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Chapter 5 - GSM Radio Network Planning
Chapter 5 - GSM Radio Network Planning
Chapter 5 - GSM Radio Network Planning
Confideniality level
Table of Contents
Chapter 5 GSM Radio Network Planning.......................................................................................
5.1 Overview..............................................................................................................................
5.2 Planning Foundation............................................................................................................
5.2.1 Coverage and Capacity Target Confirmation.............................................................
5.2.2 Performance Target Confirmation..............................................................................
5.3 Coverage Analysis...............................................................................................................
5.3.1 Area Division..............................................................................................................
5.3.2 Radio Environment Survey......................................................................................
5.4 Network Structure Analysis.................................................................................................
5.4.1 Middle-Layer Station................................................................................................
5.4.2 High-Layer Station...................................................................................................
5.4.3 Low-Layer Station....................................................................................................
5.5 Traffic Analysis...................................................................................................................
5.5.1 Traffic Prediction and Cell Splitting..........................................................................
5.5.2 Voice Channel Allocation.........................................................................................
5.5.3 Control Channel Allocation......................................................................................
5.6 Base Station Number Decision..........................................................................................
5.6.1 Characteristics of 3-sector base stations in urban areas.........................................
5.6.2 References for Design of Base Station Parameters................................................
5.6.3 Uplink and Downlink Balance..................................................................................
5.6.4 Cell Coverage Estimation........................................................................................
5.6.5 Base Station Address Planning................................................................................
5.6.6 Coverage Prediction................................................................................................
5.7 Design of Base Station Address.........................................................................................
5.7.1 Address design........................................................................................................
5.7.2 Project Parameter Decision.....................................................................................
5.8 Location Area Design.........................................................................................................
5.8.1 Definition of Location Area.......................................................................................
5.8.2 Division of location areas.........................................................................................
5.8.3 Others......................................................................................................................
5.9 Dual-Band Network Design................................................................................................
5.9.1 Necessity for Constructing Dual-Band Network.......................................................
5.9.2 GSM 1800MHz Coverage Solutions........................................................................
5.9.3 Location Area Division for Dual-Band Network........................................................
5.9.4 Traffic Guidance and Control Strategies of Dual-Band Network..............................
5.9.5 Dual-Band Networking Engineering Implementation...............................................
5.10 Design of Indoor Coverage System.................................................................................
5.10.1 Characteristics of Indoor coverage........................................................................
5.10.2 Indoor Antenna System Design.............................................................................
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2)
3)
Decide the network structure and base station type based on further
analysis.
First analyze whether to construct a layering network according to user
distribution, propagation conditions, city development plan and existed
network conditions, and then analyze the sites within this area to decide
whether to use omni antennas or directional antennas to meet the
requirements on coverage and capacity.
4)
Power budget
Then through calculating the coverage distance and dividing the coverage
areas, you can obtain a rough number of base stations for various coverage
areas.
5)
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target address. After that, mark the addresses of other base stations
according to the ideal cellular structure and the result of link budget.
6)
Estimate the traffic of a base station according to its ideal location, and then
obtain the number of carriers and channels needed by each base station by
checking Erl table according to the indexes of call loss rate.
Decide the frequency reuse mode according to band width, network quality
requirement, and equipment supportability.
7)
Predict the coverage area and decide the project data, namely, perform the
preliminary emulation. The specific tasks are as follows:
Predict the coverage area of each cell according to the propagation models
in different areas, and then give the opinions on adjusting the base station
address, antenna direction, antenna tilt angle, and antenna height in the
areas where dead zones may be present and signals are poor. Finally,
provide the project data.
8)
Select actual base station address and decide base station type:
Perform filed examination according to the ideal base station addresses,
and then record the possible addresses according to various construction
conditions
(including
power
supply,
transmission,
electromagnetic
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After the base station type is decided, you need to make a scheme for
antenna configuration. For moving a network, if you intend to provide a best
combination scheme for the antenna feeders, you must fully investigate the
combination of the antenna feeders of the original carriers, plan the future
expansion of the base station, and design the combination of the antenna
feeders supported by current equipments.
9)
Note:
For the selection of handover bands, the handover algorithms to be
enabled, and whether to use frequency hopping, power control, and DTX,
they must be decided in coverage prediction and frequency planning,
because the related parameters will be used in emulation.
In addition, sections 5.9 and that later introduce the solutions to the planning of
dual-band network and the planning in special occasions.
Engineers perform the network planning and guide the subsequent construction
work according to the previous technical specifications. Because any change of
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these specifications will affect network construction, you must discuss these
specifications with carriers and get their confirmation.
KPI index
Meaning
Test method
Reference
value
TCH
congestion
OMC
< 2%
OMC
< 1%
OMC
< 2%
OMC
> 92%
setup
Drive test
< 10s
Coverage
Drive test
> 90%
probability
Drive test
16
Applied to GPRS
Drive test
3.2
Applied to GPRS
Drive test
< 20s
ratio
TCH
seizure
failures/attempted
TCH seizures 100%
SDCCH congestion
ratio
all
busy
times/SDCCH seizure
requests 100%
3
TCH
call
drop
times/TCH
occupation
success
times 100%
4
Handover success
Handover
success
ratio
times/handover
attempted
times
100%
5
Average
call
times
6
FTP
download
average
rate
(kbps)
8
FTP
average
Forward/reverse
transmission delay
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10
Applied to GPRS
Drive test
90%
11
Applied to GPRS
Drive test
< 3.5s
12
Drive test
(MOS)
divided
into
fiver
Note:
The KPI indexes vary slightly with carriers.
The mean opinion score (MOS) in the previous table is divided into five levels,
which are specified in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Mean opinion score (MOS)
Quality level
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Bad
Note:
The call whose quality is above level 3 can access the mobile
communication network.
The call whose quality is above level 4 can access the public network.
Big city
Middle-sized city
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Small town
Countryside
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Description
Big city
Dense population
Developed economy
Large traffic
Middle-sized city
Small town
Moderate traffic
Countryside
Scattered population
Developing economy
Low traffic
In addition, you must consider the coverage of the areas at the intersections and
various transport arteries, including:
Express way
Provincial highway
Railway
Sea-route
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Value
-102 dBm
4 dB (3 dB for countryside)
8 dB (6 dB for countryside)
Noise
(environmental
noise
and
5 dB
To ensure the indoor coverage in big and middle-sized cities, you can
consider 15dB for the average penetration loss between buildings and
consider adding 5dB to the protection margin.
Radio links have two directions, namely, uplink direction and downlink
direction, and the coverage area is defined by the direction in which the
signals are poor, so you must consider the uplink and downlink balance.
Therefore, if you intend to plan an ideal network, you must make a good
power control budget so that the uplink and downlink can be as balance as
possible.
Areas
Coverage target
stage
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Early stage
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national
Full coverage.
highways,
sea-routes
Development
stage
the
and
shopping malls.
network
they
require
For the outdoor environment in big cities, the two ratios must be greater.
For transport arteries, different standards are applied, and the coverage
probability can be defined in accordance with the types of the arteries.
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Application
Propagation model
area
adopted
Example
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Walfish-Ikegami
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PLDU = 147.2 +
Densely
8d + 40.5lgd
populated
urban areas
PLU = 128.73 +
Common
Walfish-Ikegami
38lgd
urban areas
If
carrier
frequency
PLSU = 126 +
Suburban
Okumura-Hata
35lgd
areas
PLRU = 116 +
Countryside
35lgd
areas
If
carrier
frequency
If
carrier
frequency
Note:
The four formulas provided in this section are applicable to simple estimation
during project survey only. For later planning, you must adopt the precise
propagation models. If necessary, you must further adjust the propagation
models through CW measurement.
The antenna height ranges from 25 to 30 meters, which is greater than the
average height of the buildings.
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In small towns and countryside areas, except the high-layer stations are
designed for controlling traffic flow or for landform reasons, most of the base
stations are middle-layer stations.
II. Advantages
Compared with high-layer stations, middle-layer stations can utilize frequency
resources more efficiently. Compared with low-layer stations, middle-layer
stations can absorb traffic more efficiently. Therefore, the middle-layer stations
bear the greatest traffic in a network.
IV. Challenges
Because no suitable ground objective is available, to ensure the quality of
service of a network is quite demanding. According to the experience on project
construction and maintenance, great challenge is present in the selection of base
station address, station design, project construction, network maintenance, and
network quality.
The antenna height ranges from 10 to 50 meters, which is far greater than
the average height of the buildings.
Because the high-layer stations make poor use of the frequency resources, they
are mainly applied to the traffic networks where people move fast in big and
middle-sized cities.
In addition, to control construction cost and meet coverage requirements, you
can install some high-layer stations in suburban areas, highroads, small towns,
and countryside areas.
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II. Functions
The high-layer stations must be as fewer as possible but be as effective as
possible. They mainly provide services to the fast-moving subscribers in cities.
Note:
The coverage of high buildings is realized by indoor distribution systems.
The antenna height is shorter than 20 meters, which is shorter than the
average height of the buildings.
The antenna can be installed on the outer walls of the lower floors of a
building, on the top of lower roofs, or in the rooms of a building.
Generally, at the early stage of the network construction, signal network design is
applied, so most of the base stations are middle-layer stations. After the basic
network is established, you must adjust the base stations and add new base
stations according to traffic and coverage requirements.
For populated commercial areas where the traffic is heavy, you can use low-layer
stations, which are constructed with micro cell layer and distributed antenna
system. In this case, not only the requirements on indoor coverage are met, but
also the interference and difficulties of base station selection caused by short
distance between stations are avoided. With the development of the network, the
low-layer stations will develop into the layering network structure.
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Population distribution
Family income
City construction
Consumption policy
After predicting the total network capacity, you must predict the density of
subscriber distribution. Generally, base stations are constructed in urban areas,
suburban areas, and transport arteries. Therefore, you can use the percentage
of prediction method.
At the early stage of construction, the subscribers in cities account for a larger
percentage of the total predicted subscribers. With the development of the
network construction, the percentage of the subscribers in suburban areas and
transport arteries grows. The traffic of each subscriber is 0.025 Erl in urban areas
and 0.020 Erl in suburban areas.
The formula calculating traffic is:
A = (n T) / 3600
Here,
In this way, the number of voice channels needed for a base station can be
obtained through predicting the traffic.
Note:
When estimating the number of voice channels needed for a base station in the
future, you must consider the effect caused by cell splitting.
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In a GSM system, you can use Erl model to calculate the traffic density that the
network can bear. The call loss can be 2% or 5% depending on actual
conditions.
Because restrictions on cell coverage area and the width of the available
frequencies are present, you must plan the cell capacity reasonably. If good
voice quality is ensured, you must enhance the channel utilization ratio as much
as possible.
In actual networking, if the network quality is ensured at a certain level, two
capacity solutions are available, namely, a few stations with high-level
configuration and multiple stations with low-level configuration. Both the
advantages and disadvantages of the two solutions are apparent, so which one
should be used depending on the actual conditions of an area.
For network construction, you can expand the capacity either through adding
base stations or through expanding the base station capacity. The expansion
strategies adopted must be in accordance with the traffic density in an area. For
example, the strategies such as adding 1800 MHz base stations, expanding
sector capacity, adding micro cells, or improving indoor coverage can be used to
expand network capacity.
Cell splitting is quite important in a network. The followings further describe the
cell splitting based on 1-to-4 splitting.
Cell splitting is used to split a congested cell into multiple smaller cells. Through
setting the new cells whose radiuses are smaller than the original cells and
placing them among the original cells, you can increase the number of channels
in a unit area, thus increasing channel reuse times. In this case, system capacity
is expanded.
