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    Professor Steven L. Goldman is Andrew W Mellon Distinguished Profesor inthe Hurantes a Lehigh University, where he ae taught for over 25 years. He received hit Bachelor of Science ages in Physics at Poyechnie Universi of [New York and his M.A and PRD. in Philosophy from Boson Univerity. Profesor Goldman as received. Lehigh’sLindback Distinguished Teaching Award He has authored or edited eight books and many scholarly atl and reviews Guidebook Contents Part of Lecture 1: The Evolution of20°Century Scence Lecture 2: Redefining Reality Lecture 3: Quantum Theory Makes Its Appearance Lecture 4: The Heroic “Ole” Age of Quantum Theory Lecture 5: ANewer Theory—QED Lecture 6: QED Meets Fission and Fusion Lecture 7: Learing by Smashing Lecture 8: What Good Is QED? Lecture 9: The Newest Theory—Quantum Chromedynamics Lecture 10; Unifying Nature Lecure 11: Chemists Become Designers Lecture 12: Mathematies and Truth a5 Lafayette Center Dive, Suite 100 Chant, VA20181-1232 378-3819 es THE GREAT COURSES” Science in the Twentieth Century: A Social-Intellectual Survey Taught by: Professor Steven L. Goldman, Lehigh University Part 1 Pair TEACHING COMPANY Steven L. Goldman, Ph.D. Deparment of Pilosphy and History, Lehigh Universy ‘Steven Goldman has Jegres in pysics (B.S, Plyecnc Univesity of New ‘York and pilosphy (M.A, PhD. Besion University) abd since 1977 bas tem the Andrew W, Mellon Distinguished Profesor inthe Humans at thigh Univers. He bas joint appoint in the departments of pilosophy nd history hea his eaching and esarch focus onthe story, iosopy, fit soll relations of modem cence an ecology. roessor lan came {0 Lehigh fromthe philosophy departs atthe Sate College campus of Pensgvania State Univers, whee he was a co-founder of one of he st US. ‘scaemie programs in select tchwolgy and society (STS) suis. For 11 ‘years (1977-1988, be served sdetr of Lehigh SS program and was o-founde ofthe National Associaton of Science, Technology and Society ‘Stale, Professor Goldman has esived th Lindhack Disinguishod Teaching ‘Award frm Lehigh University and a Book-ofdhe-Vear Awad for a book he c= ‘uthred another book wa alist and translated 1 languages). He has ‘bem a nana etre fr Sigma Xi—the siete research socit}—and a national ogra tlt forthe National Endowment for he Humanities. He ts serv aboard member ora eteradvnory itr fora mune of rerio organizations and journals nd was a co-founder af Lehigh University Pres and ormany Sours, cover ofits Research in Technology Sais ses, Since the ery 1960, Professor Godman has studied the histaial development ‘ofthe concept famevorkof den science incelation tis Wester cla ‘ont racing its emergence from mfieval and Renaiwanceappcacs othe ‘dy of nate trough ts trinsfomation in the 20 cemury- He as pushed numerous scholarly arteles o his socla-historcal approach to medieval and Renaissance ate pilsepy and vo modern sien from the 17 othe 20 etre and ie lectured on hee sbject conferences ad universities ‘ors the United Slats, in Europe, and in Asia nto lt 1970s, the ress begin a similar soca histrcalswdy of technology and technological novation sine the Indusval Revolution. In the 1980s, he publish series of tle on amovtion as social even process acon the role played in hat proces ty the knowledge crated by scons and engineers. These aces ed to parpatin in cence and technology policy intativesof he federal foverment, which nfm, edt extensive esearch and numerous acl and hook publctions through the 109De on emersing synergies that wore transforming relations among knowledge, inovaio, an global commerce (0200 The Techng Compe Li Prep ' Table of Contents ‘Science in the Twentieth Century: A Social-Intellectual Survey Part! Profesor Biography Course Seope — Lecture One “The Evolution of 20"-Cemury Science ‘Matter and Energy Lecture Two Redefining Reality Lecture Theee (nt Theory Makes Is Appearance. Lecture Four “The Here “OW” Age of Quantum Theory Lecture Five ANewer Theon—QED., Lecture Six (QED Meois Fission and Pasion. Lecture Seven Learning by Smashing. Lecture Fight What Good Is QED! Lecture Nine “The Newest Theory—Quanum (Cvomodynamics : Lecture Ten Unitying Nature. Lecture Eleven ‘Chemists Become Designers Mathers Lecture Twelve Mathematics and Teath, ‘Timaine Glossary a a1 45 ° 2 59 Science in the Twentieth Century: ‘ASocialintellectual Survey Scope: In the couse of te 20" century. the practice of cence, professionally, inlay, and in relation to seit, nceased in scope, sale, and ‘compli fr beyond what had heen antiga atthe end ofthe 19 cenny Allo he siences became inexzebly entangled ith sca, pole and ‘sommeril frees and wales, Frm the perspective of oe a eas hs trated the distinction tween pu and applied science, between Knowledge and itt” which ha been pansiontlyespowsed hy many leading 19 ceatury sciatist. Ax sient erened increasingly power theores,people—ofien| ‘cients themselves-aplied those theorist develop tehnolopes whose xplottoncesed new wealth, new forms of power and contel ew ways of Tfe..and now dependencies om more science wera ne technologies! CConcutenty, the prostic of science became increasingly fonalize, insttonalize, and professonaied. This profssonaiaonrefeted and ‘nas even bath by the ise of large numberof people who made 3 ving as ‘iat, in comparison with he comparatively modes community of mos}y men scents inthe 19 century, and by the steadily increasing gnigaceof cence o society fom the last third ofthe 19 centr through the 20 century. Two hundred aod fifty yeas ler the ponsoing Work of Descartes, Fatcis Bacon, sd Gail, science soddealymatered—Pot jus 10 ‘elles, bt io everyone sin profoundly existential ways oy Ines, 00, the discoveries and thoes of 20 century physi ie soil sient enced anything tha ad been acid, even bythe rates of 19 cena cients As 1900 approached, leading physicists ‘aimed th, apart fom the deals, the task sence was nearing completion: however, by the end ofthe 20 centr, ffetvely every 19" century tes of ‘arta sci phenomena would he overthrown or persed ‘Te fit etre inthis course establishes its objective: tg wace an nelle story ofthe physical if, and social ceacs inthe 20" cemary. organized ‘round an evolving siete understanding of mater and energy, the universe, Earth fe and human, ubsuming nde the last category thes of clue, soci, and mind Complementing ths survey of century of sence from the “inside” in ems of ‘its eas and dscovere, wll bean account of the volition of 20" century Science frm the “outside,” thit i ofits evolving relationship with seit. His this reciprocal relationship between scence and society tht makes an ‘ndrstanding of the sciences ea whol inthe 20" entry portant and not "Spy ae hstory, because since spice in all of our 21-cetury ropes the treats Tess han the promises, Lectures Two though Bleven describe ou evolving underanding of mater a ‘chery the foundations ofthe pial and fe sceaces. We beg wth the Special and general theories of rai and how te) redefined what we mean ‘by spe, ie, mater, energy, and moto: i shot, what he famework of realy sor the physica scenes. ‘Given that quanta theory is the most important and inllecally evolutionary Seictii theory of the 20” century ight actures are deve 1 i. Lectures “Tyce and Four trace the earl history of the theory, rom the tentative {redaction ofthe quantum bypthesis in 190010 the formulation of quantum ‘mechanic in 1925 apis radial Copenhagen interpretation in 1929. Our goal is ‘qualitative apreciaton ofthe innovative ess undcrljng he theory an ofthe bizare