embe. 1994 ]90). T01lC<On\'
mod..tt the brooder theme: of ron/!ic:r and ,-iokncc in Nonh Am.rk.,
.... ~ choocn to 1Uppl<m<n ho oforemcntione<! <k~ni.ion 00 os to
peeit)-, ond ,hord>y include, cui tunJ ... Iigiou ideological. political . nd
OrIOmic: mooi ... ,,,,,,. as well.
Ou. coUecti,....
of tho da .. d..rly indica ....h ...rm<d
ron/!ic:r on<! rim.J vioIene< .rc of con.id .... bl. an.iquity in Nonh
A...... ico. \'hri"... " ... ubiquitoUs; ...... major cui ........ of n.,i,..
Nonh Am.ria. rcvi<wI he .. in has pro,!.",..! ""hacologic:al.,hoohi._ic:ol, <>I.rologicol, or hoog ... phic n-idenee of onnl conllic. :and
rilual vioIene<.
It """,Id be "nre_.bIe.nd n.m: fO .ttcrop. in 'his con.CXf .O
propooc: ao) g;....n primary cou.. or ... of ..nobl ro. .1>< <voluOOn
at>d p<rsi<t< .. ~ of Inrf...., :and riruol vioIe_ in .... ive Nonh Am<ria..
"Th.orctical diocu,.;o", ror>c....,..J wi.h indig<"""" comba, ~nd ri,ual
'ogo'''"'
-=r
sa.men.
violence: in Nonh A..... rico necessarily .-.qui.. ronside .... joo, of Ibo
qion., trcmcndou, cooIogicol .nd culnuol diversity. Conromi'andy,'"
od"'''",I..!ge the fxt tho. the human motivation, fur going '0 war in
..,y Fn ronlUf lILly nry d....... ticolJy.nd chang< through tim<.
Ra.her 'han risk promoting I monoli,hk c:xpIanation fur .ny and
all form, of wufu<, we ooIIc<1;,.. ly ...... the evidence for .booc pa"
ttmo tru.t ben.. the root <;aU"" of inf<<gn>Up coolIict by ron.idering .1><
"",<knee for orgoniud violence: in nch N""h American ruI .... :un
on 0I.S<.by-<uc basis. W. believe
.his .ppn:toCh ..-t <fI"c<ti ....Jy
btinK" fO the forc tho CMI . . . . nd ~ of onnl coolIict :and
rinW violence fur.1>oo< COO< otudico. M"..,.".....,!hi, I,u'"",nl will oervt:
.. an impetuo to fur.hcr ..... uth cen red on theory building ond .1><
ques' for ,1>< CSM:n,ial dynamko "oded,.;ng...non: """ ritual violenee
in Nonh Ameri", """" g<n<nolJy.
Bon.... orm..! ""nRi... nd ...ligjous violence ...... continen,wid<
phe"""",n .. we: ru.ve "t>dt.wom:I to 1>< as incllUiV< as poosibk by it.o .....
iItg those: .. boWly rontributiono Iha. cogently ... f\oct rurTen' ..... orch
.",ndo from n<2tly all rn.>.jo< rultu'" ...... of n.. 've Non!> Ameria..
This consid .... tion was Of .h. ho.n of ,he .... mbling of. dis.ingui.hcd
cohon of achoI ... fur recrn. rympooium on the theme of lOU and
ritual vioIene< in .he Am<rkos. Rcknn, 'Y"'pooium papm ooIicit<d by
invitation of the senior editor ........ originally pmen,..! bofon:: !he 200J
aonual meeling> of the Am<ri<an Anthropologial A.ooci .. joo, io Chicw. ]l!ino;,. Finding> ""',.. it.oturcd within .he rontt:xl of.n inmdi ...
ciplinuy oymposium titkd .ProI!],.... in Pond .... Our prim< objti ....
ot 'hot time ..... to review I ..,. of f<"CCtt1 findings thlt dun..nge revi
sionist orgumrnu reprding .h. ql><Uion of human rooJlk' :and ritual
00'''''. in .boripnal Ameria.. A lOI><brroim l'I"2I to c:xpiorc n-idet>
8"nn .... to.bo "nd.,.,.nd;ng of.he fund."",,,,aI dT"""'ics und<,J";ng
AmerindWt wuf.... U1tirn.>.ttly,'" W<ttSSfu] ..... OUr coll for papm on
thio tho..,. that the d' r!ong rympooium !wi to be divided mto North
Americorl :and Lo.in Arr><ric2n oe<:tion., jus. OS .he publico,;"" of
..,..""h teqUired two voIu ....... ConttibutofJ .... bsequently revi.i,..! ,he
p.. Lminuy insigh .. and ohsc .... rion. p"''''ntcd wi.hin tho< contt:xl of
the "J>robkmo in l'2rodil<" oympooium to more .horoughly intnrogot<
,,," e>i<lcna: a.nd <holkngc .1>< .,nill>ctic:xl and di";sive vicwo of ,he
.ha,
.hi.
1.-- ,
radal revi.ioni .... The ch.t.>rn, i"ic revisioni" pt"PC<~ 0<1 .bo.ipnol Am.riN. n atmplified by
of Ru...,11 Me"" r><! Momn Wolf.
who describe prtCO<lnct indigc-now warfate in idooliud .. rm. by arguing. "Jk{"", 'he whit .. camt. O\U COIIflicts - . . brief and 01...,., blood-
,Iu,
Ino. mcmbUng fu mon: profcoOotW f_bill pm< tIun the Iethol

:umihilation. of uropnn cooq .... t0995. 16).
In d p''' 1. E. ncif S. Burch Jr. aclmowlcdg<o
,Iu,
warf~
.....
\:0.1, ... ingle . Ibei, "".. i<ul... ly .ignifiant. dime ..."'" of ,he tnditionol
Arctic way of Uf. H, ci ... palttm. of n:wi .. ion .nd ~ ... he
pri"'"")" inducements to ..;ole ... confliCT . r><! ho finds ,h .. nei'her ,h.
o<qW.ition of terri.ory "'" .he de.ire for W .... m .code good> nccnsaray unde,loy .u.ch :oggrnoion. In point offact. Burch fwOO
con.",,),
to ,h. of,-... ,.d
of W .... m ,,,,,,,,ion nd 'nHue"". in uac.rbating i>M.i1i'ies ro.ditionol form. of intergroup ronR;.. xnWJy.ndt<I
dueing .h .,ly conTac. ptciod.
In <h'p .. r 2. Chuko A. Bi1hop . 00 Vioctoc P. lytwyn enmine
of lowland C ...... lnui, warf"" .00 find .hot "",h COIIR;.,
d.... ,ho arrival of Europtan roIonilli .. 'Ihey go 0<1 '0 document poo._
eh.nge in .h.
>Ad .....
of w.lrf~ ,h" 1\.>", been
iden,ifled in ,hose: ""'tan.. The .u.hor. m ......... ,I\.>, from. Crn: per.poctm,. worf.", hulli"le do wi,h question. nf .,..;tori>lil)'. ll i.hop
and lJ'l"Y<l oo.Ivanc he claim 'hot ace ... to W.... m ,code goodo inod"", ... nti)" ..1""'1 to "'PI""" indigo""'" warf"", in
in<t2ncn in
which _biders cle.,ly f.vom:l ... tu..ge ",l"ioruhil" wi,h one group
"'''' '!>OTher. The .",hon m1intain .lut ,he J'<ime moti .... lOt warf.",
rnWlcd muru:ol mi' tN$I ."rib",obl< '0 ineeoncilobl. ethnioc dilf..........
u wdI u u i<ing froot lowI.nd Cre.: mi.forru .... born of poo,ronta<,
KOIogico.l change .ttributed '0 Inuit """""cy.
In <I\.>P''' 3.joon A.lovi .. k reevolua,," H.len Code .. (1950)
..... nion ' hot ,he North_ .. Co." po<bt<h "'I'lomJ warfon:; lovi..,k
rondudco th .. ,he poIlotth WOJI "",.ed in ",cuilli>.od tcformub.iO<l of
.he Wi",., C .... moniol. M .,....,..r. she con .. nds
Notth .... , Coo ..
warfon: pr<d.,<1 .0"'1'<"'" ron, ... and lui ito origin. in raiding :omvil)'
motiv1ted by .he quest roo ...... ge, ";,oriol imptroti,on, :uxI I"""ig<
borne of hum"" trophr.wng or hoodhun.ing. The .u.hor ..knowI-
.Iu,
"*
""Itt....
<OIl''''
r"'-
1'.,......
m:.
'0
""*
,Iu,
edges
,Iu,
,ho Win .... Ceremonial pr<Md<d rituo.llzed _u, within

whkh ,he to.Iting of h""",n 'mp!Ues W2S sanctioned and e~.
Lo:n-Uc:kp;t 0<1 to Ilgu<: ,h .. ,ho patti<ipalion ofNonhwa, eoa" pe0ples in 'he W .... rn fur It">de radico.lly mns[ormed ,he tc:oIc and in .. n.il)' nf b"aditionol !Uti", oruf"",. Accordiftgly. ,ho ... ,hor dacribn bow
pancmtl of warf"", ohified from rokIing b.ucd 0<1 feYCfIge. and desi ..
'0 ocqui ... p<eSligo goods and .. ana. to an t><tmIICly ..;.,jenl panem of
eng:ag.:ments arising (tom unequal o<cno to f<>Kign trade goodo and the
",",' for W1I" booty...... ~ kimngo. ..."'. in ..... if>co,ion,.nd ........
In ch.ptc. 4. John R.Johmon unclen:ol<n ,he cnmin .. i"" of the
documentvy cvkItnce for p.,1n. of armed COIIflict .nd violence once
prevalcn' ''''''''a Chum ..h IMi,n ro .. w .. nus inbnd """'n,lin ";1bgeo of ..... thnn CoIif"",u.. The .uthor men IUCh )<IlIic' '0 mati...
born of ..... ngt. ",boi.. ence ....... and tompt.itiO<l. and
of toretT)'. -n.. ......,lrina .... Ie""" """"timn ,n,oiled ,he mutibtion
of folk.. enemies. John"",'. finding> includ< KV<lotioru rcpnling 'he
romplrnl)' of C hum.,h in"""";bal ...lo'ions .nd COII/lict in,,"""ion.
_,[0...
ouch .. bow ,he neighboring Yokuts migh' ",If.r "'" ron""""' ...... of
Chwnash rokIing ><tivil)' ~ ocr..... am.. to the ChWIl20h in ,ub-seq ... nt mgagtm<nto with common enemlea. In oddition. the au,hor
cxploreo cond:&tion betwKn p<>'tm2riw ....... ntiol pattern. and W1I"fue for fur'her ind"""lons p"'''ining to .he au'" .nd conscqucncn of
w.ltf.... in rly Californi.o.
In ch'p,.r 5. Polly Schatfsm. provides , val..able ~ of
the vioual evidence (K indigenous warf"" in the I'u<hIo SOU.h ......
By anolyzing pr<hi .. oric nxk UI and kiva mural il1l2g<l in the light
nf hnohntorical .00 ethnogrophioc da .., .h. provides an id>logico.l
.. mp!' .. fuo- ,he unden.king of wu. Significantly. ohc .rxa nri"",
"""hweokm belief. linking _rfa~ .00 f... i1ily to M ...,.m......
In chap .. , 6. Thonw E. Emenon', ,rudy of M ;...;,.;ppi", lO"1ffue
for ,he ptnod AD 900-1-400 ror><,m. the an:hHoIogkal =<Wecy of
di, ru.bing evidence from m ... interrncnb of war apli ... ondIor oacrificiol viCTim .. According to ,he .u,hot. recen, finding>.......:I .har pn:COII' ... -.... hosti~,ies ......J.ed in ,he mwaono and mutibtion of hundredo of men. women. and chlklK... The oIu:kw <ride""" of in""';'"
warf~ n abo IUpported by the .=tiotJ of forticotiont, iroBogrophlc
,~
depiction. of ... rri""".oo ... rf.... -iOOllCCd ...gional _ial .nd poIi.iol
""'K"niu.ioru. Eme...,n.rgu<O .hat.IM: cmcrg<""" of romplc:x ,hit(dom. or inci~ ........ "",h os Cohoki., tnn. f"..mcd rrgiooal ronRic<
(rom oho",,-~.-N .nd .. Ia'i ....ly .mall ocoIe in.eraction. into ("""ally
org>ciwl. "",.n<ly Wg< ...-..1<. ond .-...Iy mon: in.m. h .. and bdliroK
p.".nu ofin.ctnccinc 1oWf....
In .h'p.er 7. Dc..., R. Sr.ow "",.end h.. p=on."", lraq""'.n
... rf......... fueled in Urge P"" by II... quest fo< ...,.. ng<. In .he .;,r.on.h onrury.h. League of .he lroquoi. was establi. hed OS a toIlrive
""P""" I<> In...trib.tl h",.iIi.iel.ln ,1M: CctllUry .h'l foIlow<d.lhe I,.."...
quoi ...ugh. ,~ ",Iation'hips wi.h nriou. E.wopcan roIoniaJ f"""C"
cuh,ng< fu .. fo< guns . Such .rode led to..., Incrnoe in raiding .... i...
'0
iry by ""n-League .... ", .... during .IM: <OIl,.. of.he ..... "'on,h ""mury.
apl.in hat....,h mAi heigh.,ned.IM: dem.nd (or .... r ClIp""
.iva.nd hum.n trophia.1lti, ...... In rum CD<><rbo.l! by F"'I"'I.tion
looses .ri. ing f..,.., ,he epidcmict of.he .ime. ""'pled wi.h ,he desi",
KqUi ..."" pxls and p<arige i",m .. In.IM: .igh",en.h Cctltury,
"'m>g:I.e for war and in.e .. ribal ".. inttatrib.tl ronRict m.. erlalited
.. , .."," and ptn.ig< rouId then he enluncod by the OITIlmubrion of
""""e.. ry ..... I,h and lu.<IIry goooJ . 1hc ri .. . nd "",..,Iid>t ion of power
by Europe.n roloni ... evenru.lly brought .n end to in",,.,rib.tl .... rf...
~n tIM: AmcriClIn Indi.n mba and ... rio .... of the rtgion.
In ch.pter 8. Oa,-;d H. Dy. .nd AJ.m King rni<wnidc""" ftom
mul.idisciplinary body of findings In ..., ell"O<'< to de,,,,,n,,,,,,. tlue
M iwi'''f'Pi.n eli ... of.he So.nhe... ->cd wi,h one """,II,,, (or powe'
.nd pra.ige .hrough tIM: de"""""'n .nd deonucrion of .he .nentnl
ohrin .. of riv2b. 111<.. oocm:Ilocatioru of.en "",.ained the Kmoi ... of
Snow
'0
chleAy .nen'""" OIlmpruory art and elite gra.... goooJ ... nd ",Iated rirual
panphemoli . n..... i",m. in rurn ~ deemed to tcp<nCn. the physical m.nif<$tll.ion. of. tukr', political powe' and ,u.hority.1II< de_n..ion of one" .""",.ra1 .hrine .heby ..""d. o undermine .he .1I".ed
Ie:tder". <Iaim. '0 .he divine right to rule. D~ and King <nnd..de th ..
.. hnohi.t<>tiClII """"'nto o(
w:orf... on: in rum <orn>bo.
... ted by the .,.;Joble ""'hacotog;caJ and osteological findings.
In chapter 9. ~ R. MU".,. o;Iernoru ....... ha. r...rem WMUnd. W2t oM co.tllitt ~ """ ,in>< on.! ' J""<."d _ .1I",ed by .he
""",he..,,,,,
''''''''''eo-
oociopoIitiClll mili ... in whith i. was ""nifat. Significantly, ..

IogkoI C'tidena: indico."" tho. Arcltoic huntcr-go.thetcn of the ~
Mugh' one onothe. wi,h con. ide",ble frequency. Mil".,. ron.e...do .ho.
,he fi .., widespread ..... of winge .... i. comloted wit h nidcr>ee for ,
~-ttntwy declinc in ronJ\ict and vioIen in the rtgion beginning
non thousand years ago, Several Ii""" of do Indico.!e. dnmatit,....,-gen in onned "",Ilia of",. !hot
among the competing mba
oM dti<fdom. of .he ~. A. the ""'" tim<, thc "",.hcm portion of
.he Ea.,em Woodbndo W>I <h>BCter~ by .... U-orgonl..ed chiefdoms
copable: of """'nring I.rge-teak: .ttacks. By"""...... in the northem parlion of.he Eoswn Woodl.nd .. tomb.t ..... often irurig.1! 01 dir:ted
by tribal head....n who rond""ed ,hc"""l,u in presumably lest fo<lfIlllly opted oM ""rtoinly low.:r-intmSity milit1ry cnpgetncnto.
In ch.pte< 10. Patricio 1\1. Gmbe,., " $rudy of the OI.eoIogico.I <Viden"" fOl pt<hi"",,;c ";oIe""" .nd ronA;., In No"h AmcriClI unequl_
colly illu ...."" ,h .. . rmed "",Ai....... both .ncient .0><1 wide"""ad.
1>1<=0>"<'. >naIpi. of .....al.,. COUnto indi<orcs that omall-ocole inte.result in Wg< numlxn of ",sualtic. and
tribal nids could ""'Y
.. t1'OOt"dlnarily high monality "',... SignitKo"dy. Lambe" "'J'O"I' th"
r",.he ~ ... whole. the in1cnlityofw:o,oMronl\i<. p..ked betw:n
AD 1000 and 1400, Long btfo..: the adw:m ofEuropnn cxpan. ion in
No"h America. Lambe" """rend. that ,he ronrincnt-wide ...,.Lotion
of war and "",aia may be corn:i>,ed "';,h ,he ever-ch.nging dyn.mics of qional popub.'ion denlity and corrying "pad!)'.... hith in rum
rolncide with m.jo, <nvilOflJtl<n.a1 pcrtwbari<Kto, 1n<luding the ...... t
of.he medie..,.) W""" .nd Li.del"" Age cUm.tlc episodeo.
In chapttt II. Rich.rd J.Chacon .0><1 Ruben C. I\lendou expIon:
tIM: ethkal i...... nioed ..hen <Vide""" for Amerindi.n warf~ .nd
,i",u oIe_;" !"'bli.hcd. C on...... ly..... di ...... ,I>ooc .. mifi ..,ioru
that ..<ttI ftOm .he ,lcen of Of" refusal by some scholars "" n:port
indig<""'" ormt:d oonlli<. and rirual violrnce. Additionally. we summa.iu "'y findings ~ing .boriginal w-uf:or. and rirual natl,.. .-ioItncc
,dvaneed by .he conrribu,ors "" ,hi. volume. A. editors ..... hope ,hat
the following chapte .. provide in. igh. In,o ond .."" .. a .timul", fo<
funhet r<lC2t<h on Arncrindim >nrf.... oM rirual viookn: in Nonh
h"'''''
""n
Amc,it;o..
Inb<><lu<bon 9
L4679
en L4678
Earlr<""'IoCf-paiood Eskimoo on: typkally portr>~ in Wntern li,bern. ham", pnc<ful, 00.-...', milling peoplo woo_ ..
friendly towazd _ngen. Absk:azt lOw""",. OOwe-ov, deocribed 'heir
ancesTOrs to me .. having been qu.om:loolTIe and .... <iii,.nd ,hey oupporttd ,ha, (tncral -.itw wi,h HUrn<",... oC<Oun" of opecilk nid. and
bo,tln.' 1h. aperiencn and ob..",.. tioru ofemy \'Vnmn oboe ......... in
thr region (~_g., &.dt<y 1831, 2:303; Korubu. 1821, 1:211; VanS'one
19n, 81; 1988. 30. 40. 91, 94) corrobotate what my infotmants ,old
tn<_ 1hc on! . nd doatm<1lRly IIOUr<cI combined Ihow ,h .. ",I .. ions
b<......,n ... d among Aluka N.~ roci.tin ~ vuiowly nntmtl,
<r1turc .. having
fri<ndly..nd """il<. bu, hooti~ty ... ..oo..p.nd.nd Kriouo ..........

k<q> ~ in ___ 'em Ala<b in 0 ....... on, ".~ of preparodnao
10
"'-
Tho I""J"* of ,h. thapttr 10 ~, ...mnwy of wha,

known .....' tho ........ nann..nd ~ of '-<iI< in,....
cietal ~1WOnO in ,ho -.... pan of Ala<b durinc .he utly -"xt
p<riod. I &fine that p<riod ... bein rwghIy lns 10 1850. b<ginni"ll
.nd mdi"ll 00Jm0WIu., ..rua u, .he _,h 'hln in ,ho not'h.
...
THl GlOGRAPHIC SlTTlNG

1"" ~on ..... mi by 'hi' .hll""-;' ,hown in figuK 1.1. It ;., '""",,,'m>ldr 1.000 kilome, .... from
10 ...... ond 1.3JO kllomotct-o from
..",10 10 _,IL I .. (" notthom Ionnen. indiami by tho broko:n ~nc
"'-'ins ,ho Ari< Cud., hod numb..- of irnpli<ariono of both Mntqi< ond ......,. oipificuK,o. A, Pt. Burow. d.. ......1Icmmoo' poin'
..., ,ho map. (mil WOW" r..... u, We S.pu",b.. Of arty Onobrr.nd
<,
mnolncd r....... unhl b~ M:l)' Of arIy J......' FIftUU]> """""'. bo:>o"

1m..! to halt. bu, i, ..... nwnaI fnsh ....tc< inlO OIl ............ of tho
Iond,mahlirc peopIt: 10 walk .,...,.bnd in ju: .bout ""T eli......... AIoo
II Pl. a _. me... "'" .bout IWO months eo....,. yut in ..mid> me... is
no ..nli&h' .nd more .han ,....... mondu d""", ..tIi<h me... io lin" Of
no dorknm (tho dllf......... -'rc ... rd"nocrion). T....I"""...... ond lich'
rondj,.,." bocsn .. progrnom:!y .... am ...... """ n....-cd .""h
. ho rqpoo, bu, ...oonal .nviron_n,al A.... I\I...,.,. weI"< C>'<rywhon:
.,.,... pronou...ro he"" ,h.n in moo, ooh<t porn of ,ho intubiKd "",Ld.
W....m A....1a "D<ldla ,ho nondrJt".>reo,
The dot,.d
linn in fisu .. I. I """" ,ho Ion ..... of ,"" ..wn oontinennl ,... Ii .....
wdI ... tho WJn' '"fotaI islands"loco.,td beyond ie. Outoido tho f"oowtd
~ ,"" -.,"')' is ~ ..;m tundra oq<1anen. wltido .,....ny
is undu fifty
in hrigh' acqM oIoaf; ....,......)"1 and in pn:>1K.td, ...d1-dnin<d Ionriono. """'"' oh""" <OIl ....10
of' .......
Of tOur _
Of _ _ UkmM orao of tundra and ....... "", ..... lie
,.;oMn tho 1Oreo, ..,..., putWluly ., higher ..... tiont.
\\'~ AWb isdwxtetiud bydMne bndo<opa-v.f......
... ~, .. ,~ Iuwbroth ,.. rug<d. bon,ily &b<Uttd )I1~ando (oco Sptn<el" .,
"""*
01"""'.
"".imom"o
heir'
--
aI. 2OOl (or "" ."........ ""'nnl.....,nury). o.w __ , of ,he ,...;oniven

and onnmo I\ow 'htous" Fda"""1r wdI defined ~ An --..lion io ,hc Yu ...... -KIIIkoIcwim (Y-K) Ddta,m tho .....,tr-o=n_
of ,t.. nudy ..p.r..This io on am who:n: tho dd... of two bIJ< """

........... 1' io ~ flo" poorly dnined DOUnlry ~ by moon .....
4keoo and ponds and tr.....d by myrud n.ns.sIoupt. ..... cm:k$. I, io
a d)namic IandIctp! in which ....<en:'OW1a cIurw (~tly dwi"fl
the ","",....,...".10 and in which vilUgco OJ< of"n Boodcd, Indins 10
,heir ",lon,lon.
Chukchi
so.
THE [THNI( SETTING

, ... KJlioo <'OI'CmI by ' his .rudy hOI hn 'nh.bi!ed by f.tIU"", one!
A,h.po.kan 'f'O"k.n (or .. lea.. ,he iW' . - ,""".. nd,.. ... (A<k..man 1998: Clark 1981: 1\1:.._ 1998,2000: S,,"_ 1998), .. , ........ ,he
pr<cio< di"riburion of tho d;ff...", p<q>IeIlw of DOUncll..ocrw.!ed .....
riIM. ~ boodm .. of ,he bqinniflc of tho ftinmoonth an....,.
............. In ..... I.2.
,t.. map io poaontft! limply .. a ~ pido '" ,he ... Mic
mabup of ,he onody pop' ....... cIurint!: the m..u" ri ..... period. I nloorie,aI ................. a' ........ COfI\"- within ~ _
.. i t _
""'-en ,hem. Furth<tmort, ;",.,,,,,i<w eonftict (~ tho .......
basi< _<CIT ond ,.me. througloou'
of tho <qjO>n. <qjW1no of
wbkh 10"1""1" """I' _ involved, aI,hough ,he .poclko of ronftict
plo)w
""".wh.. d;ffcn:ntly ;" cliffcR n, cnviron,nen,>! ,,"ingt.
moo'
ou,
HiUngu.oli, ..... nd mul,;]ingw.1i"" ...... rommon .... languo",

borde ............ ,he dilfuoion of ide... nd s-lo. It is importon, .. hen
tndi"fl obou, WI. 10 keep in mind m.., ............ Wli by no _ _ ,t..
only form of;n~ eonlaC'! (Surch 1988.lOO5: Clark 19n: Cluk

and Cl&rk 1976; T~ 19i9, 16-l. 166; vanS,,,... 1m, 1+-IS:
19790). In r... orno.rcb,ioRt I<IOOIIonsuaF boodm had .... n eon<hoanI "" ..-ably (rirndly Icm>lIOr _h llo::w'f! rime d... , by ,he
~ of ,he onody poriod, wh<thcT tho intuhMan .. """" A'bar-w. or F.tkimo_ """.... (Bwdo ... aI. 1999;Qo,p;ood 19<1O.29,JI,JJ,
62.63:T........... l979).
Tho Inhab;,,,,,.. of <ado ~ m<IC _
divkIod amonr;
fKUllll .1
M .... _
~~_
....-,....-.,_01_ _
..... W.0I .... ....,. .... ,.
...... 0 - _ _ ._
t, .
" ' - .'IIl: ..."SO- .....
~_
OeUoooI'' ' _
.....
numbn of oodootief ~ from >boullOO 10 perla", 2.000 ..... mbna.

