EMT Electromagnetic Theory MODULE II

MODULE II
ELECTROSTATICS
Syllabus – Module II
Electrostatics:
Electrostatic fields – Coulomb’s law and field intensity. Electric
fields due to continuous charge distributions, Electric flux
density, Gauss’s law, Applications of Gauss’s law, Electric
potential, Relationship between E and V, Electric dipole,
Energy density in electrostatic fields. Electric fields in material
space – Properties of materials, Convection and conduction
currents, Conductors, Polarization in dielectrics, Dielectric
constant and strength, Linear, isotropic and homogeneous
dielectrics, Continuity equation, Relaxation time, Boundary
conditions. Electrostatic boundary value problems – Poisson’s
and Laplace’s Equations, Uniqueness theorem, Resistance
and capacitance – Parallel plate, coaxial, spherical capacitors.
Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

References
Text Books:
1. Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University
Press
2. Jordan and Balmain, Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems,
Pearson Education PHI Ltd.
References:
1. Kraus Fleisch, Electromagnetics with applications, McGraw Hill
2. William.H.Hayt, Engineering Electromagnetics, Tata McGraw Hill
3. N.Narayana Rao, Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Pearson
Education PHI Ltd.
4. D.Ganesh Rao, Engineering Electromagnetics, Sanguine Technical
Publishers.
5. Joseph.A.Edminister, Electromagnetics, Schaum series-McGraw Hill

References
References:
1.K.D.Prasad, Electromagnetic fields and waves, Sathya Prakashan

2.Syed Nazar, 2000 solved problems in Electromagnetics, McGraw Hill

Coulombs Law and field intensity
Q1 aˆ R Q2
G Q 1Q 2
F = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2

Coulombs law states that the force F between two point charges Q1
and Q2 separated in a vacuum or free space by a distance which is
large when compared to their size is:
Along the line joining Q1 and Q2
Directly proportional to the product Q1 Q2 of the charges.
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Q 1Q 2
F = k
R2
Q1 ,Q2 ⇒ Quantity of positive or negative charges
R ⇒ Separation between charges Q1 and Q2
k ⇒ Proportionality constant
When Q is in coulombs and R is in meters the constant k is found to be
1
k=
4πε 0
1
k=
4πε 0
ε 0 ⇒ the permitivity of free space which is 8.854 × 10−12 F / m
1
k= = 9 × 109 m / F
4πε 0
Q 1Q 2
Incorporating these values F =
4π ε 0 R 2
The force acts along the line joining Q1 and Q2. In order to
incorporate this information we may write
G Q 1Q 2
F = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2

G Q 1Q 2
F = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2
Where aˆ R is a unit vector in the direction of the force

The force F12 on Q2 due to Q1 is given by
G Q 1Q 2
F1 2 = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2 12
Where aˆ R is a unit vector directed from Q1 to Q2

12
JG JG
If r1 and r2 are the position vectors of the points where
Q1 and Q2 is situated
G JG JG
Vector joining Q1 and Q2 is R 12 = r2 − r1
G G G
F21 Q1 R12 R12
G aˆ R = G =
R12 R
12
R12
JG Q2
r1 G
F12
JG
r2
Origin

Coulombs Law
G
and
G
field intensity
G R12 R12
R = R12 aˆ R = G =
R12 R
12
G
G Q 1Q 2 ⎛ R 1 2 ⎞ Q 1Q 2 G
N o w F1 2 = 2 ⎜ ⎟ = R12
4π ε 0 R ⎝ R ⎠ 4π ε 0 R 3
G G
G Q 1Q 2 G G Q 1Q 2 ( r2 − r1 )
F1 2 = R12 F1 2 = G G 3
4π ε 0 R 3
4 π ε 0 r2 − r1
G G
Force F21 on Q1 due to Q2 is given by F21 = F12 aˆ R 21
G Q 1Q 2 Q 1Q 2
2 ( )
F21 = aˆ R = − aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2
4π ε 0 R
21 12

If there are N point
G G charges G Q1,Q2,……….QN located G at points with
position vectors r1, r2, ......rN the resultant force F on a charge Q
G
located at point with position vector r is the vector sum of the forces
exerted on Q by each of the charges Q1,Q2,……….QN
G QQ1 ( rG − rG1 ) QQ2 ( rG − rG2 ) G G

QQN ( r − rN )
F= G G3+ G G 3 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + G G 3
4πε 0 r − r1 4πε 0 r − r2 4πε 0 r − rN
G G G
1 N
QQk ( r − rk )
F= ∑ G G
4πε 0 k =1 r − rk 3

Example 1
A 2mC positive charge is located at P1(3,-2,-4) in vacuum and a
5 μC negative charge is located at P2(1,-4,2). Find the force on the
negative charge.
Solution :
Q1 = +2 × 10−3 C Q2 = −5 × 10−6 C
G G
r1 = 3a x − 2a y − 4a z r2 = aˆ x − 4aˆ y + 2aˆ z
ˆ ˆ ˆ
G G G
R12 = r2 − r1 = −2aˆ x − 2aˆ y + 6aˆ z
G
R12 = R12 = 4 + 4 + 36 = 44

Example 1
G Q 1Q 2
F1 2 = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R12 2 12
G
R12 −2aˆ x − 2aˆ y + 6aˆ z
aˆ R = G = = −0.3aˆ x − 0.3aˆ y + 0.9aˆ z
R12
12
44
G ( 2 × 1 0 )( − 5 × 1 0 )
−3 −6
F1 2 =
4 π × 8 .8 5 4 × 1 0 −12
× 44
( − 0 .3 aˆ x − 0 .3 aˆ y + 0 .9 aˆ z )
= − 2 .0 4 3 ( − 0 .3 aˆ x − 0 .3 aˆ y + 0 .9 aˆ z )
G
F1 2 = 0 .6 1 aˆ x + 0 .6 1 aˆ y − 1 .8 4 aˆ z

Electric field intensity
G
Electric field intensity E at a point is defined as the force on a unit
positive test charge placed at that point.
G
G F
E =
Q
The direction of electric field intensity is the same as that of the force
and is measured in newtons/coulomb
G
The electric field intensity
G at a point with p.v r due to a point charge
at a point with p.v r1 is obtained as
G G
G Q Q ( r − r1 )
E = aˆ R = G G
4π ε 0 R 4 π ε 0 r − r1
2 3

Electric field intensity
If there are N point
G G charges G Q1,Q2,……….QN located at pointsG with
position vectors r1, r2, ......rN the electric field intensity E at point
G
with position vector r is the vector sum of the electric field intensities
produced by charges Q1,Q2,……….QN
G G G G G G G
Q1 ( r − r1 ) Q2 ( r − r2 ) Q N ( r − rN )
E= G G3+ G G 3 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + G G 3
4πε 0 r − r1 4πε 0 r − r2 4πε 0 r − rN
G G G
1 N
Qk ( r − rk )
E= ∑ G G
4πε 0 k =1 r − rk 3

Example 2
Point charges 1mC and -2mC are located at (3,2,-1) and (-1,-1,4)
respectively. Calculate the electric force on a 10 nC charge located
at (0,3,1) and the electric field intensity at that point.
Solution :
G G G G ⎛ G G G G ⎞
1 N
QQk ( r − rk ) Q Q1 ( r − r1 ) Q2 ( r − r2 )
F= ∑ G G
4πε 0 k =1 r − rk 3
F= ⎜ G G3 + G G 3 ⎟
4πε 0 ⎜⎝ r − r1 r − r2 ⎟⎠
G 10 × 10−9 ⎪⎧ −3 [(0,3,1) − (3,2, −1) ] −3 [(0,3,1) − ( −1, −1,4) ] ⎪
⎫
F= ⎨10 − 2 × 10 3⎬
4πε 0 ⎪⎩ (0,3,1) − (3,2, −1)
3
(0,3,1) − ( −1, −1,4) ⎪⎭
10−3 × 10 × 10−9 ⎧⎪ ( −3,1,2) 2(1,4, −3) ⎫⎪
= ⎨ − 3/2 ⎬
⎪⎩ ( 9 + 1 + 4 ) (1 + 16 + 9 ) ⎭⎪
−9 3/2
10
4π
36π
Example 2
G −2 ⎧ ( −3,1,2) ( −2, −8,6) ⎫
F = 9 × 10 ⎨ + ⎬
⎩ 14 14 26 26 ⎭
G
F = ( − 6 .5 0 7 aˆ x − 3 .8 1 7 aˆ y + 7 .5 0 6 aˆ z ) m N
G
G F
At this point E = =
( − 6 .5 0 7 aˆ x − 3 .8 1 7 aˆ y + 7 .5 0 6 aˆ z ) × 1 0 − 3
Q 1 0 × 1 0 −9
G
E = ( − 6 5 0 .7 aˆ x − 3 8 1 .7 aˆ y + 7 5 0 .6 aˆ z ) K V / m

Electric fields due to continuous charge distributions
ρL
+ ρS ρV
+ ++
++ + + ++
Q + ++ + + + + ++
+ + ++ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ ++ +
+
POINT LINE SURFACE VOLUME
CHARGE CHARGE CHARGE CHARGE

Electric fields due to continuous charge distributions
A charge may be located on a point, along a line, on a surface or in
a volume. Accordingly we have four types of charge distributions:
Point charges
Line charges
Surface charges
Volume charges.
Point Charge: A charge that is located on a body whose dimensions

are much smaller than other relevant dimensions is called point
charge. A collection of charges on a pinhead may be considered as
a point charge.
Total Charge Q = ∑ Qi
i