microworid underlying crinary experience tht it reveled Lectures Five though Eight describe the creation and application ofthe second tage of {quatum heoy's development, quantum electrodyeamic (QED), fom 1923 10 1968 Lectres Nive an Ton deserbe the ranston fom QED to gua ‘homodjnamics (QCD) andthe unification ofall own fundamental forces of Lecture Eleven ones the discussion of mate and enor by highlighting ‘major evel in he eoltion of chemist, mphasizing the Unsfornation ‘eowght by ts assinilon of quantum theory and is growing power o create molecules by design, “The obscurity ofthe theories of 20%-century physical cence fom the perspective of the now-cintst publics overwhelmingly a consequence ofthe Forbding mathematics thts become the lnguge of cence. Lectres “Twelve and Thincendincuss controversies in the fs ll f the 20 conta ‘over the reliionhip between mathematic and tu, and between mshenais and realy aswell asthe astonishing frit of abstact mbes For the ‘ions, ven ifthe source of tha frit st understd ‘What we mean bythe universe as changed, from 1900 to 2000, far mare amatclly than anything ele inthe history of scene, moe even tan the ‘ange wrought by Copernicus. Today, the universe unimapnably more vast than twas thought tobe in 190, ad the stories of origin constution, abd fate, discussed in Lectures Fourteen through Sintec are beyond scence ition! Lectures Seventeen though Nineten focus on ou knowledge of plane Earth, especialy the st fom a geology of sac comincas wo pate tectonic heey ‘We als discss he growing recognition of the Ear asa complex system, integrating a dynamic evolving, phsial Earth with biosphere, ceans, mosphere an external ad internal magnetic els, te whole itractng wit the solar sjtem in general andthe Su ia particular Lectres Twenty and Twenty-One adres the “outside” of sino, expecially thereof echo science (sence based technoogy) ad is connections 0 soverament indus and sce. a ‘©2004 Te Teaching Comp Lint Pane Lectures Twenty-Two through Tweny-Six address our understanding of ie, treatin the story of evolutionary bioogy human evolution, genetics, Imclecaar ioogy and science-based medicine Lectures Twenty Seven though Thiny-Fourfcus on our knowledge of humanity. This group inclades the lectaes onthe evolaton of antropoogial theories of human clare, the ld nd theoretical wosk of archaeologists, important development in ingustc theory, and changing conception of history asa science, Tre lectres deserts theories of sci, he slat, and ‘zeroes, thors tht have ad profound inplicatons for nana and global Political agendas and actions inthe cour of he 20" contury. Two lectures ‘serie changing thers of the ran ind, our mest ntima temp at elf ndesianding rom he enoreusy inuntl tears ofthe unconscious by Freud and Jung early inte century. hough the equally invent beara ‘spclogy that dominated the miscenary tthe cognive psychology that ame tothe fre inthe le centr. especialy cognitive neuroscience lied to tical imeligenc esearch Lectures Thiny-Five and Thicy-Si evew the major concepts of "entry ‘Scien and discus thir broader cultural and intellectual sgnifeance, survey {he leading edges ofthe sciences tthe lose of the 20" cena, and look ahead to the continuing evoltion of sere inthe 21" coauy Lecture One The Evolution of 20"-Century Science Scopes Twentieth sentry since ian eolutionary outgrowth of 1" century science inteletialy, tr ofthe tars setts created and the ew ideas undetying them nis organization and cont a 8 professional rate; and in is eaionshp 1 seit. As powerful and Innovative 19 -enury siene wa by comparisoe wth I7™ and Te century scence, dwarfed by the sae, scope, al power of 20-entry seience. Out pal sounded appreciation of What cence came inthe course of the 20” century: a ural fre in vr of ts realiy-dfiningworkdviw and force diving social change throught relation o indus and goverment Footy [?*ceatry bit, modeen ciepce has ad wo muta inflsenil “sider” an “inside,” intllacual dimension, and an “ouside” social relationship dimension. The inside, the outside, and the relish berween them al changed characte: in th course ofthe 20" entry. Or exploration of he inside of science wil be oganized ‘rod the wvlving 20 conury understanding of Mater abd Ener. the Universe, Fath, Life, and Humanity. The outside will be organized round heaton of sieve to socey-tansorming echnoogial innovation, to goverment, and opubicinstttons and vale ‘As 20? cemury physica ie and social science are bil on 19 ‘cen scien, ening development in [-cetuyscieac hat played key oles in 20" comury scence is recon for “ppreciating the inovaiveness of 20"-centrysiece. A preview of the major theories andthe core ideas hat eu across he sche Remeber hat the special theory of laity tates that mo signal can travel aster than the sped fight i vaca, but quanti ‘hear seems tallow some kindof physical infuence to propagate ‘instantaneously. 2 imagine tht we measure the poston af an lecron at ine 0. ‘Then, we we quantum heory to caleulte the probate forthe postion ofthe elacran a shert period of tine lat. ‘3. According to our resus thre sa non-zero probability tht he ‘lecrn sea uptr, but scoring othe speci hey of Feat the electron cannot be nat Jupiter because icant travel aster han he speed of ight 44 Whether these probailiy functions canbe physically iterpreed has bee conuoversal since the mid 1920, D. In 1935, Ensen coauthored a paper asenting tha, accoding 10 ‘quanta theo sittin eu eit in which one patil could Teuence aothee parle inststanousy Eesinblieved that this ‘uation was absurd and, therefore, quantum theory was incomplete 1. Inthe ary 1950s, the Ish pysiist Joh Bell reduced Einstein's thought experimen to an inequality equation. Thy years ater French physics, Alain Aspect, teased Bell's inegality ino 8 Tab experiment and proved tht quantum thor seam: An 200 Te Thing Com Line Pateip {nfuenc on one of vo particles rete atthe same tie can have siastanancousinpact nthe second patil 2 Inthe year 2002, «tam of physicists atthe University of Vienna demonstrated a device base on this experinent iat tasmied a ‘quintun-encryped signal across the River Danube TI, We now tum fom the pilosphisl to moran practical applications of cD. [Ac Ascarly as 1927, a number ofthe physicists who created quantum | ‘mestancs been applying ito he bear feletros in metals a 1929, Felix Bloch, tent of Heseberys discovered tha in smaeil with alate structure, te energy states ofthe eleeons were rot the disrte states asocated with orbital electons, bua discete ‘et of continuous “bands” of energies. 1 In 1931, Alan Wilson, Bish physicist tying wih Bloch and Heiseaterg pid Bloch’ band theory to semicondsors, haratrcing them asltors wih bed gap that italy ‘exc electrons could cross, Others ound th semiconductors ‘ame into ypes—clledp-fype and ype—and that od things Ihpened to current at ther onetion wi one aot 2 In Decomber of 1947, William Shockey, Waller Brat, John ‘Barden extending Wilkn'ssemicondctr theory. cen the frst primitive ranssor using a germanium ers In 1948, the Iimpeoved device, aking silicon, would revoluoniz eleewenies and enable the computer ae. ‘Bn 1917 and 1918, Eiostcn and Bohr esublished the randomness ofthe ‘emission and abserption flight quanta by individual eri electrons. 1 Tn 1980, experiments showed that as posse to “pu” lecyons incetinsusances "toa unstable hiphenergy fit around heir nucle afer which they spontancous}y "ela at nce tthe same lower level, inthe process emiting photons of ‘exacl the same equeney bocase each had he same ene Such single-frequency bean of photons scaled coherent. 