exh ofwt.ich_"qmtnw" (ScMa: 1975. 70) in~AlI ofd..
...o..x. in die ~ _ batod "" a hw.!ler*plhetn _ ....,1).
In lhe ....... ""'" :and nol<m 0<CI0rlI ' " lhe on.;Iy ~ die ........
ben of n<h oocitcyaettiocddonUnion ( bX~ffe..B.-n 1951.3-4) <>ft1"
a di....,.. ...... ~ rdatMly wdI .!dint<! bcwdm (Bu ..h 199k
1998b, 9. 30')-12; Roy 1967.372, 376). -n.... bcwdm"f'Pt"ly <kfined W.. nupR;"'nbn n.d.; 198-1.
64-65; l'ra., 1984.. 46-17.57-58). The ....;.1;.. in Ih....gion _,n 10
ho .... hod _H ..... ~ned ....... 'b.OO';n ,"" fonn of ..... Of twO luge .. in'
"""1n$I.""'.
... .-iIag... bu'.i<''' which ooOe'Y c:emocd dominion UOTI . .hat lond
beyond 'hOI ""HIland hceo ..... pn>gn'S'I"'ely Ieos .,..naln ....... """"""
--r from ,... main rillJ&c(a). n.. lack '" olear-no. bonkrt .... prot..
ahIy . ~ "'poor drai.... definition ond f ........... Iaftcheape
information ",nenoMd <Iwins "'" inoutigation of biswrial oM ormfolJcMoUtc puoac< '" the: AIab N.,;... CW..... Smkmm.
....,. al....
Acr ofl97l . no......;or <>:>mf>ibtiono '" "'" ......,.", cb .. at< .he fellow..
inc: .... (AIu.bn) Inllil EIIU..... Bwcb 1974 oM 1OOS. o...n.w.n :and
Hoi ....... 19S2 (pt& 12-1l. 19). Raomu.n J93J (306-1). ond S!>hort 1m ond 1997 (32-J.t. U -5O, 62-65); .... Ccnlrlll Yup.k Eoki-
..... F.. nup-1Uonion 1988 (29-SO). 1989. 19\10 (lSl-6O). :and 199-4,
Kum 198-1. Michael tel. 1967 (281). Ndoon 11199 (2.1. 264. 327- 30).
O'Leary 1m. o.w..J, 1967 (185-36). VonS_ 1967 (109. 118-19)
1973 (S1-SJ). 1979b (10-72). ond 1988 (30-31 5. 91. 9. ); .... ,he
Dos lIi,.n!HoIibchuk A,h.po.k:Jn', M icha<1I967 (2-41.192,,",2).nd
Oop>d 19"4) (207- 10). 19S8 (6HS). and 19S9 (n); on ,he Gwich'in
A'hopown McK.-nnln 19JJ and 1965 (.l6-J7.67-70).00p>d 19J6
(86-90), ond Slobodin 1960 (8 1--82); "" the Koyukon Arh.p..lw,..
om 1914 (186-203); oM "" "'" TU'Ilina AtIupMbnt. 00pxI1937
(l09-Il) ondT-...I I979 (166-68).
rn.,... C"aIOC!d by <fOOK)n ... :dIuriation (Pnn 19S-4b. 27-28).
n.. """"ben of each oociory ....,ciKd dominion (10ft " " " " or
Ieoo dioerc ......, bu. dw did _ mo= dut .hey Iud ..........., _ of
lho, ....... 1he-re _
'hm: bosic conn::m in ...toieh people _~
beyond ....;,-.. bood< .. (Burth 200:S. 26-)3). n..~ ... ia wha, I call
on ...........,. which ~ ~aln people the riIh" bued on I~' 0lIl10m. fOrn>Of Of \IX III Of . potri<>d '" .norhcr -'Y~ " " '. II panicu
Iar rima oM /"or putkuhr """.,..."'...,. ).. ... The oecond ia wha, I o,.u
'0 ....
Ik.n ... .. hich In""lwd people oe.:king.nd m:.i>'lng p<.mi"ion

lnorhe .....ic'Y " ... /"or. pHliculu l"'<pOO< on I "",, ,ime
Of rn>Of
basil.. The .lUrd io 'mruo- which included .ny u.. '" """il" f<rrimry
Ih .. did no! ...... , ,he noqui:rnlcn .. '"
:and Iicmtct. T respw
_ ~ I hoorilc oct and. if diocowrtd. woo mer with fortt.
.>km("n"
THEDA-TA-
n..
dar. on whkh thlochopm io ~ inl:1udt (1) "'" ~:and

C>f"' . ....... of W"'<m risi..,.. ro the: tqion in rhe 10, .;p......th aro;i
~Iy ni... , .. n,h em ........ (2) inf.",...,ion acquired from AJatJti No';'"
h..1Ori&M by ~II oeicnri... ""ri", the fW<n.;',h emtury. and (3)
16
EmnoS._ J<.
DEfENSIVE MEASUAES
Se...nJ 'YP<' of doknoioo ~...,......."q..d. "The line woo con.1211, -Itrtnca. Men wen' -.bour fully onned 011 "'" rin><. no! only '""'"
........,..,. ........... ,rysldc in oe&r<h of gun< bu...........n ortendi",
cb ..... or",he. (a,M"" in lhei. -.. .. nlerncnr. Charko B.-. (n.d .
1.3, 166). who tm"tcltd widely in nonhwn .. m AI ..... duringlhe 18800
('Orne dtoadn .r onned hoo.ilil;" had .,..0Kd) nJd thll h. did not
'hink . hll bo ."". "'<1Ir "inro ..m.g. cby 0< rugh' .ho. _
.....
Iooki"ll '''''' thaI no llrangers orrivtd wil hou, ...... kn0wnor
ing. "If on .tuck woo conaldeMd imminen ICII.n.. _~ pooted..
Dokru.e woo 0<>0 of ,he f ......... ukn ;"'0
In ........... n.
Ion.tion. Snull ......men.. _
on." altuaMd bdUnd head> ridga.
...... he ....... Of in ..m- thickru, inbnd. I..arJIn oertIcmen.. ...,...
locattd "" poin .. of land that toWd he ~ "" fool f ..... onI,.
..... direction cIwUos ,he period '" ."... ....1<"<, 0< ..... !aka """"'" ""
"f'P'OI'dIin&
toWd be nalIy....., .ppr-rhins" 011 ri ..... of you.
Other cI<ttnoi.. ......... m intludtd die pbormmt of 1"''''; mctu
...... nd oettItmnI'J, ,... cona.nrcrion of IIOCIuda or bunh..,.nd tho:
"""ide
_ft'
r-.
<XC1.... ion ofhidd.:n ",nnpIe ,rapped i".ide build'''K'MUld ..... pe and .;,..... 1Itc: oo-roun,... nXL On """" indiriduol
Ie.rl, mm ~ on _ k won: eim..- _ _ mode (""" ~ Of
bone plata ~nkcd ......... in a __ Of doe val' ofNt.caribou hlck.or
hin:I tkin, ,blc:k mough 10 impede on otrOW. ptrI( ....tion.
1>1._primarily in !he form of omulm. W3I tmploytd 10 Urp &11
...-u 01 hoorilc foono II boy. indudina: both
and hum ...
......run. AmWe" ...... worn :all Ihe 'im<. '-"or. and I ~ .......,
I..,,,.d of ...y u..d aclutivdy in :umo:d ronfu.
"'penta""'"
WEAPONS
Tho: ...... Iwic uny of .....""". _

to hI>., boon uO! everywhe ....
1"udW>....... .......Jutted with bows ond anows, ....id> ....... to hI>.,
Iud m............ ""'II" 01 abou. ISO m<mI (Bocb..... 1988, 1:197;
S~ nSS2-5~: .ntry for JIMW)' ll. ISSl; V..S_ Im,~7,S6).
Bows ranpd r...... 1impI< curwd om... tocomplc:x ~ .. _ rrinr-..;l with oin<w bockinc- An-. ""'"' .-.riouoIy tipped wi,h bono. Bill!.
oIaot,~, COt inIn..t .... poinTS ...... ranpd Of bodied.. Am:Nho:ods 10
k ....d ..,.a1inDy in <Ornbo. ~ ........h.d ....... wiih ddibon ..
wult.-IO dul .... hc.t......Jd b=k oIfinsido: !he vicri ..... 1Ioth. SI>od<
"""""'''''' ...... conductd with if'<2rt, <!uht, ..... 1ont!; kni.-...
M>gi< _ olto .... pIoyed ........potI, prim.';ly in .he form of
_go;.h<t< ...... ....d 1<1 kill woui>ded ..... mH:, trying.o .... pe. RiN.J, led by m.m.n. ""'"' lIOn\<timCl pnformed prior to dep.ni ... (or
..id Of b. nk, tl.hough ,hno: ... m to h.~ boon """" ..,mnl(>n among
Ath.""tbnI than among EskimoI. In ........ diltrim, m.m ........ ~
.mplorod optcllkt1ly '" O<romI""'Y 1ft .ttacking ro.n.
(...;.-_).and ooIdicn (~); I do _ baw: companbIo information

r""" .... Adupooobn ond Yup'ik Eskimo ~ .......
I " - _ been IIbIo fa Irun tho pi of IttI'Oris< t"onyJ. bu, !he
~ of owprio< Inxa ibid banlo:s W3I to lWIu manyoflhe .......1
u ""';bIr. mm
and -uy '"""""" ibid chiIdmI u wdl. Cop'.,.~ -..etimd ~ takm ooIy nordy. and
boocy ..... ......aIr IimiIOd to I few, easily m.nsponed iumt, .... u
Iabm:o or knia. A,hapasbnl _m '" II..., '-n """" in~!o:d in
boocy and npri>a 'hon thei. Eskimo neighl>on .......; bu,.hey.liloc .he
Eolll ....... " ... alIy hod 1<1 ooI~ ....... mojor ......."........... probkm, fa
.a. ho<ne mIlCh in .he way of .pails.
To the "".nl , hllncwland wu ocquited through. ba.clt, ,he vic
IOn hod 10 abandon ....... or &II of!heir originol "'.. , TheK ooderin
laolocd both the popu1a""" and ,he orvniurion ""'r-'in:d to """FIr
now .... '" while conrinui"ll to mal""';,, rontrol OW< the okl
Ciwn the .t.c- conoidenrionl. ..... nII]'....,..,.x,. ....... ltd .-Po:
to r ... .- in the tim pIoa. Some of d>t rencnl r...-. id",,,ifd br
CatoIand M .Mn Emhn(t992,I9'M .. 19'Mb, 1997). .... utho rIunI
of ""run! ditamn ond ..a./ju""" lOt Mis...... of
1<1 baw: ....... bro.dJr opp6c3bI< in wntrm AIub (cf. SbctIwl I99S).
l-Iooonn.whm l:ookd N...... hitmanI .. ha,lhrir _
.....' ..... 01
rnorivu r.,.. anxki"ll ,he nlCmbcn of -'>or oociony Iud Ixm, ,hey
i......,.;.bly .... pondotd .ha. ~ _ !he pri.....,. Of acluolv< ... _ .
Slnoc thnc poopIot Iud IMd in """hly ,he oarnc pur of ,he lOOrld for
= ......... If no! millenni., 'hey hod plrnl)' of gno;Iga to d..", upon
who:n<""" ... w)1,....oked hotlik K",im." ...
Tho: pcopLr of .he INdy ~ laokal ..... Wiud IitIh,i"ll forca.
t:V<:f)' oNe-bodied rnon and boy .... ~ed '0help defend h" """"I.
opWr "I&'
and __ gcncrtily o:xpened '" joItIOIIy onajor ccpedl""",ha, _ headod our on "" aftlI<L LeodenIUp .... prowided br .....
head< """""I A~ ond """"JIOI'I' hmlIy head< """"" Eok!.
moo. In the ........... pan of the srudy ~ there _ _ to baw: been
an inoIiNrionaIiuci !ole of .... ladu in __ ditrrim. 0I1f>ou&h I ~
"'" been -'>Ie to I. ..... ~ ....... was odcned to fill if. J.... ~ ....
"""""""" function .... fullilIed, patticI>brly in open ba ...., io .... Inf
od<qui'.1y known ...,.a of trodirion>! wam... in """""' Ab$b. Thio
oIwa,..,
b,.. .. ..
r.:...C".n, .......
'HTEASO CIETAL CONFLICT

In~.:J........:I <'OitIIirt moI< ....... bui< fonnt: (1) ........... fOn,..
ina> forri&n ....ta by indMdualo COt vet}' ............... of mm; (2) owpriK aftlI<, the
poop. d"'i~iofted ~y he_ "',.....;.,. (j~~"fOWll) .........
..
io proi>ohIy boc:a_ kadmhlp. both In smcnIlnd In ormcd confron,"tiono. wu ... ,her .... akIy cbolop!.
TERRORIST FOAA'N
tOn,.........,
Tmorilt
1 opecbJ form 0( ..............,......, to Iu.,.. boeII
limited to d......... I><rn hal{ 0( ,he onody qion. oIlhough they 0CCIItI'Cd
on both oi.da 0( ,he A,hapasbn-Eddmo bcwd<t. Thq -= ......uy

modc be......... miod Aupo' and bllf Stp..mbet. 1 0Cat0fI when .here:
......iD r.;, ..........., 0( dayIicb' bu, 0100 Of ItIOI _
~ . Such
opcdiliono irwoIvcd ""'" Of 1 I'ew men dclibo-atdy and .........,. cnkl'inc the ....... oI..-htt too<itty ..... 1ICOIin&: food, ~"II boo... and
nuItiDa; -..inI ..... ""'-" octtItmcn. U . ' - It one .,."...... to commini". homicide. It II>< Olhc .
J.... wIu" ~ IIfnvriots io .....lnr. Dwi"ll rho onody pniod.
,hoy ....,. hi... boeII ..,... to _noi ..........y ocnIcmcn .. in anliciI>"'ion oIrnW"II ~ raid. bu. why ,hoy nIItCd miod';'( and ...... mined
murd<r and .my ,hoy con,in....! '0 ......,...,,, """" ,hln a""""Y of...
... idi"ll .. me ... 0 boll fftnlln ~ \~, .ho p l of d-.ci.
octiYi ..... ....,. ..... 1Joc.n. The ~lfcct ... '0 optnd fnr"""", ,I>< P""f'Ic
-and '0 keep ,enlion It """'h IUghcr .....1tIu.n it othttwi.. ....,...Jd Iu...
been; .... ~, foro,.. holp! keop pooplc convinced ,ha, they _'If:
IW'fOUnded t.,. "... mi ...
SURPRISE ATTAC KS
Su<pri... n .." we of""" bo.ic typn: .",bush.. ond nigh'-.i ....... id..
Bo.h were re:p<>t'kd from 011
01 ,....<tn Al., b .
1>"'"
Ambuobeo took pbcc ;n "'" oi'u"iom.. One ....... I>on , ",Kling

p.uty Of OIhc.l.>~ Iflocklng ~ ..... obont-nI Ippmo<hi".1 ..nle
men ...... ombushcd on ,he way in. An ambush 0( .his '>1'" required
enough ..Mnce -.nmi". fo, ,ho home foa fO ......... cr oufficicn. troopo
..... Jft them ;"' 0 JX*.ion, bu, i' ... undcrlwn ~y from
time ... 1i..... 1"or cnmpio. on ................. in ,ho Y-K Dolt... bq;c
in...ding fOrtt l'<J'OI,edly -1f"'<"'<I ror""""", from ito ,~ to pc
I\In ..... rirrM: ... ....",.i, ......1Ot......" .. ftom onocher riI~ (F'....."I""
Riordan 1911!1, 3l--JJ).lho in....lcn, ....... ~ng by boo" hod to rnvcI "I'
nllTOW ItIUm to reocb ,h.ir pl. 10 ,ho dofcnde"opod our lions

both oii" banb and hid. AT 1 ,1",01, ,ho defende" owtcd oIooooting.
earthing the in'lOdm in I CfOM ~ ... 1M entire innc!l". fom: .... wiped
our """"" fo, one ........ who wu .. nThom< to ..u his pcopI< what hod
-"'"
lho <>the. mntaf ill which ....bum 0CCIItI'Cd ..... when people
knew tha heir .....mia ~ be .rnclint! dons tJo.c 0/..., .... up. me.
ill b .............. on ,lor way home fl'Olll""" ...... trade
Sin<c:
sa......
II>< boa>
~
."'P'd fer this 1"'''''''' '"'" ....u,. I""f'dlcd t.,. people
oIcq; ,lor O/"" ..........!bonk.. 011 rho mMIbtn
in&: fOrtt hod to .x. _
0( II><
In.dr.-
particuIuIy ~ poin ......

fo, "'"" inImdtd Yi<timo to onM.. Thlo 'YI'" 0( .... '-11 .... not
hide at
..-..it
~......-.'-'"<t.bo:ca .... d><tt:_....u,.I~1J\ICC
cIurinc porio<h o(.ridaprnd "-w ....>d, ..... it _ _ .....
to
t.-
boeII booI<cn ""'Y 0(.....

lho - - ' 'YI'" 0( ourprioo: .nxIr. .... ,lor niA/lninoc rUt. which
.... ,lor moo! common form 0( in Te~ YioItncc th .....whou. ,he
otudy ~. In .... .-th....... raido weft......ally......s..takcn t.,. fOn::a
0( one to TWO dozm men be......... hie Sqmmher ..... arly NoMmher.
wben .......... pionI)' oi dotknno (bu. "ill IOII'IC dart) and rho
rivtto ..... !aka ....... f .......... (focili i". ~nlry
on fool)
bu,..aJ ... ,her ~"lo ...... on ,he """nd (which would ...... iIIhibi,ed
wolklng ..... ltf' tncb). In ,1>0 Y-K 0.1t . t.,. con,,,.... nidi fended '0
be mode in mid '0 I... oummc. by .. ide .. ' .... Iinl by boo,'. lhore .... It
Ins, IOII'IC darknc. in .... <kit. It ' hio ...unn.1O ,hOI an attock could be
mode .. night; the baic IpptoKh to ,he "'I'" oertl<mcn., ~. hod
to lor made in dayllgh'. Iknu ..... I tonteq ... n<e ..... rpri .. _
more
diffi<ul, '0 odU ....., Mlng 1>"""" In ,IU ...... "f'IW<ntly ,.nded to be
~. !h.., .hoy _ ... {u,I><, _h.
lho smcnI procedure 0( ,lor niA/llrime raid .... for II>< membcn
of .... ltu<:ki"I fOrtt 1O....u Into 1 octtlemen, when I.. ouidcD.. .......,
aolcq> in "'"" howa Of "njoyinc _
k;J>d 0( (cteml)' in ,he hu/IiMt
(rommwIil)' 1ulI). lho ~ .... to n 'ch ~ insldc .... buildingo ..... block ,he dooro. To.d.... and Ibmmoblc nukrial ....... ,her.
droppod in... the bulIdingo duooush rho oIcy ... After .he fire and
....,.., hod hod ouIIicien, time to build up. the door .... unblodled. and
,,,vel
T...-N _ _ Iow..-_ 1 ,
,b<: propI. insid< ,b<: building hod ,h. al'em>li,... of "'};ng insidt .nd
ouffo"'lting 0< burning'" do"h. or nying '0 etc:IfIC and b<:ins clubbed
0< ' p<2n'd '0 d..,h.
If .... rpn.. ..... compl .... and if ....1)""" in ,II<
ltm.n'
..... ,... ppcd insklo blockaded building. I nighlti ..... raid could b<: d.....
. ... tingly .ff""",... E,.. ,),>"" in .11< UJXet .... km.nl would bo kill.d.
In .11< Y- K Otl ... whore ,h. mon."d old<r oo,~ okpt in til. thon Ito,... Al',nu'i",ly. they might lcill .... <yon<.
and they frequently ... m.ny of til< building< on fife.
Surpri~ ..... t>Ot alW1Y' rompk.e, howcvrr. Invade .. w<re of"'n
obo<~ by..,m<on< b<:f"", 'h<yeould 'pproach. 1<,,1...... n,; the alillm
...... gm:n, .nd def.".;." me ..UJ'<S ~ put in motion. Somrti ..... the
inV3ding fo ...... spotted ..,me di. ton from I .."kment and .....
"",bu.1Ied on .he W1y in. lf,he 'PI"'*hing fonx ..... obse.ved rly
enough,tllnnef'l might b<: sent to neighboring .."kmen,. for rtinfon:.ments. ...hich might om"" b<:fort or during ,he .mek. Some: houoes,
and m.ny bshim hod hidden etc:Il'" tun""I. ; bec:o ..... h. mon in. id<
al ....}~ hod t hoir .... po'" "';,h thorn. they """ld em<rg< .nd mount.n
immedi.", oountcntfack. Altemot;"'ly. the .... id.n .. might fItt b<:fon:
til< in'...:Ie...,,;,.. d, in which <as< ,bey ......:Ily rtrumed home to find
their houoes bunw:d ond .hoi. food . tod.. &:.1TO)..d.
Raidef'l ...."., a1.., opportUniltic. For exampk. "" one occasion.
party of uppo:r Koouk Ri.... I\o)"kofl recon!>Oi ring ,ho uppo:' N""m
Ri ... r oc"lemen. of M.kpik in p"'p ..... ,;O" for a nigh. ';me roid ..,.. 011
of ,he oc,tkmcnt. ><ti,,, mole: inh.biton" canying ,heir byaloo oIf to
hun. ",riboo. ... loke..,.... di,un ....y (Bu ...h ZOOS, lll)-ll).lhc
... idon .... "ed until 'he hun"" had gone. ,hen mode d.yl,gtn raid on
the .... kmon lcilling all of the dd<rI)' men .nd .hildm> in .h. ",mp
.nd all of .h. women excel" 1'0'0, whom ,hey .ook .. "'p'i'....
If. raid ...... foil"",. the def.nde ...... mptcJ to "mihilak the
emi", ....dung fo....-... one. Tha, one ""IS gi''<n oome food .nd
any ~ fi ... old and ..... ~n' h.omc .,.;.h in"ruc'ion. '0 "U h;.
coun'rymen wh .. hod h.ppcncd ond to .... m ,hem
to
thc
.;non >gain.
"eal
nm:. ."..,k
OPEN B....TTLE
Open b.,,1es .....wJy took p'- under "". of ""'" cifCUmstltlCU. lhc
/in, .... ",hen defende .. "'n' ou, '0 oxtf"",. on in""'ing fum, bofore
it reoched ony ... tn.n .... lhc ...".,d ..... when tht """"b<:.. of ""'"
_i<tics, or of"""' ..... of allied societles. decided to 110"" .. each other
m. dccio;,.y <OIIf'ront1tioo.. Conf"", .. non. of ' he i:lttff I)p<""" to
ha"" been held .. ..,me di"",,~ from .ny .. nkmen . 'The former ....
probobly thr more common of the twO.
Open b.,tIes oould .. ke
any lime of yeor. in oxt\J1lSt '0 the
other typn of umed ronlIict (which ",ndcd to h.... ocuonal emph . ...).
Moo, occm to h.... occurred dunng ,II< tummer or early f.lI, and all
of ,b<: .",.. I h .... heard .bout took plxc in lUnd...... the< than fores,
tcttings. In the """,hem .nd e.."'m S<CIon of th tudy region,
memben ofinvoding fom<S u. ually 1n...1ed on foo'. l n 'he Y-K Otl ..
.nd along tht awl. ho>o=, they""", """" likdy to ~l by boa. On
the roa>t. the pfcrrcd con~ ..... the brgc open
~
on ~,.,i. Umiaks ...", 01.., used in ,he Y-K Otl ... but Jlccuofbph
""rt _
commonly .mploye<! thr ... A. they ncorcd the enemy foro:.
..... n in all d;',rim plocu1 f.., ...... in .heir heodbondo ondIo< pointed
focco.
Opposing fDtCa opp"rtmly opproachcJ ba"l.fi.1d in rolumn
the men in thc leod ohooring """" oheod along their ~ne of , ... veI to
.ignolthei, hoo,ile in"'nl, Whtn th. ""'" f",,- "",re .,.;.hin light of one
onother. they mlcployI in,o ~n .. perhaps 200-250 me ..... put. Th.
pIocc.,
.h.
bo.,
..
.hei.
best ""bc .. ""'... " ioncd .. the end. ofthr ~nn to p = t Honking
'The fonnari"" of ... nh ..... delibera,ely...,;dcJ beeo ....
m.n ... nding bohind..,."..,.,. doc rould not..., incoming mi .. il<$
and mi&h' be ouuck wh.n the penon in front dodgod them. A ... fficitn. b ralocpon>tion ..... kpt for 0 mOll to dodge incoming 0lI0WS
~nti
"';,hou, intc<knng "';,h complrable m."""..... on .he put of othe ..

in .b<: U....
lhc
on\c. ofbuoi..... ""'" .iring up the enemy for.:c. 'The pe0ple of ....
AI .. b ""'rt ."' ,,,mcly "n,ili", to diKreponcia of 0<0l .
'The m.mlxn of. fOItc that ..... molkr by JUSt a few men of"n "ied
wi.hdraw bofo<e bani. "';th brgcr one b<:gon. lIU . .... diffirul, to
fi".
'.m
'0
do. ""-"<. una It.. ........ be" c( It.. IUpfrio< lOrn <kcldrd
not to
I"'""" them.
Tho n><mb< .. c( taCh lOrn """'led an ~phUl pooirion wi.h .t.. OWl
>'2ri:o'*' -..
.nd the wind .1 Ihtlt boocb. Thotc

c( ........ not oJwoyo
in
with _ anod..., and wind and eopoOaIly li&ht ...,..di_
rudy ..m.u..d CIIInIWII ...... 1M \WO Of three dart ol ....,{"",...rion
oJ..I m;PI .,... n.... __ ... ....", bern _
ko~. olhow ...
~ bank linn, bu. I WOO .....,. obIo 10 \n.m whal the ~
fOr doinc this .......
Tho:~"'F oO.ttIo:~ ol!he ooIdmohouti,.; impK.
...___ ......ncr and oI>ooOn&on occuioNI_~!he......."
""""'"'r
'ne. In IIWlJ' - - . .. old mon f_ _ lido

~I
...uu..
Of !he ocbu
"""
"""".t.c...IcI
tIIO'I'efn<n"
klllrd, partkularly by ... U-coonlin.tcd volieyo.