Charge distributions
Line Charge: A charge that is distributed along a fine line, as in the
case of a sharp electron beam in a cathode ray tube, is considered
as a line charge distribution.
It is convenient to associate a line charge density ρ L with a line
charge distribution.
Charge element dQ = ρ L dl Total charge Q = ∫ ρ L dl
L
Surface Charge: A charge that is distributed over a surface is

considered as a surface charge distribution.
It is convenient to associate a surface charge density ρ S with a
surface charge distribution.
Charge element dQ = ρ S dS Total charge Q = ∫ ρ S dS

S

Charge distributions
Volume Charge: A charge that is distributed throughout a specified
volume is considered as a volume charge distribution.
It is convenient to associate a volume charge density ρ L with a
volume charge distribution.
Charge element dQ = ρV dV Total charge Q = ∫ ρV dV
V

Electric field intensity of Charge distributions
Electric field intensity of a point charge is given by
G Q
E = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2
By replacing the charge Q by charge elements and integrating we

get the electric field intensity of various charge distributions.
G ρ Ldl
F o r lin e c h a rg e d istrib u tio n s, E = ∫ 4π ε 0 R
aˆ
2 R
G ρ S dS
F o r su rfa c e c h a rg e d istrib u tio n s, E = ∫ 4π ε 0 R
aˆ
2 R
G ρV dV
F o r v o lu m e c h a rg e d istrib u tio n s , E = ∫ 4π ε 0 R
aˆ
2 R

Electric field intensity of a finite line charge
z=+
L Z
2 +
+
dQ = ρ L dz + dz
+ G
+ R dEZ1
G
+ z dE1
ρL C / m +
+ ρ α P α G
α dE
+ α
+ â ρ
+ G
+ R G dE2
dEZ2
dQ = ρ L dz +
+
+
dz
L
z=− +
2 +

, Align the line charge along the Z axis symmetrically with respect to the
origin.
, Take two elemental lengths dz of the line charge that are symmetrical
about the origin.
, The charge associated with each elemental length dz is dQ = ρ L dz and
can be treated as a point charge.
, The vertical components of dE1 and dE2 gets cancelled leaving only the
radial component along âρ
, The radial components of dE1 and dE2 gets added .

, There is no variation of the field along φ direction .
, So we need to calculate only the radial component along âρ
dE = Radial components of (dE1 + dE2 )
dQ
= 2× c o s α aˆ ρ
4π ε 0 R 2
ρ dQ ρ
P ut cosα = dE = 2 × aˆ ρ
R 4π ε 0 R 3
ρ Ldzρ
Put R= ρ + z2 dE = 2 × aˆ ρ
4π ε 0 (ρ + z )
2
2 2 3 2
, The electric field intensity at P due to the entire line charge is

G L /2
ρ Lρ 1
E = 2 ∫ d z aˆ ρ
4π ε 0 (ρ + z2 )
2 3 2
z=0

, Using the standard in tegral
1 x
∫ dx =
(a + x2)
3/2
2
a2 a2 + x2
L /2
G ρ Lρ ⎡ z ⎤
E = ×⎢ ⎥ aˆ ρ
2 π ε 0 ⎢⎣ ρ 2
ρ 2
+ z ⎥⎦ 0
2
ρ Lρ ⎡ L ⎤
= × ⎢ ⎥ aˆ ρ
2 π ε 0 ⎢⎣ ρ 2
4 ρ 2 + L 2 ⎥⎦
G ρL ⎡ L ⎤
E = ⎢ ⎥ aˆ ρ
2π ε 0 ρ ⎢⎣ 4 ρ + L ⎥⎦
2 2

G ρL ⎡ L ⎤
For a finite line charge E = ⎢ ⎥ aˆ ρ
2πε 0 ρ ⎢⎣ 4 ρ + L
2 2
⎥⎦
, For an infinite line charge, L → ∞ and
G ρL ⎡ 1 ⎤
E = lim ⎢ ⎥ aˆ ρ
L→ ∞ 2π ε 0 ρ ⎢⎣ 4ρ 2
L + 1 ⎥⎦
2
G ρL
E = aˆ ρ
2π ε 0 ρ
G ρL
For an infinite line cha rge E = aˆ ρ
2πε 0 ρ
Electric field intensity of an infinite surface charge
Z
ρ L = ρ S dz ρ S (C / m 2 )
•
G
R dE2
P G
Y d
α
α • α
α dE
G
• R dE1
ρ L ' = ρ S dz

Electric field intensity of a infinite surface charge
, Assume that the infinite sheet charge is located in the x - z plane.
, Assume that the infinite sheet charge is composed of line charge

distributions with density ρ L = ρ S dz C / m
, The electric field intensity of an infinite line charge is radially directed
away from the line charge and its magnitude is
ρL ρ Sdz
dE = =
2π ε 0 R 2π ε 0 R
, Consider one more line charge ρ L ' symmetrically located with respect to
the origin
, The vertical components of dE1 and dE2 gets cancelled leaving only the
radial component along aˆ y

ρ Sdz
dE = y components of (dE1 + dE2 ) = 2 ⋅ c o s α aˆ y
2π ε 0 R
d
P ut cosα =
R
G ρ Sd
dE = d z aˆ y
πε 0R 2
, The electric field intensity at P due to the entire sheet charge is

G ∞ ρ Sd
E = ∫ z = 0 π ε 0 R 2 d z aˆ y
Put R = d 2
+ z2

G ∞ ρ Sd
E = ∫ z=0 π ε 0 (d 2
+ z 2
)
d z aˆ y
ρ Sd ∞ 1
=
πε0 ∫ z=0
(d 2
+ z )
2
d z aˆ y
1 1 −1 ⎛ z ⎞
, Using the standard in tegral ∫ (a + x )
2 2
dx =
a
ta n ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
∞
G ρ Sd ⎡ 1 −1 z ⎤ ρS π ρS
E = ta n a
ˆ = ⋅ aˆ y = aˆ y
π ε 0 ⎢⎣ d d ⎥⎦ 0
y
πε0 2 2ε 0
G ρS G ρS
E = aˆ y y > 0 E = − aˆ y y < 0
2ε 0 2ε 0

G ρS
E = aˆ y
2ε 0
The electric field of a sheet charge is normal to the plane of the
sheet and is independent of the distance between the sheet and the
point of observation.
In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing between two
plates having equal and opposite charges is given by
G ρS −ρS ρS
E =
2ε 0
aˆ y +
2ε 0
( − aˆ )
y
=
ε0
aˆ y
G ρS
E = aˆ y
ε0

Electric flux
If a positive test charge is brought near another positive charge it
will be repelled in a direction along the line joining the two charges.
If the second charge is moved around the first one, it will be repelled
in radially outward direction at all points.
The lines drawn to trace the force on a test charge is called lines of
force.
Such lines are called electric flux in electrostatics. A charge of Q
Coulombs produces an electric flux of ψ Coulombs.
ψ =Q ψ =Q
+Q -Q

Electric flux density
The electric field around a point charge is given by
G Q
E = aˆ R
4π ε 0 R 2
If this equation is multiplied by ε0, we get

G Q
ε 0E = aˆ R
4π R 2
The RHS of the above equation is independent of permittivity ε0, and

so ε0E is a quantity that is independent of the medium.
4 π R 2 is the area of an imaginary sphere around the charge Q.

Q
2 is then charge per area or surface charge density.
4π R

Electric flux density
Since Q Coulombs of charge produces ψ Coulombs of flux ,
G Q ψ
ε 0E = = is th e f lu x d e n s ity
4π R 2
4π R 2
G
This quantity is represented by D and its unit is Coulombs/m2
G G
D = ε 0E
G Q
In the case of a point charge D = aˆ R
4π R 2
G
All the equations
G derived for E from Coulomb’s law can be used for
calculating D by multiplying with ε 0

Gauss’s Law
The total electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to
the total charge enclosed by that surface.
Or, the surface integral of the normal component of the electric flux
density over any closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed.
Consider a cloud of point charges surrounded by a closed surface of
any arbitrary shape as shown below.
G JJG
DS θ dS
dS

Gauss’s Law
If the total charge inside the surface is Q then Q Coulombs of
electric flux must pass through the surface.
G
At every point Gon the surface the electric flux density vector D will
have a value DS
Consider a small element of the surface having area dS.
dS is fully specified only if its magnitude and orientation in space is
specified.
The only unique direction that may be associated with dS is the
direction of the outward normal to the plane which is tangential to
the surface dS.
G JJG
Let DS make an angle θ with dS .
JJG
The flux crossing dS normally is then
G JJG
dψ = DS cosθ × dS = DS ⋅ dS

Gauss’s Law
The total flux passing through the closed surface is
G JJG
ψ = v∫ DS ⋅ dS = Q, Charge enclosed.
S
G JJG
Q=v ∫ DS ⋅ dS
S
The surface integral of the normal component of the

electric flux density over any closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed.
The enclosed charge might be point charges, line charge, surface

charge or a volume charge. Accordingly,
Q = ∑ Qn ⇒ Point charges Q = ρ S dS ⇒ Surface charge

∫ S
Q = ∫ ρ l dl ⇒ Line charge Q = ∫ ρV dV ⇒ Volume charge

L V

Gauss’s Law
G JJG
In general, v∫ S
DS ⋅ dS = ∫ ρV dV − − − −(1)
V
Applying divergence theorem to to the LHS