2 In 1951, Columbia University professor Charles Townes pat al these ideas togeter wih i wm ies of enclosing the nabance howd, ammonia gas, ina resonant cay His ivention scoesflly generated coferent beams of high-frequency Inerowave raion, but ao, tans othe resonant avy, amplified them. Townes ale he device a maser shot Tor “mrowave amplification by the simulated emission of 11958, Townes and Bell Labs physics Arthur Schawlow published a died analysis of "optical maser," shoty fer ‘abba ers, bit was 4 Hughes Research Labs physicist, “Theedove Maman, who bul the fst ar, asing maby crystals in 1960 0200 Ts Thing Campy Line ace s (C._Anothe application of QED is spercondutiviy, be complete “isppenance of elcricl resistance condor a extremely ow temperatures, ypically between 4am 8 degrees Kelvin 1 Explaining supercondetviy tuned ou to be more difficult than expected, bat in 191, building om earlier eas, John Baneen, ‘ohm Serer, and Loon Cooper developed quantum theory of tr Jow-temperture (low 30 desressK)sopecondstiviy that sched the expeimesal data aod made predictions thal were contd Medial military, and research applications flowed, among them ‘he superconducting maghets at FermLah and CERN tat dramatically increased uecleror beam energies, We will lok tthe applications of QED in chemistry in another lecture, but hore we should note he quantum mechanics based theory of ‘hemieal bonds worked out by Linas Paling, which in principle. allows ‘Senn aleulte cena eations in asance of ter acrence Essential Reading: ‘Amit Aeze, Entanglement: The Greatest Miatery x Physics Sohn Gibbin, Schr odingers Kittens andthe Sear or Reali “Abram Pi, Sub the Lords The Science andthe Lif of Albert Einstein Questions to Consider: 1. Doo the value of scientific theory that improves our derstanding increas beau it as practical applications? Was Einstein simply stubborn refusing to acop the probly erection of quantum mechanics, or wat he usd by the importance ofthe worl view he was defending? ‘3. What mustreality be like ifthe univers is internally connected inthe ways suguested by Alin spec's photon entanglement experiments? Lecture Nine ‘The Newest Theory—Quantum Chromodynamics Scope: By the 1960s, the numberof slemenary” subatomic paris created by evermore power atte acsertors sin the hundreds and the ee fra unig theory was presing. Concent, new eypernents Suggested the ned to extend QED wo expiin new phenomena, The result nasa quantum theory ef mat ad eneray. ard quantum ‘ehromadynanies (QCD), which edsced al material prices o one of twa clear types and dropped protons and neutrons fom the ranks of elementary pales. Elecons survive as elementary particles, now {as members of family of x pals called lepton, thre caeying ‘whole negative electric charges ach wit its OM pe of neti. Protons, neurons, andthe host fence “elementary” particles are members of fail elle hadrons andar composct of varius ombinaons of six ul elementary pales called quark an at ‘quar, bound by masses particles called guns. The soy of QCD Isfascintng even by the standards of quantum theory! Outline LInshe late 190s, Schwing, Feynman, and Tomonaga, working independently, had put QED on 2 ach emer materia foundation, accounting for the init found in mathematal allan ofthe theery {trough evormalicaton, ‘A. 1953, Abram Pais and Murray Gell: Man reviewed the sate of sunt theory and reached the conclusion that our foes see to [eo esponible forall lyse] phenomena athe mos undamatllevel of mtr: the gravitational force: the electromagnetic fore the weak force associned wih muclear processes, such athe decay’ o the neutron into a proto, elecon, and neuio; and he song ores that eld the suceus together, Untying these Frcs with one ery bec ate «goa for physics nthe ae 1980s B._Atthis pon, physics had ethery ofthe electromagnet ore, amy, ‘QED. as well asa ptchedtogcter theory ofthe wok fore, covered by Fea’ thsory ofa decay. Te gravitational ose wa ot ‘osidred athe toi eel, but il, physics did not have a theory to "plain the strong foes Inthe ate 19805 and early 1960s, cause ofthe explosive growth inthe power of parle acseatr, the numer of “elementary” paris had reached more than 200, which seemed silos to pics |A. Muay Got Mannan independently, Laci physisit Yuval Nema ovsed an elegant system for orgnirng these particles ino ciht families, Gell-Mann called this stern the Eightfold Way, ar the Bude doctrine of vin, 'B, GellAann and Ne'emanprodited th exitence and proertis ofa ate ha had ot yet ben detected ths particle woud be the st Ime of one of thi 10-member patil ais, CA short ine liter, the parle was fund in the Cosmouonascelerator ‘Brookhaven Nation Laboratory, Gell Ma named he paricle ‘omega, afer the biblical reference lo God s st ad last In Grek, ‘ipa a omesa. II, Detwcen 1962 and 1964, Gell Mann at Cachan, independently, Gorge 2s at CERN, proposed anew theory ofthe strong fore in which rotons and neutrons are no element piles A. From he 1930, physicist already kw tha the netomat estan ‘usable patil, because dsimegrates ouside th nucleus Inthe 196s, pace aecelertors, especialy the ia acceler t Sanford University (SLAC), were “smashing” lesions ino protons, and he rons were also dsntepraing! The Gell MannZveig proposal was that mater is composed of wo lypesof parle: Iepton, the Family of particles to which electrons nd neuins Delong (which espond oly othe electromagnetic ‘nd weak fore, and hadrons wich the fay ha incos ‘everything le. All adrons ave made of combinations of gua (Quarks seed together by gluons. which there ar eight 2 In 1964, the mathematician Oscar Greenberg realized that gluons Id wo be categorized into one of Uwe dileen color charges. Thal, Ge-Mann proposed tre quarks, named up, down, and strange 1. The up and down quarks, gether wth econ, lly account for the behavior of ordinary materi ordinary pyscal and chemical, Interctions 2. When he energy levels get high enough, however. such asin stars, black hoes, cose ay collisions, and athe bh he uve, thon sarge quarks come into pay. (C. The apparent whimsicaity ofthe names inthis mew theory, quanto hromadynamics (QCD), is deliberate tempt avoid problem hat plagued “old” quastum theory and QED Applying classical physics ‘ares oquanum-eel descriptions unconscious ed o thinking las and inappropriately abou quantun-feel phenome lascally- Whimsieal names force aecogition tht he quantum level fof reality is beyond our experiene 1. Quarks are penta paris. ‘AL Quarks have mss, spin and factional charge: Quarks and an-quats, tunhike mater and entimater, combine consrvtvely, net derive ‘Quirks se alio much sale sad muck lighter tha proons and neurons. Where, he, does heir mass come from? 11 Quarks move so rap that elatvity comes into pay and partes made of quarks—protons, er example—seem 0 have ‘ore mas than they actually do. 2 Wemustuncouple, in ou minds, the conceps of mass and soli B, In 1973, Burin Richer at SLAC an Sane Tings Brookhaven independently discovered fourth quark, named charm. Ip 1977, Leon LEederman at Fermila discovered uit, named boom, QCD regis that thre wore ive quarks thn there mast be ith, which would be called op. Te took 18 years and major upgrades tothe particle accelerators at Fermi ah nd CERN to discover the tp ark By 1985, he sccelertor at Ferma had reached 18 Te, 1. Toe tcamatFermiLab ha to examine 16 milion collision events to entfy hand top esorances Although the rests were ‘naounced in 1995, the due had been collected two yeas eat. 2 itis woth atig atthe FermiLab tam involved ia his