www.Examville.

com
Online practice tests, live classes, tutoring, study guides
Q&A, premium content and more.
Shoulder and Pectoral
region
 THE SCAPULA

► Supraspinatus Fossa: Depression in the

scapula, above the scapular spine.
► Infraspinatus Fossa: Depression in the scapula,
below the scapular spine.
► TRAPEZIUS MUSCLE: It is innervated by the spinal
accessory nerve. Hence with a cervical neck
fracture, some people can still shrug their
shoulders, even though they've lost upper-limb
innervation, due to residual innervation from this
nerve.
 TRIANGLE OF AUSCULTATION
► On the medial back, it is an area of little
muscle and hence a good place to listen to
the lungs.
► Medial Border: Trapezius muscle
► Lateral Border: Teres Major, laterally and
deep.
► Inferior Border (base): Latissimus Dorsi
 TRIANGLE OF AUSCULTATION
► On the medial back, it is an area of little
muscle and hence a good place to listen to
the lungs.
► Medial Border: Trapezius muscle
► Lateral Border: Teres Major, laterally and
deep.
► Inferior Border (base): Latissimus Dorsi
 QUADRANGULAR SPACE
► Just medial to the surgical neck of the humerus on
the posterior side.
► Superior border: Teres Minor (posteriorly)
► Inferior border: Teres Major (anteriorly)
► Lateral border: Lateral head of the Triceps
► Medial border: Long head of the Triceps
► CONTENTS: These guys can be damaged with a
fracture of the neck of the humerus.
 Axillary Nerve
 Posterior Circumflex Humeral Artery
 TRIANGULAR SPACE
► Anterior aspect, medial to the neck of the
humerus.
► Lateral border: Long head of the triceps.
► Upper border: Teres Minor
► Lower border: Teres Major
► CONTENTS: Circumflex Scapular Branch
of the subscapular artery.
 TRIANGULAR INTERVAL
► Between the two heads of the triceps
muscle, inferior to the teres major.
► CONTENTS: Deep Brachial Artery and
Radial Nerve, both of which continue
along the radial groove of the humerus.
SCAPULA: The shoulder blade.
► Fromtop to bottom, order of the Scapular
Muscles:
 Supraspinatus
 Infraspinatus
 Teres Minor
 Teres Major
► WINGED SCAPULA: Both the Serratus Anterior
and Rhomboids insert on the medial aspect of the
scapula. If you lose this insertion, you can get
winged scapula, where the scapula does not stay
in place and is raised a bit from the posterior wall.
 Deltoid Muscle
► Itinserts on the Deltoid Tuberosity of the
humerus and has multiple actions
► Anterior part flexes and medially rotates the
arm.
► Posterior part extends and laterally rotates
the arm.
► Lateral fibers abduct the arm.
 Abduction of the Arm
► STEP I: Movement of supraspinatus and
deltoid muscles, until the angle is about 80
at which point the acromion and greater
tubercle hit each other.
► STEP II: Rotation of the Scapula, to get the
acromion process out of the way. The
Serratus Anterior and Trapezius move the
inferior border of the scapula laterally.
 PECTORALIS MAJOR
► Aidsin both flexing and extending the arm,
depending on part of muscle.
► Clavicular Head: It flexes the arm.
► Sternocostal Head: It extends the arm.
 CLAVIPECTORAL FASCIA
► Fascia separating the pectoralis major from pectoralis
minor, and overlying the pecs, the serratus anterior, and
latissimus dorsi muscles. It goes from the pec-minor to the
clavicle.
► Perforations:
 The Cephalic Vein goes through the membrane to become the
axillary vein.
 The Thoracoacromial Artery comes from axillary artery and
perfuses the deltoid and pec-minor muscles.
► The subclavius muscle is completely invested by the fascia,
both anteriorly and posteriorly.
► Costocoracoid Ligament is the strongest part of the
fascia, going from the 1st rib to the coracoid process. It
travels along the lower border of the subclavius.