G JJJG G G
v∫
S
DS ⋅dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ds dV − − − − − (2)
V
Comparing (1) and (2)
G G
∇ ⋅ D = ρV
Divergence of the electric flux density is the same as the volume
charge density: First Maxwell’s Equation.
G G
This is the first of the four Maxwell’s Equations ∇ ⋅ D = ρV

Gaussian Surfaces
Gauss’s Law may be applied to evaluate electric field
intensity.
For that we have to assume a Special Gaussian Surface
surrounding the charge distribution.
The closed surface should be selected such that the
electric field has a normal component or tangential
component on these surface.
To evaluate the electric field intensity of a point charge
or spherical charge cloud we may select a spherical
Gaussian surface surrounding it.
The electric field is every where in radial direction
JJG and is
normal to the spherical surface, or it is along dS

Gaussian Surfaces
In order to evaluate the electric field intensity of a line
charge, we may select a cylindrical Gaussian surface.
JG
The electric field E is in radial direction on the curved
JJG
surface and is in the direction of dS
The electric field is in tangential direction
JJG on the top and
bottom surfaces and is normal to the dS

Applications of Gauss’s Law: Example 1
Electric field of a point charge.
Let a point charge be placed at the centre of a spherical coordinate
system.
Select a sphere of radius r as the Gaussian surface.
S
r
Q

Electric field of a point charge.
G G G G G
Since E has onlyEr component, E = Er ar
JJG G
On a spherical surface dS = dSar
G JJG
Applying Gauss’s Law
G
v∫S
DS ⋅ dS = Q
G G G
v∫S
ε 0 Er aˆr ⋅ dSar = Q E = Er ar
ε 0 v∫ Er dS = Q G Q
S
E= aˆ r
ε 0 Er v∫ dS = Q 4πε 0 r 2
ε 0 Er 4π r 2 = Q G Q
E= aˆ r
Q 4πε 0 r 2
Er =
4πε 0 r 2

Electric field of a long line charge.
JJG Z
dS
G
DS ρ
G
DS
l JJG
dS
G
DS
JJG
dS

Let a line charge of uniform density ρL C/m2 be placed along the z
axis.
Place the line charge along z axis of a cylindrical coordinate system
Select a cylinder of radius ρ and length l as the Gaussian surface.
Using Gauss’s Law
G JJG
v∫ S DS ⋅ dS = ∫l ρ Ldl
G JJG G JJG G JJG
∫ DS ⋅ dS + ∫ DS ⋅ dS + ∫
side top bottom
DS ⋅ dS = ∫ ρ L dl
l
G JJG
∫top DS ⋅ dS = ∫top Dρ aˆρ ⋅ dSaˆ z = ∫top Dρ .dS ( aˆρ ⋅ aˆ z ) = 0
G JJG
∫ DS ⋅ dS = ∫ Dρ aˆρ ⋅ dS (−aˆ z ) = ∫ Dρ .dS ( aˆρ ⋅ (−aˆ z ) ) = 0
bottom bottom bottom

G JJG
∫ DS ⋅ dS = ∫ Dρ aˆ ρ ⋅ dSaˆ ρ = ∫ Dρ .dS ( aˆ ρ ⋅ aˆ ρ ) = Dρ ∫ dS
side side side side
G
Dρ ∫ dS = ∫ ρ L dl E = Eρ aˆ ρ
side l
G ρL
ε 0 Eρ 2πρ l = ρ L ∫ dl E= aˆ ρ
l 2πε 0 ρ
G ρL
ε 0 Eρ 2πρ l = ρ Ll E= aˆ ρ
2πε 0 ρ
ρL
Eρ =
2πε 0 ρ

Electric field of a uniformly charged sphere.
Gaussian
Surface
r
+ +
+
++ + + ++ +
+ + ++ +
+ + +a +
+ + ++ +
++ + + +
Spherical ++ + ++ Case I : r ≥ a
+ +
Charged
Cloud

Consider a spherical charged cloud having volume charge density
ρv C/m2 radius a
A concentric sphere of radius r may be selected as the Gaussian
surface.
The electric field has got only Er component.
G JJG
v∫S
DS ⋅ dS = ∫ ρV dV
V
∫ dS = ρV ∫ dV
Dr v
S V
4 3
v∫ D aˆ ⋅ dSaˆ = ∫ ρ dV Dr 4π r = ρV π a
2
r r r V
S V 3
v∫ D dS ( aˆ ⋅ aˆ ) = ∫ ρ dV
S
r r r
V
V Dr =
ρV a 3
3r 2

ρV a 3 G ρV a 3
Dr = E= aˆ
3r 2 3ε 0 r 2 r
ρV a 3 G ρV a 3
ε 0 Er = E= aˆ
3r 2
3ε 0 r 2 r
ρV a 3
Er =
3ε 0 r 2
G
E = Er aˆ r

+ Gaussian
+
+ +++++++ +++ +++ ++ Surface
+ +++ ++ + +++ a +
+ + +++ ++ + + ++++ +
++ + + +++ + +
++++
++++++++++ + + ++ +
+ + + ++++ +++++ + ++
++ +++ +++ ++ ++++
+++ +++ + +++++ ++
++++++ + + ++ + +
+++ + ++ ++++ + + ++++r ++ +++ +
++++
+ ++ +++ + ++ +++++++++ + +++++ +
+
++ ++ ++++++++ ++++++ +++++++++
+ ++++ ++ + +++ ++ ++ +
+
++
+ ++ +
Spherical
++ ++
+ +
+ ++ + ++ + + + + Case II : r ≤ a
++++++ ++++
Charged + + + ++ + +
+ + + ++ + + + +
Cloud ++ + ++ + +
+ +

Consider a spherical charged cloud of having volume charge density
ρv C/m2 radius a
A concentric sphere of radius r may be selected as the Gaussian
surface.
The electric field has got only Er component.
G JJG
v∫S
V
∫ dS = ρV ∫ dV
Dr v
S V
4 3
v∫ D aˆ ⋅ dSaˆ = ∫ ρ dV Dr 4π r = ρV π r
2
r r r V
S V 3
v∫ D dS ( aˆ ⋅ aˆ ) = ∫ ρ dV
S
r r r
V
V Dr =
ρV r 3
3r 2

ρV r G ρV r
Dr = E= aˆ r
3 3ε 0
ρV r G ρV r
ε 0 Er = E= aˆ r
3
3ε 0
ρV r
Er =
3ε 0
G
E = Er aˆ r

Electric field between two conducting spherical
shells −ρ s
+ρs b
G JJG
v∫S
V
a
v∫S
Dr aˆr ⋅ dSaˆ r = ∫ ρ S dS
S r
v∫ Dr dS ( aˆ r ⋅ aˆr ) = ∫ ρ S dS
S S
v∫ S
Dr dS = ρ S ∫ dS
S
∫ dS = ρ S ∫ dS
Dr v
S S
Dr 4π r 2 = ρ S 4π a 2

Electric field between two conducting spherical
shells
ρSa2 ρSa2 ρSa2 G ρSa2
Dr = ε 0 Er = Er = E= aˆr
r 2
r2 ε 0r 2 ε 0r 2
Q
On the surface of the inner sphere, ρ S =
4π a 2
G Q a2
E= ⋅ 2 aˆr
4π a ε 0 r
2
G Q G Q
E= aˆ E= aˆ r
4πε 0 r 2 r 4πε 0 r 2

Electric field between two conducting cylindrical
shells
b
ρ a
G JJG
v∫
S
V
v∫ S
Dρ aˆ ρ ⋅ dSaˆ ρ = ∫ ρ L dl
L
+ρL −ρL
l
v∫ Dρ ⋅ dS ( aˆ ρ .aˆ ρ ) = ∫ ρ L dl
S L
∫ dS = ρ L ∫ dl
Dρ v
S L
Dρ 2πρ l = ρ L ∫ dl
L
Dρ 2πρ l = ρ Ll

Electric field between two conducting
cylindrical shells
Dρ 2πρ l = ρ l G G ρL
L ρL E= aˆ ρ
E= aˆ ρ
Dρ =
ρL 2πε 0 ρ 2πε 0 ρ
2πρ
ρL
ε 0 Eρ = Q = ρ Ll Q
2πρ ρL =
ρL l
Eρ = G Q
2πε 0 ρ E= aˆ ρ
G ρL
2πε 0 ρ l G Q
E = Eρ aˆ ρ = aˆ ρ E= aˆ ρ
2πε 0 ρ 2πε 0 ρ l

Work done and Electric Potential
An electric charge produces an electric field and if a test charge is
brought to this region it experiences a force.
If the test charge is moved against this field equal and opposite
forces will have to be exerted by the field and this needs work to be
done or energy to be spent.
If the charge is moved against the field, work done is positive and if
it is moved in the direction of the field work done is negative.
G
Consider a uniform field E in space as shown below
initial
dL cos θ
θ G
dL E
final

Let a positive test charge is moved through a small distance dL
through electric field in a direction opposite to the field.
The field exerts a force on the charge and some work must be
done to move the charge.
This work is equal to the product of the force and the distance
through which the charge has to be moved in the direction of the
force. G G
Force experienced on charge Q by the field E ⇒ F = Q E
G
Applied Force ⇒ Fa = -Q E = -QE
The incremental work dW done in moving the positive charge

through the distance dL is
dW =Fa dL cos θ

G JJG G JJG
dW =Fa dL cos θ =Fa ⋅ dL = − QE ⋅ dL
The total work required to move the charge from an initial point to a
final point is
final G JJG
W= ∫ −QE ⋅ dL G JJG
initial final
final G JJG W= − Q ∫ E ⋅ dL
= − Q∫ E ⋅ dL initial
initial