Through adjusting the project parameters relative to antenna feeders and
reducing transmitter power, you can narrow the coverage area of a cell. Error:
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Reference source not found shows that a cell splits into four smaller cells by half
of its radius.
Here,
Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit power of the base stations of the original cell and the
new cell, and n is path fading exponent. If make n = 4, make the received power at
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the edge of the new and original cell equal, the following equation can be
obtained:
Pt2 = Pt1/16
That is to say, if the micro cells are used to cover the original coverage area and
the requirement of S/I is met, the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB.
Not all cells need splitting. In fact, it is quite demanding for carriers to find out a
perfect cell splitting scheme. Therefore, many cells of different scales exist in a
network simultaneously. As a result, the minimum distance among intrafrequency cells must be maintained, which further complicate frequency
allocation.
In addition, you must pay attention to the handover because success handover
ensure the all subscribers to enjoy good quality of service regardless of moving
speed.
As shown in Figure 1.1, when two layers of cells are present within an area but
their coverage scale is different, according to the formula Pt2 = Pt1/16, neither all
new cells can simply apply the original transmit power, nor all original cells can
simply apply the new transmit power.
If all cells apply great transmit power, the channels used by smaller cells cannot
be separated from the intra-frequency cells. If all cells apply lower transmit
power, however, some big cells will be exclusive from the service areas.
For the previous reason, the channels in the original cells can be divided into two
groups. One group meets the reuse requirement of the smaller cells, and the
other group meets the reuse requirement of the bigger cells. The bigger cells are
applied to the communication of fast-moving subscribers, which requires a fewer
handover times.
The power of the two channel groups decides the progress of cell splitting. At the
early stage of cell splitting, the channels in the low-power group are fewer. As the
requirement grows, more channels are needed in low-power group. The cell
splitting does not stop until all channels within this area are applied in the lowpower group. In this case, all cells in this area have split into multiple smaller
cells, and the radius of each cell is quite small.
Note:
Commonly, you can restrict cell coverage area through adjusting the project
parameters of the base station.
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According to the bandwidth and the reuse mode allowed by current GSM
networks within the areas to be planned, you can obtain the maximum
number of carriers that can be configured for a base station.
2)
Each carrier has 8 channels. You can obtain the maximum number of voice
channel numbers that can be configured for a base station by detracting the
control channels from the 8 channels.
3)
According to the number of voice channels and call loss ratio (generally 2%
dense traffic areas and 5% for other areas), you can obtain the maximum
traffic (Erl number) that the base station can bear through checking Erl B
table.
4)
5)
According to the data of subscriber density, you can obtain the coverage
area of the base station.
6)
After the areas are specified based on the subscriber density, according to
the area of an area and the actual coverage area of the base station, you
can calculate the number of needed base stations.
7)
For important areas, you must consider back up stations and the
cooperation between carriers. For example, an important county needs at
least two base stations and three important carriers.
8)
For the areas where burst traffic is possible, such as the play ground and
seasonal tourism spots, you must prepare the equipments (such as carriers
and micro cells) and frequency resources for future use.
9)
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10) To configure a base station, you must consider the transmission at the Abis
interface so that the capacity can be met while saving transmission. For
example, the application and concatenation of the Abis interface 15:1 and
12:1 should be considered.
11) For indoor coverage and capacity, you can use micro cells and distributed
antenna systems. For the coverage in countryside areas and highroads, you
can use economical micro base stations. For the transmission in
countryside areas and highroads, you can use HDSL because it is cost
effective.
12) Prepare the some carriers, micro cells, and micro base stations for new
coverage areas and future optimization.
13) In some special areas, you can use the base stations consisting of omni and
directional cells, but you must consider the isolation between omni antennas
and directional antennas. For traffic control, you can use the algorithm in
terms of network layers.
14) For some highroads which require a little traffic by large coverage, you can
use the two networking modes. They are:
(A micro base station with single carrier) + (0.5 + 0.5 cell with two set of
directional antennas)
Number of
each cell
TCHs
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Traffic (Erl)
2%
5%
2.27
2.96
14
8.2
9.73
21
14.03
16.18
29
21.03
23.82
36
27.33
30.65
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44
34.68
38.55
52
42.1
46.53
59
48.7
53.55
67
56.25
61.63
10
75
63.9
69.73
According to this table, the larger the number of carriers and the call loss ratio
are, the greater the traffic that each TCH bear, and the greater the TCH
utilization ratio is (the channel utilization ratio is an important indicator of the
quality of network planning and design). If the number of subscribers of a base
station is small, you can consider delaying the construction.
Because restrictions on the coverage area of a cell and the bandwidth of the
available frequencies, you must plan a reasonable capacity for the cell. If good
voice quality is ensured, you must take measures to enhance the channel
utilization ratio as much as possible.
For the construction of the dual-band network, you can use the frequencies with
wider bands to enhance channel utilization ratio, which is helpful for traffic
sharing.
In actual applications, when the traffic on each TCH accounts for 80-90% of total
given by Erl B table (the call loss ratio is 2%), the congestion ratio in this cell rise
greatly. Therefore, we generally calculate the traffic that a network can bear by
taking the 85% of the traffic given by Erl B table as a reference.
III. Example
The capacity of a local network needs to be expanded. According to the service
development, population growth and mobile popularity, the subscribers in this
area are expected to reach 100,000 in 2 years.
If only the followings are considered:
Mobile factor (the subscriber moves slightly within the local network instead
of roaming) = 10%.
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SDCCH configuration
General cell
Internal cell
Edge cell
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/4
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
SDCCH configuration
General cell
Internal cell
Edge cell
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8
SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8
2*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4
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SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
SDCCH/4+2*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8
3*SDCCH/8+SDCCH/4
It is difficult to induce a traffic model for the SDCCH; especially it even becomes
impossible after the large-scale application of layering networks and short
messages. Moreover, the equipments of some carriers support SDCCH dynamic
allocation function. As a result, the traffic model for SDCCH must be adjusted
according to actual conditions.
The advantages of the SDCCH dynamic function are as follows:
In conclusion, the SDCCH dynamic allocation function is divided into two types,
namely,
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Note:
In CCCH configuration, the location area planning, paging modes and system
flow control must be considered.
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And the path loss from pint A to point C is expressed as equation (2):
(2)
(4)
Figure 1.3 shows the relationship between antenna height and values of (EIRPR EIRPr).
Figure 1.3 Relationship between antenna height and values of (EIRP R - EIRPr)
As shown in Figure 1.3, when the antenna height h1 increases from 5m to
100m, the values of (EIRPR - EIRPr) decrease from 12 to 9.5, which can be
roughly treated as 10dB.
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Small cities
Highroads
cities
Network type
GSM 900MHz
GSM 900MHz
GSM 900MHz
15
17
18
Small cities
Highroads
GSM 900MHz
GSM 900MHz
GSM 900MHz
25
30
30
35
35
35
45
45
45
Coverage target
Big and middle-sized
cities
Network type
Antenna
Densely
height
populated
urban
areas
Other urban
areas
Suburban
areas
Countryside
areas
Antenna
Densely
diversity gain
populated
(dB)
urban
areas
Other urban
areas
Suburban
areas
Countryside
areas
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Building
Densely
penetration
populated
loss (dB)
urban
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25
20
20
15
15
15
15
10
10
10
Slow fading
Densely
margin (dB)
populated
areas
Other urban
areas
Suburban
areas
Countryside
areas
urban
areas
Other urban
areas
Suburban
areas
Countryside
areas
Note:
The more densely the base station addresses, the lower the antenna height is.
The building penetration loss in northern cities is greater than that in southern cities.
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other party at the edges of the cell. If uplink signals are too bad, the mobile
station cannot start a call even if signals are present.
However, the because the fading for uplink channels and downlink channels is
not totally the same and the other factors such as the difference of the
performances of receivers are present, the calculated uplink and downlink are
not absolute, but the there a fluctuation of 2 to 3 dB.
The measurement report on uplinks and downlinks at the Abis interface can tell
whether the uplink and downlink reach a balance. In addition, dialing tests in
actual network can also tell whether the balance between uplinks and downlinks
are reached. If the conversation quality on downlinks uplinks becomes poor
simultaneously, it means that the downlinks and uplinks are balance.
Note:
Some carriers provide the traffic statistics on uplink and downlink measurement,
which can also tell whether the balance between uplinks and downlinks are
reached.
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No tower amplifier
(2)
If a tower amplifier is present, the improved value of the noise coefficients of the
uplink receiving system can be represented by NFDelta, so the equation Poutb =
Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm Pinb) + Lcb can be developed into the following
equation:
The two equations, Poutb = Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm Pinb) + Lcb and Poutb =
Poutm + Gdb + (Pinm - Pinb) + Lcb + NF Delta are used to calculate base station
transmit power when the uplinks and downlinks are balance. Here,
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Mobile
station
transmit power
Reference
Reference receiving
receiving sensitivity
sensitivity
of
station (dBm)
mobile
station
of
base
(dBm)
GSM 900MHz
2W (33dBm)
-102
-104
GSM
1W (30dBm)
-100
-104
1800MHz
Note:
From September, 1999 on, the reference receiving sensitivity of mobile station
is -102 dBm as required in GSM protocols. Considering the compatibility of the
previous mobile stations, we adopt -100dBm as the receiving sensibility of the
1800 MHz mobile stations.
Decoder circuit
Three parameters are used to measure the receiver bit error performance. They
are frame expurgation rate (FER), residual bit error rate (RBER), and bit error
rate (BER). When a fault is detected in a frame, this frame is defined as deleted
one.
Here,
FER indicates the ratio of the deleted frames to the total received frames.
For full rate voice channels, the FER is present when the 3-bit cyclic
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FBER indicates the BER that are not announced as deleted frames, namely,
it is the ratio of the bit errors in the frame detected as good to the total
number of bits transmitted in good frames.
BER indicates the ratio of the received error bits to all transmitted bits.
For each independent sampled measuring point, the times for it to pass a
bad unit must be as fewer as possible, that is, the probability must be
smaller than 2%.
For each independent sampled measuring point, the times for it to pass a
good unit must be as more as possible, that is, the probability must be
greater than 99.7%.
As a result, you can measure the receiver sensitivity through measuring whether
the receiver BER has reached the requirement while entering sensitivity level to
the receiver.
Enter the reference sensitivity level to the receiver according to I. 1Table 1.1 in
various propagation environments. For the data produced after receiver
demodulation and channel decoding, the indexes for FER, RBER, and BER are
more favorable that that defined in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Requirements on static and multi-path reference sensitivity
Requirement on receiver
sensitivity
Channel type
Parameter
Propagation condition
Static
TU50
TU50
RA250
HT100
No
No
Frequency
No
No
frequency
frequency
hopping is
frequency
frequency
hopping
hopping
present
hopping
hopping
FACCH/H
(FER)
0.1%
6.9%
6.9%
5.7%
10.0%
FACCH/F
(FER)
0.1%
8.0%
3.8%
3.4%
6.3%
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SDCCH
(FER)
0.1%
13%
8%
8%
12%
RACH
(FER)
0.5%
13%
13%
12%
13%
SCH
(FER)
1%
16%
16%
15%
16%
TCH/F9.6&H4.8
(BER)
105
0.5%
0.4%
0.1%
0.7%
TCH/F4.8
(BER)
104
104
104
104
TCH/F2.4
(BER)
2 104
105
105
105
TCH/H2.4
(BER)
2 104
104
104
104
TCH/FS
(FER)
0.1/a%
6a%
3a%
3a%
7a%
Class Ib.
