Q.

1 Characteristics of Management

Following are the characteristics of management:

Organized Activities: Management is a process of organized
activities. Groups of people cannot be involved in the performance of
activities without organized activities. Management comes into
existence where a group of people are involved in achieving a common
objective. The organized activities may take a variety of forms ranging
from a tightly structured organization to a loosely-knit organization.
Existence of Objectives: The existence of objectives is a basic
criterion of every human organization. The organizational objectives
are the desired state of affairs which an organization attempts to
realize. This realization of objectives is sought through the coordinated
efforts of the people constituting an organization.
Decision-making: Management process involves decision making at
all levels. Decision-making describes the process by which a course of
action is selected as the way to deal with a specific problem. If there is
only one alternative, the question of decision making does not arise.
The quality of alternatives which a manger selects determines the
organization’s performance, and the future of the organization.
Relationship among resources: The essence of management is
integration of various organizational resources. Resources include
money, machine, materials, and people. Management is concerned
with the proper utilization of human resources which, in turn, utilize
other resources.
Working with and through people: Management involves working
with people and getting organizational objectives achieved through
them. Working through people is interpreted in terms of assigning
activities to subordinates.

Q.2 Intellectual Abilities

Intellectual Abilities
Intellectual abilities are those required to perform mental activities. IQ
tests are designed to ascertain one s general intellectual abilities.
Examples of such tests are popular college admission tests such
as, the SAT, GMAT, and LSAT. The seven most commonly cited
dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: number aptitude,
verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning,
deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory (Dunnette,
1976).

Dimension Description

Job Example

Number aptitude Ability to do speedy and accurate

Accountant
arithmetic
Verbal
Communication
Read write speaking ability Senior managers
Perceptual Speed Identify similarities and differences
Investigators
quickly and accurately
Inductive reasoning Logical sequence drawing Market Researcher
Deductive reasoning Ability to use logic and assess the
Supervisors
implications of the argument
Spatial Visualization Ability to imagine Interior decorator
Memory Ability to retain and recall past
Sales person-
Remembering
experience
customer s name

Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their

intellectual abilities. A review of the evidence demonstrates that
tests that assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities
are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs.

In this regard, the theory of multiple intelligences was developed by

Gardner (1983, 1993). This theory suggests eight different
intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in
children and adults. It has been claimed that our intelligence or ability
to understand the world around us is complex. Some people are better
at understanding some things than others. For some, it is relatively
easy to understand how an automobile works, but it is immensely
difficult for some to understand and use a musical instrument. For
others music might be easy but playing football is difficult. The
several different intelligences are listed below:

1. Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
3. Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
5. Musical intelligence ("music smart")
6. Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
7. Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
8. Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Advantages

Highly reliable.
Verbal reasoning and numerical tests have shown high validity
for a wide range
of jobs.
The validity rises with increasing complexity of the job.
Combinations of aptitude tests have higher validities than individual
tests alone.
May be administered in group settings where many applicants
Can be tested at the same time.
Scoring of the tests may be completed by computer scanning
equipment.
Lower cost than personality tests.

Physical Abilities

Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less skilled

and more standardized jobs. Research has identified nine basic
abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. Individuals
differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities. High
employee performance is likely to be achieved when management
matches the extent to which a job requires each of the nine
abilities and the employees abilities.
Q.3 Classifications of Personality Types

Personalit y Determinants

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:

1. Heredity

The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted

fact. Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament,
energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to
describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The
heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual‘s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located
in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three
different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument
that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual's
personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human
behavior and temperament among young children. The second
addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the
third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and
across situations.

2. Environment

Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational

factors. The environmental factors influence personality of an
individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences
which determine the individual‘s view about life, both positive and
negative.

3. Culture

Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on

from generation to generation and create consistencies over time.
Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways
that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural
groups have different attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the
basis of culture, an
individual‘s personality cannot be always assessed, since
individuals within the same culture (but from different family and
sub-cultural background) have been seen to differ in their
behavior. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the
range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and
the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced
and hence learned." Culture requires both conformity and
acceptance from its members.

4. Family

One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person

is the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a
person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such
influence will depend upon the socio-economic level of the family,
family size, race, religion, parent's educational level and geographic
location. The parents play an especially important part in the
identification process, which is important to the person's early
development.

According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three

different perspectives.

i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including

feelings and attitudes between child and model. Parents being the
first model.

ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to

be like the model.

iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child

actually takes on the attributes of the model. From all three
perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the
understanding of personality development.

5. Situation

Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the

personality of a person. Every individual goes through different
type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the
events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her
life, can serve as important determinants of his/her personality. A
trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change
the structure of his/her own personality.

6. Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant

persons, groups and especially organizations, which greatly influence
an individual's personality. This is commonly called the socialization
process. Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires,
from the enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are
open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesized and
absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a
mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the
immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or
friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members
of the work group - play influential roles.
Q.4 Barriers to Perception

It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their

sensory impressions. Human sensory organs like ears, eyes, nose,
tongue and skin generate various impressions. In general terms,
perception is a term by which a person looks at the world and emotes
out his feelings for a particular situation. Perception helps in
understanding perciever’s own mindset and also helps in
understanding human behavior in the organization. The barriers to
perception are stereotyping, halo-effect, similar to the effect or
projection, selective perceptions, distribution and contrast effects.

Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret

their sensory impressions in order to give relevance and significance to
our environment.

Human beings are blessed with sensory organs such as ears,

eyes, nose, tongue and skin. Through these sensory organs we
generate various impressions and expressions. These actions allow our
mind to take due attention on the selective ones only which has
importance and significance in our life. This is called perception. In a
nutshell, perception is the process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give relevance and
significance to our environment.

