I.

Direct Current Meters

A. Ayrton Shunt

  A shunt used to increase the range of a galvanometer without changing the

damping. Also known as universal shunt. 

An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several

series connected resistors all connected in parallel with the
PMMC instrument. Range change is effected by switch
between resistor junctions

B. Ohmmeter

Is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, which is known as

the opposition to an electric current. The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms
(Ω).
The original design of an ohmmeter is supplied by a small battery to apply
a voltage to a resistance. It uses a galvanometer to measure the electric current through
the resistance. The scale of the galvanometer was marked in ohms, because the fixed
voltage from the battery assured that as resistance is decreased, the current through
the meter would increase.

A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an electronic circuit that passes a

constant current (I) through the resistance, and another circuit that measures the
voltage (V) across the resistance. According to the following equation, derived
from Ohm's Law, the value of the resistance (R) is given by:

C. Multimeter

Also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring

instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits
—analog multimeters and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.)
Analog instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a
scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made; digital
instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of length proportional to the
quantity measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field
service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of
accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of
industrial and household devices such aselectronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
The first moving-pointer current-detecting device was the galvanometer. These
were used to measure resistance & voltage by using awheatstone bridge, and
comparing the unknown quantity to a reference voltage or resistance. While usable in a
lab, the technique was very slow and impractical in the field. These galvanometers were
bulky and delicate.
The D'Arsonval/Weston meter movement used a fine metal spring to give
proportional measurement rather than just detection, and built-in permanent field
magnets made deflection independent of the position of the meter. These features
enabled dispensing with Wheatstone bridges, and made measurement quick and easy.
By adding a series or shunt resistor, more than one range of voltage or current could be
measured with one movement.
Multimeters were invented in the early 1920s as radio receivers and
other vacuum tube electronic devices became more common. The invention of the first
multimeter is attributed to Post Office engineer Donald Macadie, who became
dissatisfied with having to carry many separate instruments required for the
maintenance of the telecommunication circuits. Macadie invented an instrument which
could measure amperes, volts and ohms, so the multifunctional meter was then
named Avometer.[2] The meter comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and precision
resistors, and switches & sockets to select the range.

D. Other Meters
1. Electrometer

An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or

electrical potential difference. There are many different types, ranging from
historical hand-made mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices.
Modern electrometers based on vacuum tube or solid state technology can be used
to make voltage and charge measurements with very low leakage currents, down to
1 femtoampere. A simpler but related instrument, the electroscope, works on
similar principles but only indicates the relative magnitudes of voltages or charges.

2. Hall Effect Sensor

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response

to changes in magnetic field. Hall sensors are used for proximity switching,
positioning, speed detection, and current sensing applications.
 In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analogue transducer, directly
returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can
be determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be
deduced.
Electricity carried through a conductor will produce a magnetic field that
varies with current, and a Hall sensor can be used to measure the current without
interrupting the circuit. Typically, the sensor is integrated with a wound core or
permanent magnet that surrounds the conductor to be measured.

II. Alternating Current Meters

A. D’Arsonval Meter Movement in AC

A galvanometer is a type of ammeter: an instrument for detecting and

measuring electric current. It is an analog electromechanicaltransducer that
produces a rotary deflection of some type of pointer in response to electric
current flowing through its coil. The term has expanded to include uses of the same
mechanism in recording, positioning, and servomechanism equipment.
By connecting a rectifier to a d'Arsonval meter movement, an alternating
current measuring device is created.
When ac is converted to pulsating dc, the d'Arsonval movement will react to
the average value of the pulsating dc (which is the average value of one-half of the
sine wave). Another characteristic of using a rectifier concerns the fact that the
d'Arsonval meter movement is capable of indicating current in only one direction. If
the d'Arsonval meter movement were used to indicate alternating current without a
rectifier, or direct current of the wrong polarity, the movement would be severely
damaged. The pulsating dc is current in a single direction, and so the d'Arsonval
meter movement can be used as long as proper polarity is observed.
B. Electrodynanometer movement

 An electrodynamometer is an instrument used for measuring the electric

power. The basic principle was laid out in an 1848 paper by Wilhelm Weber (1804-
1891): when the same current passes through two concentric coils placed at right
angles to each other, the resulting torque depends on the square of the current. 
The electrical inventor and entrepreneur, Werner von Siemens (1816-1892),
used this principle in his electrodynamometer, first described in 1880. In order to
measure the power dissipated in an electrical load, it is necessary to measure the
current through the load and the potential drop across it. In the Siemens instrument,
the stationary coil is made of relatively few turns of heavy wire and is connected in
series with the circuit. The rotating coil consists of many turns of fine wire, and is
connected across the load with a multiplier resistance in series with it to measure
the potential drop.  The currents through the two coils are I and a current
proportional to V, and the product of the two currents is proportional to the power
dissipated in the load. 
C. Iron-vane Meter movement