Thi. maximum range fi .. fighl IUld ronlin...., fur bou .. or ......
<1..)... Fi.ing cauld 1>< hal d (0< . period by mu.ual ~n. fO permil
.he .""""10 ..... , bul .. nuiot ..... POOled fO mako: ...... h.. . he orba
<ide did not <heat_
.....i.... paIOod. thr OPPOO<"I!: Ii .... gradually clolCd to wj.hln .......
cfI'.<1m: ....ge of their ..... pont..nd peopIe .. >nod getti"ll _ndcd <w
klIlcd.
'M m<rnIxn of ..... <ide p" .... m:d .hat .hey - . . begin-
wn...
101", '" pin on ..mon ill IOU"","", they bcpn '" J'I""I the OftIoCk
by ..-ins .owan! the .... my line. firl", hoy did 00. The .... mI:>om
ol the weHn fOra: th.... had '" d.acIc whe.her to ....... and ~. <w
try '" aap<.. If they otood
""",nd,.he con.up",~ .... pa<Io>ally bonm. ~ and ,he bank IUrnod ionfO ge......! ....1 in
.hei.
1W'riwws ..... "lOt bock '" thtlt homoW>d lO ..n their compatriot, no(
10 ,"-..... the ri<1on opln. The bodia of the . . . . -... .ither >imply
10ft ........ thcyfdl Of
hooped m ~ plIo,ol.... after
mulibud
<w dlon... uil>ued. The ri<1on mwIcd their 0WtI dead with ...... kind ol
riNOl bul10ft their bodia "" the Iidd. wdI. H..-..., they ....... ......,
Ixi,.
a..
cfI'on fO !JUt their ....,...,.jed and .ab them .........
uotmpoed
bonk f""" 0C'Nfrirc br

bctwcm """ !ina and
~ 10 aD who coukI boor him dw bodI
withdnw.1
""'" ......... hard .. thcoo: old ...... britw --wi ill tMir dfoot.
G~.wly 1M ~ .... 'PJIf<*'hod _
.-her, and firdich' I.
..... imum ~ bepn. 0... or twO partio<ulilliy .po )'011"& men 111m
~out ....... M.M ~nc,pooliblyon oach lido. and bcpn reriOrm i,,& ridioulouo-1ooItin& .nd lmullins
in.ended .0 ~
the .... my into "'-'inti: .1 them. In .h<ory. hey dodged incoml"ll
orr-. and picked lMm up. thu. '""""intI'M .ncmy~ ouppiy of ""'munition and <Rhandns . I><i. 0WtI. A few )'OIIns men bocom< fomou. for
hei. ability to do ,hio ~fully, bul m.ny orh... mu .. h.... bn
IU
wI\ich .pears. club., .nd knivel .upncnted bowo and .....,...., If man
u><d 10 ..... pe, 0( COIUX, I>c ntI ,he riok olbtlng oboe in the back..
If tM ....,{ron..rion I\l1IIod infO I .. andoIf, tM munbm of the
oppoo<lI(I oida .... nl\lOlly ~ "'. t""'" and .... ryonc .... nt homo.lf
_ oido 100., ~, all bu, _ 0< twO ol I" ...... _ kiIlod. Thotc
D'SCUSSION
nil"""
i......m,. ,..,..,..
It io in'Ipoooibl< 10 nIa&b.. rt..

ol inridrn ..
iotI th1l 0<It\0md "'-i'lII !he....ty period. J""&ini (IOIU informants'
stot<n>altt. It leut _ or two ....... "'"' token pLocc in ......, ..u .. ;"
the northcm h>If M thr ItIIdy <Ton ......, 1"'. Roido and banKs, by
"""<nIt, ...... m""h
and ..;., 10 Iontc. F'' !''.. 1.3 ohowo .he
re.....
"""*
noid and banI< oi'"

Iontiont hi... been .."....ed. a...- onncd
comt..t P""ty ... U~.ocd In 'M Ia 18.lOI in tbe ..... thrm pm of.he
~ ond in tM lat. IS..o.ln tM nonh be ..... ml;or;tyof _ntttl
.."..,.."tcd by dofJ on ,I>c map mutt t.o... oo:ul'ftd bef"", ,hole d.....
Moot of the dou rcpracnt onncd .ncoun.... Mtween dilr~nt Eokimo
oorictia. Some ...... be ...... n difF... n, Alh.po.oItan grou~ 0< be""","
Eokimoo.nd Ath.po. ltano. wkll< I (ow inYOimi A,hlp .. kan. 0< E.klmoo on .,... ,;do .nd EnSH.1I or Rutlian, on .IM: other. AU tho thoon:ricol poooibilin.. ..... rull ..d in f.... ClCp< R"..ulll ........ Engliol1.
Arooun .. cO .. of "..ny mot< confronmiont .han thooo. bu. they
h.... been ImpouiN< 10 loa .. opotially with the prttiolon t<qUired for
mopping C>'<n at the o<aIc "oed in fi&urc 1.3.The.. Or< .100 "'""y_ton
ol the ,rudy oqion fOr which tM" ... "" ........ n. dm, bocoUK c:uIy
p<>pulotion 1000 .......J by liml ... Of dUe ... loll 10 on ~tabIc
loa ol information. N<rtnhdHt.. p .... If thit .... p ...,..... that
people', rn. ofbcina: ~ pn;>bobIy had ...rionaI boo..
T........ _W_ .. _AIooIuo l'
(ONUQUENC.U
The prim.".
til in.cn.....,al ..;..,ion in .arlrtonlXf-
ptriod >Oakrn AlWta .... I lower p<IIIIIb'ion ,haft .......,Id ""'" ban
the in ito oboenct (d Shhan 1m:, 189). The f~:and
Ittlul
of lnl'I'.... in tilt ~ ";mW!y pnn,eood ,I\io .... ,""""'.
Fwtllt"' ...... oinco.;a.,.,....wty tritd \0
on me
Iooinc _ in tilt nordwrn put of me INdy ...pn, Ic.eo the mu$t
Ch uk c h i
me
no"""
,,,
onnihib,. _.,.,...
prmy.....m
ta... ban opoad

-nlr om" .0 . . :and both """ cohoru..
In me Y-K Ddt&, t-.n. tIIt ..... of odul, mala may"",,, btcn disproportioowdy hi&h ~ of tilt ......... "'"" of ,lit ..... n oIcepi"l
in tho bohlm, ...tUch .... ,ho primary WJfl of _
I2ida. Elocwhcn:
....... tItpt in family dweIlinp; ~ ....,. ... ~ ........ orriddy diopencd
,hoy w= ,.;m ___ one! childrtn mjoriooc _
fu,;,;ty in .... Iwhim. ironlcally, wan... obo -,ttil>uwl '" tho fonnolion of infmlOdnal ~ ho!caIM It oometimeo left I """,be.- of
widowo Of .. idow ... wbo.-ld ..... find IUitable ..........
their
If . ' un&..
.,'
,.-
.,~~..,
Norton Sd.
--
.
A""' .....
omonc
of in' ..........,.) tonAia wu
--
.............. -
ott of
"""'-"n ,ho .......ia inool ...... I' .... ~r poooiblt to 1lKttnin wI>o Iud condl>tlCll _n I ~fu1 ourprio< InIC. by foofprin'"
:and otlltr melt".. Iof. "' tho K"o<'" 'Tho cuMO<n of ....,(;'" on< or "'"
survivi", invade", home wi,h ,ho bod _......wd h."" .Uml... ,ed Iny
doubts "" ,... m.n ....
T.rri'orial di.k>co,iont ""... fourth ton.. q... n .. f warfllft,
although oht ocqui.ifion of
letml to ho", ban 1 mon ... ing
focf", only rv.lr. The .. nly coonpl< l know of <itlibe ...... up.n.ion >nil
in north""".m "lub, who .. , ... Ufl>qqopnlu. (Inuit) . n l . ,heir
...... by .m,.. ....., -.-.. land claimed by ' ... liki......;,.' (Inu; ,)
(BwclI 2005.59). 'Tho rnI ....,. in quettion Wi! of morginal olgnlfit2fIC1: to ito orili.w _
............. r,ond the.",.".plo io "'" particuWly
inllNd .....
T.rri-w ......... _rima """<Ted ........ Of .... bydefau],. F....
complt. in ,.... 'h....tem Alub, &/",.. rq:oolfod raid!:and .""..,..,., .
......... by DiloVi Gw;cb-m (A,hapasbno). Kwltpicmiu. (lnuio) andu.n,. kilIcd ........ oK one! d....-. ,hem ""' ...... poriod til ,-o.cwnnWly
~ "".. tho: dr.'lOOC'ophIc-...It(I behind (Buod:o 1991&,31;
'.";'0<)"
' .CU.1 1 . )
I ......
...... t,
Mi ....... 1995). But then: io ""~ that ,he orquioirioo

a <Gotmo..rins 000..10 the
A~ cnmplo 01 t=iTcriaI ohift om.md in .he Y-K Delli
(0"Lary 1995; 0twaI, 1990, -to-42). 0...... ....' hownn-, momc<
..,,,.,. .!wI m. cIt.u.: '" _ terTiIOf)' initiated hootiliria. The Aprmiut (Y",,"1k), wbo bonmc..,..,..]1 ba<1 in thtir (M"II horntbnd, Ikd
...... h 10 onother RPon 1O...m.... To rrma;n .herr. they Iud 10 '&h' ....
pm-iou> inhabiw." 01 that tn. Ultinwdy; i, _ .... newly .... ived
Ruu;"" who lOved ,hem from .. tinction.
Burrh
"'*"".
01 Te<ri1Of)''' _ h _
CONCLUDING RlMARItS
w..... ] bopn .hoc "",,_h 'hOI C>'<nnWIy rcsui.i in thif d,.pce.........

f......... m. Lot, thillJl I ..... in'eta,i in. It ................ ~ my
mind. lince aonyon< " ' - ,hat Eddmoo. ;., <GottnN 10 Indian .. did
intc1Ul<d in _ bncI _. oe--u
...,. ~ in .....ran.
"".... ond -'oJ boundariea (Bwdo 1'198b, 121 7). I I*d Us. cIop;sl s......,. 1OJIOVlI>hi< m.opo whrn inkn'inri1lJl N~ himriono
concernillJl me.. tuhjom.. At. ddns IOOIr. .... on ~ fOUtO ...... nd
.!><it hotntIaftrk.v. ........ ~ theyocasiona.llymenrional pb<a ~
battlea Of roldo Iud ,okn\ ~ Of ~ they Iud piayod wi,h piln of
h""",n bona on (........ bonlefields during thtir childhood. E~ntu.uy
i, dawn! on mo:
I .... onto oom<thing intem' i", he". :and onI)"
,},. .. did [ make ...... (..... . ptciaI focus wi,hin my 1uJe. IIudy.
Ann H.n~p-Rlonl ... (1990, 147-53, 199~. 321-25). ,,"hough
iowa"",.ins diW<r<:n ....b;<ctt. .,..;den,'y had imilu ..""ri<nce f....
,her "".. h. H......"" . lhere. in ""',..... to my ....... c:xp<ric:no:. .........
OCC"IoionaUy ""'fronted di=dy by N., ..... who a.rpb1Iy denitd
,heir lJICUIotSlud cnpg<d in in!Cn<>Ci<t:al W:oIence. Unfornt ... my
lOt the ~ both ,},. ....Iy doauneowy ........n (0.,.. Ndton
1899. 127-JO)
Y....... ddn., whrn in~ obou. ",..orial
pIaooo .. .-. of,},. bnd claims procao ( KIIItZ 1984:~..,. 1m).
told "oliff......, w:ory.
If ..........11 10 undennnd wbu Iif. _ ~ ... On AI.oob .....
early <Got,,,, period ............. ,.... in'e~ul YioIe_ InfO *"'O'InL
1heori... mw., "",mpt 10 b...... i. on R........ B,itW\. Of Amo:ri<an
W"'"' ,_
,h:.,
,Iu,
i'" ,},.
m.
.....r....
inll........, bu, ,he (oct 01

man .. is
in 11m...... AIaaIta l21li<
to ... iII>nIpt hal, "'-tIy of,.,. W..,....... .m-i Lefl 10 lhei. (M"II
~ AIaaIta N.u- -..- "" more peoce/iIIllwt MIJ""IO ck.t.
A<ItNOWUOGM[NTJ
M,.--Io .... AIoob NiCM -';"b<pn in .... r.aoll960." .... btc8 .......
poncd_ .... ,-. br d,. ~ 01 A~U..........,.oIChi<>FI d.. D<ponmono 01 B~ sn...- u.w.,.;'l' 01 ~ tho Alaob
H;,-nI ConI",_: NANA Moncu ... oI,he Atmc: .... U.s. N.riooW !'.tIt
s.m..:.ho Us. ~ltnm.I, ~[ ............ S<m: ,ho OiYItioo oISuboI ........
01 ,lit ALooIu.
of ..... ond Game; ond .... Canod. Coun.:~ ( _
.... Social
ond H....... <In ~ COOlI>dl 01 C~ . I .Iunk
"->h 1.. Pnn ond M.tthew 01..nry.,( .... us. B _ oI lndian AK.In
.. ~ to. JUldi"I .... ~ .......... .,(..,..... _ hiooorinI ond
o.r-....".
s.x-
.........,. ..... """"'Piled by "'" .-r. t.:m...tb Pnlt r.. <ritIcaI - "
... .. ...... .." 01 tWo dt.opoet; ond Atuo F--..- R.ioodoto
...... ,,,,"1"" .. ...,. inqooirioI_ ...m.. ...... Y-K Ddt&.
r.. , ;
tti "
"'OTU
1.1bt .... thocIoIoc1 01"" -"";!h Abolu. N_ hbooriaN 10 dio"""'"" In Bwth 1991, 19981>. 12.19; lOOO. -:J5..U, ond lOOS. 'ot--o:ii, ....51.
H;,<Ot!eaI and ...........,. Ii... om. i...-ipt<d in .... 8crint Stnit. ColItI ..
0.,..... ond NANA ...p.n. by th< C _ _ I'vIo. SNdIt:o Unit
UoI.... il)' 01 AI.I .... ~....... nko ond brtb<
or ....
us. !lom:."oflO<l;..." Affain. A aimllu
m-ipOO" ........ T,..,J;riooW I.and UOOI ...... ..,..,........,.a.d br.he North

S...... n.o..:...g,c-. ......... on UiMo<y. ~ ...... c..; .......
l.. n.. .....,. ,...w - - ' ~ ................ of .... ......aIIooI UnIo
1m At< (r ..... lOOOI. ........ """r..po. _ oipi6<andJ-...w.,. dwo ~
.-
L4680
en L4678
-.
~ ;" WfI'OI1 of h..... ter-gothe .... war&.. (Ember 1m Embn

and Embn 1992, Imo:Onntorin 1970, 1913.1m).the {_.w...
n- who"",," tho, I""'Neolithic - r... _~...... ~
01" IV< ..,.;.,.,.;"
,ho. ,his it beauoc ....... hun.....prhnn 00><in-
among other .ru..p, ,ha, ..... m

ben oro peace Ioori.... coop<rorr... and oIwinc of !heY _ _ Band
~ eonrin....uy.....n.
maintaining peace and reooM"I conl\im.,
or Iistion if 'her ... unobk to, mill", war&.. ..urwilly impoooible.
WlIile indi>'ldu.u took! ~Ih' and ......, kill or mutda othcn....-goniow!
,.;<>1 ...,. by m.m""" of ~ band di=,ed .owud .hooc of __ he. I.
'h",,&lI, '" be <id ... un.hink:abk or .11IICtI.ir:alJy impoooible becou.. of
,he cpliwl&n .. t.::.. and """noM kin nctworb Unki", lhem. Con
~ntly. btnuoc ,hio I)"p< of
in""",," ontr indi.;.duol. and
ia _ .. opil,..w,
a.
fig'";'''
...........1'"0 j, it ....mod to hav. G.... 01" 1>0 """"'I'""phic or ....,.; ......

n.I efI"ea. Ao Stq>hm Ryna on... (1994 .. 37-38). -M,. view io .....'
qonIlao 01 ....... .....do fish..... "'"'" _ in bonds, i, _ m.tiYdy
hum....OJ \'I1Icto hlomri<olly donancnud ~ (or war&.. ........
band-Ind oocio<tioo ...... e:ooiot. ,he fichtinc io oiewod ~m.r ... ritualiud ......" wi,h pmdiko qualitia rom..- !han a ....... .........." ... 0<
.. a ","n. manlf..,alion .ttrib.oubl< '" <Ionia! inllucn<a (Loocock
19711). M.,...,..... ~ ............", for warfat.: ......i,hct .... OM<!
or ~ by m&ny ...ha.oIogisos who .died "" .'Itnogrwphic onalosY
downpla~ .;ole...,. to interpm .1I<i. ~nd; ... (Ketley I9%, 23).
In ........11 i, lhe view ,h.. wa~ ''''''''1 b.nd. II boIh rom""",.nd le,haI. O" ..tocin. fuo- i ....I2tIOi:.".. , !>own
u_nualiow!
poIitial oodttia wapi war quite effidmdy (1970) and .lIa011"....m
<XIenW war io ..... oigni6canoly ..b,ed '" bd of poUtial ccntnli..
tion" (1973. 946-47). II .. 6ndinp difl"u (""" , , - cited lor odo.oIuo
who nul..... " "Tha, primirM ~ on: ..... -w.o. in the ..... tha,
they inf~ ~ in - r..... - ( I913. ,.7). Omrloein poinn to
_..... eoIdmte for wvr.,. in .......".,.ofl""'""l'Ieolillli<...pon.,
indudi", Upper PaIeoIithi< Ewopr (2003. 9). He. ' - -....... _
.,bt<ribo: to tho mrm>c pooilion of';m.r tho
b, who "'i"" for a
..... of <:<ifItWI, warf.,.. or m. do.n, who up ("" a ..... of ~
conftict rno>Iulion (1m. 252: 1m. SOI).lhi. io our view abo.
,ho,
,ho.
Cutmltiy lhe .. it "......" brnoan ""- ochobn ...t.o belie>oe lha.......

fan: prio< '0 the NeolidUc _ ............ nl or ""ulivdy ;,,~/iQn'
(H... 1996.lOOJ,2()(M: Ryna 1'19ob; Rop<r .969. 2IXlJ: Sillitoe 19S5)
and n- who ... i ... ~ 1. aU lewis of oori<ul <C)t'opIuil)'
(Embn 1911; Emlxt and Embn 199-4" Kfflcr 1996: LoSl&nc 1m.
2IXlJ: 0IWtbrin .973 99'1). Kei,h Onetbtitllw dioadMd m. hitwri
nl roon of , .......... tndi<tory pooition .. "'foni", '" ,he twO gtouF.. '.x-.' -.I """witt (1m. SO l). o..p;.. ........un, ........nolnor:al
ho..
............ Pi'''Phit ..
,ioo. (Bilhop l'f7Sa; Bishop and Kn>do 1980:;
LY"")'I' 7M 2 . ).
THE LOW ..... HD CI'Il( AND INUIT ATTHE
TIM.E OF EUI'IOPEAN CONTACT
1ht t-bnd C ..... It< _,...; ...... C2llrd me S,"",Pr C.... oo H........
guonk by Ho;I ,on, B.y Company (H BC) fur traeIna. oo in C ....., M".kd,owuek Am",,,,,,,," (LY"")'I' 2002 .. ,.;). They It< AJsonqoaiaa.opnI<
... belonging 10 ,he W..um Swampy C ..... di1iecc
(Rhoda Ind
Todd l'H1I.SS).lhei. 'm;' O!)' w:u approlim. ttIY""'crmi""". with ,he
H ud_ B.y lowI.nd, .... b.i .... ly HOI ICpo.. ofmu.kqj.nd bop broken by m.jo< rivrro/lowins '0 the <:031. (/if:. 2.1). It .... ndtd from.he
Ncbon Rmr in ,he non"",,", fO.ho: NOItawoy RMr ""or ,he ..... ,hem
rip ofJ ....... Boy. and inbnd f""", me <'OOSI for ncarly 250 miItt. To the
- " ' _ . the 'qioo' be ......" me Ncbon and Ch...-dUII m.... wu on
uninhabi.od ............. bnd- be'.HL the W2trins C.... and InulL To
the ..... thcaot. ,he N..........y Rmr ICpoo...... oloo ...,;dcd for feat of
01.. I"""....... ho ~ inlO tho, .,.,. """'" ,he _Oftd ha]{ of me
_nM",h antury (Nonawoy bci", me Cm< ....... for ,he I...........).
C.... POUl" ];";ng fan .... ;nund _ .. ooo""i ..... cti1cd H.Jf Homc
guonk bcauoc ,hey ton:ly visi,..! the coaoral pooh in win, .. bu. had
!Un tia wi,h ,he '-land C"'" (Lytwyn 20020. 17- 1B). An:hooolosi
<:Oi .-.ide...., "u"''' .ho, ,he C m< <>ccupicd ,he lowbnd. fo< ",nlUf'"
bcf<n European COIl'",,' (Jwg ]982. 1988; P"don 1'HI7). Tho mkl..,;P
111,h"""n",,), t.o..iond Cift p<>pIllo6on ....... bered be ....... n ohou,
sao and 700 peroono, while ,ho: inland C~ p<>pIllotion;,
be ....... n ],OOO.rod 1.@ (Lytwyn2002 .. 24).Until Tho: ottivaloffiutrW.. in .ho: oevontttn.h an ... ,]" Ih< m.u. P''';AI!'''''' <>CCUf'lflon wu
""""""!\ohins. ..... ca,herine of oeuonaDy .... i1>N- foodJ. Soon NIC'
me Ewcopnno I<1tkd I I _ml tndiDs ..,-. the t-bnd C .... dew:l.
oped d .... ....u.J and ..
,Ot ria with <htm. aopplyinc fUrs, _
*""'"
-w
.hat to- .... !Unohip ....

ria wi,h ........... her (Kelly 2000. ] ]8-19).
1ht l.met oilU.1non ;. ,ho: ... J;<rt c our chopta.
Both pre nd poI, .....UOCI' warn....iud be.-.n twO di.tinct
hun ....... 'ho:rn J'IOOIlIn: ,be Lowland Crec and Inu;, of.ho: Hud_
BO)" mdJames 80y ... i<>~ of ... bomk C.".d . Al.boogh .he F.urope.on
prete""" .h.rd ,ho: n...... of W2rl"arc. , ipping ,h.
In r. .... of
,he Crec .,.fly .. r... nca ' 0 ;, combio><d wi,h ,he ... ,.... of ,he ...,rarc
doao ...... ,cd in hitlorin] ocrount< ~ """';"';ng "..;de_ for i ..
........ in ,he """"UCl period.lnui. tm'itcrili 1n\bi, ...... proIW>IY ~
dpi..mi war. bu. ndrunl.lingWmo. and bWo,y.:.l diflmnca bo ........
~ twO peoplu ",.",rami ftar and m;......... maki"l """"",he"",n,
;rnpPY . A(wr "",fOCI'. d f" Krs ....... rio .."" by ,ho C ..... "'" ....
of litem! ... .10 ,>:001 odjustmm.. -.., bbmod on lnuil _"" and
,hili _ . ~ .. _
roo rUls. ln
me rd.otift bod< of
.ioIo,"'......... ,ho t-iand C .... <2iI bo apIalncd br thoU Cllltural
hoo, .... cl'l<ity. nmntoincd br compio; kin"'", ""lWOIb IInl<1", groupo
bal."""
""'traM.
J I Chaoln A. B;,Iq> ..... V""" P. I.,-owro
""m"..!"
row!, 6th and ........ poe. and _' ..n",.. ...."'" (Bilhop 1972, 1m..
1OO2.).'Thio~ ..
thr l.-bnd C...... mojo< oeMn,..

