Digital Electronics - Learning Unit 1

Introduction to Digital Electronics

Objective and Overview
You’ll be introduced to specialized terms and concepts and review basic instrumentation
and construction techniques. This lesson covers basic concepts key to working with
digital electronics, with references for review, and provides a short glossary of terms. A
selection of common conventions and construction methods are presented.
Student Preparation
None.
Using the Correct Terms
Digital electronics has a special language all its own. You already know that it deals with
“1s and 0s”, but that’s a vast oversimplification of the in and outs of “going digital.” It
will help us communicate better if we agree on what important terms mean, so let’s
discuss a few.
Logic Levels
Digital electronics operates on the premise that all signals have two distinct levels.
Depending on what types of devices are in use, the levels may be certain voltages or
voltage ranges near the power supply level and ground. The meaning of those signal
levels depends on the circuit design, so don’t mix the logical meaning with the physical
signal. Here are some common terms used in digital electronics:
• Logical–refers to a signal or device in terms of its
meaning, such as "TRUE" or "FALSE"
• Physical–refers to a signal in terms of voltage or current
or a device’s physical characteristics
• HIGH–the signal level with the greater voltage
• LOW–the signal level with the lower voltage
• TRUE or 1–the signal level that results from logic
conditions being met
• FALSE or 0–the signal level that results from logic
conditions not being met
Be careful not to mix TRUE & HIGH or FALSE & LOW because they are not always the
same! There are two types of digital electronics. Positive logic assigns ground to FALSE
or 0 and a positive voltage to TRUE or 1. Negative logic does the opposite.
• Active High–a HIGH signal indicates that a logical
condition is occurring
• Active Low–a LOW signal indicates that a logical
condition is occurring
• Truth Table–a table showing the logical operation of a
 device’s outputs based on the device’s inputs, such as the
following table for an OR gate described in Lesson 2.

Inputs Output
Input A Input B X

FALSE FALSE FALSE

TRUE FALSE TRUE

FALSE TRUE TRUE

TRUE TRUE TRUE

• State–a stable combination of signals or of a set of inputs

and outputs, can refer to a device, a circuit, or a set of
signals
Logic Families
The two most common logic families are the 74HC and CD4000-series of devices. A
logic family is a set of devices that all use the same internal technology, so their logic
levels are all compatible. You will find the same logical functions, such as gates,
counters, and registers, in all logic families, but their voltage and switching
characteristics vary to satisfy different needs.
Both of these logic families utilize CMOS technology, which stands for “Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor”, describing the types of transistors and the way they are
connected to form logic gates. This course will rely on the CD4000 logic family of
devices because they use positive logic (easier for beginners to understand) are
inexpensive, draw little power, and are widely available. The 74HC family is a negative
logic series. Both are widely used and have many devices with identical logic functions.
We’ll visit logic families in more detail in Lesson 13.
Number Systems
Digital logic may work with “1s and 0s”, but it combines them into several different
groupings that form different number systems. You’re familiar with the decimal system,
of course. That’s a base-10 system in which each digit represents a power of ten. In the
field of logic you’ll also encounter…
• Binary–base two (each bit represents a power of two), digits are 0 and 1, numbers are denoted
with a ‘B’ or ‘b’ at the end, such as 01001101B (77 in the decimal system)

• Hexadecimal or ‘Hex’–base 16 (each digit represents a power of 16), digits are 0 through 9 plus
A-B-C-D-E-F representing 10-15, numbers are denoted with ‘0x’ at the beginning or ‘h’ at the
end, such as 0x5A or 5Ah (90 in the decimal system) and require four binary bits each. A dollar
sign preceding the number ($01BE) is sometimes used, as well.
 • Binary-coded decimal or BCD–a four-bit number similar to hexadecimal, except that the decimal
value of the number is limited to 0-9.

• Decimal–the usual number system. When used in combination with other numbering systems,
decimal numbers are denoted with ‘d’ at the end, such as 23d.

• Octal–base eight (each digit represents a power of 8), digits are 0-7, and each requires three bits.
Rarely used in modern designs.