0.4/a%
0.4/a%
0.3/a%
0.2/a%
0.5/a%
2%
8%
8%
7%
9%
(RBER)
Class II
(RBER)
Note:
The requirements on BCCH, AGCH, PCH, and SACCH are the same as that on
SDCCH.
The value of a in this table depends on the channels. It is 1 for base stations, and 1 to
1.6 for mobile stations.
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F F1
Fn 1
F2 1 F3 1
G1
G1G2
G1G2 Gn
Here,
Gn indicates the receivers gain at each level (including the loss at each
level).
The noise coefficient of the passive device is equal to its loss, and the gain of the
passive device is the reciprocal of the loss.
According to the previous equation, the noise coefficient of the cascading system
is determined by the receivers at the first level.
It must be pointed out that the linear values of the parameters must be applied in
the previous equation, so the F is a linear value, which must be converted into
a logarithm. Moreover, according to this equation, the noise the cascaded
receivers are determined by the noise coefficient (F1) of the receivers at the first
level.
However, when the tower amplifier stops working, because the loss is present on
duplexer and bypass connectors, about 2dB of redundant loss is introduced on
reverse link.
According to the equation F F1
Fn 1
F2 1 F3 1
, the
G1
G1G2
G1G2 Gn
following two assumptions conclude the regularity of the effect of tower amplifier
on the base station system.
(1)
Assumption 1
When the tower amplifier is not added, the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F0 + (F21)/G0 = 10*log (2 + (2.81841)/0.5) =7.5dB
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When the tower amplifier is added, the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F1 + (F0 1)/G + (F2 1)/(G*G0) = 10*log(1.7783 + (2 1)/15.849 +
(2.8184 1)/(15.849 0.5) = 3.2dB
At this time, the added tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient, and F Delta is
4.3dB, that is, the uplink is improved by 4.3 dB.
(2)
Assumption 2
When the tower amplifier is not added, the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F0 + (F2 1)/G0 = 10*log (2 + (1.6982 1)/0.5) = 5.3dB
When the tower amplifier is added, the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system with the antenna output end as reference point is as follows:
F = F1 + (F0 1)/G + (F2 1)/(G*G0) = 10*log(1.6596+(2 1)/15.849 + (1.6982
1)/(15.849 0.5)) = 2.6dB
At this time, the added tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient, and F Delta is
2.7 dB, that is, the uplink is improved by 2.7 dB.
According to the previous calculation, the following conclusions can be obtained:
The tower amplifier improves the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system, thus improving the receiving sensitivity of the base
station.
The tower amplifier improves uplink signals effectively, which is also helpful
for improving the receiving sensitivity of the base station.
The gain of the antenna amplifier reduces the effect of the components
installed behind the tower amplifier against noise coefficient.
When the feeder is long and the loss of the feeder is great, if the tower
amplifier is added, the noise coefficient of the base station receiving system
and the uplink signals will be greatly improved.
The smaller the noise coefficient of the tower amplifier is, if the tower
amplifier is added, the greater the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system is improved. However, if the noise coefficient of the tower
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amplifier is too great, it may cause the noise coefficient of the base station
receiving system to deteriorate.
When the receiving sensitivity of the base station is great and the feeder is
short, the tower amplifier makes a little improvement on the noise coefficient
of the base station.
If the tower amplifier improves the base station sensitivity, the base station
is more sensitive to outside interference.
Power budget
Based on the indexes of QoS for the mobile network and the actual applications,
this section introduces the coverage area of the base station in different
environments theoretically.
Table 1.1 lists the assumptions of the minimum received level required in various
environments.
Table 1.1 Assumptions of the minimum received level required in various
environments
Application
Minimum
environments
received level
Other indexes
(dBm)
The mobile
station works as
the receiver.
-70
in big cities
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The mobile
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station is the
-80
receiver.
In cars.
the general
buildings in urban
areas.
Outdoors.
-90
The antenna height of GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz base stations are
30 meters.
The sensitivities of the GSM900 MHz 2W (33 dBm) mobile station and GSM
1800MHz 1W (30 dBm) mobile station are -102 dBm and -100 dBm
respectively.
The mobile station height is 1.5 meters and the gain is 0 dB.
When the combiner and divider unit (CDU) is used, the sensitivities of the
900MHz base station and 1800MHz base station are -110dBm and
-108dBm respectively.
The gain of the 65-degree directional antenna is 13dBd for the 900 MHz
mobile station and 16dBd for the 1800MHz mobile station.
The feeder is 50m in length. For 900MHz signals, the feeder loss is
4.03dBm/100m. For 1800MHz signals, the feeder loss is 5.87dB/100m.
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Here,
f = 900 MHz.
A h m (1.1 lg f 0.7 )h m (1.56 lg f 0.8 ) 0.01 (dB)
According to the previous known number, the outdoor coverage radius of the 900
MHz base station in urban areas can be obtained, that is, d = 2.8km.
(2) Coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban buildings
The minimum received level of the mobile station P mr min 70 (dBm).
L p EIRP Pmr min 53.65 (70 ) 123.65 (dB)
Therefore, the coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in urban buildings
can be obtained, that is, d = 0.75km.
If the previous assumptions are present, this indicates that the 900 MHz base
station can cover the outdoor areas 2.8 km away, but for the subscribers on the
first floor of the buildings 750 m away, the quality of the received signals is not
satisfying.
(3) Coverage radius of the 900 MHz base station in suburban areas
The minimum received level of the mobile station P mr min 90 (dBm).
L p EIRP Pmr min 53.65 (90 ) 143.65 (dB)
The Okumura propagation model in suburban areas must be modified as follows:
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(4) Outdoor coverage radius of the 1800 MHz base station in urban areas
The minimum received level of the mobile station Pmr min 90 (dBm). Because the
maximum transmit power of the 1800 MHz TRX is 40W (46dBm), the coverage
radius is calculated based on this maximum transit power.
First you set the base stations in the coverage areas according to the distance of
the standard grids, and then adjust the address layout and project parameters
according to the estimated coverage results to meet the coverage requirement.
After that, continue the planning according to the following instructions:
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(2)
According to this method, you are required to start the planning from the areas
where the subscribers are most densely distributed or the planning work is quite
hard to be performed. As a result, you must fully survey the subscriber
distribution, landforms, and ground objectives within the coverage area to
position the key coverage area where the center base stations should be
planned. And these center base stations function as ensuring the coverage and
capacity in important areas.
After the layout of these center base stations is determined, you can plan other
base station addresses according to coverage and capacity target. And this is
how the final layout of the base station addresses come from. After the overall
solution is determined, the subsequent steps are performed according to the first
planning method.
Note:
The difference of the traffic intensity and the abnormality of the landforms
and ground objectives result in irregularity of the radio coverage. Therefore,
the distance between base stations varies. Generally, this distance is
smaller in the areas where traffic intensity is great. In some hot areas, you
can ensure the system capacity by using micro cells and distributed
antennas to provide multi-layer coverage.
For restrictions from frequency resources are present, you must consider
avoiding interference while ensuring system capacity.
There is no standard available for the layout of the base station addresses.
A good planning solution is selected based on the integrated performance of
the network.
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station types, suitable electronic maps, and network planning tools to judge
whether the coverage meet the requirements of the subscribers.
The coverage of a base station is determined by the following factors:
Indexes of QoS
Working bands
If the predicted results of the network coverage fail to meet the requirements,
you can take the following adjusting measures:
When there are subscribers distributing beyond the cell coverage area, but
it is not economical for you to install a base station, you can use a repeater
to ensure the requirement of those subscriber.
When the signals are weak or blind zones are present within the coverage
area, you can consider whether to use micro cells according to actual
conditions.
If a large blank area is present between neighbor cells, you can increase the
antenna height and add base stations according to the principles of cell
splitting.
When the cell coverage area fails to meet the co-channel interference index,
you can adjust the frequency configuration of the cell, adjust base station
addresses, or adjust design of the parameters, such as antenna
specification, antenna height, azimuth angle, tilt angle, and transmit power.
Note:
When taking these adjusting measures, you must consider the mutual effect
between base stations.
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Without affecting the layout of base stations, you can select the
telecommunication buildings and post offices as the base station addresses
so that the facilities, such as the equipment room, power supplier, and iron
tower can be fully utilized.
The direction of antenna major lobe must be in accordance with the area
where the traffic intensity is great. In this case, the signal strength of the
area can be enhanced, so does the conversation quality. Meanwhile, the
direction of the antenna major lobe must be deviated from intra-frequency
cells so that the interference can be controlled efficiently.
In urban areas, it is recommended that the overlapped depth of the
antennas in adjacent sectors cannot excel 10%. In suburban areas and
small towns, the overlapped depth between coverage areas cannot be too
great, and the included angle between sectors must be equal to or higher
than 90.
In addition, for actual design, you must consider the mapping relationship
between carrier number and cells. Generally, more carriers are configured
for the cells with high intensity.
The azimuth angle must be designed according to not only the traffic
distribution in the areas around the base stations, but also the performance
of the overall network.
Generally, it is recommended to adopt the same azimuth angle for the 3sector base stations in urban areas so that the complicated network
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planning can be avoided after cell splitting in the future. Moreover, the
antenna major lobe cannot directly point to the straight streets in populated
urban areas, because it can cause cross-coverage.
In the areas connecting urban and suburban areas, and along transport
arteries, you must adjust the azimuth angle according to coverage target.
Generally, the base station address is not considered on the high mountains
in urban and suburban areas. To be more specifically, the high mountains
are those over 200 to 300 meters higher than above the sea-level).
Otherwise, not only strong interference and weak signals may be present
within the coverage area, but also the base stations are hard to be installed
and maintained on high mountains.
New base stations must be installed at the spots where the traffic is
convenient, the power supply is available, and the environment is secure. In
contrast, new base stations must not be installed at the spots near the radio
transmit stations with high power, radar stations, and other equipments
which produces great interference, because the interference-field intensity
cannot be greater than that defined by the base station.
The base station addresses must be far away from forests or woods to keep
the receiving signals from fading.
When selecting a base station address from high buildings in urban areas,
you can divide the network into several layers with the help of the building
height. The antenna height of major base stations must be a little higher
than the average height of buildings. Generally, the antenna height of the
base stations in populated urban areas ranges from 25 to 30 meters. In
suburban areas (or the antenna points to suburban areas), the antenna
height ranges from 40 to 50 meters.
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Caution:
Time dispersion mainly refers to the intra-frequency interference arising from the
time difference between the master signal and other multipath signal arriving at
the receiver in terms of space transmission. According to the requirements in
GSM protocols, the equalizer of the receiver must carry the time window with
16s (equivalent to 4.8 km). The multipath signal with time difference greater
than 16 s is regarded as intra-interference signal. In this case, you must
consider whether the level difference between the master signal and multipath
signal meet the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I), namely, the master signal is 12
dB greater than the multipath signal at least.
Antenna height
Antenna gain
Azimuth angle
Tilt angle
Feeder specifications
Background information
Local map
Relative tools (including digital camera, GPS, compass, ruler, and laptop
computer)
Note:
Make sure that all the materials and tools are usable before setting out.
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The GPS must be placed in an open land to position the latitude and
longitude of a base station
Make a detailed record of the surroundings around the base station, such as
the distribution of the buildings, facilities with strong interference, and the
equipments sharing the same base station address.
Field survey determines the layout of the base station addresses ultimately. The
field survey for the base station includes optical measurement, spectrum
measurement, and base station address survey. They are specified as follows:
Optical measurement
Measure if a barrier that may reflect electrical waves around the base
station, such as high buildings.