in ma, ...... with thr lnui'. Conocquc-ndy.
1000." ohou,
,he C.... lido of ,hoc cqwtion than tho. 0( me Inui,.
1'111-4; t.yn.7ft
much.-.."
n.. I"..;, <>CaIp.d ,,," coos.. .nd itland. of Hudson B.y nonh ......
&rod nonhno, of tho: Lowbnd C=. ~ er y""" Indl<:o""
"", they had """",cd _th oIooc the - . . . _ _ ol Hudson Bay
(MeChee 19$.4,373). far oouth. ,,," ....... 'h ofm. C!owdoill Riooo"gWo' lor abouo AD I2OD.Jrno MuRk, m. Oa..w. uplu<t ..no ....Churchill in 1619-2O,1Ound ...;deuce of...., ~ru ... and
wood doipt.~ of an ....... ' O<aIpOrion, b.1I mel' no pcoplt (Arimo
19$.4, 458-59). LaOtt. Inui. ~ iron r""" Mu...... bandonod
(aMPP"', In 1717.J...... Knigl" described an -abundoooc ofbke....j ..
TenlJ S<andlng th., i, Iookrd Iih link Town; & our people p... "I'
yo Jkocon S.)1h th., ,hey be "''Y Wg< Ten", big Enough to hold 50
people: And ,h., th ... Te~ .. was made"" thick with rwf, Din &. Drif.wood ,ho"hey bel;e,..,,,,,,,, had Wi~tr<d ,!uK ... & ,hot the;,. Could
..... be lao ,han 3 Of .10() of thmI "" ,heir Ten" & W..., ........ , linding
>I>cwc 200 of,,," Utttc "Ik" .hey had kq>t "'"'"' p,.,.;........ ,hey being
built wi,h Stona &. Driftwood" (Williams 1969.liii _
I).
In tho: 17~ HBC " ..., J...... 1oham " .... 'ed ,h.. tho: Inw.
fmjUCfltlycampod II E.otimo I\,;n" ~ rho ...tr.lfIa: of 'IK Churdtill
RMr, bc'><e E""'f'U" ...........,.,,, -..: cstobIidood -r...... ,,," .... u
and .......... oftlKir Dwdlinp._ ofwhidt..., "ill ~'(lahom
19-49, 180).1= 'i*' ~ odcIcd mid-rightnth-un"''Y cImih:
1nftI.,
Ch""hW w;u much frequcn'cd lor rho Ukima ... beb. we ... ded
,IK" . he pOOl, .... which 'IK fon i. bun"~ being called F.. kim .... JlQin,. Upon digina (Of ,I>< (on mony rr..,u ....... di..:~ ... d of
,hei bode he",....,h "' ,he pi. in which ,IKy KCUfCd ,IKI. p"""lion<, pia of "onc-p<MI. opnro.:In"OWI, &t.. Thit poi~' ,hey kepi
fot _
'i .... oflef ,hey ....... wn-m (""" ,he adj ...... _n,').
boca" .. it .... fit 10 .he op:n _ "..,. Muld d;l(o.." ,he dillon,
"fI"OOi'.... of Ihrir ~mies, and rcpait in ri .... 10 tho:it ",non, in
'IK ............. m of whlch they OK poaalWIy da._ bu. ,hey
......t I""sd ...... cd 10110 farther ..... tloontd 10 C.... UkiIlUU:l
and Whale eo..: and OK _ tM2lIy .t'I' , "d ofthio ICI"fnL
(RdtM (1752)1965,64:..., oJoo Graham 1969.226)'
Am>uMJ lor Knish" Isham. Rd:woo~ and Andtew GI'2hom d.moru,ratC that 11K lnuil had pn:tmronc leruetnt'''$ of Nl1" and JIOnO:
--.
. --
./
--
--
4-
~-
houoes orod .tong< pi" in the vicinity of lhe mouth of lhe Churchill
Rm:: . !-Ioowc\Tr, ,j.hough Inuit >vin.erro then: .. ute .. 1716-17 (WU~:lmO 1969, ~i), they bcc:ame inr~t ""iden" n.e boot AD
1650
with ,he """" of.he "Link ke A~, .. >vin, .. hunting rondi,ioo . .....
Churchill grew leSI ."ruti... ,hon tbole ruthe. oonh (CLork 1979.89,
96). Bowha.d (~kJ ",Iul.. "" .... I>C2I" ChorchW,.nd be"'g> (white)
wh .... do not winte. , ..... (Willi"",. ]969,lvii). \Vuf"" witb til< Crtt
:also m.y h.... ttduced the f~1IC}' of "")'S. By the ute ...... nt .. ntb
"""tu'Y, vi,i" had primarily beeomc ....tricd 10 .he .... mmcr season
fur .he i""f'O'<' of bunting k2ls, waJnu. and wb .... (WilLi""" ]969,
,.!vik!viji). As the Cree informed ):11nes Knight in 1716. brg<: numbers
of Inol. u.;'"C<! only n"Cr}" /Ou. or fi,.., ynrs to hun. whi.e wlulot and
build umiaks (l1tod"",,, Boy Coml"ny Archil... [h=afl<. HBCA[ n.d ..
B.21"'oI2,luly 29, 1716, fol49). After ChurchiU Fon W>les!2bli.htd in
1717, .he Inui. dco<nl .he :un and ~ucd mwng umiw th<r<.
On .he co .. ,ide of Htod"", Boy,.he Inui, hod pushcti f..., .."h
.. ,II< E."m.i" R;..., on Jame, B.y bu, had .., ... ted oonh .... rd to ,he
Richmond Gulf .... befon: Europ.. n. "ril"C<! (F",""" 2001, 6~).
Ai "" ,he we . ide. lOme of theoe """""men" moy h:o ... hcc" n:uterl
to climllic elunges or COfIAie. wilh lhe Cree ( ... Robson [1752 [ 1965.
6.l). lnu;. grouP' "" boIh . ideo ofHudoon B.,. spob mutu.ally in.ellig;bk fo<m, oflnuit-lnupUq (Woodbury 1984, 56), , uggtoting ... uti ... ly
moen' oommon orig;n .nd di' p<nal .boo, .he ha),
EVIPENCE FOR WARFARE SEfORE

THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS
The ..... f... be",.... Inuit.nd Creelw been p<a<tved in ,II< oral bi ...
to<y "f the LowI..nd Cru ...... u... h.... Iy hi"oric.J =-'Om .. According '" Lowland Cree om hitlory.lnui, ."ocks p...datcd ,he orri,-.J of
u"'l'""" Cree eide. Loui. Bird deKribcd .n incident .h:o. oa:urrro
..., C.p< Henrie ... :-'Iorio:
The nome "f ,he I.oke i... W.bagamu>hu.og:ogon [milky Iolu:) on

,he C.p< Henri<n. Mm.,'" ",membe he...,.,. .b".." ,h.lnui,
."""king .11< Omu.h~ p>pk. ... The loL: ... i. oituotl on
of thooc hiU. thot Nn parollcl to lhe tel. And this W>I long
time hcf"", the uropean =n< in.o the _ .... And the.. W>I
On<
no gun. and "'h European lrade good . And this raid from ,II<
Inui, warriors 0It><k.ed ,he group of Omuslllu:gol: people, moody
""m<n and children .nd .he ddcn, while .he men we,.. hUIl'ing ... ,II< Inui, dcsccr.do:d from ,hei, hiding pb and . "ocked
.he C2mp, kiUing
the e\dcro and .h. child .. n and " OIlKn. And
being 10 excited by killing. ,hey begun to oct ... ry wongc]y
and "'Y ...-.gcly which 11 ,hem to Colt the hrc .., of ,ho ...,.,..n
who .... '" ... noning ,II< ehild .. n. And ... they throw .....y ,.....
gWodo into .he ....... and \\Un Ih ........ whi . And the .. fo .. lhe
Iakc W>I C2llocI W.bagarnltShuugopn.. (Bird 1999., I)
.lo"
.u
Thi. ",ory i ...mini""n, of On< recounted by NicoW le .. mi. early in

the .ightunth ~ntwy from ~'an Bourbon (Yark F..:tOry and ,hen in
FfCfICh hand.). J.n:mlc obocrved 'hot ,he Inui. "moL: ..... 01\
,hei,
ncighboun, and when they kill 01" coptu .. "'y of .h.ir .ncmln, ,hey cot
.hem raw and drink .hei. blood. They .... n moL: inf.n" at .he hrcu,
drink i',10 IS '" in ..il in them ,II< .,.rbori.m and .rdourof..... from ,he
ttndcttS, yu,., U=mic 1926, 16).'
HBC mdc,., we",
"f Inuit in",.ioo. of Cree territo<y nc ..
,he mou,h of the
m Ri ..... Fo. cxamp!e,Jamco Knight n:counll
in 1716 thot the Low]and Cree... On< of them [an Inol, wniok] off
Sov.m 0""" whkh .hey .ook i. by the bigr><soofi, to be one of our ohipo
under Soil twW they sec ,hem pu" in' o Stu- and tok.: in goc>' numbo. of.he .. Men u ..... olong Shoc hun.ing Deer.nd Ge ... (HBCA
n.<l., B.239/0/2. Augu .. 2, 17]6, foI. SO). The ..
'0 . hips indico.es
.hot thi...... . posttontKt lnui. vi. i. lhc Cree tried to .. pe1
in",
.100. C_ ""I nodirions oflnui' .... ' the mouth of t he Sov.m Rm::,
contin"",, into ,he "",",i.,h """tuf)' (Cumming ]928, 117).
On .h ..o,.;de of the hay.J,,1m Oldmixon in the rly .igh'ttn.h
~nNry "'por11 .hat .ho Inui. 1Ome.i""" in oIigh. Pamco nuke i""".. i"". on ,h. oth Indians, and h.';ng knock'd 8 01" 10 "" .he H~
.. tum in triumph" (T1=11 19l1, 381-82). Fifty )'C'" ]at , wmWrt
_ted thot ,he Indian. living along the taSf . i<k of Junco Ray
(Eastrnlin Cree) "h~ been crucUy rovoged by the U"locmowo, with
.u
s....
'''kI
f."'....
eo."
.hi.
whom ~I ..... nl [lh<y ....1.. pn; Il.-in& 'in - ' 01' ICI'\ilc f.ienddUp wilh them (B>tfOW 1852. 61).
n.. rid. morinr rnoo.om:o ,Iut ~ .........uy .....W>I< in tho:
_,hnn 1'<"10 of Hudoon and Jomo:s 8.y """i.>ted lnult _ po.rtin to tUI into COft ItOiihH,. COft ddc. l.ouio Bift! c:xpWncd th ..
mTitoriallry:
So Ih .. io II.. pba ... .. he", the Otolllhlqo.1IIed to 10 camp

du.i", the ... nI......... who", aU II....... ouddon . " ",111 ond
ocrinlmagoo look pb<c. On lhe J:unos B.y >U( ,hoI". ,.he", lhe:
Inuil poopIc uKd '0 kiJllh. Omu.hk<gos too braufc ,hey fi,h,
fo. Ih hom of ,he J.meo fur fur It.: ...1 hun,in, ond >.100 ,he
gw and d""lII.nd c"''Y'hing bonuse ,hey ...... ted it f<>r It.:m
self acconli"fl '" ,t.:.tuy. But of OOUIX ,t.: o.....Jhktsot wanted
i, too, 00 il". ,he ""'r ocnioo, thol l nulhfu!ly find j, in my rnearch
who .. . - !riba lip, fur t.nd. ... So. ,IIA, ... ,he pb<c ........
lhe . - tribe. KtuaDy
fur ,t.: pitn 0I'1ond, and ,IIAI". lOr ,he
sr, fur ,he ...1.."" lhe fiob and the WI.. ' r-L (Bird 1999b.1I
E>rly t:uropc... KnlUn .. indkak ..... lnui. raido Rued wi.hin

few)Urt Iifm fur.1rI<Ioc pom ""'" CGfISUUOIcd by ,he .I BC in "'"
16700 Ind 16800 oIons the ....... of H ........ Boy and J.meo B.y.
Intlld, ,he I..-Iond C_ became the ~ 0/"." nldinl doc'p
in,o In~i, 'crriWf)" olonJ lhe "",them cou .. of Hull ..... Boy. Chcvoliu"
de T,."..,. met fou. Indi.... in hi. opod,lion again .. . on Ch ..... nov
,he mou,h of ,h. R~p'" Ri""'n 1686. roonmcn' ing th .. il. 'enoicn'
de
10 pfft ..... E.lOmol "thcya.... to mok< ...", wi, h , t.: Eokl
moo(F... nci,.nd Monnl1 1m. 75). Apin in 1693-9. HBC ,ndu
J.mes Knish . then II Fort Alb ...); rKG<dcd ~holi", ' on A............
~ bor for lhe .... 01).. fottory. Mi"'" ...."', blanket kenlc.
..... pound 01 ""'-0. and ~ """""". ohroud (HBCA n.d . IUld12. foI.
IU).Thcoc ellly rd"........ and the ruc .... of In";t ............... the
Lowbnd COft ouppon the oicw ,Iut "'2I'fatt Jftd>,.. European <O<Itacf
(L)TWfn 2OO2a. 64). In .... ....,..,..,.011716, KniJh' (who _ ,hen ..
York F..,ory) in",,i< ...d.Crtt m... who .. pootod .... ' C_war ..... ties h><l hccn onn;hi", for Inuil. Knish' .. morhd."he hao been ...... y
limes in lheirooun", to War ..,u"'t'~ but ,hey ........ hod tt.: I""k
f.,..
'0 kill any Iokern.yo" (HBCA n.d. B.2191J2. Aupt 2. 1716.1"01. SO).
Other LowiaDd COft cIcocribcd ~ de!&iIo of the Hudoon Boy
..... W '0 W ~h 01' tho: Cblltdtill Riwr. 1lxy inforMtd Knichl
tho, ",t.. S","", II ....,.Ilan 011 alone I"ouI
OIl' I ..... '
_y <-...If tho: Sao ..... W _, ....... 10 on out tho, tho:y c.nnoc
..., ,he lAnd In then: C...... .. I..-.....m bt,., ......n tho:y .... pen
pe<u' 1nfI to the Norward ,he l.&nd ...... ....,. .... >pin ond ,he
wom ~ to sr- doc'p to the >ay ShoK.nd tha, ,he", io .....1'kIanc:..
ofirJandt and many Iokem. yo (HSCA n.d. B.239/oll. April 29. 1716,
1"01. 25). Knigh' nrimated tho, .hcoc pcq>k had been fa. fIOflh u M
0....... in . he >'kini". of Chemmdd Inlel. Thi. "'pporn .... Iemen"
mad< eadi by LowW>d C_ '0 Niwb.J...,mi . .. ho Ald ,h.. thty
had tn>dcd ~ the toUt """h of thc Chutchill Rl_ to .. 11"';1:
who .. one con rndily""" oatlU from """ side to the other" O...mlc
""*" ...,...,..
1921>.21).
Anothn ........, of ";do... fur ... _""" Lowbnd C .......lnui,
wuh.., _ .... t.
compIc1ri.,. 01 the hchnioo ......u.wd wilh if.
f lalwwa", ri .... and ~ p<qnrion prior to n;a. &V ..
me
<0<1""".
doM """" Ix/o.rrior did "'" just orioe am.

For c:tanIfIIc:. In the
lou ~'...,Ih cmN/}I B""" ,dlc 0. b I'bdao,x . ., .. d C_ riN010 near the ,-til 01 the H:oya Rh'Cr. 'When their ....."Ieo f.oll into
their hondo lhey oaIp them. They ..... elf tho: okin which coo ... !he
okuIl . nd 'her PU' .. ....,.y morb of ,hunscl_ .. they h."" I.ken
oaJpo. 1 .. w Ihrtt Oucn<bill"""helinis (Lowland Crtt J ...1>o hod wild
goooc ( .,he" ,uo<hcd 10 lhei, apo above ,hei, can .. trophleo oflh.,.
ri<1Orico.,..., ,hel, ....mion(Tym:ll 193 1.233). Like""se. ln the 17.a..
Henry FoOOi. . ......d. 'An Indi ... who lOll . ... F..ok.cmaw; oaJpo him;
!hom ,okn and rouncb. Bi' ofWUIow. oowi", the ScoJI' '" it. and ""'"
__ Of """'or ....... oftb.m. ifhc hath th<m,0fI I S<ick III ,t.: End of
hi! ea-. ..t.cn he ffl\lmo:; ...... n III H ...... cam.. i.
F~ ...... there
d.nri", wi,h i, in hi!
(ElLis 1968. 2:~).
MeL. . CrUatn. who IiYed ;., the Hudoon 8ay ~ ammnrinually be, ... " 17~9 ..... 1791. hao ,,<Hidtd .kIirional drnIilo:
1-1 .""..
11wr ho"" ......y cm:monla hcf...e
,,,.u
dtoty on ""I; I thalI ...... Iioon

I few OIl. of rn&ny. When on oflndi>no .......... to mok< war
,hey _mbIC togethe,. ond the """,n""",, enjoin ,hemad_ ...
,Iu, ,ho f'onnc . ....~ mvn ,cd 011 01" .... 11" .. within tbcU
po ...... n..... Io. pud . ........" inwhid> t:W:r'fw;urioocatol bft
of Oft EoquimoIlX, abou, tho
om of .....unq. and 11". (Gnham
1'J69,17~)
,..,.....u,. .,...;tttd lor GraIwn, . - i -
1'01_ ......... _
.. cd wi,,, "'" prq>antion for .... ..... ~"lj"fll >bocinmce f""" food
and ......., d...c... revn, riNai conrhbali..... m.' ..... n. of felIpo, body
painti ..... nd ,he ~ ""I<JJ' of ."oc~ ,he new ,Iu, LmrIond Croe--Inuit ....,r.n: ....
00<
limp\< mp>ntC 10 the European
p~.
fl REARMS AND WARFARE
In,,,
h.ul, r&Ido
C""" I<"rrit<>ry <>Oft! lor .... Ill. oeve<>><tI,h ""'''''1,
bu. C""" nido inlO Inuit m"ritoty continlXd .... tiI179J. lhn ooymmct.
ri<aI p-...... dndopod ....... tho: r.-bnd C""" xqui ..... ~tntm. f"""
.... H BC. ln <"OttttU' , .... 1....;, did _Indc II on.... poots, """ trod<
;" IUnrmo 10 ,hom .... ptbibited lor <Ompa<>y poIi<)' (Grslum 1969,
236). f unher. ,hnot: is ...... Sdc:,KC tlw .... I..,.;. hod ...,. reLoriono with
.... C.... """ ..lor they mi&h' Iu,~ ocquird IJIItI'- and histo:wbl ..-;.
"""" indkooa
'her did not Jm.;,oor how 10 ' - ""'" ..... til
lor
.... fur Indc.. in.ho b.", ,igh'.. n.h n""Y.ln con"'.... "'" Lowland
C.... probably obt.incd , he ir
guns in ,he ",Iy oe...nt.. nth anN,!,
f""" .he f .. neh in tb, S. La"""""" V.tky, bu KgUUr .... pp1y """,kl
tlu,
t."""
Ii",
Bu, fn:q ...ndy t hey ........... _
of.he ,-ng _n.nd clUJ-
,hei.
dmI...ttl", tho: ""'DC' for wivn, and ..!opti""he la" . . ..

0WJ1 oII".,.n<lJ;
offd"Wlldo "" int: .hom wim tho fen do,.,..,. and ail"miotl ouch I mation dem&nda. On thoit n:f\Om
f..,... ,hac hootiIc ap<ditiom, <boor ""'" '-e killed Oft .,..... ')"
. . "",,,ted all ""'"' with block; """ when they - . ,heir bmw..
they """,, I pud dan<c. AD .... """po, ~ boom .".",bod on.
wiIlow,..., ..posed in lriumph: and if they..., nov tho '"""
of. dn>ccI friond 0C2lp io hung upon i, .. I RcqWo:m of hit
.......... ... "Tho ... io....,h rnmil)" boo:.--... ,he Indi."".nd It"",,-
"""...-u
.....u
ha", bc<OOII< ....n.w. only of.. , HDC pol" ...... anbliUltd at .he
>uta! pom . fr tho< 1670L Abou. thn. Ii...., ,he Inui. on both couto
of Huod ..... Boy OIhifd north. vioiri", Chun:hiU and Eurrnaln rMrt;
Ieoo i""l"""dy ..... 111 tbno: too -... abandon.",
""porUn<tO 01" cady fiteanm in IriboI woof"" hao been ~_
...... d. AI B..... GMt. ...... (1m, l OS), ' Until the doovolupt, ..". III
n..
'-cch-Ir,.di .... and I.or. r<p<Uio<c rilla during ,"" "'''''. " th .... nory;
.... gun O<"d "" p' ..IicaI..tnnbp;< .,..,. NatM ~ ;" ........ of
i .. urill.,. I p':>ndi00ni, in ,heory, one~ ......",y tdd .i"", to qmup. tIooot a ....u.,.

'" lm)W!I relali.u. with hauhtn. d ub!.. bncet.....d """"'- Nc.u!he
lao, dopi.'" !he technic.! disodv>nlaga '" firnmu. d..... PO" " "
,hem wm: .....ally ..... to ....... Iud a D<tic>I -","",...... ",I!cd br
the HRC " ...., Andou Gnham, the lnui..... q pro 10 _ . W.
....y <haril3bly ima&inc dli. 10 procEed f ...... a poxeablc diJpofirioon;
'houch pnh.o... i ....,. be ou, of tn.. for .heir _,hom "';Ihboutt,
hM"I .II< ..... of Ii",-u",., and ,II< Eoqui...."" 10 .....' odYan ...... (G raham 1%9.2.'16). Tho Inw. ",lied only on 'the bow...d lm>W nd
[,..,,,,j ..... ",o.ided with...",. to bring IMm nigh .. 10 on "'Iuoliry wi.h
he cowudly .. J;l.ib n,,- (Gf2hom 1969, 1 7~). Liktwi ... JOKpII Roboon
.. marl<ed ,h.. , he I",,;. on the uS! side of the boy 'uted 5(1 inhabi, ,he
"""n,I)' (Nt .he ...t maln between ,II< "rala...d , he bonom of,he Boy:
bu. they .... ti_ driven nor!hw.nl by the India",. wt.o ..... mI<lnuI
mooch 0Uf<"'" to !hem on .......... n. of the 1UPP/Y of ...... ...d ommunition wIoich they ren~ from ,he Engfish"(Roboon (1752) 1965, (3).
The main """-'. . of the JU5I _ poycMlo gkal. C<tnlniy. ",no
a>Idd kill. but ofkr the 6nI ..,Goy; their prinury .... -.lei "".. 110m
.. dubt. It woo proNbIy tho UA.ibi""tion of the d."kn, of Nrprioc
...d dw: """'n, of ...... tha. p .. !he Cm: .he ......... ,. . Ird I '. the
.....nd of many "'''' cxpIodinc .imultoncowly .............. bem Ittrifyi", .. porion for _pmi", ro.... B""", T rigor hat mnuktd
(1 976,2;629),1h... he po pM''''''' and .... of JU5lI Ktktrtd miliury
adnn ~ on ,riboo ""' .,..,.., been doubted .... 1M .. oJ pow<' of.he
gull in l""ian wuf... lJ'P<UI to h... been P'l"'hoIosial: ill nDi .. a""
mYOlCrioul opcra'io<! oddcd 10 ,he ICnon of(DelI"" 5(1 Ilk UA11\c1c1'ltt
of.hoK who " oed .han. - Lowi, Boo Iiktwi.. "",ed,
Tho 1"". i, Ji ... "",,way lOr the 1""SOi' ""'" it, who hal Kqilin:d
i. it F- him aclditioonal F x: boco .... i, added .he
in "''''''?
"""""')'011 h ... "''' Ji.a)'Oll ronfodno.o:oc .. on.ttKk., 01', if
)'011 ""' in rmliari", The . nod. wha..,..,. )'011 do, dof<ndi .... So
,he JU5I F- )'011 thaI aclditionol ronfodno.o:oc and aloo the F""'"
",n.,he ..... nd ..... brinss ..-. po'" in", J'OUE' lido.... So it.,he
.....nd F- ,he pc '... 10 ,II< po""'" who .... i. btau.. it'l alwd
noiK...d lEbo i. h.. ,he myotic fU.e-StOOkt. r unhe. p... penon
re..
"".tid<.
who anod 10 _ thll this is .. they c:aII it l

it" it. timibr 10 wtu.t .ho dram queo. of , ,'li ed the thuncIrt, dw: lich.nl",
...d .".,.hi. . (Bird 2001.2)
Hake. the """""fie ,hat ""'" ,,"o. ;!. d would ................. dnnand
for them by tIoooc lmoo1wod in W2ri..... for with<>ur JWII .......P would
ha.. fdr dok,.1 ....... doooc PC" osing dw:1I\. This apIai ... why
the lnul. absndoncd their
oetdotmeftu whllo the Crn with
""'" ..... ahk to tald do:qI inl<> l nui, ,.nilOl)'. m........he inhabi, an", and dri.. othe, Inui, on both <:ouu of Hudoon Bay ..., fanhot
_ ,hem
nor.hwanb .
LOWLAND CRn- INUIT WARFARE IN
THE EIGHTlENTH CENTURY
Mer Chwdoi1I Fort _
........;rhtd in 1717. !he I...,;. kqM far 10 dw:

roonh until the .... <ish....... th ttntury. Abour thirr ~,LowIand C......
Inuit ......s.. (Nt the _ _ ofet.. bayendcd. ThiI _ ponIy ......... dw:
IW b ...." .. ChwdIII Fort dior:cour2pIL<owbnd C....... pon;a r.....
P"II ~ '" war apimt the Inuit. At. Henry EIitr whiIo .. yorit Fae""'Y Ut 17~7 ........ C..... lnuil wufve bod bun -m- ...rUdy
laid uide, """""" !he good M~""',,, of!he eo...""".., Iht fae.on.." (F.Ilio 1968,1:OU).l'Nb@Iy._importan' ........ _theIhifT
ntPlW>rd of.he Chipc " "" 10 mood. at Chom:hib r...... Tho Chilk ..,....
and ..la!cd O'nc-..... klrc !"""flts Im.o:ktd tool, ........,."" unmcrcifWIy (H........ 1958,73-75, 96-105).Tho Chil"""Y"" PO " ,_ then.etc<!
10 funher minim!.., UAtISCtl I>< ",<c" !he Inuit and ~ Cree.
On ,he ...... <>0000' of Hudoon Bay, Lowland Cm: raidr on the 1...,;\
UA\linueo! until 1793. The .... .,.,.. _ oc:cupied by Eutmain C .... ,
oometimd caIled MonlJCfWo (F..nciI and M<n" '" 1981. 12), who did
_ "W-., and probably could _ ....... "I't . , d. t.-Iand C .... w0r-
n.... tnYdin& "'"""" ,heir tcniroqr.Tho -main C .... did _
par-
riripalC in raldo on ,II< Inui. and ....., themoeIu .. , ,'r r'llylUUd:td