discovery ‘consisted of 40 physicists, mathematicians, computer sient, tnd engneers fom 35 institons in dren couse The announcenent othe top quark in 1995 completed QCD. From 196, wen this theory of the strong ere was ist propose to the nd ofthe 20" cenury he theory has resisted al challenges tht have been mounted against it 1. This sat sy that QCD is without problems. For example, he quexion of whether mothe nena hs mass provoked ‘ome conroveny, aod QCD hasbeen unable explain he fet ‘hat is particle does, indced, have some ass. 22. Neverthces, by the end of the 20” century, QCD cou be wed as plavorm on which oatempt unification. As we wile in our ‘ex lecture, hs atten had actully gu inthe 1960s, in rll wih the development of QCD. Essential Reading: Murray Geta, The Quark andthe Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex. ‘Andrew Pickering, Consructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Parle Physi ‘Martin Res, Jt Si Number: The Deep Fores That Shape the Universe ‘©2004 The Teaching Company Linited Pannerhip » ‘Supplementary Reading: Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations: A History of Physi the Twente Century. ‘Questions to Consider: 1 2 * ‘Who decides how many pals canbe “elementary” and on What rounds? ‘What lessons ae thet inthe whimsical ames wed in QCD for how ov thinking can mislead us when reasoning bout new situatons? ‘We've seen how mathematics can reveal pew aspects of piysical reality, but how can simple casificaton schemes, ike the Gell ManyNe ean Elghfold Way (or Mendes pein able), have predictive power? ‘€2004 The Teaching Company Lied Putweship Scope: Between 1964 and 200, dee ofthe four fundamental ntl Frees ‘dented by Pais and Gell-Mann as implicit in QED were succesfully United in what scaled the standard model of quantum coy, which links physics today othe physics ofthe ealy uivese. The fourth fore, gravity has essed ntepraton int single heretical framework withthe ober tne. Physicist ar pursing the unification ofthe general theory of relativity andthe Standard Model into a ‘ana theory of gravity Inthe proces, models f nature have been Eeneratod tht sem too fail even fr siece fiction but ar igh Proveate inllectaally: for example, uggeting tha oe conception Bf the universe day may hoa narow as Copernicus was ini time forthe the emir vast onivere derives from a “pockefl” of negative ‘acu energy st ian information eta! Outline ‘This etre explores the atiemps inthe ast decades ofthe 20" centr 0 nly the tears explaining the four fudanenal forces of a [As The goal ofthese temps isto unify the forces ina way thats physically real Physi ae tying to rae these For forces back 0 & Single “moter fre" in the universe thst underwent a sees of collapses, resulting in the tong weak, electromagnetic, amd ‘rviadonal orcs. 1B. Ananalogy canbe made with seam, which a gas operates under a ‘certain eof laws. As the steam cook, it bacomes water, which ‘operates under a dfereat se of laws the water cools fer, may feeze and become ie, operating unde a third set of laws. C Unificaon thew are looking fr a single riginal force in tbe universe that as undergone similar phase ransions to become the four frces that we kn ty. 1. Atsome pont its poste thatthe universe had a cena igh nergy level operating under the laws ofa single fre. Thea athe ‘niverse cooled it went through a series of phase transitions and the frees that we know tadsy “oe ut.” 22 Forexample gravity separated at approximately 10" seconds iter the Big tan, bat the other forces were sil sabsomed under the single force. a the 1980s, Schwinger, Pakistani physicist Abdus Salam, and British physics John Ward red unify the weak and electromag orcs. [AL QED tne tery ofthe electromagnetic ocean the weak Force re -atralalies Dees they ae both ssecited wih electrons This ist ‘mgt at unison, however, as pemate and id nat succeed 1 In 1961, Harvard physicist Sheldon Glashow reise he work of Schwinger, Salam, and Ward and cretively reformulated ito predit the existence ofa cri of the weak force. 1, As we've dicused, in guantum theory, ever force most have ‘ater. The photon, fo example, isthe eater ofthe ‘lestromagnetie ores. The gluon i the eater ofthe force that holds adn together, The grviton the projected aro ofthe ravitatonal for 2. Aste carer of the weak fers, lasiow proposed amily of thc particles led intermediate vector Bons (VB). One ‘would hive postive charge, one would havea negative charge, nde would be eletically neural: al thre would have mas. C Overte next 10 years this wiication approach was developed futher by Gasiow andthe American Steven Weisberg by Salam, by the [ish physic Peter Higgs, and by the Dutch phys Grads ‘Hoot Glashow, Salam, and Weibery wed hee concep in Partialr forte formulation ofthe electroweak theory, for which they shared a Nobel Prize 1. The ist ofthese is a mathematical requirement fsa, or as itis called gage, nariance,itoduced in 1918 by Herman Wey! in {f nstceseu tempt tour the general thoory of relatvy and ‘lassi elecrodymumics. Asal, when th cae changes ia an ‘uation, the laws of pis do nt change. Unification theres “a required by physio be sale invariant. 2 Thesecond ecique used by Glishow, Salam, and Weinhers was «419% contuy abstract mabermatial invention calles growp theory. Unifiestine theorists invent groupe with maori peoperis ‘ha eal! he pia! lationship dat woul save their problems hen look atthe empical daa tose they ‘3. The hed concep used by unification theorist i spontaneous symmetry breaking ‘2 Atismont fundamental eel, nature is assumed to be simple Se symmetrical. Asymmetric rive Because something has Astrea the underlings. In 1961, the apanese physicist Yoichi Nambu postulated spootncous symmetry braking nan temo develop a new theory of spereondacivi. Weinberg snd Salam incerporate his dea into lecto-weak unification. I tis view, photons and 1VBs become te async "bis of the collapse ofan eater force (©2006 The Teaching Company LiniedPanmcip ‘What ists earlier fre, tf which photon and IVBs are though to hve come into a separate exseace? This earlier energy still the Higs field and is ear is the Higgs boson, AL. The Higgs field and ts eae, if ea, ate pivotal tothe uiiation ofthe fandamenal forces of ae 2 The traction of halons Wi to lepton mas. Massif may be an nergy ination With he Higgs ie ‘3. Whea the CERN particle accelerate mums to operation a 2006, it should hve enough energy (7 Te) to id the Higgs boson IL The wifcation ofthe eleto-weak theory and QCD inthe 1980s came tobe called the standard mode of watever. [As Tis famework ete reaization of Max Planck's terative hypothesis, formula in December 1900 that the absorption aod emission of| lecromagaei adiatin is discrete, nt comin, B, By he end ofthe century the idea that nara processes are discrete his lowered into a comprehensive theory of mitral energy that allows uo give sttying theertcal account ofthe universe, beginning minuefacons of Second afer the Big Bang. “The most excing prospect for many physics isthe possibly of exending the stand mod, which nites QUD and eesro-wesk theory, {oa quantum thacy of grav, [Ac This would be theory tit units al four known fores of tre, citer by asiiatng the general theory of ela it he standard ‘modelo by replacing the genera hry of lav witha beter ‘theory af grat). These empl at wication re ealed supersymmetry theories B._Sicha unification would identi the criginal symmetric sae of he ‘universe tar pontanousy"roke," perhaps only 10 seconds ae ‘he Big Bang, tt the gravitational ove field andthe nied force Field