As examples, 0x2A, 00101010B, and 42d all have the same value of 42.
Hexadecimal is useful because it is a compact way of dealing with binary numbers that
have a multiple of four bits. Each hexadecimal digit can be represented by four binary
bits. 0 is 0x0 in hexadecimal and 0000B in binary. 15 is 0xF in hexadecimal and 1111B
in binary. Since most computers and microprocessors use 8, 16 or 32-bit words,
hexadecimal notation is very common.
This course will deal with binary, decimal, and hexadecimal numbers.
As long as we’re on the subject of numbers, there are some prefixes to review, as well.
You are probably familiar with the metric prefixes k (kilo), M (Mega), and G (Giga) and
their use to represent (loosely) some powers of two in the computer world. Because the
binary numbers they’re used to represent aren’t equal to the exact values, they are
gradually being replaced with IEC binary prefixes: The new prefixes are Ki = 210 = 1024,
Mi = 220 = 1,048,576, and Gi = 230 = 1,073,741,820. “bits” will be used to mean bits and
“B” will be used to mean bytes. These are by no means common at present, so for this
course we’ll stick with the familiar (but slightly incorrect) k, M, and G. Be prepared to
see them more frequently as the old prefixes are gradually phased out. More information
on binary prefixes is available at http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html.
Bit Ordering and Counting
Without some kind of agreement, it’s easy to get into trouble when labeling bits and
signals. In digital logic there are four different sizes or widths of numbers (see Figure 1-
1).
• Bit–a single binary signal taking on the value 0 or 1, and
representing a power of two in a binary number.
• Nibble–a group of four bits, containing a single
hexadecimal number, such as 0x8
• Byte–a group of eight bits, containing two hexadecimal
numbers, such as 0x3F
• Word–a group of bits larger than a byte, usually 16 bits,
and almost always multiples of four bits
For the groups that have more than one bit, it is important to know “which way” to start
reading the number. Fortunately, like for the decimal system, the least significant
positions (meaning the lowest powers) are on the right as shown in Figure 1-1. The bit
representing the smallest power of two (usually the zero-th power or 1) is called the
“Least Significant Bit” or LSB. On the other end of the binary number is the bit
representing the highest power of two, called the “Most Significant Bit” or MSB.

Figure 1-1 — Bit positions and names in the binary system

One of the more unexpected things about the binary system is that counting begins at
zero, not one. The first of anything is labeled with a ‘0’, such as bit 0 or register 0, so a
byte has bits 0 through 7. Designers also refer to “left” and “right”, meaning “towards the
MSB” and “towards the LSB.” When you are just starting, it can be mighty confusing, so
take your time to be sure you have it right. Even veterans sometimes make mistakes,
particularly when two different groups are trying to design a complex device together.
Packaging
Logic devices are manufactured in standard sizes and organizations called packages.
Package can refer to both the physical size and shape of the device or it can refer to the
organization of logic elements within the physical device. The most common type of
physical package is the DIP or Dual In-line Package, sporting two rows of pins along
opposite rows of a rectangular body, 0.3” apart or more, with the pins spaced by 0.1”.
These are also referred to as through-hole parts because to assemble them on a circuit
board requires holes to be drilled through the board for the pins. Most products today use
surface-mount technology (SMT) parts, whose pins lie flat against the circuit board and
don’t require any holes. When ordering parts, be sure to get the right version, since there
is great disparity in size. This course will use through-hole parts exclusively.
A logical package description usually refers to the number of individual logic devices
grouped into a single physical device. Examples include quad gates, dual flip-flops, hex
inverters, and octal drivers that include 4, 2, 6, and 8 individual logic circuits inside,
respectively.
Digital Construction Techniques
Building digital circuits is somewhat easier than for analog circuits–there are fewer
components and the devices tend to be in similarly sized packages. Connections are less
susceptible to noise. The tradeoff is that there can be many connections, so it is easy to
make a mistake and harder to find them. Due to the uniform packages, there are fewer
visual clues. Here are some guidelines to help you make your first circuits.
Prototyping Boards
You’ll be putting together some temporary circuits, or prototypes, as part of the exercises
at the conclusion of each lesson using a common workbench accessory known as a
prototyping board. A typical board is shown in Figure 1-2 with a DIP packaged IC
plugged into the board across the center gap. The board consists of sets of sockets in rows
that are connected together so that component leads can be plugged in and connected
without soldering. The long rows of sockets on the outside edges of the board are also
connected together and these are generally used for power supply and ground connections
that are common to many components.