by the t.-Iand Cree. For aamplot. Ut the ............ of 1738. watrion
failu., to find thrir
100' Inui' <ir:ti.... ,!taCked ...d kiUtd thtft or
!'OW' romili<a of Ealtmaln C .... {HBCA ... <1.. B.lI1I28. JuIy 31. 1739.
in.,"
!'oL ~I. """"" II.. warrion ,.,,,,, -5 Upland<ts . . . th., Iw b<a.~" '"
\'hm with,., Eo.kcm~"(HBCA n.d., B..lIaI2I, fill. 4, Thonw Bird}thno ....y '-< b<a. Nonhem OJ;bwa (Lyno) " 2OOla. 661. On Ju ... 6.,
1755. "",Iv< <'lOa 01 """"'r'home Indimt" arrived Fon Ahny 10
I" 10 war -.gaiN. "'" EaMn"Wn Inu;., Iiftun (.......... ,nd &.0 .<WtKn)
"';";"11" Little W ..... R;.", in mid July. It to fritlttftk"d "'" Ea..mloin
C...,
.ho. HSC
.~,
John Potto ..... ~, d ilftndtyccwwincing .........
,to.
said
i..... "Common (Of l'" Albany.nd Moooe Rivn Ind;"". wh<n tht-r eomto! find
,I>< ""IWm.)~ they kill Our Indi.ns. for .hei. Salpo ond M.kQ .hd,
WIntry Men bd~ the .. Seoll'l i. Euoqu.m.yo. Robin"", CfOII~
10 .. mloin I he
fishery. 1h< Eas.main
C...,
[I n ~:U. m.in Indi",] tcU. me .h.. hit Brother.nd 3 M"", wu killil
by .he Alb.ny Ind ~ l000e R.;"" Indi.n. obo.t. 12 "'...... ond to:alp\l"
(HHCA n.d.., B.1Il21017, rd. 43). In JIlDC 1757.1Wbc.. Tempi<. poo'"
......... ofF"" AIwIy, oaid -0 pn ...... yof.,.,.. 1ndU.n hun.cro vc
I Uoqo.''''''''''' hun.i ..(HBCA n.d.. B..lI....4<). I'd.. .)0). Ni... UI ......
of warrion oppovcd .. W'" River II""", .,Cf)"fyi"l ...., Indi..... by
ullntt: rm tlw if ,hey did ..... Sa ,., Eanquomoyo. .hey ...,...j "" .heir
mum kin ..... SeoJp ,hctn. wd! filId ,........... th dmod , .... ,hey do"" ltd
l'" fishery _KO .hen they -.ld ....~ donc" (HBCA n.d., ,0..11157.
foI. 016). F........... dy ho..,,1rion d"od ..... filum
prom;', &rod """'"
eo ....... r<Nrr.td .0 F"" Ahlny '"' A ..g,... n to partidp>o, in ,he fall
JI'X* "un. (I IBCA n.d .. B.3I ...s<J. fol. I ).
'IK fito. cigh,..nth-ttnturyxoount of Intf... on the .... COOl. of
Hudooo B.y wu rw>rd"" by 11 BC ...de. An,h""y Be.1e in ,h. ""ing
of 1107: h. n:ponW ' Home: Indi .... depaning for ,he " \v..n ogoinot
.he f...umai", (HBCA n.d . B.3I:oI2. foJ. 27d .nd 30). Rc.dc.like moo.
wri ...... did ..... pnwidc ...... hinfcwmo.icwI on t ..... won (F .. ncio 1979).
A t)-pOl entry it pm. "" ~Ioy 25. 1728. by -"*rIo M),,": EiJh.
C.......... of ...., home Indo find ..... from """"" in ooder 10 JOC 10
\'hm ... th "'" Eoqo.oomoy.. I En<\eJ..,....! 011 1 Could.o 'W. It. bu.
in nln. Myon did dtocriho the ..... p>ny'l moti .. ticwI: 5.... 011 of"'"
Hcwnc Indiono ...... Dioordrn:d "'" bsc Win ... !hoy onribu oil ~
. hOngi to "'" M.tltc ollhoir Enimion" (HBeA n.d., B.lI.t16, tCI. II).
As DOted. II BC po/kydircctcd i" offict" to d ..........gc warl"~ I... hi.
COl<, tt.. Cocc .. turr.td on Aogu .. 7 wi.hou, horing nK1 .ny Inuit.
*'"'"
.hei.
11K ...... who led Lowland Cocc WOO" partia wen: """-itio<W Ja,d.
crooiri .... -baoln bando who F I. ..d Wi i I .abIe inll ........ Laderohlp ........ the Lowland C _ _ wdI do" ~"...:I t.. time 01 "",txt
and ..... h ...... _ limply I pootcontxf aaoion of ,he fur ~
...
01 ........... t.. fur "vi .. 0100 """,tal n<W Iud< .. (4 '-}fl2OO2&. 20-23:
Moon... 1982. ,"5). Many ,.-.ditio<W Iud< ..hip poolrioao ,wl d
in thc ...... ~ ... (Biobop I97S .. 1998). Thaoc m<n bcIieYcd the .....' - to
be cq.W to ,ho pootn\20'cro to .1...... they ...... li .. kod by rinaol. monl.
.......pociolly ..... <riol obIiptiono (Ray ..... F.... mon 19n. 63-69). In
one ..... I tnditionol chief wu able 10 ..j<ott .he IUthorit)' of I ("ier
.ppointed by.he HBC. WIIm. tnoditiorW chid of ,he Ib ra R.;"",
LowIond Cocc n.med .he Old Clp<lin .. fused '0 ,""og,,;~ thc luthority of on Ippoinkd " .. ief for Chun:hlU R.;"" in 171I, ' ho Chu",hlll
H SC trade, oo.id
'if I don' .... him -...ding.o his ope""ion
, .... I ohalr find he will inkopM< "i> OLlthorit)' itt hlo N.tion 00 molt.o
,'''K'oI ..... "',h the Newd,,,,,, IChlpc .. yon] Indio.... (HBCA n.d.,
8.'21"'1 . Nootmbcr S. 1718. I'd.. 29),
11K Lowland C.... , ti~, .... "'" AlIany RJ...r oft1m .Ioi "pi
"""'" ...... the ~IOOK ItMr in noido og:oinst thc InIliL For iMtatn. '"'
IIhy29.17lO.J-ph Myott";' , oed, S.... oII 01"", ........ Indo_n'
foom ....... "'" M_ Ricr to JOC 10 W.... opinst.he .'oqo UK ....
H ried to I'ft""n, ,hem bu. wi!bou.
' e... H e juorifiobly fcared tho.
'.hey will Kill Some of ,t.. NOO"WUd Ind. who bonIe, upon oho Eoq... _
me .."(11 /lCA n.d.. B..lIIBI tCI. 17d). Ott Moy 29. 1735. 6", CI ....... of
Almny Rivn Lowlond C........1rion otrivcd .. Moot Fon ...... on June
2."""", co ....... oXp>ntd '10 phe Eu.nu.in Eo won .... h .1>< Uoqumly.'
1h<....mo., roturr.td to Moot< Fon abou. """ mon,hllatrr with four.een Inui. oatil" ..... one pl priooner (HBCA n.eL. B.1351o/S. foI. 17eL
21). Apln,onJw>< I. 1736., b.rJ<c WOO" pany uoembIcd .. F"" Albany
_led by.,.. Old Captin oi,hio RJ...r.',... ....... oithi. oil-male WOO"
puty ..... Iot{, ,heir r.m~i<o hehind.:oc:,uo1 01.,.... ........ Indian familY'
came heft mdoy _huoo hu.oboando ... Of l'" ..,...,.." (HDCA n.iI., B.3I
.rn, foI.l7. 31eLJoocph Adanu.J"'r 2~, 1736). s-.._",*, foom
the Albany Ricr&lUO .....
{oom the M_ItMr ..... cmbukod
"" thio apcditioon, .. Autinc I p>ny of ~,dy Mty >nrrion
(-",inc r- penon. PC' ~). Rnwnin& warrion .."",ltd .ho,
.ho.
n,
-w.,
they had killed fi,,< Inui' n><n ond /if,,,,,n YI'Om<n and h.d '~n len
Jnui' child .. n 1"';."...... (HBCA n.d . 8.13510/6. fol. 13). The Alb.ny
Ri'-.r C ... ,ook six of II~ Jnui' children. while four rem. inc<! with ,he
" 1000< R;,-.r Cree (IIBCA n.d., B.310/24. Augus. 1. 1736. fol. 32..1).
One o( ,he Inui' .. ptives .. ken during .he 1736 "";d.". ,...,ng
ul:cmoc boy...... pu .. h...d by ,he HBC from 'he Cm: (or one pound
of.obaca>, one pion ofbnndy. ond OI>C Ind a half yards ofbluc cLoth
(HBCA n.d . B.31d/4S. fuI. 7d). Such pun:huct we", oftcft made '0
PI'C>"Cnt ,he murdcrof rapti .... For enmplc.on April 19. 1783. Edwud
Jarvi. said .hal he had "troded III Esquim.... boy. from ,he Albany
Rn.... l<>wlond C .... poying .hirty mode be.,...... he HBC ... n<Wd
of .,..dc.' H. ju..ifil hio aprnditurc boa.... 'he Lowl.nd Cree hod
pbnncd .0 kiU him in ",tribu,ion fo< the oicknc .. Ind de.,h. ",""oed by
.he . mall!"'" cpid<mic in 1782-83 (IIBCA n.d . 8.3101'81. fol. 24).
HBC nadc .. or.. n cxhibi<cd .mbi-mc""" in ~
LowLrnd
Cree "l::"I"im.w: hun, .. " D.n;'1 F",nci. and Toby Mo~ .. .
"On
.he one h.nd 011 .he p<>'l . I1I2S .... in J.mcs B.y ...... onkt-cd lodiscou ...
'0
,.t<:.
'he lOfti", in wh.o .... r w.oya lhey rould.nd.he m'''e'' claimed to

he doing so .... Vet on.he- o.h<-< hond i..... eo<nmon (0, 'he 'hun'e'"
'" he- ""t/ilk<i ...he- rompany 1""" wi,h .mmunition.nd orhrr ite""
'hey noedod ro. ,he !fip nonh" (F.. nci. Ind Monn ... 1983.
Thu
f01" .,....,pIc. whon 1"Il" group of J...owIond Cree .... mblcd on June 9.
ogainlf the In";,. pos,m .."
1767. II Fon Albl ny in prep' ..,ioo
ogt
m.
rot .....
t~ H""'ph ..y Mmen
obocrvd. "25 men came d .... ocd:and Poin,ed '0

the Fon hry I1id they WC1'I: dctcnnincd.o go.o wor wi,h.he- l::J<jue
m.... on which .hey .ung.he,...., Song. aflC' which lbo.n 60..-.:.
Men. Won><n & ChikUon . .u hOn>< gu.rd, .. me l orn wi.h ,hem in
.he Ikgging Oan<e . hey >aid i. wu u",al for.hr Chief to gi.., .hem
r....n" on ..... h occasions ,h 'hey did not harren Of'en;.nd
h hey expcc.od I would do .. mr PmIcceooon had done befOl'C." I
om not willing '" gi.. Tndi . ... "',... ofQpm:ll.1 romplyro"(HBCA
'0
gte.,
n.d . B.31o/S9. fol. )4).

'Ihe m:iproaJ righ .. :and obligotion. linking .he fur trode ...od
l<>w1.nJ Cree may :accoun. fo' why ,he forme, ""'''' willing '0 nu.fit .hr bu.r dc.pi .. romp.ny policy d;scou..ging warf..... As ,."od.
both side. depended upon each other for key ......... lCe. netdcd for trule
:and wrviYol. N=rthclcos, $OttIetirncs the reb'; ... of lhc warrion who
",moincd behind al", "'g""od 'hose r:o.ido. For in.to ...... when Fon
Albl nyond Moose Fon Cree foiled '" rerum from ",n Esquim'''''
hun.by ~mhcr 2. 1n4. Humphrey Mall.n ",marked ,h .. "almos,
oll the other hunting Indilll. 1wm:1 iot despair... nor hearing from their
friends .h.. wen, '" ..... wi.h .he Eoquima ....." (lIBCA n.d.. B.3Io/66.
fuls. 19<1, 33<1). 11>< company "",n mioKd .be -nor. bcn..... moo,
""'re .mployed I. goose hu"lCrs ;n .he 'p<i~ .nJ .utumn. Goooe hun'ing wu left al""". en.irely '" .he Tndi ..... and geese ..... an importan.
in.he die, ofd.. HBC men olmoS!" (rom the rime when.hepos .. were .... bli.hed. The fall hun, Ihat began in .... Iy 5q>t ..... he, wu
..p:iolly imporruu in . "",king winte' l.ardc .... The Fon Alb..,y LowlanJ Cree killed approxima"ly two .housand FO< ..,h foll in the mid
eigh.een.h century (Lytwyn 2OOh. 146). H ."",... 100m .. Hu,chi ...
lan><n.od in ,h. nIl of! n4. -0", Goooc .. lSOn ""n<d OU. poorly. ho.,..
log ten oflhe best hun .....bo<n ....... with the Esq";ma",,"{HBCA
n.d . B.I98/0/19. fol. 27). When .hree ........."., "'turned on September
28. Huochin. e.l<lihed: "'0 my great joy wi.h an oocoun. of.hr _Ifon:
of oll the m . Mode them hemily wclcon>< &dc.i!'l:d ,hem become
Goose: hun .... immedi..dy (H BCA n.d . B.310/6B. foI. 3).
11><.. io only on< known enmpk in ,he hio",nc.J rccosd. in which
.Ie"",",
'0
"" HBC trodcr m.y h,,-. encounged.he l.owlllld Cm: '0 aow:k the
10"; . 1I>io occurrc<l in 1754 .. Richmond Fon of, .. ,he
Whole Ri .., wu ron.sacked :and the trader Mmh .... Warden dioappcamI (he wu lat.. found murdered) {_ F...ocio ond Mo .. n.. 1983.
74-75; H onigmonn 1962.8-9).Th. Rich.nond Fo<' .rode.. blamed.he
lnui.:and ,ook ""p.i... h= Inui. m<n who ';li.I the poo'. One w.o.
rcLcaocd '" worn hi. people. and the o,her two we", thrown;n ch>in ..
When .he two fough. bock..hey...:re
bu. before .hr ro'I_' ""''''
di'l" "d of, poo ...... Rich2rd Po ...
on "'" from .. ch body. Po ...
.. n, .he ..... "in a Bortle of Spiri.. which,..., Gcntlenxn Chieli of
1>1...... ""d Albllly Fom may on.pooc of them .o.he InJi"" Coptli ...
of eooh pi.... (HBCA n.d . A. U n. fols. 44--45. Much 13. 1754). possibly '" inti .. ,hem'" raid ,he Inui . W hether.he C ... tcCei.cd ,he
..... i, ...,. known. bu hey woWd ...,. how orri.cd at Fon Albany in
.ime ro. .he Lowland C ... '0 <><"gIn;u 0 ..id .hat summer. H""""", in
""'POS' "
"'r
.hot.
cu.
R;.,,,
, ..... um"",. of 1755. fifleen C..., wvr>on orri,,",, at , .... Wh.ak

poot ond terrori.ro the E .. tmain CItt btf"", rontinuing to Rich....,.,d
explicit
Fon. whe~ they r<:i~ "",muni.ion to .nxk the Inuit.
",a""" for the raid \o'U in n:ftnge for the death. of t .... ir kin ...... n th1t
LowlarK! C ... , howwinte . which lhey bl.med on Inuil 001ttf}'.
n..
n..
~'.
'I'P"" to h..... been inf<>rm<d .boull .... e>..nr. of I.... pt<"iou.
.nnte becoUK "" .... af'er ,h ... -""",k _nee. rq>orIed. -Ca"", h.",
""" of)'t Eusquama,.. Hunters .rK! info".". me: 'hey hod fourK! 00"", of
yo EU"'l ...... ays rlm kill'd Our Boy arK! plurK! 'd Whale Ri ..., House
1M Indlans kill'd all ,h.y found.nd h20 got 4 child"", for Sb ...... lhcy
House"
found Se....ra1 of 'M .hings weh \o'U Stol. fmm Whalc:
R;.,..,
(IIBCA n.d . B.l821.n. foI. 47d). Allhough I.... m.in "'"""" for thi.
!"lid \o'U '0 .... nge ,h. de>.,h. of , ....ir kin,,,,,,n. , .... C, ........ puty may
aIoo hu. beli.~ th .. 'hey we", doing tl>< fur ,.-.den f.YOr.
C ... !"lid. af,er ,.... I 770t often included "HaU"-HOI1I<guanl.;
Ih.ooo: C ... who resided forth .. inl .. >d during lhe wim (Lytwyn 2002 .
Injun. 1791,. promin.nt Lowland Cm! huntt. n.mod Soquo' led
war puty 'goin".he "Esquim.",," .h.. included Half- ~I""'"XU.rd.
who ruided up the Alb.ny Ri .... 1IC2I H.nley How< (HBCA n.d., B.3I
oI'n, fol. 27). Cop .. in \ \' ..... k.:aMck led lhe H...icy How< ron.ingent. The foIlcr.oing . ",ing.J ohn Hodgson. po"m ..t.,. of H <nley Hou ...
rq>orIed Ih" Coplain W.us>k.:ahickond hi. "gang " we", "drinking ond
uul'ing""",M..:alp' of ,h. Esquim."" oom. oft ...... Indi.". h.ving
had. h.nd in ,h. murde .. of 4 lost summe."(HBCA n.d . B.86/0/46.
fol. 19. M.y IS. 17'12). On M.y 27, 1791. Saquol ond hi. "gong" kfl
Fon Albony on .nothcr cq>Iition .galru. ,h. Inui og:oin beinspined
by.he Henley H ou .. I..de,. C'pIOin W.u.v:.... hick. and oomc of hi.
followc ... Thi, was the Lut Cm! nid og:oirul , .... Inu; ....:or<kd in .....
HBC docu"",n ...
In.
' A USES OF LOWLAND eRH- INUIT WARFARE
Prior to <on.x,. the Inui' oppear 10 h.... been ""Poooing ooulhwud

into Lowlaoo C ... ,.rri,ory to exploit , .... n:oourca along ,h. co ..t
of ].]nd..,.. B.y ..... 1....... of.he ChufChill Ri ..... lhey .Iso appear '0
ha.... been pu.hing ..... 'h in,o t .... terri'ory of ,h. Elo.'m.;n C....,. Tho
' B C""",, A. B;ohop .... V~ P.l.)".., ..
al,hough Inui' .. rriTOrial aim. m.y ha.... prccipi ..,ed pn:conllKt warfill'<. "hni< differences pmI>;obly W<f< 1100. fictor. Becaul< I .... two peopl........ culruf'2lly and lingui.tically distinct. if II lim coo,1Kt between
them , .... Inui' foiled '0 ~ in ,he .ppropriate gntuut of goodwill
""""lSI,
:and gif' giving .. pecttd of visilon becoUI< of ,h.i,

lhey would
h ..... be<tI viewed .. hoo.;k in .. den by the r.-Iond CIft.:and ronflkt
would ~ occum:d immodi .. dy. The: fi .., I>tnk ...... ld ' .... n ha"" giv<-n
ril< '" p<riodic .nd co"'in~ing "Iali>foty ....... nge ..id. by b<Kh sides.
initial cousn o f
wufut, do nol ccpWn why >nrfon:: rontinued irI , .... hi.roric period. F.... nd m;IINII deriving {rom CUINf'2l
diff........ become 0 prim..,. ........ for why
LowIond C ... contin..ed to .mek.1>< IMh. They aloo f""""nred the: two pcopk. from
being abIc '" ""gOO.te pca<'< iNation ,b .. was <:DOt1bo,ed by the
HBC arbi1rl10fl w .... n lhey ,roded guru to Ih. C ... bUI refused 10 U'O<k
guru to the Inoi.. In rortK<JO<1'<", .... Inui ""ided tnding at poo ..
f1'CCJ ... n,ed by Cm!. Mo",.....,. beca... C ... cosmology did nol distinguioh bo~n .b< noruf'2l ond sup<marunl. mitfonuneo .... '" blamed
"" Inui. ootC'f}'. ,hoI giving ,.... C ... a juO!ifi.bl. n:ooon '0 .. taCk ond
puni.h ,ho.. who had <ou.w .b< mi.fortun (Fnncit .nd MDr2nn:
1981.76; ... al.., L)'twyn 2002 (0). A.....red by li.nry Em. wl><n
vi. iting York F""""Y in 17~7, "1hc Indi.n. III'< inclinable to War; if
,he .. i bod 1<""" ofhonling in ..... W inTer, or .nyo ... of I.... i. Peopk
i. miuing. o. ,hal 'hey ha"" Sicknc:.. omongs' them. they moot 1""po.. in Spting to go.nd ...k oul , .... E.um."", ond make a Canuge of
them; fo hey .nribu '0 ,born .... C ..... of their ~Iid"ornm..: h it the:
E.kim ..... rho, ha ... killtd thei. Friend; h Is ,he E.uma.... h..... kep'
, .... Dee .....y; .nd .1>< Sicknc:.. ;. ocnsion'd by Chann ~ Wi'chef}'
of the Eskm.wc" (Elli. 1%8.2:'3-44). Thc: Fon Albany pootITWtcr.
Joocph lobiltC1'.1Tkd to prn'<nl , .... Lowland C_ (rom going on the:
17SS Bid, "bul all to no purpooo: hey .. id .h.. lhey mo .. go benu..
hey OK di.pkosed ";,h the Esu ....,.. for ,.... 1000 of ' .... i. friend. and
00"'" child .. n lhal died Ihi.lm winTer ( .. if lhey we", yo caux 1.... ,.,0{)
00 idle III'< the
of t...... people" (HBCA n.d., B.3IoI'7.Junt 6,
1755. fol.17d). To ,he C....,. h.owever, OO""Y "'" on in"",,,,,, by <up<""
""nuo\ mc:on . Ref.rring
Ik i ....... Edln:d Ch,l'P"" in 1814
obo<rvro .ha. the lowIond Cr
,h.
n..
.1..
""lion.
'0 ...
bdlow the Eoquiml'" 10 be I .... _
of ~ ...... Should the
bood 010< in procuring their: ~ they ..y tho, the

Eoquimau:< hove end...."".! ,he pnc; ODd they thea oeI oIf '0 !ho:
northWild. It> pwUsIo d.em ICc:oodidg:ly. Wbc'oc..... ,hoy
,ho fentI ol the
.1 mapcwu.. they mnain IuzkUos obou,
the pIoa: until I r......... OPP:W'unity oIkn; wbtn rIisl"ll ,ho
d.ndfW .... whoop..hoy ruo.h on '0tbe .....,. with in<.." ..1.",*
fury. E... ty 1ndMthul of ,ho vanquished i. 1nowttly mloacred..
whnho, thoy mllke raitw>. or implore m,,,"T. The Ini""";ty
be, ..... " lhom it hertiruy. bloody nd implaaobk. (Ch'ppel!
.. - . . ""'"'" I
eIi_, ..
""1'....
1817.110)
And Andrew Grahlnl .... ed Re>.....ge. jeaIouoy. Ini""";6a. do .." of

..... of the family. 01 tl'tn .... ind~ of an hum ... te.ity. "" ",,(_
fi<Xnt (or I '-tile expedition' (Grah2m 1969. 172).
~ n>:)ti,.. for wuf..., _
the put;';' tho, .....non.....ad
pin in ....h nkk. Al~ .... pntir;e queot _ ..... Ilk inirial ......
ol wuf.... ..,. the ci&htttnth ttntwy it had btw:.... on Irnporuto, IC'C'
onchry 'e"",. Modlo bdlmor io ..fk ed in the mot of...do:nnce
.h.. .....non Iud to undc'l"" to make themleJ .... worthyltld in ,he .....
ofbnvodo ofleockn:. Abo, flilu .. 10 "<':go: the miJonu .... of lI";r tun
- ...... NPI'1Of1'Io:, ... onnled by ,he f...-.... ns rnl ofkiJli"3
ond ..,lIping innont Eas,mlin ere< and then ~lJinl ,hei, ..1111"", It
hom. 'hot the nophia ...... Inuit ocaIps.
IWd;,,/! _ 1110 don< to take toptivn. Women ... ~
tUen .. ' " _ pern.", in oome cases '" ,void brid< LIUYi obUp,ion..
ItId mild..n _~ odop,<tl. pcrho", to fin I "I>Id followlna ,he do"h of I
_ti"""
em: child.
s....... npti>-a ~ pwchucd br ,ho H DC.of,ed ' " pontn,
,hem (fOnt bdllfl killed br ,ho Ctft (Lytwyn 2001 .. 61). Anot ..... rn_ lOr Wtinl topti>-a Ji"o'en br Wdfum
to tndc wm 10 the
Ot ..... who in Ittm -..: said to tuft t.-.:L them '" the 'Nomnio,'
ptatlmablythe I......... (8 ....... l85l,S6-Sn.
eo......
The prinwy """lou lOr em: raids in .... cis"tftnth orntwy