underline stand me, then broke agin nd agai o Foe the wea, song ad elctomagets forces tat determine all “ordinary” phepomena i th universe te. Inthe 19805-1990 «wo supersymmetry theories aos: ring theory td lap theory 1 Tistempting to wonder if hese two “ial” aprcaces wl arn out bemattenatically equivalent, a wth Wave and mati ‘mechanic, 2 inboth of these theories, the uitimate physical reality is structure, bul of ether minute multidimensional loops or utidinesioal strings In both tories, in he instant afi he Big Bang, he {©2004 Te Teaching Company Lined Patnesip o universe had 10 dimensions, but hese clase to 3 dimension the universe cooled Another group of thors has defined a thin sperm apecsch, “The dstntivecontbtin ofthis approach ith denteation of te realy boiod gravity andthe standard model wih process and felatonsip, nota "thing with properties 1. These theorist raw nspation om the week of Stephen Hahing and Jakob Bekensein on he pte of black holes 2. Bekenstcn, especialy, forced a recognition hat lak oles had ‘comple properties that were propery denied wih the concept of enropy defined a a measre of nfematon Thais hind oop of thors interpret to universe as an infomation ‘El we acknowledged that energy i “eal” and that tbe ‘universe may “he” energy-Cou infermation be "el nthe same ‘rns? Could the univers Ye formation? Is posible tha our ‘nivere a cosmic Burm Shave sgn in some far greater scheme of things? Escatal Readings Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe: Sapersring, Hidden Dimensions, and the (Quest forthe Ultimate Theor Stephen Hovking A Bri History of Tine. Lee Smlin, Thre Roads to Quantum Gravity. Supplementary Reading: {ee Sinan, The Life ofthe Comes, Questions i Consider: 4. How wil ur thinking about physical ely hve wo chang if as expected, the Higas bosons dteted at CERN apd mass the most fundamental fest of ordinary experience, i explsinel sway a affect of th His field? ‘Whats eft or physicists to explain if they sucee in formulating a uantar hory of gravity, th unifying the four frces of mature? Are physicists going oo far in postulating ht theultimate stucreof the bonne hence al pial reat, i information, that's othing at all? “ (©2104 Te Teaching Company Linked Puen Lecture Eleven Chemists Become Designers ‘Scope: Inthe course ofthe 208 century chemistry hs evalved ito a more theory-bused scence, especialy mathematics and quam theory bsed and a science exemplary of eross-discilinay feilizaton. The velo of chemical bonding teas fom 1900 0 2000 Includes the triumph ofthe atomic door of mate eary in the ear, the ‘ssilation of quantum theory by cei in the id century, an with ces to ate-207-cetury supercomputers, a growing bility to predict the properties of molecules before ey ae produced and o predic 0 order a range of sew kids of “rica” wleeles with propertien Specified in vance. The implications ofthis eapabiy ae round for genetic engincring, pharmaceutical, nd the nascent, antechrology ida swells fr Un manioltion of mater ‘generaly nal forms of manufacturing inluing the continued ‘iatunzation of senor computer component Outline [Lads ecture, we tke a shoe sep away for quantum physics explore the science of chemist. [AL The essence of chemistry the study ofthe way that atoms form smleculs ante nay thst molecules interact with one anor. nu, Semical reactions are deterinod bythe behave of eta eletoas ‘the outemont level of the to, Quantum theory is matrally applic to chemistry, them, sensei Cigna i alleges to ural the behavior f orbital esr. (Cnc inthe 1980s, Lins Pasling developed qusniam mechanics hased theory ofthe chemical bond which ecams damian after his 100 xt 1. In this heory, Paling deserted two kinds of bonds “weak” 0 ‘onic bond, n whch an electron is tafe frm oe to © nother, and "ston" o covalent bonds, in which nee is ‘hared between two sons, 22 Using quantum theory, Pauling described he conditions in which ‘lestrns form ionic and covalent bonds, depending om the energies ff the osermost rit electro La’ hopin by looking at some highligh of chemistry over the cous of the 20 cent. |AL Unlike psc, chemistry in 1900 had very tle mathematical theory sociated with ‘ea the Teaching Company Line Panne “ 1. Chemis ed hermano acca or egy fr in ‘mca raion, Chen a so none har shea ‘Eaton hve rine gate carer These plsioas ‘imac fowever were eave most eplanaon of meal rote sch econ wee orl nd deste 4. chest col dos ot lw hiro it asf rote comme alta ered tic 1906 ‘Rnca ener om chen sd on oy srr ‘enema rac hemry mae rel ieee ie 1Pby 1m, shoma al reso the aie ys, parma {roles and cule bod yt ae 2, Soma, Ft sor gh amo om {oer mon res he afl eer sty a ‘mins he oe format altri mance Srna 44. Bult ws sythesd ia 1907 by Clana Universi hemi pein pest Leo acl and hepsi a born aun inh mates “heconmeral poi ft hr Dg in 1910.10 TB55, men wa develope hy «Dont rematch chi a a thesis tn he nt tt rascal sa ngs see invented the Goin emt Card Doma Tis {Evcapmo ple sian rinsing Wve maine Stayton foncoptic nod lope Reape ‘Alun Tit of hemp fis on 20 ety an {scm bor ote con theorems en fea Nw thy change on 1000200 rhe, we parry so {he inp of ecopment and ses fo phys 1 Ome mnor dove nyse hat war appa hey tars echgue of ry eotllogay. pops 1 ty Maxson tae Xray era nthe 2 ee tol for denying te alr rere of acs ‘Sultry I 1088 Xa stylet das eel thomolclr sco DNA 2. Resco npran tol develope in phys ba sn hemisty wth maw speometer, bch bs ome ies toto ycoren, Ths doe cee chavo mare Incl nites th napster a invent prove eer tere 2. Tepe he nt rr chen eed in he Tho war orga hr cig allows heist ida content lcd pope cones ects ‘The most excing development may be spectroscopic instants that allow chemist "xe" chemical ection at the atomic evel ‘nel ime. Until the 1960, chemists eal observe restos on me sales of cons ona few cass, milseconds lathe 19605, using ass it became possible to observe rections on the ‘nanosecond level Inthe 198Ds femtosecond pecroscopy was Inroduce, hich allows chemists to watch reactions on a ine scale of 10" seconds Dz Chemists cared many of these ecigues into biology and in tbe ‘oun of the 20" century, bolgy became increasingly centered on biochemistry. At he same time, biology also asinlted the tos and ideas of pyc that had come tobe pat of chemin 1 In 1900, oe ofthe theories that dominated biological thinking was cellid theory, which asserted that organic molecules were ‘eatvely shor but could be inked ino weak sins In 1920, Hermana Staulige propose aval theory of very long ght ‘macromolecules: Hermann Mark aie determined that Stanger ‘ts cont about the exience of macrombleeules bu misiaken| shout ei ig. 2 Thecontoversy tha Standingr sparked was solved by the ura entifage,an instrument invented by Theo Sdn he ne 1920. The isrumeat shoved tht hemplobi, he Hist eleule examined, conained 6,000 atons. 3. Thisscovery was pivot the gromh of polymer chemistry and our understanding of protins IL llabese changes were supported by another fai of instruments, ‘eeinning in 1991 with the faveton ofthe electon microscope A, The lecuon microscope was improved betwees 1931 and 1960 and renuully achieved high esclutions bt only in wo dimension, Farr, the eleston microscope could nt image bolgical materials. 1 1981, the scaningtunoing microscope (STM) was invented, which took advantage of quantum theory. In 1986 and 1987, free “development of the STM lt the alomic force microscope, whichis ‘capable of imaging a single atom in hee dimensions and can mage biological maria (C._Asweclose we return to quantum theory. Computes ve now become powerfl enough tat hey ean salve the complex quatun ‘mechanical equations asciated with mole stomeshring electron bonds in complex thee-ieasional configurations. 