Spectrum measurement
Check if the electromagnetic environments around the base stations are
normal at present or in recent days.
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edge (m)
01
0.5
1 10
10 30
> 30
3.5
Table 1.2 Recommended height between antenna and roof for GSM 1800 MHz
Distance between antenna and building
edge (m)
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02
0.5
2 10
> 10
For horizontal arrangement, Lv =22 + 20lg (d/) (G1+G2) (S1 + S2) (dB)
Here,
S1 indicates the levels of the side lobes of the transmitter antenna in the 90
direction, in the unit of dBp, and it is a negative value relative to the main
beam.
S2 indicates the levels of the side lobes of the receiver antenna in the 90
direction, in the unit of dBp, and it is a negative value relative to the main
beam.
Value of S (dBp)
65fan-beam antenna
-18
90fan-beam antenna
-9
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120fan-beam antenna
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-7
Note:
The value of S can be determined according to the directional diagram of the
antenna. When the omni antenna is used, the S is 0.
Directional antenna
The horizontal distance between two antennas in the same sector must be
equal to or greater than 0.4m.
In different systems, the following requirements must be met when two antennas
are in the same sector and direction:
The vertical distance between the two antennas must be equal to or greater
than 0.5m.
The distance between the bottom of the antennas and the enclosing wall of
building roof must be equal to or greater than 0.5m.
The included angle between the line connecting the bottom of the antenna
to the antenna-facing roof and the horizontal direction must be greater than
15.
In addition, the included angle between the line connecting the two antenna
mounts and the antenna direction are required in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Range of the included angle between the line connecting two antenna
mounts and antenna direction
Antenna lobe width in horizontal plane (degree)
60-70
90
90
> 40-50
> 55
> 70
(2)
Omni antenna
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The distance between the bottom of the antennas and the enclosing wall of
building roof must be equal to or greater than 0.5m.
GSM 900MHz
945-960
890-915
CDMA
870-880
835-835
As listed in Table 1.1, the bands of the two systems are close to each other, the
interference against each other will easily occur. Mostly, the transmission of
CDMA2000 1X base station will interfere with the reception of GSM 900MHz
base station.
The disclosure signals of the CDMA band falling into the channels of the GSM
base station receivers will enhance the noise level of the GSM receivers. In this
case, the GSM uplinks become weak, which will reduce the coverage area of the
base station and worsen the quality of the network.
If there is not enough isolation between base stations or the transmitting filter
interfering base stations does not provide enough out-of-band attenuation, the
signals falling into the band of the interfered base station receiver may strong,
which will increase the noise level of the receiver.
The deterioration of the system performance is closely related to the strength of
interference signals, and the strength of interference signals is determined by the
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Here,
PTX-AMP indicates the output power at the amplifier of the interfering base
station, in the unit of dBm.
Pattenuation indicates
the
out-of-band
suppression
attenuation
at
the
transmitting filer.
Iisolation indicates the isolation between the antennas of the two base stations,
in the unit of dB.
Regulate the previous equation and the following equation can be obtained:
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Suppose the transmit channel number of CDMA2000 1X is the last one on its
working band, that is, 878.49MHz, the spurious signal level on the band of 890915MHz must be equal to or lower than -13dBm/100kHz. If you intend to put this
assumption into practice, you can filter and combine each transmitted channel
number by using band-limited filter with a bandwidth of only 1.23MHz. The bandlimited filter of this type has great out-of-band attenuation, which can reach 56 dB at 890
MHz and 80 dB at 909 MHz. Here you must consider the worst situation, that is,
the frequencies at the highest end of the CDMA system interfere with the
frequencies at the lowest end of the GSM system.
In this case, Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz) - 56 - Ib + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz)
Here Ib indicates the highest interference level (dBm) allowed by the receiving
end of the interfered base station. If the receiving sensitivity of the interfered
base station is ensured, the outside interference level are required to be 10 dB
lower than the back noise of the receiver. In this case, the sensitivity affected
only accounts to about 0.5 dB.
The back noise of the GSM receiver is the sum of the noise intensity, bandwidth,
and noise coefficient. If the noise coefficient is 8 dB, the back noise is
-174+noise coefficient+10lg (200000) = -174+8+53 = -113 (dBm). Therefore, the
maximum spurious interference allowed is -113-10 = -123 (dBm/200kHz).
As a result, the spurious interferences from other systems falling at the GSM
receivers are required to be smaller than -123 (dBm/200kHz); otherwise, the
spurious interferences will seriously affect the GSM system.
Therefore, Iisolation = (-13dBm/100kHz) 56 - Ib + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = -13- 56(-123dBm/200kHz) + 10lg (200kHz/100kHz) = 57 dBm/200kHz.
That is, according to the assumption, the isolation between a CDMA antenna and
GSM 900MHz antenna must be at least 57dB regardless whether they share the
address or not.
Many ways can be used to reduce the interference. For example, you can adopt
the following ways:
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To be specific, you can filter and combine each transmitted channel number
using a limited-band filter with the bandwidth of only 1.23 MHz. The band-limited
filter of this type has great out-of-band attenuation, thus the space distance
between the antennas of the CDMA system and GSM system must be
shortened.
In addition, to minimize the interference, you must keep suitable isolation
between the antennas of the CDMA system and GSM system.
The antenna isolation is calculated according to the following two formulas,
which has been introduced earlier:
For horizontal arrangement, Lv =22 + 20lg (d/) (G1+G2) (S1 + S2) (dB)
According to the two formulas, the requirements on the isolation between the
antennas of CDMA system and GSM 900 MHz system are specified in the
following three circumstances.
The antennas of the CDAM system and GSM 900MHz system do not share
the same address, with the antennas horizontally opposite to each other, or
the antennas of the two systems share the same address, with the antenna
type of omni antenna.
Suppose the effective gains of the antennas of the two systems in the
maximum radiation direction are 10 dBi (with the feeder loss considered),
and the interference signals are 890MHz, according to previous analysis,
the isolation between the CDMA system and GSM system is required at
least 57dB.
Therefore, the following equation can be obtained according to the previous
formula:
57 = 22 + 20lg (Dh/) (10 + 10)
And the horizontal distance between the two antennas is d = 190m.
Table 2.1 lists the isolation requirements between omni antennas of the two
systems.
Table 2.1 Isolation requirements between omni antennas of CDMA system
and GSM 900MHz system
Effective antenna gain in
Antenna
requirement (Db)
requirement (m)
10
57
190
10
57
599
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isolation
Antenna
distance
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The antennas of the CDMA and GSM 900 MHz system share the same
address (the antennas are installed on the same platform and horizontally
separated), with the antenna type of directional antenna.
Suppose that the two antennas are horizontally placed, and their tilt angle is
65, and that the effective gains of the two antennas in the radiation
direction are 15dBi.
And if the side lobe of the 65antenna is -18dB in the horizontal plane, the
effective gain of the antenna in this direction is (15 18) dBi = -3 dBi.
Therefore, 57=222+0lg (Dh/) - {(15+15) + [(-18) + (-18)]}.
According to the previous equation, the horizontal distance between the two
antennas are d = 9.5m.
Table 2.2 lists the isolation requirements between directional antennas of
CDMA and GSM 900 MHz systems.
Table 2.2 Isolation requirements between directional antennas of CDMA
and GSM 900 MHz systems
Antenna
isolation
Antenna
distance
requirement (Db)
requirement (m)
10
57
190
15
57
599
The antennas of the CDMA and GSM 900 MHz antennas share the same
address (the antennas are not installed on the same platforms of the iron
tower and vertically separated), with the antenna types of directional
antenna and omni antenna.
In this case, the equation 57=28 + 40 lg (k/) is present.
According to this equation, the vertical distance between the two antennas is
d = 1.8m.
Note:
The previous descriptions are just theoretical detections. In actual networking,
other types of antennas may be installed at the same address. In this case,
some equipment indexes must be considered, among which the important ones
are spurious radiation, the interference power of the interfering signals to
interfered signals, and the antenna isolation.
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Horizontal distance
Remarks
Gain = 10 dBi: 8m
Distance between
(recommended)
GSM 900MHz:
0.5m
Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx
GSM
0.25m
Gain = 10 dBi: 4m
Distance between
1800MHz: Tx-
Tx, Tx - Rx
2m
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GSM 900MHz
+
0.5m
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Gain = 10 dBi: 1m
GSM
Distance between
antenna and tower:
1800MHZ: Tx-
2m
Tx, Tx - Rx
Diversity requirement
GSM 900MHz:
Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx
4m (recommend
Distance between
6m)
GSM
1800MHz: Tx-
2m (recommend
Distance between
3m)
Tx, Tx - Rx
2m
sector
Vertical distance
antennas
(recommended)
GSM 900MHz:
0.5m
Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx
Horizontal distance
Remarks
For 65
No
antennas,
effect
from
antenna gain: 15
tower structure in
dBi: 0.4m
forward
direction
of the antenna
GSM
0.25m
For 65
antennas,
No
effect
from
1800MHz: Tx-
antenna gain: 15
tower structure in
Tx, Tx - Rx
dBi: 0.2m
forward
direction
of the antenna
Adjacent-sector
antennas
the
Vertical distance
Horizontal distance
Remarks
0.5m
0.5m
(on
same
platform)
GSM 900MHz:
Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx
GSM
1800MHz: TxTx, Tx - Rx
Diversity requirement
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GSM 900MHz:
Tx-Tx, Tx - Rx
Confideniality level
4m (recommend
No
effect
6m)
tower structure in
forward
from
direction
of the antenna
GSM
1800MHz: Tx-
2m (recommend
No
3m)
tower structure in
Tx, Tx - Rx
effect
forward
from
direction
of the antenna
Note:
The installation for GSM 900MHz and GSM 1800MHz antennas is flexible, but
no matter what specifications are used, they must meet the requirements on
isolation and distance. In addition, in actual projects, barriers are present
between antennas. For example, a tower is always present between two omni
antennas, so you must shorten the horizontal distance between them.
Description
Building height
Building
intensity
residential
areas:
the
distance
between
material
concretes.
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(2)
The address where the antenna should be installed in residential areas is hard to
be determined. Generally, when adopting micro cells, you can install the antenna
within a residential area near to the target coverage area.
In this case, the antenna can be installed in the following spots:
On pillars
For the residential areas large in size and regular in arrangement, the antenna
can be installed as shown in Figure 1.2.
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If the antenna is installed at a wall corner, the major lobe of the antenna can
radiate the space between buildings. Generally, the major lobe of the antenna
cannot face the walls of the buildings nearby directly.
If frequencies are reusable among these micro cells, the directions of antennas
must be consistent with each other. In addition, you can also use the cell splitter
to enable a cell to coverage the areas in two directions, as shown in Figure 1.4.
In this case, however, the frequency utilization ratio may decrease and extra
power splitter will introduce loss of 3 dB.
For the residential areas with regular arrangement, the directional antennas
whose horizontal beam width is 90 to 120 and vertical beam width is greater
than 30 are recommended.
Under certain conditions, the micro cell antenna can be installed on the pillars
within a residential area, as shown in Figure 1.4.
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Antenna selection
When the walls of a building is selected as an installed position, you can use the
build-in antenna of the micro cell directly, or other antennas with small size.
According to coverage features of residential areas, when selecting the
specifications for the micro cell antennas to be used, you must consider the
following factors:
Antenna gain
Polarization mode
The antenna gain is recommended less than 9 dBi for micro cell antennas.
Because the coverage area of a micro cell antenna is small and the installed
position is near to the coverage area, the antenna gain can be adjusted to a
smaller value, especially if the gain of an antenna is greater than 10dBi, its size
is large, which may cause opposition from residents.