.&rnLi....d f""" me fnr and miHnwt bt, ..." tlk ..... p::opIu. 1hio inrwpr,,,.rion "'!'PO' II I aooo-cuJtunl study of W>L" ItId pna: condtlCKd br
Embu-1tId Embu-. who 11>... '"The '''''''iUl of"", ooN.liution pmIic-
ol ....... wu 11 oon,Jr.. _ for misbuI,.1Jw,cd..lIY.I 1'" who

p""" up 10 be mioawrful of
ODd who d ..,c:",c fnr od>tn. moy
be ....... likdylO I" IOwu man II) ... jiOli:u. 01 ood: ~don'{Emba
ODd Ember 1994,., 192). Ember ODd Embct "'I"" I\:tthco- tho,"miocnJK
it ....... 1ib:Iy ..... thon 1 _ _ p:rnaof"""" ....... (1994,., 193).
"""'her foetor Ji"o'en br the E,,' II thot pc I.... whe ...... wu
will Our ....... dunt of natunl .....ren. which OCIC\II" ......1)' ItId
ton
om.n.
unpmlictably" (Ember "'" Ember 199~ 19S). eree inooh ..... nt in

doc fur trade. ,he ..... n. whem.,. lhey obtai .... d ",no ItId ",her L"ItI<U""'Y m.",rill hod modo 'hem ",lnen:bk 10 ... vi""' ...."t.1 Aucnurlont
on 'her began to ."Ut .heir ti .... b<1Wtt1i hunting for fue be ... n Ind
hunn,,/! for food. even ,hough ....... fur animal. could b< .... n (BiJl:op
191-4). o..th from .".rvltlon....I"'"'-.... xridC'nt.or m..... _ (..qurndy Ittributed 10 "'pe ...... tunl foras <OI'ltJOLled ItId manipulated
br pet .... with ","'hl po..... thai
~ (Drich"""" 1993,
B........ IIId Dri&l""'''' 1981). Many Ctft miofort:oneo -..-I:bmcd on
Inuit m1 ............. to_ _ ,hu of.... 1ed to .......'" IIida.
Apan f ............
fur tno:Io: .. linL:::i", misfonuna with
Lowbnd Ctft nidt, the pcd ... dctoiLs in the daily
,h """"",,,in& diso>'en ItId raido "" of..n ....u..:. The cis"ounth-n""Y Fort
Abny joo.omaJI wtdcd eight ... n yean in which eree wu pHtiu
InxUd Inuit"" tlk ...""" rooot of Hodoon Doy: 1707. 1728. 17JO.
1735.1736.1738.1755. 1757. 1766. 1767. I no. I n4. 1m. 1781. 1782.
178J. 17'91. Ind 17'93.' It i. unUkly th.t rtid. ""'" unrcc:oroled.I:....u*
Cre< .....non mu ... red ., HaC p"'n to obtain n<OIIr")' <quip .... n'
from company ......... oM ,he troden tried '0 dilcouroge ,hem. Evideno% india"" 'N' caLami6a ... ff<rt br"'. C .... pre<kd the .nocb
. . . .t the Inuit. For ........pIe. the Ii... rtid on !he Inuit "p"ned in ....
!'on AIbony poot jownolo 0<L<\U"l'ed in the ............ of 1707. Earlier.....
March 26. Anthony BnIc ..ted that: the Ctft who "'"""'" f""" ,he
north -..: "--r """'" ItId Hu.:gu ' f ItId tdls ..... tlw 1 <w ro... rom;..
Iyo oflndi.1II ,Nt woyo ..... pcnioI>ed thlo Winter br Rn- then: __
but F _ lin... (H BCA n.d.. B.lI.r.2. Much 26, HOn.The winlC't"
of 1m woo 0100 punmated br ...... 11 calami ..... Oro JonuoI)' 25. I
who _ xOd,ntolly ohoc br. fur trader died; onJ........,. 28,
_
"Old Miow-:. EIdeo, Son Died who """'" in Stuftd", on Fehn:-
if...,.
'ILk"" ..,.
C... l .... ,
w.r..... "'" Ih,,,,... llor ~
"
2. "2 familia of homo: IDS <2ID< in .ani", ltavi", Mol the mld"Ot....... 10 t...ry both of thei, w....."; and 011 M"",), 2O....oo..r III ... 'II>d
lUI
ily arriwd
"lUI Wife. bMc in -r
ond Siddy
Condllion" (HBCA rt.d... 8.lr'aI16). The- win, .. of Ins ..... eopcciaIly
,..... e.On MII}'J."." c.... ...md (""" t'" nonhcomplaU\in&oft'"
&=".....aty of fOod in ''''NOi aL litmt N.ti .... brins
dead ' hif Ynr&.yt fum;' -rSar... ..... h ....... by 'dioi' of~C .....
<llo.nlity ofS ...... ,hey hod this Win ... th<y CoWd ..... h~n" (H BCA
n.d .. B.3IaIl.1). Simil.. ly. "" J.nu.ry 11. 1755 ... n hu"I'Y C....... ived
.t Fort AIlny .. porting ,h .. . ...... "'" 1>0 d.., I>Ot Any 'hing in .hc:i.
COiJntry '0;> S~btist CIII. On J.nu:uy 22. oix .l2n"ing people CI"'" from
M..- 1'"",. On Janoury 30. an HBC troder who caniod fOCld 10 st .......
i"li C ...... Nmed with . '"Tril.. ofSurvd Indiono to ~ Numbnol'2 l
M... wom.n &. childn in a low &. d&" ed ",..."IN.,,,, (""" " .......
lion 0100 omtrnd W, win ... (H BCA n..d . lUIoI47). The- win ... of
1712 ..... onod><, bod one. The- inImd pool. H.nlty H- . burned 10
thc: pound. klDl"li thrtt HBC mod"" and tGdounio'fi all of in p><h
(HBCA a.d . 8.J/J79. J........,.
1n2). C.,... l''''''t1y. ,... C.... of
thc: "pw' hMW do:poi d of ...,. ... ppIioo thc:r ml&h' ha ... no -b:I "'""
hun,i"li 1,. ,."", .. d 10 ...... been ..
On I'.boo "ry s.u.
reooo1 hefore, ....... i"li
Fort AU-ty "'"" food."""'" C ......... to If}"
to <:Itch ~.h . H.ving no I""k by.he l3'h. ,lo.ooe.hIe ' 0 <n<h ,he post
.rrived .f'ef dnourinll 'all ,Io.ci. Dogs . nd parr of ,hei. & ..... Si<l ....
On April 12. , ......... on :Iipse of ,h. ,un n,rursl evon, of lu!"'rn.rursl .ignifica.... 10
C_ (HBCA n.d., B.3IoI79. A",ill2. L782) .
F',nalIy.,I><....... ,he win'.".of 1792.0fiC of ,he WOi'It in .... mory at r"",
AJb.u<y. On Mil)' 9. Edw2rd JIniI RImmed up ,... win' .. eK"",. of,
~., Ie.odi"li hun .... camc in with only twenry mo ........ in pel,,:
1 H)c .. <[WI<
and foinled .....,. in .1>0 room _h. Cabmi_
l'"' I "".... knew Of hc:ud of to he .... ~ whole familia
of IndWtot _ ...... c .. d '0 be: ~ 10 IlHlh which Ji"<o me the
"-' :t4rml"ti A..... d'A, . ... lOr the T...x 'hit )..... Ahny hni"li
100..... ,aI hundml. of Mba.." [i.e......... ba ..... ] tor ,he Dn..... &.
fami ... 01' ,1>0 NarRon" (HBCA n.d., B.lI.t9J.. Mil)' 9. 1792). Th.:n: it
0100 .-ndo:.... "'"" cannibali"" (April13 .n,ry) n<Hu ........ mon ocrurOf)'
r....
w'"
sum""
n.
'0
t'"
.cd
.....u.s.
w,
renee unde. condl ....... of at~ ~ and p.yd"""'ci<al ....,..

(Bi.hop 1975b). In own. thc: '0' ,ott ino!;ata on -mlion bet ...... n
dim,"" and rDdI upon ,he Inuit a/though thc: Iinb bcIWWI thc: IWO
- -
a/wayo opecili<d.
A common "'1""'""' "'"" thc: auK of ~ .. ttrrilOrial .......

qu<$f ICfC 1ed .". ...... p<firion ....... 0<2iU i"tOOii>UII. lhit may. in port.
"""",nt "'"" t'" initial conHict be' ..... n the l.-w.d CilI< and Inui
bu, i. doa not oxpWn tW>...nth-century wwf_. AI' ......h the loooIond C .... Rlffcm:l
pe' iodo of ..." ..... dopriv>.rion tau"", tor thc:1t
inability 10 ocqui .. fOCld. ,hey ....,..,. ocrupied ,1>0 oms th., th<y raided
(1'" """. and Morann: 1983. 76). EcoIogiaJ ond cronorni.o: ...",no
octOtin' (or ,hi. 111< Lowl.nd C .... pr<:krred to;> I.. ..... ,... moding
P""" and ..,. .... . '0 'M m1teriaJ. on which ,hey ~Iitd to ",pply
nccdo .. wdl u ,,,,* n:quim! "'"" wwf.... Dunn!
IunIo. win' .... '''" N. "v' " fn:qu.ntly fcd hu"fi')' people; wbo in ri .....
01 oeareity rioited
pool. ap<ria1Iy in the lean, b .. win, ... """,0)..
(Bitbop 198<4). H ....... _ _ Itrew in the rip .....,), ... nNt)'. ..ther
than encourocU'ti thc: '--land Cm< 10 """"'Pr Inuit ...... kep< them
_
thc: tndinc pest. Maw .... many of the fur ........ wh,.. pel ..
thc:r ..od..-..........a.bk fo.rthc:r north. AIoo, warrion who left thrit
&milin behind while "" rilio proboh/r ..ruhcd Ii) mum quickly. SliD
another ......,..
pemin 10 both thc: fROand .1>0 P""tton'act
pcOOd for why the Lowl""! C ........... ,ook ........... Lando of deka~
Inui. it .h.. ,I>< .ubol".""" ':hnology .,0 ,I>< former .... _ .uinbk
lOr aploi.jng'" m.mm.b. Bi.. hb.rk <an<l<l >fC leo< ... n ",iltd 'hln
umioks.nd Itr)"'ks for hun,j", .. hoJ .. and .. oJ and ,he C ou bd..,d
harpoono wi.h de....,h.hIe hc-adI and other i ...... odopted for RlMYoJ in
the open ... oqion. I'"""he'mo.... _
C .... Iivin& ...... the Mat. did
_ to
..... b..
buk NiuWo fOf molUnt .......
could only ... found futher inlancl.
,hip/<: . . - ...phin
,he LowIancI C_ ..,.- no alttmpe 10 expand their ,"';1WiloI ton"'"
nonh.....-d illlO ....... ocrupiocd by thc: lnui,. They
r..d no
ohoo,., .mockin& IN .... 'PO ,urs and ~ thc: fur.
rich lando 10 thc: "",d,wu.'
0... quctrion .. mlint. 'II>d W , ronccmoo thc: ~. why ~
.dtd.
r"""
,"'i. oubtio,.,,,,,,,
t'"
.Iu. """"'"
......JIiam.
wh,.
no.... ....
......""...,;0,,,
i.""hcIcot
THE END OF LOWLAND CREE-INUIT WARFARE
Warfare between the Lowland Cree and Inuit ended with the last raid
in 1793. Termination is best explained by the expansion inland of the
HBC fur trade and establishment of interior posts to compete effec
tively with the North West Company. Beginning in the 1780s, Lowland
Cree were hired to load and transport large quantities ofgoods for these
new posts, sorne located hundreds of miles inland, during the summer
season that was the traditional time for raids against the Inuit (Francis
1979, 79-80). 1he boats then had to be loaded with the winter furs
and other country produce and conveyed back to the main posts, Fort
Albany and Moose Fort. Simultaneously, new employmentopportuni
ties for Cree not working on the brigades became available at the coastal
establishments, which were expanding to stock additional goods for the
inland posts and to accommodate more employees in transit to new
inland 10cales.1hese chores required a considerable labor force, keeping
most able-bodied adult Lowland Cree males occupied for most of the
summer. Moreover, enlargement of the coastal posts and construction
of new inland posts made life for the Lowland Cree more secure. A
greater quantity and variety of store goods became available, while new
labor opportunities other than trapping or procuring geese allowed the
Lowland Cree to trade for more items, which helped to alleviate hard
ships in the bush.
Still another reason that may explain why warfare ended involved
the trade in firearms to the Inuit beginning in the mid 1770s. As Andrew
Graham stated, "When 1 commanded Churchill Factory Anno Domini
1773,4 and 5 1 trained up four young Esquimaux to use fire-arms, and
left them fully a match for our best Indians, either at an object sitting
or on the wing" (Graham 1969, 236).1he Cree may have been reluctant
to attack people who had come to possess guns, although the "cold war"
factor was probably not a primary reason why warfare ended.
CONCLUSIONS
Ample documentary and oral ethnohistorical evidence exists to support

the premise that Lowland Cree-Inuit warfare predated the arrival of
S4
Charles A. Bishop and Victor P. Lytwyn
Europeans. This example indicates that warfare among band-type soci

eties cannot be dismissed or explained as simply a reaction to colonial
influences, even though the latter can exacerbate an existing situation or
generate a new one.
Granted, the acquisition of European weaponry by the Lowland
Cree gave them a distinct advantage, both physical and psychological,
in the wars that followed. Although deaths were sustained by both sides
prior to contact, with the entry of Europeans in the seventeenth century,
warfare took a new direction. After the Cree obtained firearms, there
is no mention of a Lowland Cree ever being killed in battle with the
Inuit. Moreover, the historical evidence suggests that the total number
of Inuit killed over this period may have been considerable relative to
overall population size; indeed, the Inuit inhabitants of sorne southerly
settlements may have been annihilated, while fear of attack drove others
to safer regions farther north.
Nevertheless, the underlying factors leading to intergroup violence
was not dependent on the European presence.1he precontact popula
tion expansion of the Inuit into or near Cree territory probably precipi
tated conflict, but fear and mistrust deriving from cultural differences
cannot be ruled out as a reason for sorne raids. Mutual hatred continued
in the historie periodo Lowland Cree memory of Inuit invasions and
experiences with unpredictable human disasters attributable to altered
ecological and economic conditions that they blamed on Inuit sorcery
often were followed by raids.1hus, there were multiple causes ofwarfare
operating concurrently (see also Lekson 2002,621-22), as well as srufts
in the emphasis placed on specific factors and the emergence of new
ones as the conditions of warfare changed after European contacto
1he Lowland Cree-Inuit example is also instructive with respect
to delineating reasons why wars end. Cree raids upon the Inuit ceased
after the Cree beca me involved in occupations that kept them busy
at the very time that they formerly would have been away on raids.
In addition, summer employment gave them a new source of income
whereby they could trade for more items that lessened hardsrups in the
bush. Although starvation remained a threat during severe winters well
into the nineteenth century, conditions were gradually improving.1here
thus were fewer instances of misfortune to blame on Inuit magic. By
Cree-Inuit Warfare in the Hudson Bay Regon S S
the nineteenth century, the Lowland Cree-lnuit conflict had becorne a

thing of the past, gone but not forgotten.
ACI<NOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the Hudson's Bay Company for permission to quote from
their vast archives. We would also like to thank M. Estellie Smith for her help
ful suggestions. She cannot, however, be held responsible for any errors or for
our particular interpretations.
4. Alanson Skinner, who conducted fieldwork in the western James Bay

region in the eady rwentieth century, noted , "Scalping was carried on, and in
the old wars against the Eskimo, it was customary for the victor to eat a piece
offat cut from the thigh of the slain enemy" (Skinner 1911,78-79).
5. To trade with Aboriginal hunters, the HBC created a system of value
measurements that were applied to both furs and trade goods. As Arthur Ray
and Donald Freeman state, "1his accounting system was based on a unit called
the made beaver (MB).1he MB established an equivalence between volumes of
goods traded and furs taken in return in terms of the number of prime, whole
beaver pelts which they represented" (Ray and Freeman 1978,54).
6.1here may have been a nineteenth year.1he Eastmain lndian Robin
NOTES
son Crusoe stated in 1755 that his brother had been killed and scalped twelve
1. Paul Sillitoe also supports this view: "When both sides are evenly
years earlier.1hat would have been in 1743, the year that Henley House was
matched, a common situation, fighting with these relatively ineffective weap
built. OnJune 3, 1743, the Fort Albany postmaster,Joseph lsbister, set out with
ons-bows and arrows, spears, war clubs, batde axes, knives and swords-results
eight HBC employees and ten canoes ofIndians to construct the new post. He
in few deaths, contrary to popular opinion fed by sensational and fallacious
arrived back onJune 21. During his absence, George Spence was left in charge
stories, and the small number of reliably documented massacres notwithstand
of Fort Albany but kept few records (HBCA n.d., B.3/a/34). It is thus pos
ing. Although gruesome customs like headhunting, cannibalism and scalping
sible that a Cree war party left while lsbister was absent; though Spence failed
accompany primitive war in sorne regions, the bestiality and number of casu
to report this incursion, Robinson Crusoe's statement suggests its occurrence.
alties resulting pales into insignificance compared to the horror and carnage
1he journal records that summer are devoted primarily to the activities up the
when industrial nations fight with their technologically awesome arsenals"
Albany River.
7. James Knight in 1716 estimated that between 5,000 and 6,000
(Sillitoe 1985, 890).

2. Andrew Graham states, "1he Esquimaux used to live on and about
Chipewyan had been killed since the first trading post was built at the mouth
that [Churchill] river, until the Company erected Prince ofWales's Fort; when
of the Hayes River, about 1682 (HBCA n.d., B.239/aIl, May 6, 1716, fol. 26d).
the concourse of other lndians to trade, obliged the poor inhabitants to retire
lf correct, that would mean that roughly 150 Chipewyan were killed each year.
farther to the northward, to avoid falling victims to the enmity and superstition
Although the numbers may be exaggerated, they clearly indicate that warfare
of their inveterate and hereditary foes (the Northern [Chipewyan] and South
between the Cree and Chipewyan was intense and violento
ern [Cree] lndians)" (Graham 1969,226).

3.James Knight added to the negative image of the lnuit when he stated,
"1hem Natives to the Norward [of Churchill] are more Savage and brutelike
than these [Chipewyan] and will drink blood and eat raw ftesh and fish and
loves it as well as sorne does Strong Drink" (Rich 1949, xi). Confirmation that
the lnuit were not to be trusted carne in 1719 when Knight, who left Churchill
in two ships on a voyage of discovery to the north, never returned.1he remains
of the ships were discovered in 1722 by Captain John Scroggs, who reported
GeoQrafl,J e HistOria
that "every Man was killed by the Eskemoes" (Rich 1949, xlv) .
56 Charles A. Bishop and Victor P. Lytwyn
Cree-Inuit Warfare in the Hudson Bay Region
57
L4681
en L4678
ABORIGINAL WARFARE ON THE

NORTHWEST COAST
DID THE POTLATCH REPLACE WARFARE?
Joan 1\. Lovisek
The classic work on warfare on the Northwest Coast was published in

1950 by anthropologist Helen Codere as Fighting with Property:A Study
oJKwakiutl Potlatching and WarJare, 1792-1930. Relying on the work of
Franz Boas and George Hunt, Codere concluded that warfare among
the Kwakiutl was insignificant, ceremonial, and characterized by sorne
surprise raiding, the taking of a few trophy heads, and dramatic danc
ing. For Codere, warfare was replaced by rivalry potlatching in 1849 as
a direct result of a sudden influx of trade goods, a decline in population
attributable to epidemic disease, and an increase in competition for rank
following the amalgamaton of four Kwakiutl groups at Fort Rupert on

the northeast side of Vancouver Island. This competition replaced war
with rivalry potlatching and brought peace to the Kwakiutl.
Rivalry for status accompanied by large-scale conspicuous property
distrbutions has become synonyrnous with the Northwest Coast culture.
Codere's thesis has not only been influential but has also been applied as
a general theory applicable to the entire Northwest Coast, particularly
through the work of Marcel Mauss, who would view the potlatch as a
"war of property" (Bolscher 1982,5; Bracken 1997; Cole and Chaikin
1990,8; Donald and Mitchell1975; Duff1997, 81-82; Jopling 1989,15;
Mauss 1990,37,42; Ringel1979, 354; Rosman and Rubel1971; Suttles
1954,46). Although Codere's thesis was developed in 1950, it has reap
peared in the 1996 Report oJ the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
to portray Northwest Coast peoples as pacifists who were able to resolve
their confucts through the potlatch, free from violence (see Scheffel
2000, 178). The analogy between war and potlatch is so pervasive that the
author of the report did not consider it necessary to cite Codere, leaving
the reader to assume that it is self-evident that the potlatch replaced war.
This new advocacy perspective, in wruch the potlatch is considered as a
moral alternative to war, forms part of a larger revisionism in which the
positive attributes of Aboriginal culture, such as peace, have supplanted
the negative, such as warfare, slavery, and human trophy-taking.
Although parts of Codere's thesis have been the subject of criti
cism (Drucker and Heizer 1967, 25; Ferguson 1984, 301-7; Suttles
2000, 261n27; Wike 1958,1087-1098), there has been no systematic
assessment of the validity of her thesis that warfare was insignificant
or ceremonial or of how it was replaced by the potlatch. This chapter
examines the validity of Codere's thesis by reexamining the data within
the context of current archaeological and ethnorustorical findings on
Northwest Coast warfare.
NORTHWEST (OAST PEOPLES

The Aboriginal peoples l of the Northwest Coast are Pacific Coast mari
time societies situated between Yakatat Bay in Alaska to the north and
Puget Sound in the state of Washington to the south. Most groups
Aboriginal Warfare on the Northwcst C oast
S9
L4684
en L4678
destroyed five villages when they destroyed the two we saw yes
terday. They are great warriors, they say, and were about to destroy
the large village [Syuxtun] that is behind us, but that they fought
back mightly; one of their companions whom they captured was
killed by them; another had his eye put out by an arrow and was
given a great many wounds by them; we saw him and he was not
yet entirely healed. (Cresp [1769] 2001,419)
reputation among surrounding peoples was emphasized. While the

expedition retraced its route through Purisimeo Chumash territory in
what is now the northern section ofVandenberg Air Force Base, Cresp
commented that El Buchn's intimidation had caused the abandon
rnent of a ranchera they had seen occupied the previous year (Cresp
[1770] 2001,713). Subsequently the Spaniards visited and feasted with
El Buchn in his own town on May 10-12, before continuing their trek.
W hen they reached the vicinity ofCayucos, Cresp observed,
In rus more polished version of the journal, Cresp identified the aggres
sors as serranos (mountain people).
The next menton of intergroup hostilities came after the expedi
ton had rounded Pt. Concepton and had entered territory occupied by
Northern Chumash villages. Near Pismo Beach and Arroyo Grande,
the expedition encountered a prominent cruef and war leader the Span
iards nicknamed "El Buchn," because of a large tumor on one side of
his neck:
[El Buchn] is a great man, a kind of petty king of all trus country
and much renowned and feared in all the surrounding parts .. .. He
always goes around closely accompanied by many armed heathens,
... because many villages give him tribute, whatever seeds they
harvest or gather from the fields, [or] whether they slaughter any
meat or catch fish, they take it all-or so we understood-to rus
village, where he receives it and then they take back whatever he
tells them to. In their own fasruon, he employs considerable pomp,
and they bring a hide and lay it on the ground for him to sit down
on. He has two brothers and two or three sons who are almost
always with him, and no one sits down in front ofhim or his fam
ily unless ordered to. Great is the fear and awe in which he is held
by the surrounding parts .... [El Buchn's] fame reaches as far
as the [Santa Barbara] Channel and the Santa Lucia Mountains.
(Cresp [1769] 2001,475,477, 479)
Mter the Portol expedition had explored the coastal region of
California as far north as San Francisco Bay, it returned to San Diego.
'Ihe following spring, it again embarked on a northward journey and
passed through the territory of El Buchn. Again, this leader's fearsome
84 John R.Johnson
Eight or ten heathens ca me to the camp, heavUy painted, wearing

their feather headdresses, and all of them heavily laden with their
usual good-sized quivers full of arrows and their bows. Seemingly
they had newS of us and had come to greet uso . . . [T]heir village
was the spot belonging to the San Benvenuto pinewood [Cambria
Pines], which we were intending to reach by this day's marcho ...
Thus in company of these fine heathens we set out along the shore.
On going about a quarter-league, they became upset and refused
to go on, giving us to understand that [El Buchn] with rus village
was coming up behind us in order to fight .... On going about a
league, we had a message that [El Buchn] had just arrived with
his village, looking for these other heathens; for they had fought
with him not long before and had shot [El Buchn] in the body
with two arrows .... Our ten heathens commenced to scatter on
hearing the newS verified, and shortly we saw six of [Buchn's]
men going by. He was coming up behind, and they said they were
on their way to fight them. The fact is that the ten then clashed
with [Buchn's] six within view of us, with those on each side
shooting off a good many arrows, and there is no denying they
must be great warriors and very skillful. [Buchn's] six men at once
turned and ran back, since no more of their people had come than
the aforesaid six, whereas there were ten of the others. We con
tinued on our way, and left them to this entertainment; no telling
what may have happened to the poor wretches. There was no way
we could stop their warfare, which our people attempted to do;
they paid no attention, however... . About an hour after we had
come to the pinewood here, the ten warriors we had left on the
way arrived and told us they had hit [El Buchn] with an arrow;
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash Warfare 8 S
however, we did not believe them, as we knew he had been com

ing with thirty or forty of his people, and these ones must have
taken to fught at a quick run as soon as they had seen the situation.
(Cresp [1770] 2001,721)
nis report of Northern Chumash warfare, vividly documented
by Cresp, provides the only contemporary eyewitness account of actual
engagement between indigenous combatants. Cresp's description is
entirely consistent with the observations ofSen quoted earlier pertain
ing to the Central Chumash and confirms the pattern ofback-and-forth
feuding and surprise raid s that appear to have been the predominant
form of conflict found in much of Native California.1he aggressors in
this case were sorne thirty or forty warriors from El Buchn's town near
Arroyo Grande (probably the ranchera of Chiliqin), and the defenders
were the small party of eight to ten men from Cambria (probably the
ranchera called Tsitkawayu by the Northern Chumash and "Zassalet"
by the Salinan). El Buchn's raid was in reprisal for previous injuries
suffered by members of his town at the hands of the Cambria group.5
1he village at Cambria was located in a boundary region between dif
ferent cultural units (Northern Chumash and Salinan), and thus its
tieso With the establishment ofMission San Luis Obispo in 1772, Mis
sion San Buenaventura in 1782, and the presidio of Santa Brbara also in
1782, missionaries and soldiers had dai1y contact with native Chumash
populations, resulting in a concomitant increase in observations regard
ing indigenous practices. In particular, the presidio soldiers were attuned
to instances ofviolence and warfare that could potentially destabilize the
regon and disrupt the transportation of supplies from the miss ion s and
presidios in the south to those in the north.1he mission records provide
the names of Chumash towns and vil1ages (called "rancheras"), which,
combined with other ethnographic and ethnohistoric information, per
mit reconstruction of settlement system (see fig. 4.1).
Sorne of the earliest descriptions ofintergroup warfare involve the
two settlements known as Dos Pueblos, Mikiw and Kuyamu, and sorne
of their largest and closest neighbors. Two of these early accounts of
fighting between Dos Pueblos and other Chumash settlements come
from the diary of Fernando Rivera y Moncada, who was military gov
ernor ofCalifornia between 1774 and 1777. In 1775 Rivera recorded
several incidents witnessed by sorne Spanish travelers along the Santa
Barbara Channel:
Following the Portol expedition and the founding of Mission San

Carlos and the presidio of Monterey in 1770, periodic visits by Spanish
observers were made to the Santa Barbara Channel region in the course
ofbringing people and supplies from San Diego northward. Increasingly,
there were comments made by travelers regarding various characteristics
of Chumash society, including brief descriptions of intergroup hostili
1hose gentiles [from Dos Pueblos] are troublemakers. 1 will relate

two cases.1hree or four leagues from this place [Dos Pueblos] there
is a neighboring village, which is one of the largest of the [Coastal
Chumash] settlements. 1 have counted the huts [at the latter], and
including the two that serve as sweatlodges, there were more than
90. One night, [the Indians from Dos Pueblos] went out and put
fire to them, and no one knows the number that they killed.
Two and a half leagues to the south or southeast [from Dos
Pueblos] are three very large villages [at the Goleta estuary], one
of which is isolated by water that enters inland from the sea [He/o'
on Mescalitan Island]. When 1 dispatched a guard to guide sorne
families [of settlers from Mexico], they encountered [sorne Indi
ans from Dos Pueblos], returning from these [Goleta towns] to
their own villages.1hey had been fighting [and were] carrying one
or more cabe/leras [scalps], which is the skullcap with the hair that
they cut from those they kil!. One [of their number] had been
wounded. (Rivera [1775] 1967,135)6
86 John R .Johnson
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash Warfarc 87
conflict with El Buchn may well have been a case of external warfare,
that is, confuct between political communities in different cultural units
(Otterbein 1970). As the burned towns observed near Santa Barbara in
1769 exemplify, most Chumash intergroup fighting took the form of
internal war, that is, conflict between political communities within the
same cultural unit.
SPECIFIC (ASES OF (ONFLICT FROM