1 By the end ofthe 20 cen, supercomputers were able to mde meiningfl chemical reactions thus, quantum chemistry Became @ ‘Mblsipline that allows calculation of properics of molecules, before te molecules are atl eee, 2 The implications ofthis sbiliy create designer molecales for pharmaceuticals and other ares of scence and inst ate tremendous Essential Reading: Piilp Bal, Designing the Molecular Word ‘Trevor Levere, Transforming Mater: History af Chemis from Alchemy 10 ‘he Bucksball. Sapplementary Reading “Mary Jo ye, Before Big Science: The Pursuit of Modem Chemistry and Physis, 1800-1040 Questions Consider: 1. Why was chemist, ue physics, ale o develop into amature science wilh ery hte se of abstract thomas? 2 Conserng dha chemists st cll atenton tothe prcie spatial ‘rptnizaton of toms sea caseof molecular properties, why was there so sch opposition by chemists to precise srucure when applied ‘macromolecules, suchas pesos and pyners? ‘3. Wasit scenic for chemist believe in the reality ofthe atom for 10 eas befor the scanning tomeling and smi ore microscopes made ‘Moms Vsti? Do we actually "see aos in these ostumens? Lecture Twelve ‘Mathematics and Truth Scope: The general theory of relay and quam theory played ental rks inthe evoltion of our conception ofthe universe etwocn the early 19205 and 2000. But before deserbing that evolution, is worth king some ime to appreciate a charatrnc of 20-cemury scence hat has boom an obstacle o public appreciation of ithe forbidding ‘mathematical language of theois. The publicity surounding the “coaimzation” ofthe general theory of relativity made ch the incompreensibiity, evento no specialist scams, of this ev theory because of is highly abstract mathematics. This was ceil wus of| ‘he rapily developing quantum theory, and son, complex forms of ruthematics were eseaal tthe pacice of coms, biology, psychology sociology, economics, and even linguistics. Why? What ‘ses malonties ds power? How can mathemati bsractios tell ‘anything aout concrete experince? As we have Seen, seins repeatedly deduce new experiences fom mathematical model, which ‘Suggest that aly, some sense, mathematical, Outline 1 Thisisthe first of wo lets onthe oe of mathematics inthe seieces, [AL One ofthe characterises of cence in th 20° century i that became increasingly matbemaial |B. Mahemats sn sease, responsible fora disturbing development in Ihe seienes The practice of scence was taditonally open and democratic but bythe late 180, physical cence had taken on dhe ‘racers of an eoric eal, because of mathematics (CTs loti structured aound two ides: matrices the language of science and mathematics sche Tanguage of right reasoning, We begin with mathematos the Language of scence. A Galiko said hr natures, fundamentally, mathematica, so hat when you use mathemati in Sience, you are speaking the language of tue. For this reason, mathematical heres in slence are ue they nein some sense, an nage ofthe underlying suc of reali 1B. Even he 17 century, there was considerable controversy over what role mathematic shoul pl inthe sieces. Descartes argued only forthe we of mathematics the cre of atl seiece, Francs Bacon, in conas, was suspicius of maematis. C._This controversy was solved favor of mathematics wih the work of Nevston and Leibniz. I the 19 cetury this issue was revived inthe ‘€2004 The TscingComaryLimied Pannen » ‘esto: Whit is the conection between mathematical mades and reality? Some physicist rgbed thal the fc tht mathematics sakes Aceurate pedo about nature means that the two are connected. We have sen several examples ofthis in he Wty of quanur theory. IML Matematics also has long history of association with the notion of ht w. reasoning. The discovery of mon Blidean geometries inthe mid-19® ‘entry severed the necessary connection Reten dedctve reasoning and ‘eal. Again, sientts wee faced with he question: What isthe ‘onnestionBetwecn mathemati ath and pial reality? “This question became el fr sient atthe end of he 19 century, bit ko hocane an se formers, Wht he Basis of mathematica ‘eu? [A Inthe wake of non Busidean geometry, set theory, symbolic ope and ‘er 19? centry developments, mathematicians exprinced aris of| ‘onfidene, Three schools of thot emerged 1 adress the ‘questioning of materi: logit, formaion, dition, B._Attho end of th 19° century, Gotoh Frege embarked ons projet to ‘educe arithmetic age 1. Frege apued that rt and geometry were the “elementary” tranche of mathematics from wich all ters derived, and be temp to reduce arithmetic toast of purely logical Ines ‘nd deiiions 22. Frege's reduction of arithmetic to opie was reese by Berand issll 9 contain aw Ta undermined Frege's entre project, snd Frege abandoned it ‘3. Russel together wih Alfed North Whitehead, hen stlemped an ‘een bade eduction fa of mathematics o lope. This effort, in ‘pie of improvement made by ther inthe 19205, i noe onvincing 4. Thus te stempt orodue materi loi als, Mathematics {site own bench of owed Davi Hier’ formas interpretation of mathemati made ‘thera ito # kind of loge gue, one in which mathematicians frst invented sch cm a number pot, ine, triangle faction, and soon, then explored the logical consequences ofthese ers ‘aries cobiatons aconting to specified as, or example {alton and muipicaton, wth hee rls also ely invented. AL Forliber, mathematics has no nesessary connection al 0 nyhing outside elf anno meaning tie f isl. Ian prc fact that some thematic exessions in tee ogical ‘Srctre emulate natural proceses and hat sient choos ‘soci thee expressions with Tava” of at, Essential Read 2. Ata mathematics conference in Pais in 190, Hilbert challenged. the word's mathematicians o slve a collection of 73 peblems that he considered of erica importance. Two ofthese ae of ‘tcl intrest ows: 1 show tha mathematics consent Sd complete and bt show hat mathematics includes an ‘fictive desision pccedue for solving any problem A Inthe 1930s, profs that nether ofthese canbe shown to be rae ‘were of profound ielecual and scene significance. nly, a ition iterpetation of mathematics was championed by Duth thematic Lien Brouwer This terpretation sof imrest ore, beau ils that what was at steely in he entry anno matheraics per se, ut reasoning il 4 Brouwer’s vow chllnged 2400 yeas of Wester ineliectual histor. He believed hat maeratics san example ofthe mind Jiposing order on experienc. Thetis wo acestary connection twecs mutes and realy 2 Fr Brouwer, mathematical reasoning i fundamentally innitve. ‘We inti the hinds of mathematical lationships tat wil be wel nd intrestng, then we explore them logically A. Themain diffrence between Brouwer and Hilbert is that Brouwer argued tht he law of contradictions bua ali ogieal ais merely sn empirical i, A double negative doesnot necessarily {ply posive This sserton changes the character of materia ol Casi Five Golden Ras: Great Tharies of 20% Cetury Mathematics ‘and Why They Mare. Swat Shapzo, Thinking about Mathemarls: The Philosophy of Mathematics Benjamin Yandel, The Honors Clas: Hilbert’ Problems and Their Solvers. Questions to Consider: 2 ‘Why do we atibute such high value to deductive reasoning wha inductive reanoning isthe only Kind we can apply to ordinary experience? Ifthe basi of ua lms uteleainmatheatcs, what should we thnk cfu clans in science, which iso dependent onthe ose of mathematics? ‘Which primary logic or mathematics? rath a mater of loge oF af cotelaon wth expenence or comespondeoe with ea? 190s: 1908 1900 | 10. wa Timeline ssn Max Plapk's quatum hypotess Recover) of Mendel's research on dere ‘inheritance, David ier fit challenge othe world's uae, Fred's Iterpetton of Dream published, William Batson coins term genet Mate Cre calculates magnitude of energy released by radium. Fritz Haber announces proces for making ‘ammonia rom aumospbere niuogen, Special theory of relay "tetas phtoelacr elect pape founds quanta physis: Brownian tion paper convinces many physi tat tons are rea. Rasso-Japanese War: Japan word power. Bateson coin term gee. arto publishes his tory of society? ‘econo. ‘Creation of Bakelite, snching lass indus, nil Fischer shows tha proteins ae ‘combinations of amino cis ist rerly complete Neandertal skeleton ‘cats, Gone recombination denied as source of ‘lability for evaluton “. H. Morgan converted to gene theory by Seat y research Ruthefod's "solar sytem” del of tom, Synthetic rubber an rayon, Bohr's quantum teoey of atom ‘on Lave predicts Xay crystallography. ‘O14 Te Tesching Comp Lined Pane 1913 sis is. 1916 1. 