Electric Potential-Potential difference
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from an initial point
to a final point is called the potential difference between these
points.
Work done in moving a charge of Q Coulombs is
final G JJG
W= − Q ∫ E ⋅ dL
initial
Work done in moving a unit positive charge is

W final G JJG
Potential difference V= = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
Q initial
If B is the initial point and A is the final point

A G JJG
Potential difference VAB = − ∫
A G JJG
E ⋅ dL VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
B B

Electric Potential-Potential difference
A G JJG
VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
B
If A and B are the same points, the limits of integration are the same
and
A G JJG G JJG
VAB = − ∫
A
E ⋅ dL = 0 ∫ E ⋅ dL = 0
or v
Work done in carrying in carrying a unit positive charge from an

initial point to the same final point is zero, whatever be the path
taken for this travel.
The potential difference around any closed path is zero, irrespective
of the geometry of the path.
G
G JJG A E
v∫ E ⋅ dL = 0
Electric Potential- Absolute potential
The absolute potential of a point or simply potential of a point A is
defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from
infinity or from zero potential to that point.
A G JJG A G JJG
VA =VA∞ = − ∫ E ⋅ dL VA = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
∞ ∞

Potential Difference between two points in the
field of a point charge
rA rB
•A •B
Q
Let a point charge Q be placed at the centre of a spherical

coordinate system.
Let two points in the field of this charge are at radial distances rA and
rB from the point charge.

field of a point charge
The electric field intensity of a point charge is given by
G Q A G JJG
E= aˆ r VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
4πε 0 r 2
B
rA Q JJG
=−∫ aˆ r ⋅ draˆ r Since dL = draˆ r
rB 4πε 0 r 2
rA
Q rA 1 Q ⎡ 1⎤
=−
4πε 0 ∫ rB r 2
dr =− ⎢ − ⎥
4πε 0 ⎣ r ⎦ rB
Q ⎡1 1⎤ Q ⎡1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥ − ⎥
4πε 0 ⎣ rA rB ⎦
V AB = ⎢
4 π ε 0 ⎣ rA rB ⎦

field of a line charge
ρ L c/m
rA rB
•A •B
Let a line charge distribution having density ρL is placed at the

centre of a cylindrical coordinate system.
Let two points A and B in the field of this charge is at radial
distances rA and rB from the point charge.

field of a line charge
The potential difference between A and B is
rA G JJG
VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL ρL
rB
ρL JJG =− [ln rA − ln rB ]
=−∫
rA
aˆ ρ ⋅ dL 2πε 0
r 2πε ρ ρL
[ln rB − ln rA ]
B
0
=
r ρL 2πε 0
=−∫ aˆ ρ ⋅ d ρ aˆ ρ
A
r 2πε ρ
B
0 ρ L ⎡ rB ⎤
= ⎢ ln ⎥
2πε 0 ⎣ rA ⎦
ρL r 1
=− ∫ dρ
A
2πε 0 r ρ B
ρ ρL ⎡ rB ⎤
= − L [ln ρ ]r
r A VA B =
2π ε 0 ⎢ ln r ⎥
2πε 0 B ⎣ A ⎦

Potential difference between two conducting
spherical shells −Q
Two spherical shells having +Q b
radius a and b carrying a

charges +Q and − Q on the inner
and outer shells
a G JJG
VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL
b
a Q Q ⎡1 1⎤
=−∫ aˆ ⋅ draˆ r = − ⎥
4πε 0 r
b 2 r
⎢
4πε 0 ⎣ a b ⎦
Q a 1
=− ∫
4πε 0 r
b 2
dr
Q ⎡1 1⎤
Q ⎡ 1⎤
a VAB = ⎢ − ⎥
=− − ⎥ 4πε 0 ⎣ a b ⎦
⎢
4πε 0 ⎣ r ⎦ b
Potential difference between two conducting
cylindrical shells
a
Two cylindrical shells carrying
ρL c/ m
charge density ρ L on the inner
b
shell and having radii a and b
G JJG ρL
a
VAB = − ∫ E ⋅ dL =− [ln a − ln b]
b 2πε 0
a ρL ρL ⎡ b ⎤
=−∫ aˆ ρ ⋅ d ρ aˆ ρ = ln ⎥
b 2πε ρ ⎢
0 2πε 0 ⎣ a ⎦
ρL a 1
=− ∫
2πε 0 ρb
dρ
ρL ⎛b⎞
ρL VA B = ln ⎜ ⎟
=− [ ]b
ln ρ
a
2 πε 0 ⎝ a ⎠
2πε 0

Absolute potential of a point in the field
of a point charge
G
If the position vector of the pointG A is r and the charge is located at
point whose position vector is r ' the potential at point A is
Q
VA = G G'
4πε 0 r − r
For N point charges
G Q G 1,G Q2, Q3,……. G QN, located at points whose
position vectors r1 , r2 , rG3 ,.........., rN the potential of the point A
whose position vector is r is given by
Q1 Q2 QN
VA = G G + G G + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + G G
4πε 0 r − r1 4πε 0 r − r2 4πε 0 r − rN
1 N Qk
Or V A = ∑ G G
4πε 0 k =1 r − rk
Absolute potential of a point in the field
of charge distributions
For continuous charge distributions, the above equation can be
modified by incorporating appropriate charge distributions and
changing the summation to integration.
1 ρ L dl
VA =
4πε 0 ∫
L
G G ' ⇒ For line charge
r −r
1 ρ S dS
VA =
4πε 0 ∫
S
G G ' ⇒ For surface charge
r −r
1 ρV dV
VA =
4πε 0 ∫ V
G G ' ⇒ For volume charge
r −r

Example 1
Two point charges -4μC and 5μC are located at (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-2)
respectively. Find the potential at (1,0,1) assuming zero potential at
infinity.
Q1 = −4 μC Q1 Q2
VA = G G + G G
Q2 = 5 μ C 4πε 0 r − r1 4πε 0 r − r2
G G
r − r1 = (1,0,1) − (2, −1,3) = −1,1, −2 = 6
G G
r − r2 = (1,0,1) − (0, 4, −2) = 1, −4,3 = 26
−4 × 10 −6 5 × 10 −6
VA = +
4πε 0 6 4πε 0 26
V A = −5.872kV

Capacitance
Q
C=
+ + + ++ V
+ +CONDUCTOR+1Q+ Q=∫
G JJG G JJG
D ⋅ dS = ∫ ε E ⋅ dS
+ + s s
G G
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
G l
E G G
∫ ε E ⋅ ds
C= s G G
− − − − − ∫ E ⋅ dl
− − G G
− CONDUCTOR 2 − l
G G ε ∫ E ⋅ ds
− − − − −− Q− ε ∫ E ⋅ ds C= sG G
= sG G − ∫ E ⋅ dl
− ∫ E ⋅ dl
l

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
X Plate area A
+Q
1 +++++ + ++++ + +++++++++ +
G d
E
2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −
−Q
Dielectric

ρs = Q / A
Plate1
+Q A
+ρs
G
d ΔS E
−ρs −Q A
Plate2

Each plate of the parallel plate capacitor has an area A and are
separated by a distance d.
The plates 1 and 2 carries charges +Q and -Q uniformly distributed
on them.
The distance between plates is assumed to be very small when
compared to the plate dimensions such that the fringing between
plates is small enough to be ignored.
Applying Gauss’s law on the surface of a small pill box shaped
volume as shown in figure,
ψ = Qencl = ρ s ΔS
Only the bottom face of the cylindrical gaussian surface contributes
towards the electric flux.
Let the electric
G flux density on the bottom face of the gaussian
cylinder is D
ψ = D ΔS
D ΔS = ρ s ΔS
G G
D = ρs D = ρ S ( − aˆ x ) D = − ρ S aˆ x
Electric field intensity on the bottom face of the gaussian cylinder is

G
G D ρ G ρ
E= = − S aˆ x E = − S aˆ x
ε ε ε
Q
ρS =
A
G Q
E=− aˆ x
εA

Capacitance
1G JJG d Q
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dL = − ∫ − aˆ x ⋅ dxaˆ x
2 0 εA
Q d
=
εA ∫0
dx
Qd
=
εA
ε A
Q εA
Capacitance C = =
C =
V d d

Coaxial capacitor
Dielectric
2 2
1
1
a
L

Coaxial capacitor
Consider a length of two coaxial conductors of inner radius a and
outer radius b.
The space between the conductors is filled with a homogeneous
dielectric with permittivity ε.
Assume that the conductors 1 and 2 carry +Q and –Q charges
uniformly distributed on them.
By applying Gauss’s law we obtain the electric field between the
cylinders.
G Q
E= aˆ ρ
2περ L
1 G JJG a Q
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ aˆ ρ ⋅ d ρ aˆ ρ
2 b 2περ L
Q a 1
2π ε L ∫
= − dρ
b ρ
Coaxial capacitor
Q
V = − [ln ρ ]ba
2π ε L
Q ⎛ b⎞
= ⎜ ln ⎟
2π ε L ⎝ a ⎠
Q 2π ε L
Capacitance C = =
V ⎛ b⎞
⎜ ln ⎟
⎝ a⎠
2π ε L
C =
⎛ b ⎞
⎜ ln ⎟
⎝ a ⎠