The selection of the horizontal and vertical beam width for an antenna is related
to radio environment. If a micro cell antenna is installed on a wall, the antenna
height is lower than the average height of surrounded buildings. In this case, if
both the indoor coverage of lower floors and higher floors can be assured, you
must select the antennas with greater vertical beam width. According to the
height of buildings, you can select the directional antennas whose vertical beam
width ranges from 35to 80.
The selection of the horizontal beam width of the micro cell antenna and the
installed position of the antenna are related to coverage target. In this case, you
can select the directional antennas whose beam width ranges from 60 to 150,
or you can choose omni antennas or bi-directional antennas (8-shaped
antennas).
Both vertical polarization antennas and dual polarization antennas can be
selected for a micro cell. The coverage area of a micro cell in urban areas is
small, so the diversity reception is unnecessary. In this case, a vertical
polarization antenna can meet the coverage requirements in residential areas.
As for the dual polarization antenna, however, it is expensive and large in size,
so it is not recommended.
The visual effect must be emphasized for the micro cell antennas installed in
residential areas. They must be small and moderate. In addition, they must be
light for installation convenience. If the contract between the color of the antenna
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and that of the surrounded buildings is great, you must color the antenna with the
same color of the buildings.
Note:
In some cases, you should consider adopting dual-band antennas. When
selecting a small-sized antenna, you should consider whether its maximum
output power can bear the micro cell output power. When adopting short jumpers
instead of 7/8 feeders, you should consider whether the antenna connector (Nshaped male/female, 7/16 DIN header) matches the jumper connector.
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by a location area code (LAC), plays a key role in a GSM system. Therefore, this
section mainly introduces the principle for planning location areas.
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will increase. If the coverage of a location area is too larger, however, the
network will send a paging message in multiple cells until the mobile station is
paged. In this case, the PCH will be overloaded and the signaling flow at the Abis
interface will increase.
The calculation of location areas varies with the paging strategies designed by
different carriers. During early network construction stage, the traffic is not great,
so a location area can accommodate more TRXs. However, it is still necessary
for you to monitor the PCH load and traffic growth. When the traffic grows great,
you can enhance the PCH capacity by adding a BCCH to the system, but the
number of voice channels can be added is reduced by one accordingly.
Generally, the capacity of a location area is calculated as follows:
The number of paging blocks sent in each second the number of paging
messages sent in each paging block = the maximum paging times in each
second. As a result, the number of paging times in each hour, the traffic allowed
in each location area, and the number of carriers supported in each location area
can be deducted.
The followings introduce the items present in the previous paragraph
respectively.
(1)
For non-combined BCCH, the number of paging blocks sent in each second
= (9 AGB)/0.2345 (paging block/second).
For combined BCCH, the number of paging blocks sent in each second = (3
AGB)/0.2345 (paging block/second).
For non-combined BCCH, the AGB is 2 according to Huawei BSC. Therefore, the
number of paging blocks sent in each second is 29.7 (paging block/second);
when AGB is 0, it is 38.2 (paging block/second).
For combined-BCCH, the AGB is 1, so the number of paging blocks sent in each
second is 8.5 (paging blocks/second); when the AGB is 0, it is 12.7 (paging
block/second).
According to the previous analysis, the larger the number of AGB, the smaller the
number of the paging blocks sent in each second and the smaller the paging
capacity is. Moreover, the paging capacity of the combined BCCH is far less than
that of the non-combined BCCH.
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Note:
Generally, a combined-BCCH cell and a non-combined-BCCH cell are not
configured simultaneously within a LAC, and the number of AGB must be
consistent with a location area; otherwise the paging capacity of the location
area will decrease (now the paging capacity of the cell with the least paging
capacity is the paging capacity of the location area).
However, if the capacity of a location area is small and the LAC resource is
scarce, you can configure the combined-BCCH cell and non-combined-BCCH
cell within a LAC to enlarge the number of traffic channels for O1 and S111 base
stations.
(2)
The maximum paging times in each second is calculated by the following two
formulas:
If the IMSI paging mechanism is adopted, for non-combined BCCH, when AGB =
2, P = 59.47 (paging times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 76.47 (paging
times/second). For combined-BCCH, when AGB = 1, P = 16.99 (paging
times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 25.49 (paging times/second).
If the TMSI paging mechanism is adopted, for combined BCCH, when AGB = 2,
P = 118.95 (paging times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 152.93 (paging
times/second). For combined BCCH, when AGB = 1, P = 33.98 (paging
times/second); when AGB = 0, P = 50.98 (paging times/second).
According to the previous analysis, the paging capacity under IMSI paging
mechanism is half of that under TMSI paging mechanism.
(4)
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When designing the capacity for a location area, you must be attention that the
paging capacity of a location area cannot break its limit. For network expansion,
you can collect the times of the busy-hour paging orders delivered by BSC from
OMC, and then convert the times into the number of paging orders sent in each
second.
If no traffic measurement data is available, such as in the case of new network
construction, you can calculate the traffic allowed in each location area by
assuming a traffic model.
For example, if the average conversation duration is 60s and the ratio of the
times for the mobile station to be successfully paged to the times of total pages
is 30%, the 60s of conversation duration matches 1/60 calls (in the unit of
second. Erl), and 30% of calls is generated by the called parties. Therefore, the
successful calls of the 30% mobile stations are 0.05 times (that is, 1/60*30% =
0.005), in the unit of second. Erl.
If the 75% of the mobile stations respond to the first page and 25% respond to
the second page, the mobile stations responding to the third page can be
neglected. (It is just an assumption, which may be different from actual
conditions.). Therefore, 1.25 pages are needed if a mobile station is successfully
called each time (25% of the pages must be resent). In this case, the following
equation is present:
Y = 0.005*(1+25%) = 0.00625 paging times/(second. Erl)
Suppose the congestion on paging channels will occur when the paging capacity
is 50% greater than maximum theoretical paging capacity, the original paging
messages are still present even the paging queue is full in the BTS. In this case,
the paging capacity in one second is P*50%.
Therefore, the traffic allowed in each location area can be calculated according
to the formula T = P*50%/Y, and the specific values are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Traffic allowed in each location area
Paging
T (Erl)
AGB (block)
mechanism
IMSI
BCCH
combination mode
4757.86
Non-combined
BCCH
6117.25
Non-combined
BCCH
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1359.39
Combined BCCH
2039.08
Combined BCCH
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TMSI
9515.72
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Non-combined
BCCH
12234 .49
Non-combined
BCCH
(5)
2718.78
Combined BCCH
4078.16
Combined BCCH
Each TRX had 7.2 TCHs in average, so the maximum traffic of each TRX in each
hour is 7.2.
Therefore, the number of carriers supported in each location area can be
calculated according to NTRX = T/7.2 and the specific values are listed in
Table 1.2 Number of carriers supported in each location area (TRX/LA)
Paging
NTRX (TRX/LA)
AGB (block)
mechanism
IMSI
BCCH
combination mode
660
Non-combined
BCCH
849
Non-combined
BCCH
TMSI
188
Combined BCCH
283
Combined BCCH
1321
Non-combined
BCCH
1699
Non-combined
BCCH
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377
Combined BCCH
566
Combined BCCH
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Note:
All the previous assumptions do not include the effect of the point-to-point short
messages against on paging capacity. If the conversation times of a subscriber
are equal to the number of the short messages to be sent, and if the sent ratio
and received ratio are consistent with each other, the paging times/second. Erl
will double in busy hour and the capacity of the location area will reduce by half.
Therefore, some common short messages must be sent on CBCH.
5.8.3 Others
This section introduces some other information about location area design.
The LAC is a kind of number resource. Therefore, you must cooperate with
carries to plan location areas.
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Many methods can be used to expand the capacity of a GSM system, including:
However, all these methods cannot thoroughly solve the problems concerning
network capacity. As a result, the GSM 1800MHz network is introduced (uplink:
18051880 MHz; downlink: 17101785 MHz). And the network integrating GSM
900MHz and GSM 1800MHz can meet the growth of network capacity.
The application of GSM 1800MHz can bring the following advantages:
It does not occupy the bands of GSM 900MHz and has a communication
bandwidth of 75M. Therefore, it breaks the bottleneck of GSM 900MHz in
terms of frequency resources.
The GSM 1800MHz and GSM 900 MHz can share a base station, so a
GSM 1800MHz network can be finished in a short time, which is quite
helpful for network expansion.
Dual-band mobile phones now accounts for a major part of the total, so a
GSM 1800MHz network can provide services to the dual-band subscribers.
In this case, the capacity pressure on GSM 900MHz can be greatly eased.
Penetration loss
The penetration loss of the 900 MHz signals is greater than that of the 1800
MHz signals, but their difference is slight.
Diffraction loss
The longer the waves, the smaller the diffraction loss is. The diffraction
ability of the 1800 MHz signals is poorer than that of the 900 MHz signals.
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Outdoor coverage
The outdoor coverage can be easily realized when the distance between
base stations are not large. In necessary cases, you can add a GSM
1800MHz base station at the address of the original GSM base station. And
in some places, you should consider add a new base station.
Indoor coverage
To ensure that the indoor coverage of GSM 1800MHz is good, you must
control the distance between the base stations installed in urban areas
within 1000 meters. In China, however, the buildings in most cities are
constructed by concretes and metals, so the penetration loss is great. As
result, the distance between base stations in urban areas of China ranges
from 500 to 800 meters.
At the early network construction stage, the GSM 1800MHz base stations are
scattered in hotspot areas. When the capacity configured for a GSM 1800 MHz
base station is small, you must solve the problems, such as SDCCH congestion,
TCH congestion, and frequent update between GSM 1800MHz and GSM
900MHz. The cost in early construction stage is small.
Figure 1.1 shows the scattered coverage of GSM 1800MHz in hotspot areas.
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The coverage of the dual-band network of this mode is based on the original
GSM 900MHz network. The GSM 1800MHz base station is constructed in some
hotspot areas, so the seamless coverage of GSM 1800MHz is not available in
this case.
If a dual-band mobile phone starts conversation in an area covered by GSM
1800MHz, after leaving this coverage area, it hands over to the GSM 900MHz
cell where it originally was. And the handover of this type is called the inter-band
handover caused by coverage.
If a dual-band mobile phone starts the conversation in an area covered by GSM
900MHz, but because the traffic in this area is great, the mobile phone will hand
over to an area covered by GSM 1800MHz. And the handover of this type is
called the inter-band handover caused by capacity.
The scattered coverage in hotspot areas only relieves capacity problems in a
short term. Moreover, frequent inter-band frequency handover increase the
signaling load, which results in the loss of system capacity.
(2)
If the coverage of this mode is available; the GSM 1800 MHz network can share
greater traffic for GSM 900MHz network and expand the system capacity. In
addition, it is cost-effective.
(3)
If a GSM 1800MHz network adopts the coverage of this type, the advantages are
as follows:
The GSM 1800MHz network can share the traffic load for GSM 900MHz
network as much as possible.
Figure 1.2 shows the perfect seamless coverage of GSM 1800MHz in hotspot
areas.
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If 1800 MHz cells and 900 MHz cells are under the control of two MSCs
respectively, their location areas are different. Therefore, you must set
related parameters to maintain the mobile stations stay in the 1800 MHz
cells where the traffic is absorbed. In this case, the times for the mobile
station to handover between the two bands and reselect cells will decrease.
Meanwhile, when designing signaling channels, you must fully consider the
load resulted from location update.
If 1800 MHz cells and 900 MHz cells share a MSC, at the early network
construction stage, they are suggested to use the same location area
without affecting the network capacity. If the restriction on paging capacity is
present, two location areas must be divided for them either in terms of band
or geographic location, as shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.