919. 170, 1933 ss oa (Carles Bear's Economic Interpretation of the US. Contnaion Henritia Levit nnounoes cosmic “yardstick” ust asolute geological time scale ‘Tot Watson founds behavioral psychology. World War Is German itletlspblsh “Declaration othe Civilized Worl” General hry ofa. ‘Wepene' continent dit theory. Fentinand de Saussre's“Course in Genera Linguistics pblsiedposthurously by his sade, Farlow Shapley amnounces first cosmic stance: 400,00 light east Large “Magellanic Cloud sn Wold Wat Vet CConfation of genera theory of eaiviy's prediction of being o lights Mi Wilson Observatory 100-eh lescope becomes operational observatory Harlow Shapley defends Miky Way a only aly in public debate Lis de Broglie predits mater waves ifthe ‘special theory of rly snd quantum ory are correct ‘Scopes wal ia Tenesse ends in comiton. win Hubble announces Andromeda “neh” gla, and dhowands ore alanis ae out there Ewin Scningr and Werner Heisenberg eat quantum mechanics, Heisenberys uncenainy principle Fist afc mutation induced by ciation (©0200 Texhing Company Lined Paneip » 1999, 0 1931 1932, 1935 1936 8. 1939. vous Hble anounees expanding vives opesingen nero of gun Dina combines th special theory of relativity and quantum mechanics lading 10 {he creation of quantum elesteedyanics. [Now Yark Stock Exchange crash global depression bess Dire predicts existence of ateletro poston. Pauli pres exsene of reutrino 10 explain beta dos. Population genetics theory formalized reviving Darwinism {Cockeof and Walton achiev ist iii tration of ne element ito anther. [eawrence team buds iret yoo God's ro published lecoon microscope invented {Cal Anderson discovers Dies positon “anes Chadwick discovers nero, Blacket and Occhi confirm ney can tecome me. Sulfide drugs invested ‘Nylon invented. Radiotlescopy invented by Kar Janhy ILM. Keynes publishes his General Theory. ‘Quant theory of nates founds nuclear ysis, [Noclen sion research frenzy “Tring’s proof conceptual design of computer. _-Bethe' fasion theory of stellar ene 1, Skinner revives behaviors aginst Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis Fission of wana with great energy release snnounced Gar inal Bip Bang hypotesi ‘Werld War Il begins. \Vannevar Bush convinces Roosevelt to eae the National Defense Research wa as, so 194s 1946 we 4. 1949 1950 Coan, which becomes the Organization for Sciatic Resch and Development ‘when the United Sines declares war. ins Paling chemical ond theory publi -+-utManatan Projet rete. Enrico Fermi od eam builds fist molar Fit of 10 annual Josiah Macy Foundation conferences McCulloch and Pts propos lectical ‘model of neurons sn Game teary inode. (Oswalt Avery shows DNA bass of eri. Turing publishes Machine Iteligence vee Gena sends (MB). “Trinity” Achomb ts, Alamogordo, New ‘Mexico ul. Hiroshima apd Nagasaki A-bombs (Aug). Japan sureades (Aug). ENIAC becomes operation {QED problems resolved by Schwinger, Feynman, Temonaga. Radiccaroo 14 dating matbd invented by Wild Lib. Compote molecular structure of isin ‘btrmined, Invention of transi. Norio Wines Ceres pubs StannnrWexer norton communication ter Foyle Bon Got propo the Steny State theory ofthe unre ve EDVAC, fit tort ogra lector ‘Winer petits microwave acon ‘anon, rao 200 kescope becomes cera national Siene Foundation create. 2001 The Teching Company Lint Pate ss 1951 1952 1953 19s 1956 sr 1958 1959, 1980. 2. 1963 1968 1946 1967 Invention of mse Pauling determines helical saci of protein molecules. ‘Twenty European ations for joint Center for European Nuclear Research nnn Watson and Chick snounce double he strc of DNA. Berkeley Bevaton reaches 62-GeV emery, ‘ieoversan-prtn, First rial imeligence conference Spi and 2 bit Earth Mechanism of DNA replication revealed ‘Noam Chomshy’s Syntace iructures published Fist U.S. sults discovery of Van Allen radiation bes, (Quasars detected Fit neal compat Perepten. Invention of nr. Trai, Tes, Echostar rit slits, President Eneahower wane of ly indus eomples {Gell-Mann and Ne'enaa’s Eightfold Way ‘lasifcton of elementary pails, Peias and Wilson delet microwane ‘ockground radiation, Rachel Carson's Siem Spring published ‘hows Kuba's The Structure of Scenic Revolutions MIT Ar ib founded, (Gell-Mann and Zweig announce thee-uark eo of mater, Founding QCD. “Tanzani's Oldos Gorge excavations revel aniquity of human lineage and calure “The United States costes Fermi. ab national patil accelerator research center ‘e200 The Tesching Comp Line Patent 1968. 1909 0. wn wn 1 76. wn 78 1980, 1981 1983 Fit chess playing program Pate tectonics theory becomes mainsteam scaogy Fit Apollo moon landing Environmental Protection Agency crete, (Clean Airand Water Act pass Fit black hoe candidate detected, Cygnus Xl Eleero-weak theory proposed. Fit Landsat satelite obite, int recombinant DNA experiment Fist commercial CAT scanning mache. Foarh quark discovered by B, Richter and hy. Tng Marine space probe to Merry “Loey” skeleton unearted ines Aiea ‘exalirng the cu Aiea hype of haaman origins Viking probes land on Mar ssi qu discovered by Leon Lederman, Voyager 1 and 2 space probes launched 10 outer planets, Mid-ocean thermal vents discovered, son Pee pace prabe to Venus Luis Alvarez poposs collision theory of inosaur extinction, Alan Guth proposes cosmological inflaton they ‘Stoning tunneling miroscope invested, ‘ats imaged Fist commercial MRI machine FA approves ecombinant DNA insulin From hiteria. leeo-weak theory confined by discovery ‘of proiied intermediate vector bosons. Frist monslona antibody approved by PDA. ‘©1004 The Teaching Campy Lines Panne ” 1985 1985, 1989 1990) 1991 PCR meth for mas replication of DNA invented. Recombinant Human Growth Hormone angroned Ami fore microscope invented: thee ‘dimensional aoc ges. Human Genome Project announced Hubble Space Telescope erie Homo erectus bes founda Rep of Georgi, US. Congress cancels Supercombiting SuperColie. Sixh quck dicoverd. Deep Blu cess compute defeats Gary Kaspar. Acceleration of wivers's expansion ‘snnounced, Keck telescope observes asi of planet 153 ight years ony Human Genome Projet successfully completed [NASA LIGO gravy wave telescope operational [NASA Space Infra-Red Telescope Facility bite, (C2 Te Ting Cony Lined Petaip Glossary Aether: The name given by 19®.cenury physicists oa. cosmic space fing ‘stance that serve she mdm ie which Hight waves waveod The special theory of velviy andthe quantum theory made the ater unecessary. Amino acids: The ising lack