Spherical capacitor
Dielectric
2
−
−
− 1 b
+ + + −
+ a +
− + + +
−
− −

Spherical capacitor
Consider the capacitance formed by two spherical shells of radii a
and b as shown in figure.
The spheres are separated by a dielectric medium with permittivity ε.
Charges +Q and –Q are distributed on the inner and outer spheres
respectively.
By applying Gauss’s law we can find out the electric field of such a
system.
G Q
E= aˆ r
4πε r 2
The potential difference between the conductors is

G JJG
1
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
2
a Q
= −∫ aˆ r ⋅ draˆ r
b 4πε r 2

Spherical capacitor
Q a1
V =− ∫
4πε b r 2
dr
Q ⎛1 1⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟
4πε ⎝ a b ⎠
Q
Capacitance C =
V
4πε 4π ε
C= C =
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝a b⎠ ⎝a b⎠

Relationship between E and V
The potential around any closed path is zero
G JJG
v∫ E ⋅ dL = 0 -----(1)
Applying Stokes’ Theorem
G JJG
(
G G JJG
)
v∫ EG ⋅ dLG = ∫S ∇ × E ⋅ dS = 0
G G
∇ × E = 0 ------(2)
∇×E = 0
Equations (1) and (2) are referred to as Maxwell’s second equation
for static electric fields.
G JJG
v∫GE ⋅ GdL = 0 ⇒ Maxwell's second equation in integral form
∇ × E = 0 ⇒ Maxwell's second equation in differential form
A vector field that satisfies equation (1) or (2) is called a
conservative field or irrotational field

The general expression for potential is
G JJG
V= − ∫ E ⋅ dL
G JJG
dV= − E ⋅ dL
dV= − E x dx − E y dy − E z dz
∂V ∂V ∂V
But dV= dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Comparing the two expressions
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

G ∂V ∂V ∂V
E= − aˆ x − aˆ y − aˆ z G G
G ∂G x
E = − ∇V
∂y ∂z
E = − ∇V
Electric field intensity is the gradient of potential V
G
The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the
direction in which V increases , it is directed from higher to lower
levels of V .
G G
Also it satisfies the equation ∇ × E = 0
G G
∇ × −∇V = 0
since the curl of the gradient of a scalar is always zero

Example 1
10
Given the potential V = 2 sin θ cos φ
r
(a) Find the electric flux density at (2,π/2,0)
(b) Calculate the work done in moving a 10μC charge from the point
B(1,300,1200) to A(4,900,600)
Solution :
G G 10
E = −∇V V= sin θ cos φ
r 2
G ⎡ ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V ⎤
E = −⎢ aˆ r + aˆθ + aˆφ ⎥
⎣ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ ⎦
G 20 10 10
E = 3 sin θ cos φ aˆ r − 3 cos θ cos φ aˆθ + 3 sin φ aˆφ
r r r

Example 1
G 20 20
At (2, π / 2,0) E = aˆ r − 0aˆθ + 0aˆφ = aˆ r
8 8
G G 20
D = ε 0 E = ε 0aˆ r
G 8
D = 22.1aˆ r pC / m 2
G JJG A
Work done W = −Q ∫ E ⋅ dl = QVAB V=
10
sin θ cos φ
B
r 2
W = Q (VA − VB ) A(4,90o ,60o ) B(1,30o ,120o )
−6 ⎛ 10 10 ⎞
= 10 × 10 ⎜ sin 90 cos60 − sin 30o cos120o ⎟
o o
⎝ 16 1 ⎠
W = 28.125 μ J

Electric dipoles: Potential and Electric field
Z +Q -Q
d
P
Q Q
r1 V= −
r 4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2
+Q r2
θ
d Y
−Q d cosθ r2 − r1 d cosθ , r1r2 r 2

X

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal
magnitude but opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
Referring to figure (1) the potential at point P is given by
V=
Q
−
Q Q ⎡1 1 ⎤ Q ⎡ r2 − r1 ⎤
V= ⎢ − ⎥ =
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2 4πε 0 ⎣ r1 r2 ⎦ 4πε 0 ⎢⎣ r1r2 ⎥⎦
If r>>d we can make the following assumptions
r2 − r1 d cosθ and r1r2 r 2
Q d cosθ
Then V =
4πε 0 r 2
G G
d cosθ = d ⋅ aˆ r where d = daˆ z aˆ r is a unit vector in r direction

G
Qd ⋅ aˆ r
Then V =
4πε 0 r 2
G G
By defining Qd = p, dipole moment
G
p ⋅ aˆ r
V=
4πε 0 r 2
The magnitude of dipole moment is equal to the product of charge
and distance and its direction is from − Q to +Q
The electric field due to the dipole with centre at the origin is given by
G G ⎡ ∂V ˆ 1 ∂V ˆ ⎤
E = −∇V = −⎢ ar + aθ ⎥
⎣ ∂r r ∂θ ⎦
There is no field variation along φ direction

G ⎡ ∂V ˆ 1 ∂V ˆ ⎤ Q d cosθ
E = −⎢ ar + aθ ⎥ Where V =
⎣ ∂r r ∂θ ⎦ 4πε 0 r 2
G Qd cosθ Qd sin θ p
E= a
ˆ + aˆθ = ( 2cosθ aˆr + sin θ aˆθ )
2πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
3 r 3 3
G p
E= ( 2cosθ aˆr + sin θ aˆθ )
4πε 0 r 3
G
p ⋅ aˆ r
When the dipole centre is at the origin, V =
4πε 0 r 2 G G G'
G' p ⋅ (r − r )
When the dipole centre is not at the origin, but at r V = G G' 3
4πε 0 r − r

♣ A point charge is a monopole and its field varies inversely as r 2

and its potential varies inversely as r
♣ The electric field due to a dipole varies inversely as r 3 and its
potential varies inversely as r 2
♣ The electric field due to successive higher order multipoles
varies inversely as r 4 , r 5 , r 6 ,......while their potential varies
inversely as r 3 , r 4 , r 5 ,......

Flux lines and equipotential surfaces
An electric flux line is an imaginary line or path drawn in such a way
that its direction at any point is the direction of the electric field at
that point.
A surface on which the potential is the same throughout is called
equipotential surface.
The intersection of an equipotential surface and a plane results in a
path or line called equipotential line.
No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another along
an equipotential line or surface.
G JJG
∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
This implies flux lines (direction of E) are always normal to
equipotential surfaces.

Electric dipoles and flux lines
Equipotential surface
Flux lines
Equipotential surfaces of a point charge

Electric dipoles and flux lines
Z Equipotential surface
V >0
V <0
Flux lines
Equipotential surfaces of a dipole
Energy density in electrostatic fields
Consider a region free of electric fields. Let there be three point
charges Q1,Q2,Q3 at infinity
To determine the energy present in the assembly of charges, we
have to determine the amount of work necessary to assemble them.
No work is required to transfer Q1 from infinity to P1 because the
space is initially charge free.
•P
1
Q1
Q2 •P2
Q3
• P3
∞
The work done in transferring Q2 from infinity to P2 is equal to the
product of Q2 and the potential V21 at P2 due to Q1.
The work done in positioning Q3 at P3 is equal to Q3(V32+V31).
The total work in positioning the three charges is
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2V21 + Q3 (V31 + V32 ) ------(1)
If the charges were positioned in the reverse order
WE = W3 + W2 + W1
= 0 + Q2V23 + Q1 (V12 + V13 ) ------(2)
Adding (1) and (2)
2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13 ) + Q2 (V21 + V23 ) + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

2WE = Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3
1
WE = (Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 )
2
V1 ,V2 ,V3 ⇒ Total potentials at P1 , P2 and P3
1 n
If there are n point charges WE = ∑ QkVk
2 k =1
If the region has a continuous charge distribution, the summation
becomes integration
1
WE = ∫ ρ LVdl ⇒ Line Charge
2 L
1
WE = ∫ ρ SVdS ⇒ Surface Charge
2 S
1
WE = ∫ ρVVdV ⇒ Volume Charge
2 V
G G 1
Applying ∇ ⋅ D = ρV , WE = ∫ ρVVdV
2 V
G G
1
(
WE = ∫ ∇ ⋅ D VdV
2 V
)
G G G G G G
( )
Using the identity ∇ ⋅ A V = ∇ ⋅VA − A ⋅ ∇V
G G G G
1
(
WE = ∫ ∇ ⋅VD − D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V
)
G G G G
1
( ) 1
= ∫ ∇ ⋅VD dV − ∫ D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V 2 V
( )
Applying divergence theorem to the first term on the RHS
G G G
1
WE = v
2 ∫ S
1
(
VD ⋅ dS − ∫ D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V
)
G G G
1
WE = v
2 ∫ S
1
( )
VD ⋅ dS − ∫ D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V
If we allow the volume v to increase to include all space,

the surface area goes to infinity.
V varies as 1 / r and D as 1 / r 2 so that VD varies as 1 / r 3
The surface area increases as r 2
G JJG 1
The quantity VD ⋅ dS decreases effectively as
r
The surface integral goes to zero as r → ∞ and S → ∞
G G G =0
1
WE = v
2 ∫ S
1
(
VD ⋅ dS − ∫ D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V
)
G G G G
1
(
WE = − ∫ D ⋅ ∇V dV
2 V
)
Putting E = −∇V
G G G G 1
1
( 1
)
WE = ∫ D ⋅ E dV = ∫ ε 0 E ⋅ E dV
2 V 2 V
( =
2 ∫V
ε)0 E 2
dV
1 G G
( 1
)
dWE = D ⋅ E dV = ε 0 E 2 dV
2 2
dWE 1 G G
dV 2
( 1
= D ⋅ E = ε0E 2
2
) Energy density is a quantity
which when integrated on
dWE
= wE is defined as the energy overall space yields the
dV total energy
density in electrostatic field
1 G G D2
2
( 1
2
)
wE = D ⋅ E = ε 0 E =
2
2ε 0
'All space' is the volume
containing the entire field .
WE = ∫ wE dV WE = ∫ wE dV