MISSION PERIOD DOCUMENTS
Rivera's recounting of the first of these two incidents provides

an explanation for the association of the Spanish name La OJemada,
"burned [village]," with the coastal town of Shishuch'i', located several
canyons to the west of Dos Pueblos at the place still known as Arroyo
OJemado. Alan Brown (1967,22-23) noted that the 1769 Portol
expedition encountered a settlement of about eighty houses at Tajiguas
Creek, but by 1776 that location had been abandoned and new villages
established at Shishuch'i' at AIroyo OJemado and Qasil at Caada del
Refugio.
1he second incident, which describes fighting between Dos Pueb
los and the Goleta towns, was apparent1y not an isolated one. In 1782
Rivera's successor, Governor Felipe de Neve, noted that it might be wise
to consider locating the Santa Brbara presidio between Dos Pueblos
and the Goleta estuary to control warfare between these two large pop
ulation centers, which were "declared enemies" (Neve 1782).
Further hostilities involving Dos Pueblos included Indians from
inland villages. In 1795 there was an incident in which a party oflndi
ans from Mission San Buenaventura and some unconverted Chu
mash trom inland villages attacked Dos Pueblos, killing two capitanes
(Lasun [1795] 1965,1:363; see Brown 1967, 48).1he records ofthe
official investigation of this incident no longer are extant, but the exist
ing summaries in the California Archives indicate that Indians from
S'omis, inland from San Buenaventura, and from Shnaxalyiwi, inland
from Santa Barbara, were party to the attack on Dos Pueblos (Borica
1795,1796; Cota and Guevara 1795; Goicoechea 1795).
Another ethnohistoric description of enmity between Dos Pueb
los and some inhabitants ofinland villages dates to 1803 (Tapis 1803).
1he relevant passage has been published by Zephyrin Engelhardt (1932,
7) and has been commented upon in a number of prior studies (e.g.,
Brown 1967,28; Horne 1981,82-85; Johnson 1984; King 1982, 163
64; Lambert 1994). Engelhardt's translation follows:
Although the Gentiles [unconverted peoples], whom 1 found in
the district about Alajulapu [Santa Ynez Valley], are not exces
sively numerous, it is to be noted that there is communication
between these rancheras and the savages nearest to the Tulares
[the San Joaquin Valley], especially the large rancheras named
00
T ~ L_~
T_L __ _ ~ _
Atsililihu [Achililiwo] and Sihuicon [Tsiwikon].1hese Gentiles are
ofabad disposition.1hey are turbulent, inclined to commit murder
in a most treacherous way and from merely superstitious motives.
During the month of April, 1801, a certain Lihuiasu with about six
companions from the two rancherias mentioned came in the night
time to set fire to Eljman [He'lxman] , a small rancheria which lay
two leagues from Tequeps [Teqepsh] , and about six leagues from
Santa Brbara. He killed five persons and wounded two others,
solely because the Gentiles ofEljman were relatives ofTemiacucat,
the chief of the Cuyamu [Kuya'mu] Ranchera belonging to Dos
Pueblos on the seashore, whom they regarded as the author of the
epidemic of the dolor de costado, which at that time took the lives
of many Indians. (Engelhardt 1932, 7)7

1his passage implies that there was a close relationship between
Dos Pueblos and the small Santa Y nez Valley village of He'lxman but
enmity between these and villages located farther in the interior. Achili
liwo and Tsiwikon were located in the Cuyama region, and their war
leader Lihuiasu is mentioned in another early reference as being from

the village of Siwaya in the mountains behind Santa Barbara (Johnson
1984, 7).8 lt may be further noted that Lihuiasu's daughter was from
Syuxtun (Mission Santa Brbara Baptismal Record [hereafter MSB
Bap.] 1371).1his fact acquires significance because Syuxtun held chiefiy
relationships with the three uppermost villages in the Santa Y nez water
shed: Shnaxalyiwi, Siwaya, and Shniwax. 9 A picture emerges including
these three inland villages in a federation of which Syuxtun was the
political center; the federation also was allied to the Goleta towns and
opposed to Dos Pueblos and one or more of the latter's allies in the
Santa Y nez Valley.
1here is little other evidence regarding opposing alliances within
this study area. Alexander Taylor recorded a tradition that there was a
"great Council Grove of seven rancheras" in the Santa y nez Valley and
that these united to war with their neighbors (King 1982,166). Taylor
did not mention the names of the seven villages, but they may have
corresponded in part to the group ofintermarrying villages centered on
Soxtonokmu', described by Stephen Horne (1981,78-85). Warriors from
EthnQbistoric Descriptions of Chumash Warfare 89
the latter village were responsible for attempting to organize an aborted

rebellion against Mission San Luis Obispo in 1794 (Goicoechea 1794;
King 1984, 11).
An event in 1787 may represent further evidence of intervillage
hostilities in the Santa Y nez Valley, although the meager documentation
prevents any certainty as to whether this particular incident resulted from
an isolated, personal quarrel or was symptomatic of intergroup enmity.
A band of neophytes on leave from Mission Santa Brbara got into a
fight with Indians from Kalawashaq'. News of this incident reached the
mission and presidio with the incorrect information that the neophytes
had been killed. Soldiers from the presidio sent out to investigate were
barely able to keep sorne of the local Indians who accom panied them
from wreaking vengeance on those they supposed had done the kill
ing. It turned out that the beleaguered group of neophytes had escaped
death by retreating to the village of Teqepsh, where they were defended
from their pursuers from Kalawashaq' (Goicoechea 1787b).
This incident occurred les s than ayear after the founding ofMis
sion Santa Brbara, whose neophyte population was initially composed
of Indians from the Santa Barbara and Goleta villages. One of those
involved in the incident at Kalawashaq' was a young Indian of high
status background named Jos Mara. He seems to have been the son
of Chief Panay of Syuxtun and was married to the sister of the chief of
Shalawa at Montecito (Johnson 1986,26). The president of the Califor
nia missions, Fr. Ferrnn Francisco de Lasun, described Jos Mara as
"chief among the Indians at Santa Brbara" and noted that the rumor of
his death at Kalawashaq' caused "the greater part of the Channel" to be
disposed to take up arms (Lasun [1797] 1965,2:18).Jos Mara's kin
ship connections, as recorded in the mission registers, were among the
most wide-ranging noted for any individual, inc1uding relatives from
the inland villages of Soxtonokmu', Itiyaqsh, Teqepsh, and Wishap and
the coastal towns of S'axpilil, Syuxtun, and Shalawa (Johnson 1988).
In this 1787 incident, we perhaps have indications of unfriendly rela
tions between Syuxtun and Kalawashaq' but amicable links between the
forrner and Teqepsh, although inferring this much from the available
information may be pushing the evidence too faro
90 John R .Johnson
T HE INVESTIGATION OF AN ATTACK IN 1790
A final example of intergroup hostilities involves Indians from the

mountains behind Santa Barbara, who had participated in a raid against
sorne residents of a Castac Chumash village in August 1790, result
ing in three deaths. A swift reprisal led to the ambush of a party of
nine soldiers from the presidio of Santa Brbara who had unwittingly
allied themse1ves with the ene mies of those who sought revenge for
the killings. The soldiers had traveled to the ranchera of Shnaxalyiwi
in the Santa Y nez Mountains on a trip to search for a fugitive neo
phyte named Domingo from Mission San Buenaventura. They also had
been instructed to search for a vein of silver ore that was of interest to
Comandante Goicoechea of the Santa Brbara presidio. The party was
camped in the vicinity of San Emigdio Canyon and engaged in pros
pecting for ore when the surprise attack occurred, which resulted in the
deaths of two soldiers (Jackman 1993, 14-15; Johnson 1984,5; King
1982, 168-69). The official records of this incident are rich with details
pertaining to the cooperative and competitive interactions among a
sizable number of Chumash and Yokuts towns and villages and war
rant more extensive treatment than the accounts of Chumash warfare
cited thus faro A synopsis of the affair is contained in the letter sent to
Pedro Fages, the governor ofCalifornia, soon after the events had taken
place:
[Comandante Goicoechea] dispatched Sergeant Jos Ignacio Oli
vera with 8 men in search of a fugitive Indian [who was believed to
be] in the ranchera ofTinoqui.[IOl ... The party left on the 24th of
August-traveled five days without incident. From the ranchera
of Najalayegua [Shnaxalyiwi], 3 Indians from these enemies of
Tinoqui went along with the sergeant. On the 29th at dawn, 15
from the same rancheria joined up, then left around eleven o'c1ock,
4 remaining in the campo Before that, the sergeant had ordered 5
men with 3 Indians to look over a vein of metal, a little ways off.
... An hour after the [Shnaxalyiwi] Indians left, the sergeant went
with a soldier to explore the surroundings ofhis camp [leaving two
soldiers behind]. Shortly [thereafter] ... he was attacked from the
rear by more than 60 Indians, who tried to prevent his getting out
Etbnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash W arfare 91
- they were not successful - fighting more than an hour on the

defensive he succeeded in wounding several Indians - he could
not get back to the camp [untilJ ... sunset ... - he did not find
any of his companions - the camp was in ruins - the Indians
threatening to attack him ....
1hey found Espinosa armed and in leather in the shelter of
an oak pierced like a sieve with arrows over al1 his body,[Il] and
Carln as if sleeping, his leather jacket folded, noting that they
had carried offc10aks ponchos, 2 muskets from the deceased ones.
(Goicoechea 1790b)
Sergeant Olivera described how he and another soldier had been iso
lated by the attack: "He was attacked from the rear by more than 60
Indians, who giving war cries and shooting arrows, tried to trap him
between two lines of fire and keep him from escaping, which they were
not able to do. After more than an hour of combat, always retreating in
defense, he managed to wound various of them" (Goicoechea [1790aJ
1978,3).
In response to the assault, a second, larger party of twenty-eight
soldiers was sent out from the Santa Brbara presidio in September
and returned with three Indian prisoners who were suspected ofhaving
a role in the affair. One of the captives had been a participant in the
fighting, another was a chief of an interior Ventureo ranchera, and the
third was the fugitive neophyte Domingo, for whom the first party of
soldiers had been seeking before they were attacked. 1he transcripts of
the interviews with these three prisoners are most illuminating regard
ing relations among the various Chumash towns.1he substantive parts
from these interrogations appear below:
1. Declaration of the heathen Indian caBed Soxoliue:

When asked which ranchera he was from, he responded the
Tasicoo [Tatsicohol2J Ranchera. He was asked if he saw the mur
ders of the soldiers Gabriel Espinosa and Hilario Carln that the
heathen Indians had committed right next to his ranchera, and if
he took part in them. He responded that yes, he was involved and
he shot two arrows at them. He was asked how many rancheras
took part and how many men from each one. He responded that 8
92 John R.Johnson
heathens carne from the Tulares ranchera calied Loas [a Yokuts

viliage n the San Joaqun ValleyJ; 39 from the Castc [Kashtibq]
Ranchera; three from the Cecpey [S'eqp'e] Ranchera, one from
the Mismisaq [Kimishax?] Ranchera; four from the Taxilipu
[Tashlipun] Ranchera; and only he from his Ranchera .... He
was asked if he knew why they went to kili the soldiers if they had
not done them any harm. He responded that the heathens fram
Loasi Ranchera told him to kili them. (Goicoechea [1790a] 1978,
34-35)
2. Dec1aration of the heathen Indian called Samall, Chief of
Siz [Sis'a]:
He was asked why he sent messages to warn the heathens that
our party was going to kili them. He responded that he did not
want them to get away without the blame anymore, and that it was
not he who sent the messengers to our enemies, but rather two
Christians from Mission San Buenaventura. One is named [Fran
cisco de Ass] Alisacu and is fram the Rincn Ranchera [Shuku],
and the other is calied [Vital] Castacu and is from the Ranchera
of the aforesaid mission [Shisholop]. [13] 1t was these two who took
the message to the Mop [Mupu] Ranchera, and those fram this
ranchera to Cecpey [S'eqp'e] Ranchera, and fram this ranchera
to ali of our enemies. When asked if he knew, or had heard why
those heathens killed the two soldiers mentioned, he responded
that he had only heard what they had told him, that the soldiers
who had been guests at rancheras of their enemies wanted to go
and kili them, and because of that they wanted to get them first....
When asked if he knew which rancheras took part in the killings
of the aforementioned soldiers, he responded that the same ones
that had been mentioned in the previous declaration. Everything
that he said here he knows because the day after the killings took
place he arrived among them to change sorne furs and beads for
pespiguata [14] and he does not know nor has heard anything more
than what he has said. (Goicoechea [1790a] 1978,36-37)
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash Warfare 9,)
3. Declaraton of the Jndian Domingol l5J from Mission San

B uenaven tura:
[When] asked ... where h@ was when the heathens went on
their campaign and who kilied the soldiers Gabriel Espinosa and
Hilario Carln, he responded that he was in the main ranchera
where the junta was held and from where the [war] party left.
He was asked who the party was- directed against or where they
were going. He responded that they were directed against the hea
thens ofNajalayegua [Shnaxaryiwi] Ranchera who had kilied two
of their heathen men and one heathen woman three days earlier.
When asked if they had any warning that soldiers were around
there, he responded that they had not had any warning that they
were there. He was asked why, if they only had a quarrel with those
from Najalayegua, they did not go to that ranchera but instead fol
lowed the soldiers. He responded that theywere going to go against
that ranchera but that on the way they had found the tracks of the
soldiers.1he others showed that they were reluctant to follow our
tracks because theywere afraid, but a Tulareo [Yokuts] chief[from
Loasi] determined that they should foliow them, because a long
time before, soldiers had passed by there, and without cause killed
sorne heathens (it is supposed these were probably sorne deserters).
Continuing on ahead they found one of the soldiers asleep, and the
other occupied in sewing his shoe, and they began to shoot at the
horse that was tethered and then at the soldiers.
When asked if he knew al1 of the heathens who participated in
the killings and their rancheras, he responded that he does know
them and their rancheras .... Tbe rancheras are the same as had
been said [in the earlier declarations], with the additions ofMitu
nami [the Chumash name for Tulamniu, a Yokuts ranchera at

Buena Vista Lake] where one heathen carne from, and Matapuan
[Malapwan] Ranchera where Tucuchana, the one who orders the
sorties and campaigns, comes from .... [Domingo] only stayed
among those people because of the love that he had for his mother
who is there, but that he did not go on any sortie, nor did he
go on any campaign. He was asked if he knew who had given
the notice that there was a party of soldiers who were going to
94 John R.Johnson
kill them. He responded that he was present when the heathen

from Mop [MupuJ Ranchera arrived, having been sent by his
chief, who told him-the one who is testif)ring [Domingo]-that
the Christians Francisco [Alisacu] and Bital [Castacu] from Mis
sion San Buenaventura took them the notice of the cited cruef of
Mupu, and that this is the truth so far as he knows. (Goicoechea
[1790a] 1978,38-40)
In a letter sent soon after the prisoners had been brought to the presi
dio, Comandante Goicoechea wrote that the original junta (war coun
cil) had taken place at Malapwan, the ranchera ofTucachana, a "war
like Indian" who was said to be a "companion ofTinoqui." According
to Goicoechea, Tucachanas goal was to kili the chief of Najalayegua
[Shnaxalyiwi] , who was blamed for the deaths that had occurred at the
ranchera ofTinoqui 16 (Goicoechea [1790a] 1978,22).
Tbe assault in which two soldiers were kilied provides us with the
most revealing loo k at the system of alliances that existed over a broad
swath ofCentral Chumash territory during the early mission period.Tbe
detailed knowledge regarding which rancheras were opposed to each
other sheds light on earlier incidents (see table 4.2), especially sorne raids
back and forth between mountain rancheras behind Santa Brbara and
San Buenaventura briefly mentioned in contemporary correspondence
(Goicoechea 1787a). It is even possible that the murder of a "Chief
Chico" of Shalawa in 1785 was related to the raids of 1787-90 between
Shnaxalyiwi and interior Ventureo rancheras, because it was said that
the perpetrators blamed Chief Chico for the death of a cruef of Shnaxal
yiwi, who was son of the old chief of Syuxtun 17 (Goicoechea 1785; see
also Brown 1967,48). Extending further back in time, these continuing
events may weli have been reverberations from the ferocious battles of
1769 that led to mountain Indians burning five coastal towns with con
comitant casualties, as reported by members of the Portol expedition. 18
ORAL TRADITIONS
Besides the contemporary accounts that provide us with primary data

on Chumash warfare, there exist les s direct but nonetheless revealing
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash W arfare 95
TABLE 4.2
Year
Documented cases ofChumash intergroup conflict, 1769-1801
Aggressors and probable affiliations
Defenders and probable affiliations
Source
Result
Cresp (1769] 2001
Mountain Indians
Coastal towns: Q'%q; Sha/awa,

Syuxtun, Mismatuk, Xana'yan, and one
unidentified ranchera
5 towns destroyed
1770 Chief Buchn (of Chtliqin?)
Ranchera in vicinity of S'axpi/i/ (Gra

ciosa Vieja)
1 village abandoned
1770? War party from Tsitkawayu
Chief Buchn's town (Chtliqin?)
ChiefBuchn wounded in two

places
Cresp (1770] 2001
1770 30-40 men from Chiliqin
8-10 men from Tsitkawayu
ChiefBuchn wounded?, no
reported casualties
Cresp (1770] 2001
1775? Dos Pueblos (Mikiw and Kuya'mu)
Shhuch'i', town of 90 houses (popula

tion estimated at 400 in 1769)
Town burned, people killed,

ranchera relocated
1775? Dos Pueblos (Mikiw and Kuya'mu)
Inhabitants of one or more Goleta

towns (probably S'axpili/, but possibly
He!iyik or He/o)
1779 Unspecified neighboring rancheras
Entire populace of Shish%p (Ventura)

(population estimated at 300-400 in
1769)
Town temporarily abandoned
1785
Chief's men from Syuxtun
Chief Chico of Sha/awa
Chief Chico slain
1787?
Unnamed mountain ranchera

behind San Buenaventura
Mountain ranchera behind Santa

Brbara
13 people killed
1787
Unnamed mountain ranchera

behind Santa Brbara
Mountain ranchera behind San

Buenaventura
4 women and 1 man killed
1787
Pursuers from Ka/awashaq'
Party of Santa Brbara Indians led by a

young chief from Syuxtun, who sought
refuge in Teqepsh
No reported casual ti es
1790
Group of unknown size from

Shnaxalyiwi
People apparently affiliated with the

"ranchera ofTinoqui" (Kashtiq?)
2 men and 1 woman killed
1790
At least 58 men from Kashtiq and 7

other interior Chumash and Yokuts
rancheras
Party of 9 soldiers and an Indian inter

preter, accompanied by 18 men from
Shnaxalyiwi and Siwaya
2 soldiers killed, several attackers

wounded
1794
17 men from Soxtollokmu' and other

mountain rancheras
One of two districts in which the

Mission Indians of San Luis Obispo
were divided
Attack aborted, 4 men taken as

prisoners to the presidio
1795
8 or more men from S'om;'s, Shnaxa/

yiwi, and San Buenaventura
Dos Pueblos (Mikiw and Kuya'mu) or

sorne inhabitants from there
2 chiefs killed, others wounded
Cota and Guevara 1795; Borica 1795,1796;

Goicoechea 1795
1801
War leader Lihuiasu (of Siwaya)

with 6 others from Tsiwikon and
Achili/iwo
Inhabitants of He'/xman (population

estimated at 40), who were friends
or relatives of ChiefTemiacucat of
Kuya'mu
5 killed, 2 wounded, village burned
Tapis 1803
1769
Naif: See figure 4.1 for Chumash rown locations.
Cresp (1770] 2001
Rivera (1775] 1967
1 or more people killed and scalped, Rivera (1775] 1967

1 attacker wounded
Neve 1782
Goicoechea 1785
Goicoechea 1787a
Goicoechea 1787a
Goicoechea 1787b; Lasun (1797] 1965
Goicoechea (1790a) 1978

Goicoechea (1790a) 1978, 1790b
Goicoechea 1794
means of examining the topic. In particular, Chumash oral traditions

can be combined with evidence gleaned from the examination and
analysis of mission registers of baptisms, marriages, and burials. 'Ihese
sources complement and further elaborate on the inferences obtained
from the descriptions contained in letters, journals, and reports. 'Ihe
ethnographic records reveal the attitudes and perspectives expressed by
Chumash Indians, albeit one or two generations removed from those
who actually participated in a society still engaged in intervillage hos
tilities (see fig. 4.2). 1he mission register data allow for the oral his
torical accounts to be placed in their likely chronological context and
are supplemented by ancillary comments in burial records pertaining
to causes of death for those who died violendy while on leave from the
mission in distant rancheras.
In his classic work on Chumash oralliterature, 'Ihomas Blackburn's
inferences from myths that involve intergroup fighting are entirely
consistent with observations derived from early Spanish accounts but
include a few additional details, such as the use of smoke signals and
arranged batdes:
While warfare is not a particularly strong thematic element in
the narratives, there is an occasional allusion to it, and it seems
to constitute an acceptable if infrequent factor in the life of the
First People. Usually warfare seems to involve only a portion of
the population of two feuding villages, although sometimes people
from a number of widely scattered villages can become embroiled
in the conflict, apparently as a consequence of the formation of
military alliances. Smoke signals are used to transmit information
about the forthcoming battle, and the principal weapon is the bow
and arrow.'Ihe time and place ofbattle is decided by mutual agree
ment beforehand.'Ihe fighting continues until one side surrenders
or withdraws from the field. (Blackburn 1975, 53-54; references
to narrative numbers omitted)
FIGU RE 4.1
Rafael Solares, chief of the Santa Ins Indians, posing in ceremo
nial dress with bow and arrow. Qne tradition, recorded by J. P. Harrington, included
the wearing of the tsux (ceremonial headdress), such as that shown here, by some
warriors as parr oftheir ritual preparation for impending bartle. (Photographed by
In addition to myths that involved tales of war, there exist handed

down oral traditions pertaining to intergroup battles.'Ihe best known of
these, cited aboye, refers to a battle between a sizable war party from the
Tejn region (evidently referring to Castac Chumash rancheras) that
98 John R.Johnson
the F rench an thropologist Lon de Cessac, 1878; courresy of the Muse de l'Homme,
Paris.)
attacked the important coastal town of Muwu.1he reason given for the
hostilities was that a woman from Tejn had been put to death because
she had been unfaithful to her husband from Muwu. The earliest source
for this account was Juan Estevan Pico, a native Ventureo Chumash
speaker (Bowers 1897; Hudson et al. 1977, 99n7). As mentioned ear
lier, the number of Tejn warriors said to be involved (400) and the
number of casualties (more than 70) are likely to be greatly exagger
ated. Nonetheless, a quite similar version without the inflated figures
was narrated by Ventureo consultant Fernando Librado Kitsepawit to
John Harrington (Hudson et al. 1977,13-14), and there are certainly
elements to this tradition that ring true. Hostilities between rancheras
of the interior mountains and those toward the coast were frequently
mentioned in the mission period, and at least one long-distance mar
riage between the Castac region and Muwu has been documented in
mission records. 19
The battle between the Castac Chumash and Muwu can even be
given an approximate date. According to Librado's recounting of this
tradition, the war between the Castac Chumash and Muwu led to the
exodus of families from the coastal town and occurred during the time
of a remembered chief named Halashu. Elsewhere Librado commented
that Halashu's two sons, Kwaiyin and Wataitset', succeeded their father
in turn as the last two cruefs of Muwu (Hudson et al. 1977, 102n36).
Wataitset' is a historically known individual. He was baptized at Mission
San Buenaventura as Mariano Guatahichet, capitn of Mugu (Muwu),
when he was forty-five years old in 1802 (Johnson 1999b, 264-68).
Thus the traditionally reported hostilities between towns in the Castac
and Muwu regions most likely dates to the 1760s or 1770s and may
even be related to a 1779 event that temporarily caused the abandon
Once a chief of the Tular and a boy from the Tular went to the San
Emigdio ranchera. The Tular people had warned this chief not to
go, but the chief said that the San Emigdio people were friends
and would not hurt him.
But at San Emigdio the chiefwas taken into a house and given
pespibata (the dry form) [narcotic made from tobacco and lime],
according to custom; that evening, he was suddenly killed by a
man of San Emigdio named 'Usht' while the Tular capitn was
drunk with pespibata. His scalp was then taken and his neck cut.
Later Luisa added that his hands and feet were cut off at the wrists
[and ankles]. The boy who carne with the captain had stayed at
the door and had seen the whole thing. He had been told to go
out to the tokoy 'playground', but did not mind. The boy ran back
to the Tular and they could not overtake him. He told all of the
news. The people of the Tejn, especially the Captain's mother,
cried loudly. The San Emigdio people had intended to report that
a bear had killed the captain, but were foiled by the boy. That was
the cause of war.
They used to have many wars over there and all due to the jeal
ousies of the chiefs and to other jealousies. (Harrington's notes,
cited in King 1982, 182-83)
As was the case with the reported battle between Muwu and the
Castac Chumash, certain elements of Luisa Ygnacio's story are sup
ported by documentary evidence. The chief of Tashlipun, baptized in
1818 with a number of others from San Emigdio and Cuyama regions
at Mission Santa Brbara, was named Uichojo and is quite likely to be
the individual remembered as 'Usht' in Luisa Ygnacio's account. 20 Luisa
ment of another large coastal town, known as La Assumpta (Shisholop),
y gnacio's source almost certainly was Jos "Venadero" Silinaxuwit, an
located up the coast from Muwu (Neve 1782; see table 4.2).
elderly Jndian who had been baptized from Siwaya in the mountains
Another Chumash oral tradition pertains to conflicts between
behind Santa Barbara in 1812. 21 Silinaxuwit lived near Luisa Ygnacio's
the Castac-Emigdiano Chumash and neighboring Yokuts tribes. Luisa
family for manyyears and was a close friend ofher father and first cousin
y gnacio, Barbareo consultant to John Harrington, related this version:
ofher mother-in-law. She reported that "Jos Venadero [Silinaxuwit] ...
always liked to take trips to the Tejn country" (Harrington 1914).
The Jndians of the T ular [Valley Yokuts] and San Emigdio [Tashli
Jos Venadero's wife, Dominga, was baptized with the group headed by
pun] were great enemies owing to the petty jealousy of their chiefs.
ChiefUichojo of Tashlipun in 1818. 22
100 John R.Johnso n
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash Warfare 101
The practice of dismembering an enemy's body, as recounted in