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2)
When the number of dual-band subscriber grows large, each band must
share the traffic so that the inter-band handover times can be reduced.
Figure 2.1 shows the process of traffic guide and control strategies.
Cell selection
Directed retry
Idle mode
Call setup
Cell
reselection
Call
status
Co-BSC/MSC
handover control
In idle mode, when the mobile station is selecting cells after it is switched on
and reselecting cells when it is in standby state, you can set higher priorities
for the 1800 MHz cells by designing the system parameters, including CBQ,
CBA, CRO, TO, and PT. In this case, subscribers are more likely to stay in
the 1800 MHz cells. As a result, their calls are established on the 1800 MHz
cells.
2)
3)
In conversation state, the traffic must be guided to the 1800 MHz cells in
lower layers and levels according to the hierarchy cell structure. In addition,
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you can use Huawei dual-band handover algorithms so that the traffic load
can be allocated more properly.
Description
This layer consists of GSM 900 micro cells, and most of the
subscribers are gathering in this layer.
This layer consists of the GSM 1800MHz cells whose coverage area
is similar to that of the GSM 900 MHz cell. It is designed in case of
frequency resource emergency. In the future, most of the dual-band
subscribers will gather in this layer.
This layer consists of the mini cells of GSM 1800 MHz and GSM
900MHz. They are designed for covering hotspot areas and dead
zones.
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helpful for adjusting the traffic load in part of the areas. Therefore, the
hierarchical cell structure enhances the cooperation of the current network
equipments and meets the devolvement of the future network.
In terms of traffic priority, the cells in lower layers and levels has higher priorities,
namely, the cells in lower layers has the priority to absorb the traffic.
The handover algorithms of a dual-band network are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Handover algorithms of a dual-band network
Name
Description
algorithm
on path loss
a better cell.
Co-MSC/BSC
handover
control
algorithms
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The construction of a whole dual-band network can be divided into three stages,
namely, deployment preparation, signal 1800 MHz network debugging, and
900/1800 MHz dual-band network debugging.
I. Deployment perparation
The coordination of dual-band technologies and network planning must be
finished in this stage. The coordination of dual-band network technologies is a
prerequisite for the cooperation of different carriers networks. Network planning
is the first step in network construction and involves many tasks, including base
station address survey, channel number planning, electromagnetic background
test, coverage test, and so on.
The followings must be emphasized in dual-band cooperation:
The customers, the third party (the designing institute or the original
equipment supplier), and the new equipment supplier must be cooperate
with each other well.
If one party meets a tough problem during the debugging of the dual-band
network, the engineers from a third party must be present in site and help
position the problem.
The 900 MHz BSC and 1800 MHz BSC must synchronize their clocks with
the same source clock. Meanwhile, the clock of each base station in the
existing GSM 900 MHz network can lock the clock of the BSC, and the clock
of the BSC can lock the clock of the MSC.
Both the designing institute or the original equipment supplier and the new
equipment supplier must provide the project implementation plan, cutover
plan, and precise cell information.
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Theoretically, general subscribers can hand over to the 1800 MHz network, but
in fact, the handover relationship is not configured with the dual-band network,
so the general subscribers cannot enter the 1800 MHz network.
After that, you use the testing mobile phone which can access the network by
force to perform dialing test in each cell. If all goes normal, you can test
coverage, handover, power control, interference, downlink and uplink balance,
power adjustment, the coverage of the GSM 900MHz network, and the coverage
of the GSM 1800MHz network.
Through these tests, you can not only discover the problems present in the
networks, but also adjust the channel number, power, tilt angle, and parameter
setting and optimize the parameter configuration for the GSM 1800MHz cell. In
this case, the coverage and operation of the single GSM 1800MHz network can
be ensured.
Table 1.1 lists the test items during cell selection and handover
Table 1.1 Test items during cell reselection and handover
Test state
Test time
and C2.)
performs
handover
conversation state
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in
1800MHz cell.
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At this stage, you must configure the dual-band data for the GSM 900MHz and
1800MHz cells. The data includes neighbor cell relationship, layer and level
setting, handover type, and handover threshold. In this case, when a mobile
phone is in idle mode, it can reselect an 1800MHz cell, the GSM 1800MHz
network can absorb the traffic of dual-band subscribers, and the subscribers can
perform handover between 1800MHz cells and 900MHz cells.
At the beginning, you can control the GSM 1800MHz network to absorb only a
small part of the traffic of subscribers through adjusting the setting of CRO and
handover threshold. When good cell reselection and dual-band handover are
ensured, you can take measures to enable the GSM 1800MHz network to
absorb more traffic, with the prerequisites that no congestion is present among
cells and the network quality is ensured.
At this stage, the following parameters must be configured:
The parameters related to neighbor cell relationship, layer and level setting,
and handover.
Find out the problems present in the network through multiple means, such
as drive test.
2)
Adjust and optimize the network according to the problems so that the dualband network can run stably.
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3)
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Check if the dual-band network runs stably, analyze all the traffic statistic
data, and check the network operation indexes.
4)
Make sure the problems and take effective measures according to the
analysis of the drive test and traffic statistics.
5)
Adjust the related parameters and retest the network till the network indexes
meet the design requirements.
From the perspective of coverage, the complex indoor structure and the
shielding and absorbing effect of the buildings cause great radio wave
transmission loss. As a result, the signals in some areas may be weak,
especially the signals in the first and second floors in the underground are
quite weak, or even there are dead zones. In this case, mobile stations
cannot necessarily access the network, there is no paging response, or
subscribers are not in service areas.
The penetration loss is great, so the indoor coverage is not satisfying. In this
case, a large number of dead zones are present, so subscribers cannot
keep conversation.
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The network capacity is limited and the call connected ratio is low.
The frequency planning is hard to be performed for the network and the
network capacity is hard to be expanded.
The chapter analyzes the design of indoor coverage system from the following
aspects:
Frequency Planning
Traffic Control
Link budget
Pant MS sens RFm arg IFm arg BL LNFm arg L path G ant
Here,
Here, Lpath = 20logd (m) + 30logf (MHz) - 28 dB + . When there no barrier loss,
Lp = 20logd (m) + 30logf (MHz) - 28 dB. The indicates the loss caused by othe
r bariers.
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Table 1.1 lists the penetration loss caused by some typical barriers.
Table 1.1 Penetration loss caused by some typical barriers
Barrier
Partition wall
520 dB
Floor
> 20 dB
Furniture
215 dB
Thick glass
610 dB
Train carriage
1530 dB
Elevator
Around 30 dB
Tunnel curve
Rectangle tunnel
1015 dB/km
Cylindrical tunnel
3540 dB/km
Note:
Because the penetration in cylindrical tunnels is great, leaky cables are applied
in cylindrical tunnels.
In an indoor multi-antenna system, the link budget for test points must be in
accordance with the link with the minimum loss.
Under the same converge area, the EIRP at each antenna interface must be
consistent, and the error must be controlled within 10 dB.
To reduce uplink interference, you must properly set the maximum transit
power of the mobile station and enable the power control function of the
mobile station.
A certain margin must be leaved for error correction and future system
expansion.
The estimation and design for interference margin vary with the distance
from the outer wall. The smaller the distance, the larger the interference
margin is designed.
(2)
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Interference degree
Little interference
General interference
Great interference
Note:
The actual interference level changes with network layout and frequency replanning, and it can be tested according to actual situations.
(3)
The greater the interference in an area, the greater the interference margin
(IFmarg) is designed, and the higher the level the mobile station needs to receive,
as listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Relationship between interference and mobile station receiving level
Actual level interference degree
Great
-65
General
-75
Little
-85
Note:
When a dual-band system is adopted in the indoor environment, the indexes of
mobile station receiving level are designed according to the 1800 MHz system
standard.
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Single cell
Multi-cells
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Closed building
A closed building has the characteristics, such as thick outer wall, great signal
attenuation, and little leakage. In addition, it is little affected by outdoor intrafrequency cells. Therefore, the frequency between floors is easily to be planned.
For the antenna design guideline in a closed environment, see Figure 1.3.
Half-open environment
For a half-open building, the outer wall is made of glasses, so the signal
attenuation is small. Within the building are the open conference halls, which are
greatly affected by outdoor intra-frequency cells, so you must plan dedicated
frequencies or adopt the multi-antenna system with low output power to limit the
edges of the indoor cells within the building, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Frame-structure building
For a frame-structure building, the number of internal walls is large and they are
thick. Therefore, if the antenna is installed at the corridors, the antenna output
power must be high so that good coverage can be ensured. In this case, signals
will leak at the windows near the corridor, so you must plan dedicated
frequencies for the building. The distance of the intra-frequency cells between
floors is larger than that in other environments. For the antenna design guideline
in frame-structure building, see Figure 1.5.
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Office building
The indoor environment of office buildings requires high grade of services, so its
coverage is realized by several directional and omni antennas. You can control
the coverage area easily through properly designing the effective radiation power
in the cell. For design guideline, see Figure 1.6.
Parking area
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Supermarket
III. Survey
The antenna design and installation is finally decided according to the survey,
which includes the following aspects:
Installation position
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According to the survey, you must output the final topological structure diagram,
antenna cabling scheme, and list of materials. Generally, the omni antenna is
installed at the ceiling center. The small directional antenna is hung on the inner
side of the outer wall, with the radiation directed to indoor part. In this case, the
effect of the antenna against the outdoor system can be reduced to the
minimum, so the C/I requirement of the outdoor system can be met.
If possible, you can test the coverage and adjust the antenna design according
to the test result, or re-plan the frequency to ensure the voice quality. Generally,
if the radiation power at the antenna interface is 10 dBm, the 2 dBi small indoor
omni antenna is used. In this case, if the walls are densely distributed in the
areas within 30 meters from the antenna, the coverage level can reach -70 dBm.
Characteristic
Example
service area
type
Public
Airport, shopping
service area
and night.
ground.
Commercial
service area
The
existed
fixed
networks
are
Office
building
frequently used.
and commercial
hotels
be calculated.
ranks.
of
high
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For the cell organization mode of distributed antenna system, see Figure 1.2.
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The interference on the TCH frequencies can be reduced with the help of
radio frequency hopping.
If the hierarchical cell structure is not used, the cell with the strongest signal
level is the service cell, and the interference from neighbor frequencies can
be neglected.
If the hierarchical cell structure is used, the cell with the strongest signal
level cannot necessarily be the service cell, so you must take measures to
reduce the interference from neighbor frequencies.
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However, the actual conditions are quite complicated. For example, the signals
outside of the building may be strong. In this case, if a mobile station is powered
off, it may camp on an outside cell. Therefore, when optimizing the network, you
must set the one-way adjacent cell and two-way adjacent cell according to actual
conditions and set the parameters, such as CRO and TO to a proper value
according to the regularity of cell selection and reselection. In addition, you can
set the indoor cells to a high priority so as to reserve more traffic. And the interlayer handover threshold and hysteresis are defined and adjusted according to
actual conditions.
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Minimum receiving level in the tunnel (generally, it ranges from -85 dBm to
-102 dBm)
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form. ITU-R suggests an indoor propagation model on page 1238, which is also
effective for tunnel coverage. The formula is as follows:
Lpath = 20 lg f + 30 lg d + Lf (n) - 28 dB
Here,
n indicates the number of floors lying between the mobile station and
antenna.
The Lf (n) can be neglected in tunnel coverage, so the following equation can be
applied in the calculation of the radio propagation in tunnels. That is:
Lpath = 20 lgf + 30 lg d - 28 dB
Table 1.1 lists the path loss in different tunnels.