Example 1
Three point charges -1nC, 4nC,and 3nC are located at (0,0,0),
(0,0,1), and (1,0,0). Find the energy in the system.
z
z Q
4nC • 2
• 4nC 2
1
Q3
•−1nC −1nC • 1 •
y Q1 3nC x
• 3nC
x
1 n 1 3 1
WE = ∑ QkVk = ∑ QkVk = [Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 ]
2 k =1 2 k =1 2
1 ⎡ Q2 Q3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ Q1 Q3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ Q1 Q2 ⎤
= Q1 ⎢ + + Q2 ⎢ + ⎥ + Q3 ⎢ + ⎥
2 ⎣ 4πε 0 (1) 4πε 0 (1) ⎥⎦ 2 ⎣ 4πε 0 (1) 4πε 0 ( 2 ) ⎦ 2 ⎣ 4πε 0 (1) 4πε 0 ( 2 ) ⎦

Example 1
1 ⎛ Q2Q3 ⎞
W= ⎜ Q1Q2 + Q1Q3 + ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1 ⎛ 12 ⎞
= ⎜ −4 − 3 + ⎟ nJ
4πε 0 ⎝ 2⎠
= 13.37nJ

Example 2
A charge distribution with spherical symmetry is given by
⎧ ρ0 0 ≤ r ≤ R
ρV = ⎨
⎩0 r > R
determine the energy stored in the region r < R ρV R
The electric field of spherical charge distribution is

G ρ0r
For r ≤ R E = aˆr
3ε 0
G G
1
2 V
(
WE = ∫ D ⋅ E dV ) =
1
2 ∫V
ε 0 E 2
dV

Example 2
G ρ0r ρr ρ r
2 2
E= aˆ r E= 0 E2 = 0 2
3ε 0 3ε 0 9ε 0
1
WE = ∫ ε 0 E 2 dV 1 ρ 02r 2 ε 0 ρ 02
= ∫ ε0 dV = 2 ∫V
r 2
dV
2 V 2 V 9ε 0 2
18ε 0
ρ 02
= ∫ r r sin θ drdθ dφ
2 2
18ε 0 V
ρ 0 2 2π π R 4 ρ 0 2 2π π R
= ∫ ∫ ∫ r sin θ drdθ d φ = ∫ d φ ∫ θ d θ ∫ r dr
4
sin
18ε 0 φ = 0 θ = 0 r = 0 18ε 0 φ = 0 θ = 0 r = 0
R
ρ ⎡r ⎤
2 5
2πρ 0 2 R 5 2πρ 0 2 R 5
= 0 4π ⎢ ⎥ = WE =
18ε 0 ⎣ 5 ⎦0 45ε 0 45ε 0

Conduction and convection currents
The current through a given area is the electric charge passing
through the area per unit time. Its unit is Amperes.
dQ
I=
dt
One ampere current is produced if charge is transferred at the rate
of one coulomb per second.
The concept of current density is useful in defining the events
occurring at a point.
If current ΔI flows through a surface ΔS, then current density is
ΔI
Jn =
ΔS
And ΔI = J n ΔS Assuming the current density is perpendicular
to the surface.
Conduction and convection currents
If the current density is not normal to the surface
G JJJG
ΔI = Jcosθ ΔS = J ⋅ ΔS
The total current flowing through the surface is
G JJG JJG
I=∫ J ⋅ dS ΔS θ JG
S J
ΔS

Convection currents
Convection current is produced when current flows through an
insulating medium such as liquid, rarefied gas, or a vacuum.
It does not involve conductors and hence does not satisfy Ohm’s
law.
A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube is an example of convection
current.
ΔS ρV
G
u
y
Δl

Convection currents
Consider a beam of electrons with volume charge density ρV flowing
in the y direction with a velocity uy.
G
u = u y aˆ y
The current through the filament is
ΔQ ( ρV ΔS Δl ) ⎛ Δl ⎞
ΔI = = = ρV ΔS ⎜ ⎟ = ρV ΔSu y
Δt Δt ⎝ Δt ⎠
The y directed current density Jy is given by
ΔI
Jy = = ρV u y
ΔSG
G
In general J = ρV u
G G
Convection current density J = ρV u

Conduction currents
Conduction current requires a conductor as a medium.
A conductor contains a large number of free electrons that provide
conduction current due to an impressed electric field.
G
When an electric field E is applied the force on an electron with
charge –e is
G G
F = −eE
Since the electron is not in free space it will not be accelerated
under the influence of the electric field.
It suffers constant collisions with the atomic lattice and drifts from
one atom to another.
G
If the electron with mass m is moving in an electric field E with an
G
average drift velocity u the average change in momentum of the
free electron must match the applied force.

Conduction currents
According to Newton’s law,
G G G eτ G
mu
= −eE u=− E τ ⇒ Average time interval
τ m between collisions
This indicates that the drift velocity is directly proportional to the
applied field.
If there are n electrons per unit volume the electronic charge density
is given by ρV = − ne G G
Convection current density is J = ρV u
G ne 2τ G G G POINT FORM OF
J= E J =σE G G
OHM’S LAW
m
ne 2τ
J =σE
σ= is the conductivity
m
Conductors
A conductor contains free electrons which accounts for its
conductivity.
G
In an isolated conductor, when an external electric field Ee is
applied, the positive charges moves in the same direction as the
applied field.
The negative charges moves in the opposite direction.
These free charges accumulate on the surface of the conductor and
form an induced surface charge.
G
The induced charges set up an internal
G induced field Ei which
cancels the externally applied field Ee
Thus a perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic

field within it.

Conductors
_
+
_
_
+ G
_ G +
G
Ee G + Ee
_ Ei
+
_ E =0
_
+
_
+ +
_ + G _ ρ =0 + G
Ee
_ G
Ei +
Ee _ V +
_ + _ +
_ + G
_ + G
Ee Ee
A perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it.

Conductors
G G
Inside a conductor E = 0 and − ∇V = 0 which implies V=0
Thus a conductor is an equipotential body.
G G
Also, in a conductor, σ → ∞ and as per the equation, J = σ E the
G
electric field intensity E → 0 G JJG

G v∫
According to Gauss’s law, ε E ⋅ dS = ρV dV
S V ∫
If E = 0 the charge density ρV = 0
G
Inside a perfect conducter ,E = 0, ρV = 0, Vab = 0

Conductors
When the two ends of the conductor are maintained at a potential
difference V, the electric field is not zero inside the conductor.
In this case there is no static equilibrium, since the applied voltage
prevents the establishment of such equilibrium.
An electric field must exist inside the conductor to sustain the flow of
current.
The opposition to the flow is called resistance.
G
E
l
I
- - -- -

Conductors
V
The magnitude of the electric field is given by E =
l
Since the conductor has a uniform cross section, J = I
A
By Ohm’s law J = σ E
I σV
=σE =
A l
V l
=
I σA
l ρl l
R= = ρ= ⇒ Resistivity
σA A σ
ρl
R=
A

Conductors
Resistance of a conductor having non-uniform cross section is
G JJG
V − ∫ E ⋅ dl
R= = G JJG
I ∫ σ E ⋅ dS

Example 1
G 1
If J = 3 (2 cos θ aˆ r + sin θ aˆφ ) A/m 3 calculate the current passing
through r
A hemispherical shell of radius 20 cm
A spherical shell of radius 10 cm
G JJG JJG
I=∫ J ⋅ dS d S = r 2 si n θ d θ d φ aˆ r
S
G 1
J = 3 (2 cos θ aˆ r + sin θ aˆφ ) A/m 3
r
I=∫
1
S r 3 ( 2 cos θ a
ˆ r + sin θ a
ˆ φ ) ⋅ ( r 2
sin θ ) d θ d φaˆ r
1
I = ∫ 2 cos θ sin θ d θ d φ
r S

Example 1
1 2π π /2
I = ∫ 2 cos θ sin θ d θ d φ = ∫φ =0 ∫θ =0 2 sin θ cos θ d θ d φ
1
r S r
2π π /2 π /2
= ∫
r θ =0
2 sin θ cos θ d θ = 31.4 ∫θ =0
2 sin θ cos θ d θ = 31.4 A
In the second case, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and r = 0.1

2π π
= 62.8 ∫
π
2 sin θ cos θ d θ = 0
I=
r ∫θ =0
2 sin θ cos θ d θ θ =0

Continuity equation and relaxation time
JJG
dS G
Bounding Surface S J
dS
Qin

Electric charges can be neither created nor destroyed according to
law of conservation of electric charges.
Consider an arbitrary volume V bounded by surfaces S as shown in
figure.
A net charge Qin exists within this region.
If a net current I flows across this surface the charge in the volume
must decrease at a rate that equals the current.
If a net current flows across the surface in to the volume, the charge
in the volume must increase at the rate equal to the current.
The current leaving the volume is the total outward flux of the
current density vector through the surface S.
G JJG dQin
I OUT ∫ S J ⋅ dS = − dt ----(1)
=v

G JJG G G
Using divergence theorem, v∫ J ⋅ dS = ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv ---(2)
S V
dQin d ∂ρ v
−
dt
=−
dt ∫
V
ρ v dv = − ∫
V ∂t
----(3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)

G G ∂ρ v G G ∂ρ v
∇⋅J =−
∫V ∇ ⋅ J dv = − ∫V ∂t ∂t
G G ∂ρ v
∇⋅J =−
∂t
This equation is called continuity of current equation or continuity
equation.