Luisa Ygnacio's story, receives documentary support from another case
attributed to the southem San Joaqun Valleyrrejn region as docu
mented in a bural entry at Misson San Buenaventura: "Clodoaldo
Yotchohu [a natve of Cashtc (Kashtiq)], having been killed at the
hands of very distant heathens .... His bodily remains, they say, were
cast about the open country, following the customs of the heathens,
who do not give the honor ofburial to the dead, especiaUy for outsiders
whom they look upon as enemes" (MB V Bur. 2236, J anuary 14, 1819).
Catarino Montes, who was born and raised at the Tejn ranchera
in Kern County, reported another oral tradition regarding enmity
between the Tulamni Yokuts and the people of Tashlipun. Montes's
mother once told him that manyTulamni people had once died because
the people at Tashlipun had poisoned the waters of San Emigdio Creek
that flowed into the Buena Vista Lake (Montes 1997). This attribution
of poisoning by one's enemies harkens back to accounts trom the mis
sion period in which epidemics, such as the "dolor de costado" of 1801,
were blamed on supernatural poisonings.
The final oral historical account to be cited here has been fre
quendy mentioned in studies pertaining to Chumash intergroup con
flict (e.g., King 1982,166; Lambert 1994,58-59) and was specificaUy
cited by Alfred Kroeber in his assessment that "the Chumash were "an
unwarlike people" (Kroeber 1925,556). The source for this account was
Justo Gonzales, a native speaker ofBarbarefo Chumash, who had been
born about 1823 (Johnson 1988,235; Yates 1887). He is reported to
have inherited the mande of chieftainship of Mikiw (one of the two
neighboring towns called "Dos Pueblos") in ceremonies held in the
Chumash region as late as 1869 (Hudson et al. 1977, 93). In 1887,Justo
provided a description of a batde that he said took place about 1833
(Yates 1887):
When Justo was a smaU boy he had witnessed sorne fighting at
the Estero, about one mile [east] from the city of Santa Barbara,
between the Indians of El Rincon (a point 15 miles distant) and
those who lived where Santa Barbara is located.
Their method was to open a batde by tossing up a lot offeathers.
102 John R.Johnson
One Jndan would leave hs companons, advance toward hs ene

mes and shoot a number of arrows, which were generally dodged
by the opposing forces. When the Jndan got tred he retreated or
fell back, and another would advance.
The fighting did not result in much los s to the participants. In
the instance referred to the Santa Barbara Indians lost one of their
number; the Rincon part, two.
He stated that the arrows were sorne times poisoned.
When a declaration of war was made a messenger was dis
patched by the aggrieved party, who repaired to the tribe with
whom they desired to open war, with a polite invitation to meet at
a certain place and on a stated day.
On the day agreed upon the opposing parties, painted and
equipped for the fight, repaired to the proposed battle ground
and opened fire by throwing handfuls of fine feathers into the air,
accompanying the action by certain peculiar sounds and a repeti
tion of ya, ya, ya, ya, ya, ya, ya, ya, increasng the rapdty of enun
ciaton until it culminated in the exclamation Wau-Kap-pe!!!
In these batdes, very few were killed; but the fighting was con
tinued for sorne time after the 10ss of a man by either party.
When either side was satisfied they built a fire, which signi
fied that their opponents were valiant warriors, and that they were
satsfied and wished to bury the hatchet for the presento (Yates
1891,374)
Justo's account is unique among the ethnohistorical accounts of
Chumash warfare in his description of rituals associated with batdes.
Although arranged batdes and individualized contests in front of the
assemb1ed warriors are certain1y not unusual in aboriginal California
(McCork1e 1978) and are hinted at in Chumash myths (B1ackbum
1975), there are sorne reasons to question certain portions of this rec
oUection. In 1833 there were no independent Chumash towns still
occupied in coastal areas, only communities affiliated with the missions.
Thus, it appears unlike1y that there was any Chumash community at
El Rincn, where the native town of Shuku had been abandoned sorne
thirty years earlier. Furthermore, there are no contemporary Spanish
Ethnhistoric Descriptions of Chumash W arfare
103
accounts describing fighting among Chumash groups during the 1830s,

despite a substantial documentary record, and no deaths from hostile
action are recorded in burial registers for either Mission Santa Brbara
or San Buenaventura. 1here were several struggles for political hege
mony in Mexican California, however, that led to armed confrontations
in the vicinity of Santa Brbara in 1830 and San Buenaventura in 1838
(Bancroft 1886, 76-81, 550-56). Conceivably, sorne skirmish among
Chumash Indians connected with one of these conflicts may have taken
place, and this would have been what]usto witnessed.]usto spoke little
or no English, and his recorder Lorenzo Yates, working through an
interpreter, may have confounded a description of a fight witnessed by
Justo as a boy with oral traditions about battle rituals passed down from
his elders.
Cf)
ro
~
c
60
(J,)
C>
20
THE DEMOGRAPHIC CONSEQUENCES OF

INTERGROUP CONFLICT
One final source of ethnohistoric information bearing on the topic of

Chumash warfare has to do with the conseguences of repeated raids
on the demographic structure of the native population. 1he mission
registers recording the baptisms, marriages, and deaths provide a pri
mary record of vital statistics pertaining to population changes among
the indigenous peoples of the Californias from the San Francisco Bay
region southward to Cabo San Lucas (Cook and Borah 1979; ]ackson
1994;]ohnson 1989, 1999a; Milliken 1995; Walker and]ohnson 2003).
Over a fifty-year period, from the time of the founding of Mission San
Luis Obispo in 1772 until the last elderly people from inland and island
rancheras were baptized at Mission Santa Brbara in 1822, virtualIy
the entire population of the regio n inhabited by people speaking Chu
mashan languages was resettled in mission communities. Taking the
estimated ages of people at the times of their baptisms and extrapo
lating back to what would have been their ages at the time of initial
Spanish settlement provides a picture of the demographic structure of
the native population just prior to the dramatic impacts caused by intro
duced European diseases (Walker and]ohnson 1992,1994). Figure 4.3
presents the population pyramid in 1782 at the time of the founding
104 John R.Johnson
Females
Males
100
300
200
100
100
200
300
Number of People
FIGURE 4.)
A reconstructed pyramid for the Chumash population in 1782
based on mission register data from Santa Brbara, La Pursima, and Santa Ins. The
number ofwomen baptized who were twenty years oId or oIder was nearIy twice that
of men, reflecting a higher mortality among men, attributabIe in large part to warfare.
of the Santa Brbara presidio for Chumash Indians baptized at three

missions: Santa Brbara, Santa Ins, and La Pursima.1his year marks
the advent of intensive Chumash-Spanish interaction in the main part
of the Santa Barbara Channel that resulted in continuous opportunities
for disease transmission.
A normal population pyramid for indigenous groups unaffected
by the ravages of epidemic disease is very broad at the base and taper
ing to a point with advancing age.1he ratio between the sexes remains
approximateIy egual, except for increasingly more women than men in
older cohorts.1he reconstructed Chumash population pyramid, how
ever, is dramaticalIy skewed, exhibiting more women than men past
the age of twenty (approaching a 2:1 ratio). Although higher mortality
among males in part may be due to high-risk subsistence pursuits (e.g.,
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chllmash W arfare
10 S
men lost at sea during fishing trips or while crossing the Santa Bar
bara Channe1 on trading voyages), the continuing effects of intervillage
strife appears to be the most likely explanation for the great dispropor
tion between numbers of adult men and women who were eventually
baptized. When particular subgroupings within the Chumash region
are examined, the speakers of the Central Chumash languages (Ven
tureo, Barbareo, Ineseo, and Purisimeo) exhibit the greatest dis
parity (Johnson 1999a). These are the groups among which most of the
ethnohistoric descriptions of warfare originated (see table 4.2).
ALlIANCE POllTICS AND WARFARE
have held sorne form of hegemony over thirteen neighboring villages.

Other indirect evidence regarding amicable relations among villages
may be found in the patterns of consanguineal and affinal family links
revealed in mission register data, which show there to be "clusters" of
towns that tended to intermarry within themselves more often than
to towns in other clusters. These towns, more closely related to each
other by marriage, would undoubtedly have been likely to support each
other should enemies attack anyone among their residents. Further
more, these intermarrying clusters often crosscut environmental zones,
l.inking coastal towns to inland rancheras, thus faciltating economic
exchange within the group (Johnson 1988, chapo 9; King 1976).
Although direct statements are lacking, sorne information from mis

sion period documents allows us to indirectly ascertain poltical alli
FEDERATIONS AND MARRIAGE PRACTICES
ances from reported instances of intervillage cooperation in contrast to

instances ofintervillage strife. Reports on amicable relations among vil
lages are less frequently encountered among mission period documents
than are descriptions of intergroup hostilities, which naturally were of
more concern to the missionaries and soldiers. Only four instances of
peaceful intergroup cooperation mentioning specific towns within the
Central Chumash regon were encountered in the COurse of research.
These may be brieflyenumerated:
1. ChiefYanonal of Syuxtun (Santa Barbara) was well received
when he visited the Goleta villages (Fages 1783).
2. The son of the "old chief" of Syuxtun was cruef of the moun
tain village of Shnaxalyiwi (Goicoechea 1785).
3. ChiefYanonali interceded on behalf of the Carpintera Indi
ans after the latter had killed a bull from the mission's herd
(Goicoechea 1786).
4. Many Indians from two of the largest Santa Ynez Valley vil
lages, Teqepsh and Kalawashaq', participated in a fiesta at one
of the Goleta villages (Goicoechea 1798).
The first three of these statements accord well with independent
information regarding the chief of Syuxtun, Yanonal, who was said to
106 John R.Johnson
The systematic recounting of all of the known ethnohistoric accounts

of Chumash warfare and its effects provides us with a great deal of
insight into the practice of armed conflict as it existed in south-cen
tral California at the time of initial colonial settlement. Overall, the
descriptions do not differ too much from those summarized for north
ern and central California (see table 4.1), and at times the warfare even
approached the frequency and scale of fighting documented for the
Colorado River Yumans, albeit with not the same degree of miltarism
embedded in myth and ideology (Forde 1931; Kroeber and Fontana
1986). Inter-ranchera conflict was universally described as a frequent
occurrence among Chumash peoples, and the types ofengagement most
often appear to have been surprise attacks or opportunistic ambushes.
Small-scale conflicts between kin groups were motivated by revenge or
were responses to perceived insults; however, hostilties involving whole
towns or alliances of warriors from several towns were documented in
a number of instances.
It is tempting to view Chumash warfare only in cultural ecologi
cal terms. Most ethnohistoric observances occurred among towns occu
pied by peoples speaking Central Chumash languages. lhese groups
had higher population densities, and thus resource stress would have
occurred during times of climate-induced scarcity. Indeed, unpredict
able droughts and irregular, severe El Nio events certainly resulted in
Ethnohistoric Dcscriptions of Chumash Warfarc
107
times of hardship in the Chumash region (Arnold 2001,26-31; John

son 2000; Kennett and Kennett 2000; Larson,Johnso n , and Michaelsen
1994; Larson, Michaelsen, and Walker 1989). Such subsistence stress
in turn would have resulted in the temptation to trespass into another
group's hunting, gathering, or fishing territories, and indeed trespass is
one of the causes for iighting described in ethnohistoric sources (Land
berg 1965,30; Longinos [1792] 1961; Sen [1815] 1976, 113-14).
Such responses are entirely expected in light of cross-cultural studies
that have shown that uncertain food supplies, when combined with
mistrust of others, is a significant predictor of war (Ember and Ember
1992). The system of alliances among local polities in different ecologi
cal regions, cemented through intermarriage, was an effective way not
only to facilitate economic exchange to overcome resource shortages but
also to protect one's group from certain hostile neighbors.
From the perspective of Chumash peoples, however, warfare was
an ongoing, ever-present reality, not attributed only to ecological events.
Sudden raids leading to deaths of community members and burning
of whole towns and villages were periodic actions, leading to retali
ation in turno Witchcraft by one's enemies was considered the cause
of unexplained deaths, prompting revenge killings. Economic motives
were not often the perceived cause for instigating hostilities, therefore.
lt would appear significant that in several instances, the chiefs ofoppos
ing groups were the targets of war parties.]ust as has been documented
for the Colorado River Yumans, Spanish sources tell us that successful
Chumash war leaders would be recruited into positions of chieftain
ship. This observation does not necessarily confljct with the inheritance
of rank in Chumash society, because in a number of instances, father
and son were each recognized as a "capitn" in mission records. The
patrilocal residence pattern commonly observed for Chumash chiefs
extended to their sons and grandsons and contrasted with the matri
locality that predominated in the rest of society (Johnson 1988). The
families of Chumash political leaders thus constituted fraternal interest
groups in the midst of a society that otherwise might be considered to
have adapted-through marriage of males into their wife's residence
grOUp--to break down such special interest groups for common defense
against an external threat (e.g., Divale 1984).
108 John R.Johnson
Although we cannot now recover all of the details, the chrono

logcal sequence of many of the known incidents presented in table 4.2
1eads us to suspect that hostilities between particular federations of allied
rancheras may have persisted over several decades,just as has been doc
umented among River Yumans (Kroeber and Fontana 1986, 107). In
particular, certain interior Ventureo rancheras seem to have been at
war with those of the inland mountains behind Santa Barbara, and acts
of aggression appear to have spilled over into coastal regions at times.
Within the coastal regon, there were documented confljcts involving
Dos Pueblos (Mikiw and Kuya'mu) with their coastal neighbors to the
east and west in the mid 1770s. The repercussions from these hostilities
may have extended over several decades, because the chiefs ofDos Pueb
los and their allies were the targets of raids from enemies living in the
inland mountains behind Santa Barbara and Ventura as late as 1795 and
1801. The extent to which conflicts between a powerful Obispeo chief,
El Buchn, and peoples living to the south and north ofhim may fit into
a longer-term pattern of warfare cannot be determined based on extant
information. The death of trus feared leader sometime after he was wit
nessed in battle in 1770 and the establishment two years later ofMission
San Luis Obispo may have helped to quell hostilities in that regon.
The system ofalliances that carne into being to defend against raids
of opposing rancheras appears to have led to the emergence of sorne
form of federated groups. These federations tended to crosscut ecolog
cal boundaries in a coastal-inland direction. Although most comparativ
ists would class the type of warfare present among Chumash peoples
as internal war, the development of enmity between any two groups of
allied towns might as well be considered to have replicated the concli
tions of external war (Otterbein 1994). Some scholars ofwarfare have
been argued that matrilocal residence functions to reduce strife within a
society by breaking down bonds of fraternal interest groups, thus uniting
males to face external threats (Divale 1984; Ember 1975). Indeed, mar
riage patterns among Chumash towns can be shown empirically to have
been stronger within groups that were allied economically and politically
(Johnson 1988, chapo9), thus creating the conditions for strengthening
cooperation within federated rancheras opposed to other groups.
The significance of different residence patterns practiced by chiefs'
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash W arfare
109
families in contrast to the rest of Chumash society is not entirely clear

but may be related to differing needs and motivations of elites and com
moners. lhe politicalleadership formed fraternal interest groups to pro
tect themselves and perpetuate their hereditary rank, whereas the general
populace best ensured their own survivaI because most men, residing in
name for the important native settlement near Pt. Conception (see also King
their wife's community, did not form such interest groups. Matrilocal res
idence reduces competitive urges within the local group and aids in form
1975).
3. The Spanish explorers seem to have misunderstood the town names
X exo (also spelled Xexu) and Xueu as labels for larger federations of Chu
mash coastal settlements. 1he extant account of the voyage ofJuan Rodrguez
Cabrillo was compiled and condensed from at least three journals, now lost,
inc1uding Cabrillo's originallog (Kelsey 1986; Wagner 1929). Sorne allowance
ing alliances that would be economically and militarilyadvantageous.
must be made for miscopying and the communication problems that would
lhe study of Chumash warfare and its societal implications raises

many questions that beg for further comparative research within the
less, many of the town names are recognizable as those being occupied two and
California region and beyond. If matrilocal residence is a favored out

come in societies that engage in external war (Divale 1984; Ember
have existed between the Spanish explorers and Chumash peoples. Nonethe
half centuries later, demonstrating the remarkable longevity and stability of
1975), then how were the Chumash different from their patrilocal
indigenous settlements in the Santa Barbara Channel regon.

4.1he town and village names on figure 4.1 and mentioned in this chap
neighbors in the rest of central and southern California? Fortunately,
ter appear in linguistic orthography adapted for English-speakers, thus sh
empirical data are now being assembled from the records of a num
eh = , ts
= J,
= e, etc. Native speakers interviewed in the late nineteenth and early
ber of other California missions that will allow such comparisons to be
twentieth centuries attested to the correct pronunciation of many of these
made among indigenous groups and Our interpretations challenged or

refined. Because of the richness of its ethnohistoric record, the region
town names (see especially Harrington [1924] 1986; Pico [1884] 1999), and
others have been reconstructed by linguists based on careful analysis of ver
occupied by California's indigenous peoples offers unusual Opportuni

ties for studying the articulation of marriage and family patterns with
sions recorded in the mission record s (McLendon and Johnson 1999). Proper
forms of political Ieadership, economic interaction, and intergroup con

flict, resulting in a more accurate description of these societies and a
deeper understanding of human behavior.
from nonlinguistic spellings such as the Spanish-Ianguage spellings of the
names recorded in phonetic/linguistic form are italicized to distinguish them

missionaries.
5.1he Unguistic affiliation of the people who inhabited the Cambria
regon is somewhat uncertain, whether Northern Chumash, Salinan, or even a
NOTES
third, mysterious language called "Playano" by the early missionaries (Milliken

andJohnson 2005).
l.1here actually is no such group as the "Tejn Chumash"; probably the

reference is to the Castac Chumash (originally called "Emigdiano"by Kroeber
[1925]), who Uved in a series of rancheras in the San Emigdio Mountains.
1he adjacent Tejn region originally belonged to the Kitanemuk, who spoke
a dialect of the Serrano, a Uto-Aztecan language. 1he Castac Chumash (or
6.1his early description of taking scalps as trophies is very explicit; how

ever, no skeletal evidence for this practice has yet been detected in the course
of examining extant collections of crania from prehistoric cemeteries in the
Chumash regon (Phillip Wa1ker, pers. comm. 2004).
7. Cook (1976, 18-19) has identified the "dolor de costado" epidemic as
Castequeo) derive their name from one of their principal villages, K ashtiq
pneumonia andlor diphtheria. It was one of several pandemics taking the lives
at Castac Lake, and spoke a quite distinctive dialect of the Chumashan Ven
tureo language (Klar et al. 1999).
of many California Indians during the mission period (Archibald 1978,157;
2. See figure 4.1 for the locations ofChumash towns. Harrington ([1924]
1986) and Kroeber (1925,553) interpret "Xexu" as derived from Shisho!op, the
110 John R.Johnson
Cook 1976, 17-19; King 1984, 15-20; Wa1ker and Johnson 1992,1994).
8.My identification ofLihuiasu differs from that offered by Horne (1981,
82). Horne identified Lihuiasu from Atsililihu as being aman baptized in 1805
Ethnohistoric D escriptions of Chumash \Varfare 1 1 1
as Francisco Solano Uauisu from Sxaliwilimu' (MLP Bap. 2231). Thc names
are not dissimilar, and Sxaliwilimu'was also a village in the euyama area, but a
closer fit is provided by matching Lihuiasu with Rafael Liguiasu from Achilil
iguo, baptized in 1804 at Mission Santa Brbara (MSB Bap. 3000).
9. Besides the chief of Shnaxalyiwi being a son of a chief of Syuxtun, cited
in a later note, these farnily connections included ChiefYanonali's aunt living at
Siwaya (MSB Bap. 1668) and Chief Lihuisanaiset from Shniwax serving as a
chief of Syuxtun (Johnson 1984). One of the latter's children was born at Shnax
alyiwi and baptized at Siwaya (MSB Bap. 2595).
10. The identity of the ranchera ofTinoqui is unclear, because no Indian
was ever baptized at the missions from a town or village having this name.
Tinoqui appears likely to have been the name of the capitn of a ranchera
in the San Emigdio Mountains or Tejn region, rather than the name of
the village. A Kitanemuk Indian by this name was baptized at Mission San
Fernando in 1819 (Misson San Fernando Baptisimal Records [hereafter
MSF Bap.] 2385) and later served as a chief at the Tejn Indian Reservation
in the 1860s and 1870s (Johnson 1997, 262). This man, Vicente Francisco
Tinoqui, was too young to be the Tinoqui mentioned in 1790, but it would
be consistent with what is known about native naming practices for him to
have been named for that chef Alternatively, Tinoqui may be a village name
on upper Piru Creek, which was called the "Tinoco" in early ethnohistoric
records (Johnson 1978).
leaves ofwild tobacco (Nicotiana attenuata) mixed with lime and used by south
em California Indians as a narcotic and stimulant (Timbrook 1987).
15. Only one individual named Domingo was baptized at Mission San
Buenaventura prior to 1790. This was Domingo Jos Suquip, the first Chumash
convert at that mission, who was about ten years old at the time of his baptism
on December 28, 1782. He was from the ranchera of Alaleygue ('Alalhew),
more frequently spelled ''Alalehue,''which was described at the time ofhis bap
tism as being "in the nearest mountains" (MBV Bap. Bk 1:2). This ranchera
was located somewhere between Mupu and S'eqp'e, two of the towns mentioned
in the 1790 investigation, according to a letter written by Fr. Jos Sen in 1804
(Sean [1804] 1962,14).
16. Tinoqui may have been the chief of Kashtiq, because the largest num
bers among the warriors were from that town.
17. Although one might suspect that this "old chief"was Yanonali (Brown
1967,48), the evidence is far from clear. Yanonali's baptismal entry (MSB Bap.
1147) reveals that he would have been about 48 years old in 1785, perhaps
not old enough to be described as the "old chief" of Syuxtun. Another chief of
Syuxtun, named Panay, who apparently was never converted, was mentioned as
father of a child baptized in 1790 (J ohnson 1986,26). If Panay was older than
Yanonali, then he could have been the "old chief" mentioned as the father of
the chief of Shnaxalyiwi.
18. Duggan (2000) comes to a similar conclusion. She suspects that
11. Goicoechea's report in the Archivo General de la Nacin differs
from the California Archives summary in reporting that "they found Espinosa
naked, hung from an oak tree, his whole body riddled with arrows" (Goicoe
chea [1790a] 1978,5).
there may well have been a relationship betwecn the 1769 raids by mountain
Indians that led to the destruction of coastal towns, including Shalawa, and
later enmi ty between Shalawa and Shnaxalyiwi that led to the deaths of their
respective chiefs (Duggan 2000,34).
12. Tatsicoho is not shown on figure 4.1. Based on place-name informa
tion collected by J. P. Harrington, this ranchera appears to have been located

in the vicinity of Kashtiq (Harrington [1924] 1986; King 1975). Only one indi
vidual was ever listed from this ranchera in mission records.
13. The information provided here permi ts the identifica tion of these two
neophytes in the Mission San Buenaventura baptismal register. Francisco de
Ass Alisacu was baptized from Shuku at the age of 29 in 1784 (MBV Bap. Bk.
1:56), and Vital Castacu was baptized from Shisholop at the age of 40 in 1788
(MBV Bap. Bk. 1:359).
19. The San Buenaventura baptismal register for 1803 includes an-entry for
an infant bom to a mother from Muwu and a father from "Mastc" (MBV Bap. Bk
1:1721). "Mastc" is apparently a reference to "Castc" (Kashtiq) in the Muwu dialecto
20. MSB Bap. 4030.
21. MSB Bap. 3535. Jos Venadero Silinaxu'wit died at an advanced age.
His name last appears in the 1870 federal census, and he was noted as living in
Santa Barbaras Indian community at La Cieneguita. According to oral tradition,
he took one last trip into the mountains but never returned. When his tracks
were followed, they changed into those of a bear (Blackburn 1975,265).
14. Pespiguata (more often spelled pesPibata) was made from the dricd
11.2 John R.Johnso n
22. MSB Bap. 4052.
Ethnohistoric Descriptions of Chumash 'Varfare
113
L4685
en L4678
DOCUMENTING CONFLICT IN THE
PREHISTORIC PUEBLO SOUTHWEST
PolI)' Schaafsma
It has been said that the absence of warfare should be surprising, not
its presence (LeBlanc 1999, 150). Examination of various components
of the prehistoric record has led to agreement among archaeologists
that there is ample evidence to thwart the long-standing stereotype of
the "peaceful Pueblos" proposed by Ruth Benedict (1934). Evidence of
prehistoric violen ce has often been noted and described in the COurse of
archaeological studies in the American Southwest and its peripheries.
Early citations of indications ofhostilities, sporadic and largely descrip
tive, are summarized by]onathan Haas and Winifred Creamer (1997,
235-40). Tbes e authors also address the political nicety of portraying
the Pueblos as largely peaceful as late as the 1960s and 1970s.
Recently, recognition that conflict was a meaningful component of

Southwest prehistory has led to a concerted effort on the part of archae
ologists to address this subject, focusing on time, place, and the broader
cultural contexts and circumstances that led to and fostered hostilities
and generating explanations for such encounters (LeBlanc 1999). Social
conflict in the prehistoric Southwest was not engaged for purposes of
hegemonic expansion and political dominance, however (Riley 1989,
138-39). From all indications, although whole villages were sometimes
destroyed, hostilities too k the form of raids. Raiding of one Pueblo vil
lage upon another or by outside groups could have been provoked by
economic stress, revenge for social affronts, and, as a side bendit, the
acquisition of scalps. In turn, defensive measures were established for
protection. Tbe archaeological record contains evidence of all of these
possibilities and defensive responses.
In the past decade or so, there has been a noticeable growth in the
number of volumes dedicated to warfare research, induding, to name
but a few, Haas and Creamer 1993; LeBlanc 1999; Rice and LeBlanc
2001; Schaafsma 2000; and Turner and Turner 1999. Tbe numerous
artides addressing the subject indude Brooks 2002; Haas 1990; Haas
and Creamer 1997; Kuckelman, Lightfoot, and Martin 2002; and Wil
cox and Haas 1994.
Archaeological remains that indicate stress, hostilities, and con
flict, however, are often circumstantial-settlement patterns involving
population aggregation and settlement dustering, line-of-site commu
nication between sites, defensive site situations and architectural design,
and so forth. Tbere is also the less frequent but more explicit evidence,
such as burned room s or villages, unburied bodies, and osteological evi
dence of violent deaths, induding scalping (Allen, Merbs, and Birkby
1985). All of these pieces of information, both primary and secondary,
were recent1y examined in detail for the entire Southwest by Steven
LeBlanc (1999). In this chapter, 1 examine the evidence for prehistoric
Pueblo warfare, giving special focus to the information encoded in rock
art and kiva paintings.
Confiict in thc Prehistoric Pueblo Southwest
11 S

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L4678

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