Table 1.1 Path loss in different tunnels
Distance (m)
50
82.0
88.1
100
91.0
97.0
150
86.3
102.1
200
100.1
106.1
300
105.3
111.4
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namely, the donor signal level meets the requirements of a repeater (for
example, -70 dBm); a repeater can work as the signal source for the tunnel
coverage. With the increase of traffic, however, you must use GSM base stations
to replace the repeaters.
Adequate isolation must left between donor antenna and retransmission
antenna, though it will cause difficulty in antenna installation. Generally, the logperiodical antenna with great front-to-back ratio is used as the retransmission
antenna.
The general antenna (wireless repeater), coaxial cable, and optical fiber (optical
repeater) can connect a repeater to a donor cell.
For tunnel coverage, the installation space and auxiliary equipments are quite
limited, so micro cell base stations and repeaters instead of macro cell base
stations are often applied in tunnel coverage.
In mountain areas, repeaters are more likely used because strong signal level
often exists at the mountain tops near the tunnel. In this case, the antenna
isolation requirement can be easily met. If the signal level of the existed network
near the tunnel is not strong enough, you can use a micro cell for the tunnel
coverage.
Power splitter
Power splitter
Antenna
This section introduces three tunnel coverage solutions based on the coaxial
distributed antenna system.
I. Solution 1
Figure 1.1 shows the tunnel coverage solution based on the bi-directional
passive distributed antenna system.
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Lpath (d) indicates the path loss from the first bi-directional antenna to the
tunnel entrance.
If introducing the previous data to the equation, you can obtain the sum of the
Lpath (d) and Lcable (d), that is, 117 dB.
For the relationship between distance d and Lpath (d) and Lcable (d), see
Figure 1.2, in which the curve indicates Lpath (d) and the slant line indicates
Lcable (d).
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Pout1 Lcable (261m) Lcable (x) Ljumper + Gant Lpath (x) = - 85dBm
+ 8dB90%_loc.Prob
Plus the two equations, you can obtain the value of x, that is, 100m. This means
that when no amplifier is adopted, two antennas can coverage a tunnel distance
of 722m, namely, 2*(261 + 100) m = 722m.
If you adopt cascaded antennas, the transmit power is relative low due to the
coaxial cable loss. In this case, you can use the amplifier to amplify the power.
II. Solution 2
If a tunnel is not long, you can adopt a simpler coverage mode, as shown in
Figure 1.1.
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2)
3)
Estimate the length of the leaky cable between the feeder source and the
first amplifier
4)
5)
Coupler loss
Number of carriers
Coverage probability
Coverage factor indicates the loss in the areas 2 meters beyond the leaky cable
(along the vertical direction). This loss includes the coupler loss of the leaky
cable and protection margin required by the coverage probability. If 90% of
coverage probability is required, you must add 8dB to the medium level. Some
leaky cables specify the relationship between the coverage probability and
coupler loss.
The coverage factor is determined by the parameters, such as coupler loss, RF
carrier number, coverage probability, and tunnel type. For the decision of
coverage factor in concreter tunnels, see Figure 1.1. For the decision of
coverage factor in metal tunnels, see Figure 1.2. When deciding the coverage
factor, you can fix a point in the graph and mark a horizontal line through this
point, and this line intersects required coverage probability. This intersection
point is the coverage factor.
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II. Decide cable length between GSM signal source and the first amplifier
Before deciding cable length between GSM source and the first amplifier, you
must obtain the following information:
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Jumper loss: 1 dB
Connector loss: 1 dB
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When calculating the power at a point of the feeder, you must subtract the feeder
propagation loss from the GSM signal source. If a wireless repeater with an
output power of 18 dBm (18 carriers) is used as the GSM signal source, and the
attenuation from the jumper to feeder, and from the feeder to the leaky cable is 7
dB (That is, the power from the repeater is transmitted from a jumper to a feeder,
and then from the jumper to a leaky cable, so four connectors are needed.
Generally, the attenuation is 2 dB for each jumper, 1 dB for each feeder, and 0.5
dB for each connector, so the total attenuation is 7 dB.), the transmit power at
this point is 11 dB. For the connection of leaky cable, see Figure 1.1.
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attenuation is 4.3dB/100 for the leaky cable, you can mark a plumb line at the
point indicating 4.3dB. This plumb line will intersect the curve indicating 19 dB at
a point, and then you mark a horizontal line starting from this point. The
horizontal line will intersect the right vertical axis at a point. And this point shows
the cable length. According to this example, the distance between the signal
source and the first amplifier is 440m (that is, 19/4.3 = 440m).
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If the amplifier is not added, the signal level output by the leaky cable for the
longest transmission distance is equal to the difference of the minimum
acceptable signal level and the coverage factor.
The signal level at the leaky cable beyond the longest transmission distance may
be lower the minimum acceptable level, so an amplifier must be added to amplify
the signals to the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier. The
amplification of this power is related to the specifications of the amplifier and the
number of carriers. If the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier is
known, the amplifier gain can be calculated as follows:
Needed amplifier gain = the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier
(it depends on the number of carriers) (the minimum acceptable signal level
coverage factor)
Along the leaky cable, the maximum output power allowed by each carrier of a
bi-directional amplifier is related to the number of carriers that have been
amplified. This is considered mainly for the intermodulation interference is
present, because the intermodulation interference will increase with the total
number of carriers that have been amplified, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Relationship between the maximum output power allowed by a single
carrier and the number of carriers that have been amplified
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Needed amplifier gain = the minimum acceptable signal level coverage factor +
the maximum output power allowed by a single carrier.
According to the previous equation, if the minimum acceptable signal level is -85
dBm, the coverage factor is -77, and the maximum output power allowed by a
single carrier is 5 dBm, the needed amplifier gain is 13 dB.
The cable length between the feeder source and the first amplifier
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Before deciding which coverage solution should be adopted, you must consider
the followings:
Generally, if the existed signal level near the tunnel entrance (including nearby
mountains) is lower than -80 dBm, the micro base station is recommended. If it is
greater than -80 dBm, the micro base station or the repeater is recommended. If
problems concerning transmission are present, the repeater is recommended.
When using the repeater, you must consider that certain isolation is required
between repeaters.
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into the tunnel. In this case, handover failure may occur and call drop will be
resulted in.
To solve this problem, you can consider adopting the following methods:
Adopt the bi-directional antenna for the tunnel coverage, because it can
provide enough overlapping area for handover.
The Huawei BTS3001C (the maximum output power is 8W) is used as the
GSM signal source.
The lowest receiving level is designed to -85 dBm, and the coverage
probability is 90% (with a protection margin of 8 dB).
For railway tunnel coverage, because the train will affect signal
transmission, if the antenna is installed at the tunnel entrance, the protection
margin must be increased by 10 dB. If the antenna is installed in the tunnel,
the protection margin must be increased by 5dB.
According to these assumptions, if a micro base station (39 dBm) is used as the
GSM signal source, the coverage distance is 400m when the antenna with a gain
of 8 dBi is installed at the tunnel entrance, and the coverage distance is 480m
when the bi-directional antenna with a gain of 5 dBi is installed in the tunnel.
If a repeater (33 dBm) is used as the GSM signal source, the coverage distance
is 250m when the antenna with a gain of 8 dBi is installed at the tunnel entrance,
and the coverage distance is 360m when the bi-directional antenna with a gain of
5 dBi is installed in the tunnel.
Therefore, for the tunnels shorter than 500m, you can use the combination of a
micro base station and a single antenna (or a repeater) for the tunnel coverage.
For curve tunnels, you can install a bi-directional antaean in the tunnel.
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According to on-site survey on the cross-section, the available antenna size, and
the tunnel length, you can use the antenna with a higher gain to coverage the
tunnels a little longer than 500m.
The Huawei BTS3001C (the maximum output power is 8W) is used as the
GSM signal source.
The lowest receiving level is designed to -85 dBm, and the coverage
probability is 90% (with a protection margin of 8 dB).
The leaky cable with the specification of SLWY-50-22 and the radial loss of
5dB/100 m is used.
The coupler loss may be 77 dB when the 90% of signals are received.
According to these assumptions, if a micro base station (39 dBm) is used as the
GSM signal source, the coverage distance is 800m when only the leaky cable
but no amplifier is used. If a repeater (33 dBm) is used as the GSM signal
source, the coverage distance is 680m when only the leaky cable but no
amplifier is used. The coverage distance will be larger if leaky cables with
smaller loss are used.
For the coverage of still longer tunnels, you must use amplifiers to amplify
signals. That is, you can use either the distributed antenna system or the leaky
cable for the coverage solution. In terms of technical indexes and installation
space, coverage solution based on leaky cable is recommended. In terms of
cost, you must select a suitable coverage solution base on actual conditions.
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I. Repeater types
For the division of repeater types, see Table 1.1.
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Type
Remark
Wireless repeater
standard
Transmission
mode
side
must
have
the
optical
transmission capability.
Channel
Bandwidth selection
bandwidth
repeater
Channel
selection
repeater
New style
Solar
energy
repeater
Product type
Wireless
frequency
selection repeater
Optical
frequency
selection repeater
Wireless
wideband
repeater
Optical
wideband
repeater
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Repeater
cell.
transmission
equipments
are
unnecessary.
A micro cell can expand the system
must
prevent
the
repeater
from
Note:
The filter of an intra-frequency repeater will produce a delay of about 5s.
Theoretically, the maximum effective coverage distance of a GSM cell will be
smaller than 35km in this case.
A GSM system must enable the dynamic power control function, which is
transparent to a repeater. Generally, you must adopt the automatic level control
technologies (ALC) for a repeater.
Note:
When the ALC technology is applied to a repeater, if a mobile station is too near
to the repeater, the repeater will reduce the gains for all the mobile stations
within its service area. In this case, the conversation quality of some mobile
stations will become poor, or even call drop may occur; especially the mobile
stations far away from the repeater are greatly affected.
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For the base stations with radio frequency and frequency hopping, if the
frequencies in the frequency hopping set outnumber the paths selected by
the repeater, the conversation cannot be maintained.
When the channel number of the donor cell of the repeater changes, you
must adjust the channel number, otherwise the problems such as channel
assignment failure, call drop, and interference will occur.
The wideband repeater allows the base station to adopt frequency hopping, and
you do not have to adjust the channel number of the repeater after the channel
number of the donor cell changes if the channel number is within the bandwidth
of the repeater. However, the wideband repeater will amplify all the signals within
the band, so it causes great interference against other cells.
No matter whether the optical fiber or wireless repeater is applied, the sum of the
radius of the service area of the repeater and the distance between the repeater
and base station cannot break the TA limitation. For general base stations, the
distance between a repeater and the base station must be shorter than 35
kilometers.
The optical repeater can be used in the areas where the GSM radio signals
cannot reach and no space is left for a repeater. Because the transmission loss
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of optical fiber is small and its bandwidth is wide, the optical repeater is quite
helpful for transmitting RF signals.
Either an omni antenna or a directional antenna can be selected for an optical
repeater according to the actual landforms. For an optical repeater, its
transmission does not have to be isolated from the reception. In addition, the
address of an optical repeater is easy to be decided. Generally, an optical
repeater is applied in the dead zones within countryside, highroads, touring
areas, factories, and urban areas.
In remote mountain areas and along highroads, you can also consider using a
solar energy repeater.
In conclusion, the repeater is used for the following purposes:
Strength the field strength and enlarge converge of the base stations in
urban areas.
For the application of the wireless repeater and optical repeater, see Figure 1.1
and Figure 1.2.