It basically states that there can be no accumulation of charge at
any point.
∂ρ v G G
For steady currents ∂ t =0 and hence ∇ ⋅ J =0
The total current leaving a volume is the same as the total current
entering it.
Kirchhoff’s current law follows from it.

If we introduce charge at some interior point of a given material with
constants σ and ε its effect can be obtained using the continuity
equation.
G G
From Ohm’s law J = σ E
G G G G ρv
From Gauss’s law ∇ ⋅ D = ρ v and hence ∇ ⋅ E =
Substituting in the continuity equation, ε
G G ∂ρ v
∇⋅J =−
∂t
G G ∂ρ
∇ ⋅σ E = − v
∂t ∂ρ v σ
σρ v ∂ρ + ρ v =0
=− v ∂t ε
ε ∂t
∂ρ v σ
+ ρ v =0
∂t ε
∂ρ v σ
+ ρ v =0
∂t ε
This equation is a homogeneous linear ordinary differential
equation.
∂ρ v σ
Separating the variables, = − ∂t
ρv ε
σt
Integrating both sides ln ρ v = − + ln ρ v 0
ε
W here ln ρ v 0 is a constant of integration
ρ v =ρ v 0e − t / Tr
Where Tr =
ε ρ v =ρ v 0e − t / Tr

When we introduce a volume charge density at an interior point in a
material, it decays resulting in a charge movement from the interior
point at which it was introduced to the surface of the material.
The time constant Tr of this decay is called relaxation time or
rearrangement time.
Relaxation time is the time it takes for a charge placed in the interior
of a material to drop to e-1 or 36.8 percent of its initial value.
It is very short for good conductors and very long for good
dielectrics.
For a good conductor the relaxation time is so short that most of the
charge will vanish from the interior point and appear at the surface
within a short time.
For a good dielectric the relaxation time is very long that the
introduced charge remains at the same point.
Cu ⇒ 1.53 × 10−19 s Quartz ⇒ 51.2days

Boundary conditions
When the field exists in a medium consisting of two different media,
the conditions the field must satisfy are called boundary conditions.
For the electrostatic field the following boundary conditions are
important.
Dielectric – dielectric interface.
Conductor – dielectric.
Conductor – free space.

Dielectric-dielectric Boundary conditions
Consider the boundary between two dielectrics with permittivities
ε1 = ε 0ε r1
and ε 2 = ε 0ε r
2
1
G
E1
G
E1n a
ε1
G b
G E1t d
E2t c Δh
G
E2 ΔW
G
E2n
2
ε2
The fields in the two media can be expressed as
G G G G G G
E1 = E1t + E1n E2 = E2 t + E2 n
G JJG
Apply the equation
v∫
l
E ⋅ dl = 0 to the path abcda in the figure.
G JJG Δh Δh Δh Δh
v∫abcda E ⋅ dl = E1t Δw − E1n 2 − E2n 2 − E2t Δw + E2n 2 + E1n 2 = 0
E1t Δw − E2t Δw = 0 E1t = E2t
E1t = E2t G
Tangential components of E are equal at the boundary.
G
Et undergoes no change on the boundary and it is continuous
across the boundary.

D1t D2t
E1t = E2t = ε 2 D1t = ε1D2t
ε1 G ε2
The tangential component of D under goes some change across the
boundary.
G
So D is said to be discontinuous across the boundary.
The boundary conditions for the normal components are obtained by
applying Gauss’s law on a small pill box shaped volume as in the
figure.
G JJG
v∫
S
D ⋅ dS = Q
D1n ΔS − D2 n ΔS = ΔQ = ρ S ΔS Assuming Δh → 0
D1n − D2 n = ρ S

1
G
D1
G
D1n ΔS
ε1
G G
D2t D1t Δh
G
G D2
D2n
2
ε2

D1n − D2 n = ρ S D1n − D2 n = ρ S
If no free charge exists at the boundary, ρS = 0
D1n = D2 n D1n = D2 n
G
Normal components of D are equal at the boundary.
G
Dn undergoes no change on the boundary and it is continuous
across the boundary.
E1n ε 2
D1n = D2 n ε1E1n = ε 2 E2 n =
E2 n ε 1
G
The normal component of D under goes some change across the
boundary.
G
So Dn is said to be discontinuous across the boundary.

G
D1
G G
1
θ1
E1
G
G
E1n
G
D1n
ε1
E1t D1t
G G
E2 E2n
G θ2
D2 G
D2n
G
ε2
E2t
G
2 D2t

E1t = E2t D1n = D2 n
E1 sin θ1 = E2 sin θ 2 - - (1) D1 cos θ1 = D2 cosθ 2
ε1E1 cosθ1 = ε 2 E2 cos θ 2 - - - (2)
E1 sin θ1 E2 sin θ 2
(1) / (2) ⇒ =
ε1E1 cosθ1 ε 2 E2 cosθ2
ε 2 tan θ1 = ε1 tan θ2
tan θ1 ε1 ε 0ε r1 ε r1 tan θ1 ε r1
= = = =
tan θ2 ε 2 ε 0ε r 2 ε r 2 tan θ 2 ε r 2
This is called law of refraction
Conductor-Dielectric boundary conditions
G Dielectric ε = ε 0ε r
E
G G a
En Et
b
d
c Δh
ΔW
G
Conductor E = 0

G Dielectric ε = ε 0ε r
D
G G ΔS
Dn Dt
Δh
G
Conductor E = 0

The interface between a perfect conductor and a dielectric shown in
figure.
G JJG
Apply the equation
v∫
E ⋅ dl = 0 to the path abcda in the figure.
l
G JJG Δh Δh Δh Δh
v∫abcda E ⋅ dl = Et Δw − En
2
− 0 ⋅
2
− 0 ⋅ Δw + 0 ⋅
2
+ En
2
=0
Et Δw = 0
Et = 0 Dt = 0 Dt = ε 0ε r Et = 0
D t = ε 0ε r E t = 0
The boundary conditions for the normal components are obtained by
applying Gauss’s law on a small pill box shaped volume as in the
figure.
G JJG
v∫ D ⋅ dS = Q Dn ΔS − 0 ⋅ ΔS = ΔQ Assuming Δh → 0
S
Dn =
ΔQ
= ρS Dn = ε 0ε r En = ρ S
ΔS
No electric field exists inside a perfect conductor.
External electric field, if any, is normal to the conductor surface as
given by Dn = ρ S

Conductor-Free space boundary conditions
This is a special case of conductor-dielectric conditions.
It can be obtained by replacing ε r = 1 in the equation
Dn = ε 0ε r En = ρ S
Dn = ε 0 En = ρ S Dn = ε 0 En = ρ S
As in the earlier case Dt = ε 0ε r Et = 0
Dt = ε 0 E t = 0

Conductor-Free space boundary conditions
G Free space ε = ε 0ε r
D
G
Dn G G
E G Dt
G Et
En
G
Conductor E = 0

Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation
Gauss’s law in point form is given by
G G
∇ ⋅ D = ρV
G G
Substituting D = ε E in the above equation,
G G
∇ ⋅ ε E = ρV
G G G2 ρV
We know that E = −∇V ∇V =−
G G ε
(
∇ ⋅ −ε∇V = ρV )
G G ρV G2 ρV
∇ ⋅ ∇V = − i.e., ∇ V = −
ε ε
This equation is known as Poisson’s equation.

G G ⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂V ∂V ∂V ⎤
∇ ⋅ ∇V = ⎢ aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ aˆ x + aˆ y + aˆ z ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞⎤
=⎢ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟ + ∂z ⎜ ∂z ⎟⎥
⎣ ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
= 2 + 2 + 2 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ρV
∂x ∂y ∂z + 2 + 2 =−
G2 ∂x 2
∂y ∂z ε
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ρ
∇V = 2 + 2 + 2 =− V
∂x ∂y ∂z ε

In the case of a charge free region, Poisson’s equation reduces to
Laplace’s equation as given below.
G2 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇V =0 ∂x 2
+ 2 + 2 =0
∂y ∂z
In cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems
G2 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2V ⎞ ∂ 2V
∇V = ⎜ ρ ⎟ + 2⎜ 2 ⎟+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ ρ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ∂z
G2 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ 2V
∇V = 2 ⎜r ⎟+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 =0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂φ
2

Laplace’s equation is very useful in finding out the potential V of a
set of conductors maintained at different potentials as in the case of
capacitor plates.
G
Electric field E can be obtained once we obtain potential V from
G G
E = −∇V

General Procedure for solving Poisson’s and Laplace’s
equations to find capacitance
Solve Laplace’s ( if ρv = 0 ) or Poisson’s equation ) if ( ρv ≠ 0 ) using
Direct integration if V is a function of one variable
Separation of variables if v is a function of more than one variable.
The solution at this point is not unique but expressed in terms of unknown
integration constants.
Apply boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for V.
G G G G G G
After obtaining V, find E using E = −∇V and D using D = ε E
Find the charge induced on a conductor

G using Q = ∫ ρ s dS where
ρs=Dn and Dn is the component of D normal to the conductor.
If required find the capacitance between the conductors using C=Q/V