Figure 1-2 — Using a prototyping board

Try to be very systematic in assembling your wiring layout on the prototype board, laying
out the components approximately as shown on the schematic diagram. Here are a few
suggestions that will improve your chances of having a correct hookup on the first
attempt:
• Positive and negative power supply voltages appearing at the top/bottom of the schematic should
be on the top/bottom of your prototype board.

• Use wire jumpers that are about the right length to be about 1/2 ~ 3/4” above the board when they
are installed. Jumpers that are too short tend to pull out of the sockets and if too long, snag on
fingers and test probes and obscure the circuit.

• Remember that power supply grounds, function generator grounds, and all circuit grounds must be
physically connected to be electrically identical.
 • For complex circuits, use different colored wires for different functions and use masking tape or
paper labels to label major signal paths or power leads.

• Finally, take your time and be careful. Make a paper copy of the circuit and use it as a guide as
you build the circuit and for making notes. Use a highlighter to color each connection as it’s made
or component as it’s installed.

Reading Pin Connections

IC pins are almost always arranged so that pin 1 is in a corner or by an identifying mark
on the IC body and the sequence increases in a counter-clockwise sequence looking down
on the IC or “chip” as shown in Figure 1-2. For most DIP packages, the identifying mark
is a semi-circular depression in the middle of one end of the package or a round pit or dot
in the corner marking pin 1. Both are shown in the figure, but only one is likely to be
used on any given IC. When in doubt, the manufacturer of an IC will have a drawing on
the data sheet and those can usually be found by entering “[part number] data sheet” into
an Internet search engine.
Powering Digital Logic
Where analog electronics is usually somewhat flexible in its power requirements and
tolerant of variations in power supply voltage, digital logic is not nearly so carefree.
Whatever logic family you choose, you will need to regulate the power supply voltages to
at least ±5 percent, with adequate filter capacitors to filter out sharp sags or spikes.
Logic devices depend on stable power supply voltages to provide references to the
internal electronics that sense the high or low voltages and act on them as logic signals. If
the power supply voltage is not well regulated or if the device’s ground voltage is not
kept close to 0 V, then the device can become confused and misinterpret the inputs,
causing unexpected or temporary changes in signals known as glitches. These can be very
hard to troubleshoot, so insuring that the power supply is clean is well worth the effort. A
good technique is to connect a 10 ~ 100 μF electrolytic or tantalum capacitor and a 0.1 μF
ceramic capacitor in parallel across the power supply connections on your prototyping
board.

Review:
Logical–refers to a signal or device in terms of logical conditions
Physical–refers to a signal in terms of voltage or current or a device’s physical
characteristics
HIGH–the signal level with the greater voltage
LOW–the signal level with the lower voltage
TRUE or 1–the signal level that results from logic conditions being met
FALSE or 0–the signal level that results from logic conditions not being met
Active High–a HIGH signal indicates that a logical condition is occurring
Active Low–a LOW signal indicates that a logical condition is occurring
Truth Table–a table showing the logical operation of a device’s outputs based on the
device’s inputs
State–a stable combination of signals or of a set of inputs and outputs, can refer to a
device, a circuit, or a set of signals
A logic family is a set of devices that all use the same internal technology, so their logic
levels are all compatible.
Binary–base two (each bit represents a power of two), digits are 0 and 1, numbers are
denoted with a ‘B’ or ‘b’ at the end, such as 01001101B (77 in the decimal system).
Hexadecimal or ‘Hex’–base 16 (each digit represents a power of 16), digits are 0 through
9 plus A-B-C-D-E-F representing 10-15, numbers are denoted with ‘0x’ at the beginning
or ‘h’ at the end, such as 0x5A or 5Ah (90 in the decimal system) and require four binary
bits each. A dollar sign preceding the number ($01BE) is sometimes used, as well.
Binary-coded decimal or BCD–a four-bit number similar to hexadecimal, except that the
decimal value of the number is limited to 0-9.
Bit–a single binary signal taking on the value 0 or 1, and representing a power of two in a
binary number.
Nibble–a group of four bits, containing a single hexadecimal number, such as 0x8
Byte–a group of eight bits, containing two hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x3F
Word–a group of bits larger than a byte, usually in multiples of four bits
Counting in the binary system begins at zero, not one.
Now click on the Activities button and proceed with the Student Activities, which are
required before moving to the Questions (click on the Questions button). Upon
completion of these Questions, go to the next Learning Unit.