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The low-noise power amplifier processes the signals (received by the donor
antenna) from downlink carriers.
2)
The signals (900 MHz RF signals) are down converted into 71 MHz
intermediate frequency (IF) signals.
3)
The IF filter (with a bandwidth of 200 KHz) amplifies the 71 MHz IF signals
and up converts the signals into the 900 MHz RF signals.
4)
The uplink signals are also processed according to the previous procedures.
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A repeater address must lie between the donor base station and the dead
zone, and the azimuth angle between the donor antenna and the
retransmission antenna cannot be smaller than 90, as shown in the
following figure.
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When the repeater is used to coverage the dense residential areas at the
edges of the urban area, it cannot face the buildings, because great
penetration loss will be caused. In this case, the repeater must be installed
at the one side of the building, as shown in the following figure.
The repeater address must ensure the received signal level required by the
repeater. Generally, the received signal level ranges from -50 dBm to -80
dBm.
No strong carrier whose channel number is the same as that of the donor
base station is present at near the repeater address.
Select the proper antenna gain according to the signals and coverage
condition
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Do not adopt the omni antenna because the wireless repeater is affiliated to
the intra-frequency relay system, otherwise the system will perform selfexcitation.
The communication between the donor antenna and the donor base station
antenna is point-to-point communication, so you must select the antenna
with high gain or narrow horizontal beam width. For example, to reduce
interference, you can select the reflector antenna or the log-periodical
antenna.
Here, d indicates the distance between the donor antenna and retransmission
antenna, in the unit of meter. Gt and Gr indicate the antenna gain relative to the
major lobe in the direction of the two antennas. If the two antennas are back-toback installed, Gt and Gr indicate the front-to-back ratio of the antenna, as
shown in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.4 Antenna isolation when donor antenna and retransmission antenna
are horizontally installed
As shown in Figure 1.4, the donor antenna and retransmission antenna are
installed on the top of the building. Suppose the host gain is 100 dB, the isolation
between the two antennas can be 120 dB. If the front-to-back ratio of the donor
antenna and the retransmission antenna is 30 dB, when no barriers are present
between the two antennas, the requirement on the isolation can be met.
If the space loss of the signals between the two antennas is 60 dB, the horizontal
isolation distance can be obtained, that is, d = 26m.
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During project implementation, you must select the antenna installation position
according to on-site measurement. You can use a signal source and a receiver
for the repeater. If the signal attenuation between the signal source and the
receiver reaches 60 dB, it means that the antenna installation position meets the
requirement on antenna isolation.
When installing the antenna for a repeater, you must pay attention to the
following items:
If the antennas are horizontally installed, the host of the repeater must be
installed between the donor antenna and the retransmission antenna (it
must be nearer to the donor antenna.)
For downlinks, Pbout - EDoPL + GRD - LRF + GRA - Lpass - Pmn = Pmin.
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For uplinks, Pmout - Lpass + GRA - LRF + GRU - EDoPL - Pbn = Pbin.
Here,
Lpass indicates the path loss the mobile stations from the repeater to the
service area.
If the uplink EDoPL and downlink EDoPL are equal to the uplink path loss and
the downlink path loss from the repeater and mobile station, the attenuation
margin of the base station is equal to that of the mobile station. Therefore, if you
subtract the formula calculating uplink balance from the formula calculating
downlink balance, you can get Pbout - Pmout + GRD - GRU = Pmin - Pbin.
If the links are balance, the equation P min - Pbin = Dsens = MSsens- BTSsens is present.
In this case, the formula calculating link balance is P bout - Pmout + GRD - GRU = Dsens.
Therefore, the Dsens is fixed after the base station equipments are selected.
Moreover, the output power of the base station and mobile station may be
decided in GSM system planning. As a result, to achieve the balance of the
whole links, you need to adjust the uplink gain and downlink gain of the repeater
only.
The followings employ the repeater system installed in outdoors as an example
to calculate the whole link balance.
For downlink budget of the outdoor repeater , output power of the transmitter
(+43dBm) loss of the combiner (4dB) EdoPL (90dB) = input power of the
repeater (-51dBm) + downlink gain of the repeater (80dB) = downlink output
power of the repeater (+29dBm) feeder loss of the retransmission antenna
(3dB) + gain of the retransmission antenna (18dBi) path loss of the repeater in
the coverage area (127dB) = input level of the mobile station (-83dBm)
attenuation margin (20dBm) = the mobile station sensitivity (-103dBm).
Note:
To obtain the value of EDoPL, you can measure the input level of the donor
repeater and output level of the base station combiner first, and then obtain the
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difference between the two, and the difference is the value of EDoPL. In addition,
the gain of the mobile antenna must be converted to 0 dBi.
For uplink budget of the outdoor repeater, output power of the mobile station
transmitter (+33dBm) path loss of the repeater in the coverage area (127dB) +
gain of the retransmission antenna (18dBi) feeder loss of the retransmission
antenna (3dB) = input power of the repeater (-79dBm) + uplink gain of the
repeater (80dB) = output power of the repeater (+1dBm) EdoPL (90dB) = input
level of the base station (-89dBm) attenuation margin (20dBm) = base station
sensitivity (-109dBm).
Note:
Because you do not have to consider the diversity function, the attenuation
margin on uplinks is the same as that on downlinks. According to the previous
link budget, the downlinks are restricted by the output power of the repeater, the
uplinks are restricted by the output power of the mobile station, and the noise
restricts the maximum gain (EDoPL-10 dB), so the link balance is present.
However, this is the most common situation. Actually, you must calculate the
margin for all links when installing or optimizing the repeater system. The latest
repeater supports the uplink gain and downlink gain to be set respectively.
Hereunder is an example.
The measured signal strength at the edges of the base station cells is
-93dBm.
The microwave link tower on the top of the hill near the base station is
selected as the address of the repeater.
In the areas (including mountains) 350m below the top of the tower, the
received level of the mobile station is -71 dBm.
The antenna is installed at 15 meters under the tower top and faces the
base station.
If the previous conditions are present, the signals output by the repeater are -54
dBm. If a plane antenna with a gain of 17 dBi and a horizontal azimuth angle of
60 degrees is installed at the top of the tower and the antenna radiates to the
reverse direction of the donor antenna, the requirements on antenna isolation
can be met even if the gain of the repeater reaches 85 dB. In this case, the
output power of the repeater is 30 dBm. And the level of the signals in the areas
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along the highroad which are 20 km beyond the tower can reach -90 dBm.
Therefore, the radius of the cell along the highroad is enlarged by 50%.
Note:
If a retransmission antenna is installed at the top of the tower, you must ensure
that the received signal level in the zero point filling areas near the tower.
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If the third order section of the amplifier of a typical repeater is 50 dBm, and the
intermodulation level must be lower than -45 dBc according to the requirement of
the wireless communication institutes in Britain, the relationship of the output
power of each carrier and the number of carriers is listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Relationship of output power of each carrier and the number of carriers
of a repeater
The number of carriers
+24.5
+21.5
10
+20.5
20
+17.5
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Confideniality level
However, the repeater will amplify the same frequency and it takes some time for
the repeater to process the signal, so there is a delay for each signal segment. If
the delay is greater than the time for the GSM system to identify the time
window, the intra-frequency interference will occur. Therefore, you must consider
the effect of the delay when adopting cascaded repeaters, because the delay will
also accelerate the time dispersion and shorten the coverage distance.
If adopting the optical repeater, you must consider that the transmission speed of
the signals in optical fibers is 2/3 that of in free space, namely, if the extension
cell technology is not used, the maximum transmission distance of the signals in
optical fiber is 35 km multiplies 2/3 (about 23.3 km) due to the restriction on
transmission delay.
In addition, if one of three synchronous cells adopting the optical repeater, the TA
of two cells will be different due to the difference of transmission mode and rate.
In this case, the synchronous handover failure will occur. Therefore, you must
adopt the asynchronous handover to obtain the TA of a new cell, which works as
the handover target cell.
The delay processing varies with repeater types. Some take 2 to 3 s and some
takes 5 to 6s. In a GSM system, the delay of two signals cannot be greater than
16s. For the effect of repeater delay processing against time dispersion, see
Figure 1.1.
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Confideniality level
coverage area. Therefore, you must select the signal of the secondary cells in
the coverage areas of the repeater instead of the signals of the major service cell
as the source signal of the repeater. In this case, the time dispersion caused by
overlap can be avoided.
In this case, the path loss between the base station and the repeater is T b-Dr, so
Rb = Ut (Tb-Dr). As a result, if the repeater does not affect the base station, R b <
DN, so the following two inequities are present:
Ut < Tb-Dr + DN
According to the previous analysis, the repeater does not affect the base station
if the uplink background noise level output by the repeater host is lower than (T bDr+DN). From this perspective of review, the background noise must be
particularly emphasized in repeater planning because it is easier to bring
interference than other types of base stations.
Type/band
Power (W)
Gain (dB)
Noise
3rd order
No.
Reference
/channel
Downlink
Downlink
Figure
intercept
channels
selective
(Uplink)
(Uplink)
(dB)
(dBm)
Downlink
Downlink
(Uplink)
(Uplink)
AFL
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of
Size
(mm)
GSM
Band
900MHz
1,
5,
10,
20, 25
Confideniality level
4.5 (4.5)
40,
47,
95 (30, 50,
50,
54
80, 95)
(40, 47,
N/A
460x
550x
220
50, 54)
(10W)
GSM
Band
1800MHz
1,
5,
10,
20,25
30, 50, 80
<
(30,
(<4.5)
50,
4.5
80)
40,
47,
50,
54
N/A
460x
550x
(40, 47,
220
50, 54)
(10W)
GSM
Channel
1,
5,
10,
20,25
30, 50, 80
6.0 (6.0)
40,
47,
50,
54
80, 95)
(40, 47,
1, 2, 4, 8
460x
550x
220
50, 54)
(10W)
GSM
Channel
1800MHz
1,
5,
10,
20,25
30, 50, 80
< 6.0
40,
47,
(< 6.0)
50,
54
80, 95)
1, 2, 4, 8
460x
550x
(40, 47,
220
50, 54)
(10W)
Allgon
AR 1200
Band
50-90
52
N/A
440(W)
GSM
530(H)
900MHz
174(D)
AR 120
Channel
GSM
24 dBm
40-60
< 6.0
(20) dBm
285(H)
900MHz
AR 2100
230(W)
120(D)
Channel
33 dBm
50-90
1-4, 5-8
440(W)
GSM
(2-channel)
530(H)
1800MHz
30 dBm
174 or
(4-channel)
240(D)
Mikom
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MR 340
Channel
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32 dBm
85-89
(2-channel)
(2-channel)
28 dBm
82-86
(4-channel)
(4-channel)
6-8
2-channel
425(W)
modules
255(H)
per
cabinet
[2]
5.13 Conclusion
Network planning is the foundation of a mobile communication network,
especially the wireless parts in a mobile communication network costs great and
is of vital importance to network quality, so you must make a good planning at
earlier stage, which is helpful for network expansion and service update in the
future.
Network planning requires engineers to analyze coverage, decide network
layers, and analyze traffic based on relative technologies and parameters, and
finally output the results of RF planning, including base station layout and scale.
RF planning, as well as the application of cell parameters, determines the cell
coverage. The cell coverage must be properly designed so that the mobile
station can always enjoy the best service at the best cells. In addition, the cell
coverage must be designed in a way conducive to network capacity expansion.
This chapter also introduces the solutions to dual-band network, indoor
coverage, tunnel coverage, and so on. Last, this chapter introduces the repeater
application.
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110(D)