Uniqueness Theorem
If a solution to Laplace’s Equation can be found that satisfies the
boundary conditions, then the solution is unique.
Proof: ( by contradiction )
Assume that there are two solutions V1 and V2 of Laplace’s

equations both of which satisfies the given boundary conditions.
G2 G2
∇ V1 = 0 ∇ V2 = 0
G2
That is ∇ (V2 − V1 ) = 0
G2
Letting (V2 − V1 ) = Vd ∇ Vd = 0
V1 and V2 must reduce to the same potential along the boundary
(V2 − V1 ) = Vd = 0

Uniqueness Theorem
G G G JJG
From divergence theorem ∫V ∇ ⋅ AdV = v∫ S A ⋅ dS G
The above equation is true for any vector, so let A be the vector
G G
A = Vd ∇Vd
G G G JJG
∫V ( )
∇ ⋅ V d ∇ V d dV = (
)
v∫ S V d ∇ V d ⋅ dS ------(1)
G G G G G G
( )
Using the vector identity ∇ ⋅ ψ A = ψ∇ ⋅ A + A ⋅ ∇ψ
G G G G G G
∇ ⋅ (V ∇V ) = V ∇ ⋅ ( ∇V ) + ( ∇V ) ⋅ ∇V
d d d d d d
G G
= V ∇ V + ( ∇V )
2
2
d d d
G G G G
Putting ∇ V = 0 ∇ ⋅ (V ∇ V ) = ( ∇ V )
2 2
d d d d ----(2)

Uniqueness Theorem
Putting eq (2) in eq (1)
G G JJG
∫( )
2
V
∇Vd ∫
dV = v
S
Vd ∇Vd ⋅ dS
G G
( )
2 2
Putting Vd = 0 ∫V ∇ Vd
dV = 0 ∫V
∇ V d dV = 0
G G
∇ Vd = 0 ∇ (V 2 − V1 ) = 0
Which implies V 2 − V1 is a constant every where.
At the boundary we have seen that V2 − V1 = 0
So V2 − V1 = 0 or V1 = V2 everywhere.
So V1 and V2 cannot be different solutions of the same problem.
Uniqueness theorem is proved .
Example 1
Using Laplace’s theorem obtain the potential distribution between
two spherical conductors separated by a single dielectric. The inner
spherical conductor of radius a is at a potential V0 and the outer
conductor of radius b is at potential zero. Also evaluate the electric
field.
−Q
ρ sb =
4π b 2
a
Q
ρ sa = b
4π b 2
V0

Example 1
Laplaces equation in spherical coordinates is
G2 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ∂ 2V
∇V = 2 ⎜r ⎟+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 =0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂φ 2
Since V is a function of r only

G2 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞
∇V = 2 ⎜r ⎟=0
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞
Since 2 ≠ 0 we get ∂r ⎜ r ∂r ⎟=0
r ⎝ ⎠
2 ∂V
Integrating with respect to r r = K1
∂r
∂V
That is , r
2
= K1
∂r
Example 1
K1
Again integrating with respect to r V =− + K2
r
Constants K1 and K2 are found out by applying boundary
conditions.
(i ) r = a, V = V0 V0 = − + K 2 ⎫
K1
a ⎪
⎬ eqations 1
K1
(ii) r = b, V = 0 = − + K2 ⎪
0
b ⎭
Solving eqations 1
ab −V0 a V0 ab V0 a
K1 = −V0 K2 = Then V = −
(b − a ) (b − a ) (b − a ) r (b − a )
Example 1
V0 ab V0 a G G
V = − E = −∇V
(b − a ) r (b − a )
G ⎡ ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V ⎤
E = −⎢ aˆ r + aˆθ + aˆφ ⎥
⎣ ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ ⎦
G ∂V
Since V is a function of r only E=− aˆ r
∂r
G ∂ ⎡ V0 ab V0 a ⎤
E=− ⎢ − ⎥ aˆ r
∂r ⎣ ( b − a ) r ( b − a ) ⎦ G V0 ab
G V0 ab
E= aˆ V/m
2 r
E= aˆ
2 r
(b − a ) r
(b − a ) r

Example 2
Find the potential at any point between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor and electric field.
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
−
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
−
y=0 y=d
z V0
y
Example 2
Laplace’s equation in rectangular coordinates is
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ 2 + 2 =0
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
∂ 2V
Since V is a function of y only =0
∂y 2
Integrating with respect to y ∂V = K1

∂y
Again integrating with respect to y V = K1 y + K 2
Constants K1 and K 2 are found out by applying boundary
conditions.
(i ) y = 0, V = V0 (ii ) y = d , V = 0

Example 2
V0
Substituting in V = K1 y + K 2 K 2 = V0 K1 = −
d
V0
V = − y + V0
d
G G ∂V ∂ ⎛ V0 ⎞ V0
E = −∇V =− aˆ y = − ⎜ − y + V0 ⎟ aˆ y = aˆ y
∂y ∂y ⎝ d ⎠ d
G V0
E = aˆ y G V0
d E = aˆ y
d

Example 3
Find the potential distribution between the conductors, and the
capacitance per unit length.
V0
a
b
1m
Example 3
Laplace’s equation in cylindrical coordinates is
G2 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂ 2V ⎞ ∂ 2V
∇V = ⎜ ρ ⎟ + 2⎜ 2 ⎟+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ ρ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ∂z
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
Since V is a function of ρ only ρ ∂ρ ⎜ ρ ∂ρ ⎟ = 0
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∂
Since ≠ 0 we get ⎜ ρ ∂ρ ⎟ = 0
ρ ∂ρ
⎝ ⎠
∂V
Integrating with respect to ρ ρ = K1
∂ρ
Again integrating with respect to ρ
V = K1 ln ρ + K 2

Example 3
Constants K1 and K2 are found out by applying boundary
conditions.
(i ) ρ = a, V = V0 V0 = K1 ln a + K 2 ⎫
⎪
⎬ eqations (1)
(ii ) ρ = b, V = 0 0 = K1 ln b + K 2 ⎪
⎭
Solving eqations (1)
V0 V0
K1 = − K2 = ln b
ln( b / a ) ln( b / a )

Example 3
V0 V0
V =− ln ρ + ln b = V ln( ρ / b )
ln( b / a ) ln( b / a ) 0
ln( a / b )
ln( ρ / b )
V = V0 Volts
ln( a / b )
G G ∂V ∂ ⎛ ln( ρ / b ) ⎞ V0
E = −∇V = − aˆ ρ = − ⎜ V0 ⎟ aˆ ρ = aˆ ρ
∂ρ ∂ρ ⎝ ln( a / b ) ⎠ ρ ln( b / a )
G V0
E= aˆ ρ V/m
ρ ln( b / a )
Applying gauss ' s law for the inner conductor ,
G JJG
v∫S
D ⋅ dS = Q
Example 3
V0
v∫S
ε
ρ ln( b / a )
aˆ ρ ρ d φ dzaˆ ρ = Q
εV0
v∫ S ln( b / a )
d φ dz = Q
εV0 εV0
∫S
2π
d φ dz = Q
ln( b / a ) v
1
ln( b / a ) ∫
0
dz ∫
0
dφ = Q
2πεV0
=Q
ln( b / a )
Q 2πε 2πε
C= = C= F/m
V0 ln( b / a ) ln( b / a )

EMT Electromagnetic Theory MODULE II

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EMT Electromagnetic Theory MODULE II

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MODULE II

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

1.K.D.Prasad, Electromagnetic fields and waves, Sathya Prakashan

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Where aˆ R is a unit vector in the direction of the force

Where aˆ R is a unit vector directed from Q1 to Q2

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

G QQ1 ( rG − rG1 ) QQ2 ( rG − rG2 ) G G

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

 Point Charge: A charge that is located on a body whose dimensions

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

 Surface Charge: A charge that is distributed over a surface is

Charge element dQ = ρ S dS Total charge Q = ∫ ρ S dS

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

 By replacing the charge Q by charge elements and integrating we

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

, The radial components of dE1 and dE2 gets added .

, The electric field intensity at P due to the entire line charge is

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

, For an infinite line charge, L → ∞ and

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, Assume that the infinite sheet charge is composed of line charge

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

, The electric field intensity at P due to the entire sheet charge is

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

 If this equation is multiplied by ε0, we get

 The RHS of the above equation is independent of permittivity ε0, and

 4 π R 2 is the area of an imaginary sphere around the charge Q.

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

The surface integral of the normal component of the

 The enclosed charge might be point charges, line charge, surface

Q = ∑ Qn ⇒ Point charges Q = ρ S dS ⇒ Surface charge

Q = ∫ ρ l dl ⇒ Line charge Q = ∫ ρV dV ⇒ Volume charge

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

 Applying divergence theorem to to the LHS

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Compiled by MKP for CEC S5 Batch July 2008

Point Charge: A charge that is located on a body whose dimensions

Surface Charge: A charge that is distributed over a surface is

By replacing the charge Q by charge elements and integrating we

If this equation is multiplied by ε0, we get

The RHS of the above equation is independent of permittivity ε0, and

4 π R 2 is the area of an imaginary sphere around the charge Q.

The enclosed charge might be point charges, line charge, surface

Applying divergence theorem to to the LHS

The incremental work dW done in moving the positive charge

Work done in moving a unit positive charge is

If B is the initial point and A is the final point

Work done in carrying in carrying a unit positive charge from an

Let a point charge Q be placed at the centre of a spherical

Let a line charge distribution having density ρL is placed at the

Electric field intensity on the bottom face of the gaussian cylinder is

The potential difference between the conductors is

−Q d cosθ r2 − r1 d cosθ , r1r2 r 2