The moving iron vane movement can be used to measure both AC current
and voltage.By changing the meter scale calibration, the movement can be used to
measure DC current andvoltage.   The moving iron vane meter operates on the
principle of magnetic repulsion betweenlike poles.   The measured current flows
through a field coil which   produces a magnetic fieldproportional to the magnitude
of current.   Suspended in this field are two iron vanes attached toa pointer.   The
two iron vanes consist of one fixed and one moveable vane.   The magnetic
fieldproduced by the current flow magnetizes the two iron vanes with the same
polarity regardlessof the direction of current through the coil.   Since like poles repel
one another, the moving ironvane pulls away from the fixed vane and moves the
meter pointer.   This motion exerts a forceagainst a spring.   The distance the moving
iron vane will travel against the spring depends onthe strength of the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the magnitudeof current flow.
D. Thermocouple meter

For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output voltage increases almost
linearly with the temperature difference (ΔT) over a bounded range of temperatures.
For precise measurements or measurements outside of the linear temperature range,
non-linearity must be corrected. The nonlinear relationship between the temperature
difference (ΔT) and the output voltage (mV) of a thermocouple can be approximated by
a polynomial:

The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between 5 and 13 depending upon
the metals. In some cases better accuracy is obtained with additional non-polynomial
terms[4]. A database of voltage as a function of temperature, and coefficients for
computation of temperature from voltage and vice-versa for many types of
thermocouple is available online[4].
In modern equipment the equation is usually implemented in a digital controller
or stored in a look-up table;[5] older devices use analog circuits.
Piece-wise linear approximations are an alternative to polynomial corrections.
E. AC Voltmeter

AC electromechanical meter movements come in two basic arrangements:

those based on DC movement designs, and those engineered specifically for AC use.
Permanent-magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter movements will not work correctly if
directly connected to alternating current, because the direction of needle
movement will change with each half-cycle of the AC. (Figure below) Permanent-
magnet meter movements, like permanent-magnet motors, are devices whose
motion depends on the polarity of the applied voltage (or, you can think of it in
terms of the direction of the current).

In order to use a DC-style meter movement such as the D'Arsonval design, the
alternating current must be rectified into DC. This is most easily accomplished through
the use of devices called diodes. We saw diodes used in an example circuit
demonstrating the creation of harmonic frequencies from a distorted (or rectified) sine
wave. Without going into elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do,
just remember that they each act like a one-way valve for electrons to flow: acting as a
conductor for one polarity and an insulator for another. Oddly enough, the arrowhead
in each diode symbol points against the permitted direction of electron flow rather than
with it as one might expect. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer
AC through the meter movement in a constant direction throughout all portions of the
AC cycle.
Passing AC through this Rectified AC meter movement will drive it in one direction.

Another strategy for a practical AC meter movement is to redesign the

movement without the inherent polarity sensitivity of the DC types. This means avoiding
the use of permanent magnets. Probably the simplest design is to use a non-magnetized
iron vane to move the needle against spring tension, the vane being attracted toward a
stationary coil of wire energized by the AC quantity to be measured.

F. Other Meters
1. Gauss Meter

This meter measures the level of ELF magnetic field radiation from power
lines, computers, kitchen appliances, and more! The easy to read scale, unique built-
in audio signal and auto shut-off make it simple to use and a great way to find
hidden sources of ELF frequency magnetic fields.
Most experts agree that chronic exposure to more than 2.5 milli-Gauss is
inadvisable. This meter will show you which areas are above or below 2.5 milli-Gauss
in the 50 - 60 Hz frequency range.
Hand-held, lightweight and durable, with two easy to read scales (0-1 mG, &
0-10 mG), and dramatic audio signal. Our favorite meter for demonstrating the
presence of dangerous EMFs to others and paranormal work. Requires one 9V
battery (not included). Calibrated at 50-60 Hz.
2. EMF Meter

This 3-axis AC gaussmeter is very unique, especially the 60 Hz filtering switch.

Flip this switch to SUM to measure a wide range of frequencies (20 Hz to 100KHz).
Flip to FILTER and 60 Hz signals ((±10 Hz to 3 dB, common powerline and household
electricity) are NOT included in the detection. This feature combined with the LED
output and switchable sound make this an excellent choice for paranormal and
routine work. Readout is easy to see and hear in low light conditions, even by a
group of people. 7 LED display will show 1 LED in DOT mode, or include all lower
level LEDs in BAR mode. ±10% Accuracy at 60 Hz. Uses 9V battery