Structural Geology

Structural geology is the branch of geology concerned with

deformation of rock bodies by natural forces (sterss &
Strain) that caused the deformations and displacement in
rock formations.

Main structural features

• Folds
• Faults
• Unconformity (concerned with periods of break
deposition)
Mechanism of Formation of Structures by :
a) Stress
A load applied to a material results in a stress at any point within it .
Deformation is a change in shape due to an applied force. This can
be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces,
shear, bending or torsion (twisting). Deformation is often
described in terms of strain.
 Stress is conventionally defined as a force acting on some area

Figure 1. Stress is defined as a force (F) acting on some area (A).

Figure 1 illustrates a force, F, acting on area A. In the form of an equation this becomes
(1)

Stress is defined as force per unit area. Rock stresses are usually measured in
Megapascals (MPa).
 STRAIN

strain is the geometrical expression of deformation caused by the action of stress on a

physical body. Strain therefore expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape. If
strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred to as homogeneous strain;
otherwise, it is inhomogeneous strain.

Heterogeneous or non-homogenous strain results in distorted complex forms

Homogenous strain affects bodies in a regular and uniform manner.

Types of strain:
Elastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are reversible. Deform it,
remove the stress, and it returns to its original shape (like a rubber band
or a piece of elastic)
Plastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are permanent and not
reversible (like folding).
Strike: The direction of the line, along which an inclined (or dipping)
bed intersects a horizontal plane, is known as the strike of the bed.

Dip: The dip direction is the direction in which the inclination of the
bedding plane occurs.
Dip amount: The angle of inclination between the bedding plane and
a horizontal
plane.
Mapping of the Strike and dip of the formation
 FOLDS
Folds may be defined as wavy undulations or bends that are
developed in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, whenever the region is
subjected to severe pressure and stress. Folds result from the plastic
deformation of rocks.

Folds may develop in any type of rock, but displayed in the stratified rocks such
as sedimentary or volcanic rocks.

• Folds may be different shapes simple up and down to complicated geometric

patters.
• Lateral extent rage from several kilometers to few meters or a few
centimeters.
 ANATOMY OF FOLDS
• Crest, trough, Limbs, hinge zones, fold
axis, axial plane, axial surface, plunge,
wavelength, inflection point and
vergence.
 Parts of the fold:

fold axis
axial plane
limb

Limbs: Limbs are the sides of a fold. An individual fold will have
two limbs separated by hinge.
Axial Plane
In synclines and anticlines, the axial plane is the plane of symmetry
passing through the apex of the fold.
Fold Axis
The line of intersection of the fold apex and the horizontal plane is
called the axis of the fold.
Inflection Point- limb point where sense of curvature changes

 
Hinge Line-
      connects points of maximum fold curvature

Pulnge or Pitch of the fold: When fold axis is inclined the angle which
it makes with the horizontal, as measured in a vertical plane is called
angle of plunge.
Folds are broadly subdivided into anticlines (upwards convex) and
synclines (downwards convex).
Synclines
Anticlines
Overturned Folds:
 Types of folds and their classification
Major classification of folds as Synclines and Anticlines
Other classifications are :

• On the basis of Position of axial plane

• On the basis of degree of compression of the beds
• On the basis of their mode of occurrence
• On the basis of their position of fold axis
• On the basis of their behavior with depth and
• Other miscellaneous fold.
Classification of folds on the basis of Position of axial plane

1.symmetrical
2.asymmetrical
3.overturned - tipped in one direction so that one of the limbs is overturned
4.recumbent - lying on its side
5.dome
6.basin
Symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical and limbs have
equal dips

An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined and limb have
unequal dips.

An overturned fold is one in which the axial plane gets so much inclined that
two limbs of the fold dips in the same general direction.

Recumbent fold in which the axial plane acquires an almost horizontal

position. In such cases, one limb lies vertically above the other.

 
Isoclinal Folds: in which the limbs are dipping essentially in in the same direction
and at equal angles, so that the axial planes are essentially parallel.

a) Vertical Isoclinal fold: The axial plane is vertical

b) Inclined isoclinal fold: The axial plane is inclined
c) Recumbent isoclinal fold: The axial plane is horizontal
Classification of folds on the basis of compression of the beds
Open folds and closed folds

Open folds: Where the thickness of bed is the same throughout its fold layer,
is called an open fold.

Closed fold: Where the thickness is more at troghs and crusts than at the limbs.
is called a closed fold.

Open fold

Closed fold
Cylindrical vs. Non-Cylindrical Folds
        Cylindrical Folds-
                Straight hinge lines
                Contains fold axes
    
Non-Cylindrical Folds-
                Curved hinge lines
                Does not contain fold axes
 

Cylindrical Non-Cylindrical
 Classification of folds on the basis of their mode of occurrence

• Anticlinorium / Synclinorium - regional scale anticlines/synclines that contain

smaller folds

Synclinorium

Anticlinorium
Basin: is a special type of syncline in which the beds dip towards the central point,
from all directions.

Dome: is a special type of anticline in which the beds dips away from the central point,
From all directions.
Basins
dome
Classification of folds on the basis of the position of fold axis:

Non plunging fold: When fold axis is horizontal, it is called a non-plunging fold

Plunging fold: When the fold axis is inclined to the horizontal, it is called
a plunging fold.

Non-Plunging Folds Plunging Folds

Classification of folds on the basis of their behavior with depth:

Similar folds: The shapes of the folds remain the same with any amount of depth.
In such folds, the thickening at axial regions and thinning of the limbs.

Parallel folds:
The shapes of the folds varies with depth, but the thickness of the folded Bed layers
remain more or less the same. In such cases the anticlines become sharp and
sharper with depth, whereas, the synclines become broad and broader with depth.
Miscellaneous folds:
Monocline
Homocline
Drag folding
Chevron folds
Folding is almost always accompanied by a number of associated minor structures.
These include drag folding

.
 Importance of folding
• Hydrocarbon traps.
• Concentration of valuable
minerals like sulfide minerals
localized in the hinges of the
fold
Recognition of folds in the sub-surface formations/structures

Ripple maks:

Cross bedding:

Graded bedding:
END