of proteins, amin aid are ganic ‘molecules hat can frm shor or long chins, called pepides and popepides, respectively: Angiogean: X-ray photograph of blod vessel, whose sft tissues ordinarily transparent to X-rays, made By injecting a substance cpague to radiation. Atomic number: The numer of protons in the mules fan ator nig © cahelemeat Atom weight: Te oa amber of protons plus neutrons the mls of an ATP: Adenosine wiposphate a protin hats the ke source of hema ‘nergy inal organs, Aurignacean: The mame given by achaeologis othe forms of eure ‘ited by early human, predomiaaty Neanderals, fom about $0,000 BCE te $0000 BCE. Autocataltc In chemistry, a reaction caused by the product of catalytic reaction bt alo applied oslF-organizing and complex ystersin which ‘onegulvi i sustained by the prt ofthe rystems" ow acti. aryon: Prices that respon the stone frc, cotana in th nuclei of ses thn the standard modell of he pails composed of combinations fo thvee quarks hed together by sluons especially potas and neon. iological: Biologically based products that provide immunity to disease. ‘Blackbody: A term used by physics to describe an objec that abso al of the electromagnetic adiaon, of whatever fequeey, hs ocdeat upon it Brownian mation; The eat, random motion displayed by mine pails suspended ina ui, the euse Being the random mesons othe sons or ecules nthe, Babble chamber: instrument invented by Donal Gas in 1952 for revealing visual evidence of high-energy "elementary" prices ected in Pree accelerator collisions, Bucky: Colo fr bockminsterfllerne, &rohlysocer ball-shaped molecule of 60 carbon aloms fist rested in T985 and woul or Soringransportng molecules ht ca be apped and rleasedin a controlled fashion Carbon nanotubes: The process hat prodoces backs ca als pode colinrcalcabon atom tes, ech of manor length (10" te) thal ean ‘be concaterated into mech longer cylinders of enormous strength Career (offre: In quantum thor every foresees” by apatite ‘whose exchange ithe exertion ofthe force. Fr example the elecromageti fore is carried hy photons and acts when a photons sbsrbed or emia, ‘Chaos theory: The colori bat somewhat misleading name given to comples bu deterministic pysical systems, such ste atmosphere that are slic, thats which mine changes in input ead wo lage changes in behavior Chromatography: A now -asiverslehwigue developed in he 140% ad afer for sparing the molecules na compound y thee molecular weigh. The tecnigue exploits the selective adsorption surface adhesion) of molecules in slther gs oe iui form onto a Sli terial fr example. specially ead pepe ‘Cloud chamber: An instrument ha uses supersaturated water vapor Visine charged aticles that case foniaton af orm when thy pass hough he ‘aber ‘Commutativity Th rule ia mathematics tht the sequence ofan operation i Jnclevan. Thus, aon ad mulplicaion are commutative, case n+ im-rmandn xm= ox, but stfsraction and division are nn commaaive Because the ede of operation makes dilleence. Completeness: In fogic and mathematics, the pope that an axomati stem wil generat af the theres hat ae ir thal stm, Complesity theory See chaos theory: (Conservation of energy: The principe fandamenal to casa thermodynamics, that energy can neither be rated nor destoyed only ‘eansfoed fom one fom nto another for example from motion at ea. ‘Conservation of mater: The principle that matorcan mie rete 90¢ esroyed and, hs, ht the ol amount of mater isthe universe i coast, “Aer the special theory of relaivity and quantum theory mater can be created out ofenegy ad converted no energy, iis the Wl of mater energy hat ‘onserved not each separately Consistency nog and mathemati, tb property ofan axiom system that is fre of contradiction Correspondence principle: Formulated by Nils Bobrin 1919, states tht ther ar fei cmespondences between cassia and quantum pic inspite “oftheir exclusivity, because as quantum systems increas in compeNiy, hey tecome clascal systems, @ (m0 Te Teng Cay Lines Pare ‘Creationism: The view, opposing Darwinism hat the universe, and especialy the Earth and man, were created by a Providenal Diy Cybernetic: The name pven by Norbert Wine othe theory of mschines, ‘rznisms, at informato ystems tht display appaculy purposive behasiee by-expoting feedback and selFregulatery contol cies Deconstruction: The theory nally applied inthe 1960s and 1970s trary ‘orks bl thea more widely, hat meaning vas, in pricpe, indeterminate, cause it isa function of oper ended reaioshps involving teenie cultural rework in which nlerpetation takes place. Deduction: form of logical argent in which the conclusion must be tue if the premises are iachronie: Historia; change over ine Diferetal geometry A form of geometry ia which spatial elaionstips, for ‘example th properties of carves, are described in general terms and tied sing he diferent aul, Ditration: Wher examined closely, he shad cast by aight beam is ot ‘harp abd in at, display inererence ater, si the Beam were a wave ‘wrapping around the opaque ede casting the shadow. Dynamics: A system in which unbalanced foresaw sting ths ota equilib. _Dyname effect: Moving magne round conductor, or moving conductor around a magnet, causes a curren lw in the condi. This resins the inp underlying virally ll elect generation Laday (oXcept fr ‘Photovoltaic and thermoelectric genes), lceiromagnetie theory: Maxwell's theory ofthe 1860s according to which ‘ect and magnetism or moving charged pale can interact o generate ‘waves of energy din vacur, vel athe speed of lig, visible Hight Bing those waves wo whose faquenis our eyes ae sensitiv. Electron beam diffraction: The difacton ofa beam of electrons (oreven of toms analogous the difaction of beams of ight, Pree by Lous de [Brogicin 1923, it revealed hat piles behaved ike wave by displaying Inerleenc effects, Emergence: Colloquia. what people mean by the whole being greater than the su o par, that, ystems/ols can display propeis tha are not ‘splayed by any ofthe pars of whic the systenwhol is composed Encephalograpy: Saying the stvcture and activity ofthe brain, by Xray 1hotogaphy, displacing the cerebrospinal Nui by aio serve as a comras meu lca using elacwoencepalography,or EG: or acoustical, ‘sing utascund {2001 The Techy Company Lie Pain a Entropy: In thrones a mesure ft navalbily of energy a close syst. reflecting the reversibility of eal-werid processes an in 19%. ‘emir physi mplvng the uimat running dwn, o heat death,” the universe. The sty of self-organizing systems i the second hl of te 20" cena led oa reintrpeation ferry. ‘Enayes: Proteins tha serve a alate in reactions that i thy ar at ‘emslves changed bythe reaction Egulieien A sytem in which no unbalanced forces ar operating and with 90 cumulative, deced changes taking place isin equitium, ‘Ethical drugs: Sythesied pharmaceuticals ate-1*-ceary spin-off ofthe invention of spate dyes beganig in 1856 ukaryote Cells wih antes separated fom the rest of the cell by rembrae, Field theory: The mid-19® century theory, champion especialy by Michel Faraday ad James Clerk Maxwell, ht certain forces, among then. electric ‘nd magnetic repulsion an ataction, aed ot by drt mechanical onc herween sources, bt at distance y filing the space surrounding the Source of. the Held in aecordance wih precise mathematical las, Fractal geometry: The same given by Benoit Mandelorott the fraction lmensicnaity of Slim shapes Fantionalism: Any theory whose objectives determining how te elements of system fineton and wi thei mtu intrsaionships se rather tan

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