Scatter radiation—its origin is the Compton scatter, the incoming (high energy photon uses a part of its

energyto eject an outer electron, by doing so the photon changes its direction but retains much of its
initial energy

GRIDS- a device interposed between the px and image receptor that function to absorbs larger
percentage of scatter radiation before it reaches the image receptor.

-use of grid is recommended for body parts measuring 11 cm and above

- mAs is adjusted for compensating the density decrease

Kinds:

1. Stationary- simpliest and usually consist of alternating vertical lead strips and a radiolucent
interspaced matl
-used in mobile radiography and horizontal beam
-low ratio
-disad: visible grid lines
a. Gridded cassette
b. Slip-on or “wafer”
2. Moving – has motion during exposure

TYPES:

a. Parallel- lead strips are lined up vertically

b. Focused grids-a grid w/ lead strips that are angled and the angle conforms w/ the divergence of
the x-ray beam
c. Crossed grid- has a second series of lead strips aligned perpendicular from the first
- Can be parallel or focused
- Extremely efficient in absorbing scatter radiation but prohibits x-ray tube angulations

Common errors in using grid

 Angulation errors-angulation is against the lead strips causes grid cut-off resulting in loss of
densities across the image; similar to that of off level errors.
Effect: loss of density across the image
 Off level errors- planes of the xray tube and the grid surface are not parallel, happens when the
xray tube is tilted or when a gridded cassette is placed inaccurately
Effect: loss of density across the image
  Off focus error- cutoff will occur if the SID is below the lower limits and above the upper limits of
the specified focal range; also called the distance discentering
Effect : loss of density at the periphery of the image
 Off center error- if the xray beam is not centered to the grid(i.e shifted laterally)
Effect: uniform density loss across the radiographic image

If the beam is both off center and off focus below the focusing distance the portion of
the image will show increase density;
If the beam is both off center and off focus above the focusing distance , the image will
show decrease density
 Upside down grid- a focused grid place upside down has its lead strips angled exactly opposite
the angle of the x-ray beam
Effect: severe grid cutoff on the periphery or except at the central area where the lead strips
and xray beam are vertical

The two grids physical characteristics that determines is degree of efficiency

1. Grid ratio
2. Number of lines per inch

Height of th Pb strip

Grid ratio=___________________________

Width of the interspaced material

e.g what is the G.R if the height of the lead strips is 1.5 mm and has a interspaced matl of 0.15
mm thick?

 As the lead strips are made taller, or the distance between them decreases, scatter radiation is
more likely to be trap before reaching the image receptor
 A high ratio grid will therefore have much better clean up

Number of lines per inch (Grid frequency)

Advantage: of many lead strips per inch-less visiblility
Disadvantage: as the lead strips becomes thinner, more energetic radn can pass through and reach
the film
Common materials used as interspaces:

1. Plastic or fiber- lesser px dose; can be affected by moisture which may result in the warping of
the grid
2. Aluminum (Al)- more sturdy, gives a radiograph more smoother appearance free of grid lines
-additional filtering effect on scatter radiation
- increased px dose

Ways of expressing and measuring grid efficiency:

 Bucky (grid) factor : The Bucky (grid) factor B of a particular grid is the ratio of the total amount
of radiation (primary and scatted) incident upon the surface of the grid compared to the amount
of radiation transmitted through the grid
Incident total
B⁼_____________________
Transmitted total

 Contrast Improvement factor : the ratio of radiographic contrast obtained w/ a grid compared
to the contrast obtained w/out a grid
Contrast w/ grid
C.I.F=____________________

Contrast w/out grid

 Selectivity: the ratio between the quantity of the primary photons transmitted through the grid
to the quantity of scatter photons transmitted
Primary photon transmission
S= ________________________________

Scattered photon transmission

 Grid Conversion Factors for Various Ratio
Grids

Grid ratio Convertion factor

No grid 1
5:1 2
6:1 3
8:1 4
10 or 12:1 5
16:1 6

E.g. problem: A particular examination was done nongrid at 40” SID using 7mAs and 90 kVp,another radiograph
was made using a 12:1 ratio grid. What would be the new mAs require to maintain its optical density?

Grid conversion formula:

mAs 1 grid factor 1

______ = ___________
mAs2 grid factor 2

An 8:1 grid is satisfactory for radiography up to 90 kVp

A 16:1 grid is used frequently for 100>
Routine radiographic equipment generally employs a 10:1 or 12:1 grid

AIR GAP TECHNIQUE- an air gap is introduced between the object and the cassette can have a similar
effect to that of the grid. As energenic scatter radiation emerges to the body, it continuous to travel in
its divergence fashion and will bypass the image recorder

 Necessary to increase the SID to reduce magnification caused by the increased OID

INTENSIFYING SCREENS- radiolucent card board material or plastic coated screens w/ layer of chemical
material or phosphors that emits light when struck by x-rays

Intensification factor- defined as the ratio of the exposure factors required to produce the
same optical density w/ and w/out screens
 Exposure required w/out screens
IF= ______________________________________
Exposure required w/ screens

e.g A particular radiograph used the ff techniques and results in an exposure of 300 mR. .a similar
radiograph was taken w/out screens and results in a px exposure of 6700 mR. what is the approximate
intensification factor of the screen- film combination

properties of I.S. that affects the I.F.

1. phosphor composition
2. phosphor thickness
3. reflective layer
4. dye
5. crystal size
6. concentration of phosphor crystals

 In general as intensifying screen speed increases the contrast increases

 Rare earth screens produce radiographs w/ slight increase in contrast over calcium
tungstate screens

BEAM RESTRICTING DEVICES

Devices use to confine the beams to the immediate area under examination and thus
minimize the secondary radiation w/in the px body by limiting the tissue exposed, resulting in great
increase of radiographic contrast

Types of beam restrictors:

1. Aperture diaphragms- constructed w/ a sheet of lead or steel out of which a hole has been cut
to permit the radiation to pass

To get the dimension of the one side of the diaphragm opening:

A B
_____=_____
SDD SID

Note: to leave an unexposed border of 1.0cm on each side we must reduce the beam size to 18
cm

e.g. the distance of the diaphragm from the source is 10 cm, and the SID is 88“, what would be the
opening of the other side the diaphragm .
 2. Cones are heavy metal devices that are attached to the housing of the tube for the purpose of
restricting the beam
Types:
a.flared circular
b. rectangular
c. cylindrical

 The main disadvantage of the cylinder cone is the fixed field size
 Very effective for specific examinations

3.Collimators- a box like structure attached to the port of the xray tube
-inside the collimators are marching pair of lead shutters resembling lead plates
-parts:
A. entrance shutters
B. lower shutters
C. beam centering device
- Mirror
- Crossbars
- Light bulb
 Automatic collimator (positive beam limiting device)- electronic sensing device are
attached to the cassette tray, the sensors are activated to automatically adjust the
shutters to the size of the film

BEAM ALIGNMENT TEST FOR COLLIMATORS- to check the alignment of the collimator light to the
primary beam

CALCULATION OF FIELD SIZE

Width or distance from the focal spot to

Diameter of the field X the aperture
APERTURE OPENING= _______________________________________________________
Focal film distance

e.g. calculate the aperture opening for a field size of 10”, FFD of 40” and a 3” distance from the focal
spot aperture opening.