The dictionary meaning of the word “perceive “ means is to take in

mentally, to become aware through the senses. It is defined as the way
a person looks at the world and his feelings on a particular situation.

Baron defines perception as the process where in we select,

organize, and interpret various inputs from our sense organs.

Robbins defines perception as a process in which people organize

and interpret their expressions arising from the sense organs in order
to give the feedback to the environment around.

Many others have also defined perception which concludes the

fact that functions of the workers are duly affected by three classes of
variables – the objects or events being perceived, the environment in
which perception occurs and the individual does the perceiving.

Perception is very important as it enables the organization to

adapt to a complex and ever changing factors through perceptual
constancies. It helps in evaluating various factors of organization such
as size, shape, functions, targets, location, time etc., which gives a
concrete idea about the functioning of an organization.

This process includes:

1. Perceptual inputs of stimuli

2. Perceptual Mechanism

3. Perceptual Output

4. Pattern of Behavior

It is influenced by three set of factors and they are:

1. Factors in the perceiver- these are the factors related to self

concept, attitudes, motives, internal experiences and
expectations.
 2. Factors in the target- it includes physical appearance, verbal
and non verbal communication, status, occupation, personal
characteristics, novelty and motion of targets, sounds, size,
background and proximity of the target.

3. Factors in the situation- it includes social context,

organizational role, work setting, location and time.

Perception helps in understanding of human behavior in the

organization. It also helps in understanding perceiver’s own mindset
and tendency in judging others may become the barriers to accurate
perception. The important barriers to accurate perception are
stereotyping, halo effect, similar to the effect or projection, selective
perceptions, distribution and contrast effects.

Attributes is a significant phenomenon for understanding perception.

This theory describes the external or internal behavior in an individual.
Kelly’s theory of casual attributes states that we need to focus on three
types of information namely distinctiveness, consensus and
consistency, in order to determine the internal and external behavior
of an individual. It has proved important concept for managers and its
main managerial activities include: advertising, maintaining safety,
managing impression, building corporate image, managing
performance, evaluating performance, judging employee’s loyalty, self
assessment and development and building relationship.

Techniques involved in enhancing or encouraging perceptional skills

are:

1. Giving and receiving feedback

2. Having empathy

3. Having Positive Attitudes

4. Enhancing Self Concept

5. Avoiding Common Biases

6. Communication and Correct use of Attribution

Q.5 Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his

or her job. The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied
they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation,
although it is clearly linked. Job design aims to enhance job satisfaction
and performance, methods include job rotation, job enlargement and
job enrichment. Other influences on satisfaction include the
management style and culture, employee involvement, empowerment
and autonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a very important
attribute which is frequently measured by organizations. The most
common way of measurement is the use of rating scales where
employees report their reactions to their jobs. Questions relate to rate
of pay, work responsibilities, variety of tasks, promotional opportunities
the work itself and co-workers. Some questioners ask yes or no
questions while others ask to rate satisfaction on 1-5 scale (where 1
represents "not at all satisfied" and 5 represents "extremely satisfied").

Q.6 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by

Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation.[2]
Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of
humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of
human Developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the
stages of growth in humans.
Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert
Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass
rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of
crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a
cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy."[3] Maslow also studied the
healthiest 1% of the college student population.[citation needed]
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and
Personality.[
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a
pyramid, with the largest and lowest levels of needs at the bottom, and
the need for self-actualization at the top, also the needs for people.
Deficiency
needs
The lower four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called
"deficiency needs" or "d-needs": physiological (including sexuality),
security of position, friendship and love, and esteem. With the
exception of the lowest (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency
needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the
individual feels anxious and tense.
Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious—they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met
(with the exception of clothing, shelter, and sexual activity), the human
body simply cannot continue to function.
Physiological needs include:
• Breathing
• Food
• Homeostasis
Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all
animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary
protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual
instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth
rate adequate to survival of the species.
Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety
needs take precedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to
do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which
injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and
the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest
themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance
procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority,
savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability
accommodations, and the like.
For most of human history many individuals have found their safety
needs unmet, but as of 2009[update] "First World" societies provide most
with their satisfaction, although the poor must often still address these
needs.
Safety and Security needs include:
• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Love and Belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. This
aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally based relationships
in general, such as:
• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it
comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious
groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in
numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate
partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and
be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these
elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often
overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the
strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore
the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and
belonging.
Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and
self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the
normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People
need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or
activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted
and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level
can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low
self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory,
which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with
low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves
simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first
accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as
depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both
levels.
Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem.
Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher
one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for
status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the
need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery,
self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one ranks
higher because it rests more on inner competence won through
experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority
complex, weakness and helplessness.
Self-actualization
“What a man can be, he must be.” This forms the basis of the
perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to
what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow
describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one
is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a
broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to
individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have
the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be
expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting,
pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear
understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the
previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master
these needs. Below are Maslow’s descriptions of a self-actualized
person’s different needs and personality traits.
Maslow was a professor of Dr. Wayne Dyer. Dyer suggests that Maslow
taught him two ways of understanding self-actualization: 1) to be free
of the good opinion of others; 2) to do things not simply for the
outcome but because it's the reason you are here on earth.
Marketing
Courses in marketing teach Maslow's hierarchy as one of the first
theories as a basis for understanding consumers' motives for action.
Marketers have historically looked towards consumers' needs to define
their actions in the market. If producers design products meeting
consumer needs, consumers will more often choose those products
over those of competitors. Whichever product better fills the void
created by the need will be chosen more frequently, thus increasing
sales. This makes the model relevant to transpersonal business
studies.