 CEPHALIC VEIN (CLINICAL)
►A surgeon may pass a fine tube through the
Cephalic Vein ------> Axillary Vein ------>
Subclavvian ------> SVC ------> Heart to
withdraw blood.
 THE AXILLA
► Borders of the Axilla:
 Anterior Border: The pectoralis major and minor, and
the subclavius, plus investing fascia (Clavipectoral
fascia).
 Base of the Axilla: The skin of the armpit, superficial
fascia.
 Apex of the Axilla: The root of the neck, through which
the brachial plexus of nerves and vessels travels.
 Medial Border: Serratus Anterior and intercostal
muscles.
 Posterior Border: Subscapularis, Latissimus Dorsi, and
Teres Minor.
 THE AXILLA
► CONTENTS:
 The axillary artery
 The axillary vein
 The Brachial Plexus
 The Axillary group of lymph nodes
 AXILLARY ARTERY
► Branches of the Axillary Artery.
► 1st Part of Axillary Artery: Above the pectoralis
minor. Has 1 branch.
 Superior Thoracic Artery
► 2nd Part of Axillary Artery: Directly deep to the
Pectoralis Minor. Has 2 branches.
 Thoracoacromial Artery (pierces clavipectoral fascia)
► DeltoidBranch of Thoracoacromial
► Pectoralis Branch of Thoracoacromial.
 Lateral Thoracic Artery (aka External Mammary
Artery) -- important source of blood for mammary
glands.
 AXILLARY ARTERY……
► 3rd Part of Axillary Artery: Below the pectoralis minor. Has
3 branches.
 Anterior Circumflex Humeral Artery
 Posterior Circumflex Humeral Artery -- passes through
Quadrangular space along with the axillary nerve.
► And anterior and posterior circumflex humerals anastomose with each
other around the lateral neck of the humerus.
► The posterior circumflex also anastomoses with the deep brachial
artery.
 Subscapular Artery -- largest branch which supplies muscles of
posterior wall (scapula)
► Circumflex Scapular Artery branches off and proceeds posteriorly
through the triangular space.
► Thoracodorsal Artery travels along with thoracodorsal nerve.
 AXILLARY VEIN
► The union of the basilic and deep brachial
veins. It then joins with the Cephalic Vein to
become the Subclavian Vein.
► It travels along the medial side of the
axillary artery.
► Commonly receives tributaries from the
Thoraco-Epigastric Veins, an important
collateral route for venous return, if the IVC
becomes obstructed.
 THYROCERVICAL TRUNK
► An arterial branch that comes off the subclavian artery,
before it turns into the Axillary Artery. It has the following
branches:
► Transverse Cervical Artery: Turns into the Dorsal
Scapular Artery.
 Dorsal Scapular Artery: Branch on the posterior side, where it
supplies the Levator Scapulae and Rhomboids, along with the
Dorsal Scapular N.
► The Suprascapular Artery: Heads around the scapular
notch and anastomoses with the circumflex artery to form
one of the main collateral channels around the scapula.
 Suprascapular N. follows the suprascapular artery to supply to the
supraspinatus and infraspinatus.
 AXILLARY LYMPH NODES
► The apical group is the most crucial for spreading
of breast cancer. If it has gotten to the axillary
group, you is in trouble.
► Lateral Group: Drains the upper limb. Located
near brachial artery.
► Subscapular Group: Drains the scapular region
and posterior thoracic wall.
► Pectoral Group: Drains the anterior thorax and
some of mammary glands. Assoc. with lateral
thoracic artery.
 AXILLARY LYMPH NODES….
► CENTRAL GROUP: It receives the lymph
from the previous three groups. It forms the
largest group and is often palpable upon
examination.
► APICAL GROUP: The only one above the
pectoralis minor. It receives lymph from the
central group as well as other locales, and
dumps into the subclavian trunk.
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES

► CERVICAL ROOTS of the Plexus:

 Dorsal Scapular (C5)
 Long Thoracic Nerve (C5,C6,C7).
►Runs along the Serratus Anterior superficially. You
gotta watch it during a mastectomy -- it could be cut
accidentally.
►CLINICAL -- if the Long Thoracic is accidentally cut,
You will get Winged Scapula. The long Thoracic will
no longer hold the Scapula in place, via Rhomboids
and Serratus Anterior.
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► SUPERIOR TRUNK -- C5, C6, part of C4
 Direct Branches
►Suprascapular Nerve (C5,C6)
►Subclavius Nerve (C5,C6)

 ANTERIOR DIVISION ------> LATERAL CORD

 POSTERIOR DIVISION ------> POSTERIOR
CORD
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► MIDDLE TRUNK -- C7
 ANTERIOR DIVISION ------> LATERAL CORD
 POSTERIOR DIVISION ------> POSTERIOR
CORD
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► INFERIOR TRUNK -- C8, L1
 ANTERIOR DIVISION ------> MEDIAL CORD
 POSTERIOR DIVISION ------> POSTERIOR
CORD
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► LATERAL CORD
 Gives off the Lateral Pectoral Nerve.
(mammary glands)
 Becomes the MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE
(C5,C6,C7).
 Forms a branch with the medial cord, to form
the Median Nerve.
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► MEDIAL CORD
 Gives off the Medial Pectoral, Medial
Brachiocutaneous, and Medial
Antebrachial Cutaneous Nerves. (medial
aspect of arm)
 Forms a branch with the Lateral Cord, to form
the Median Nerve.
 Becomes the ULNAR NERVE (C8,T1, some
C7).
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► POSTERIOR CORD
 Gives off the Upper and Lower Subscapular
Nerves, and the Thoracodorsal Nerve.
 Forms the AXILLARY NERVE (C5,C6).
 Becomes the RADIAL NERVE (C5,C6,C7,C8)
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
► MEDIAN NERVE: Formed by the union of
the anterior divisions of the lateral and
medial cords. It is the bottom-middle part of
the "M"
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
(clinical)
► DUCHENNE-ERB PARALYSIS: Damage to the Upper
Trunk of the Brachial Plexus
► Excessive downward traction of the arm during birth,
which can tear the upper trunk at its root.
► This cuts off the suprascapular and subclavius completely,
as well as most of axillary nerve. You lose shoulder
movement.
► Symptom: The arm just droops there, medially rotated,
elbow extended, shoulder adducted, forearm pronated.
Waiter's Tip Position.
► Erb's Point: The location of the superior trunk, where C5
and C6 unite, and where the Suprascapular and Subclavius
are given off.
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES
(clinical)
► KLUMPKE'S PARALYSIS: Damage to the lower trunk
(C8-T1).
► Loss of most of median and especially ulnar nerves.
► Symptoms:
 Clawed hands due to loss of innervation of intrinsic muscles (T1) of
the hand.
 Loss of sensation on medial aspect of arm, forearm, and hand (due
to loss of ulnar nerve).
► Horner's Syndrome: Associated problem; cervical
sympathetic paralysis, resulting in:
 Constriction of pupils.
► Enophthalmos -- apparent recession of eyeballs.
 THE ARM
► THE HUMERUS
► Radial Groove: The region of the humerus along which the radial nerve
travels, just posteroinferior to the Deltoid Tuberosity.
 CLINICAL: Thus a fracture in the middle of the radius could easily damage the radial
nerve.
 CONTENTS of Radial Groove:
► Radial Nerve
► Deep Brachial Artery
► Surgical Neck of the Humerus: The Axillary Nerve wraps around the
surgical neck of the humerus. Thus injuries to the neck can damage that
nerve.
► Cutaneous Innervation of the Arm
► Axillary Nerve: Supplies the skin over the deltoid muscle.
► Radial Nerve: Posterior of arm and forearm.
 The lateral dorsal aspect of the hand (posterior of thumb and index finger up to the
DIP joint).
► Medial Antebrachial Cutaneous Nerve: Supplies much of the anterior skin
of arm.
 THE ARM
► BRACHIAL ARTERY: Supplies the arm.
► The Deep Brachial Artery comes off the brachial
artery to curl around the back of the humerus,
along the radial groove, to supply to the Triceps.
 Posterior Circumflex Humeral: Deep Brachial gives
off this branch, which goes back up arm to the
Quadrangular space.
 Radial Collateral and Middle Collateral Arteries
which join up with Radial Recurrent to form elbow
anastomoses.
 THE ARM
► MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE: The
major innervator of the arm.
► It goes straight through the coracobrachialis
muscle to innervate the anterior aspect of
the brachialis.
► Lateral Antebrachial Cutaneous Nerve:
After innervating the brachialis, it goes to
the anterior arm to innervate the skin of the
anterior arm.
 Intermuscular Septa
► Fibroussheath that separates the anterior
and posterior compartments of the forearm.
► CONTENTS OF INTERMUSCULAR SEPTUM:
 Deep Brachial Artery
 Radial Nerve
 Basilic Vein
 Ulnar Nerve
 Median Nerve
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES AROUND
ELBOW
► Collateral Branches off the Ulnar Artery
 Posterior Ulnar Recurrent Artery: Medial anastomoses with Inferior
Ulnar Collateral.
 Anterior Ulnar Recurrent Artery: Medial anastomoses with Superior
Ulnar Collateral.
► Collateral Branches off the Radial Artery
 Radial Recurrent Artery: Lateral anastomoses with Radial Collateral
► Collateral Branches off the Brachial Artery:
 Inferior Ulnar Collateral: (Ulnar Recurrent)
 Superior Ulnar Collateral: (Ulnar Recurrent)
► Collateral Branches off the Deep Brachial Artery:
 Radial Collateral Artery: (Radial Recurrent)
 Middle Collateral Artery: Anastomoses with Interosseus Recurrent, but
there is variety.
 ULNAR ARTERY
► One of the terminal branches of the Brachial
Artery.
► Gives off the Common Interosseus
Artery, a short stub which divides into two
parts:
 Anterior Interosseus Artery: Supplies the
deep muscles of the flexor forearm.
 Posterior Interosseus Artery: Supplies the
entire extensor forearm.
BREAK TIME
 THE EXTENSOR FOREARM
► BRACHIORADIALIS: CLINICAL -- it may become damaged
during a distal radial fracture, because it inserts on the
styloid process of the radius.
► COMMON EXTENSOR TENDON: The origin of the
superficial extensor forearm muscles. It hooks onto the
lateral epicondyle and supracondylar ridge of the humerus.
► POSTERIOR INTEROSSEUS NERVE: The Deep Branch
of the Radial Nerve. It innervates most muscles of the
extensor forearm.
► It pierces the supinator muscle to come into the posterior
forearm.
► It travels between the superficial and deep groups of
muscles in the posterior forearm.
 THE EXTENSOR FOREARM
► POSTERIOR INTEROSSEUS ARTERY:
Supplies the extensor forearm muscles and
travels with the Posterior Interosseus Nerve.
It is a branch of the Common Interosseus
Artery, which comes from the Ulnar Artery.
 EXTENSOR RETINACULUM
► The sheath that covers all of the extensor tendons
going into the wrist.
► ORDER OF EXTENSOR TENDONS GOING INTO
THE WRIST
 Extensor Pollicis Brevis
 Extensor Pollicis Longus
 Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
 Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
 (Extensor Indices, concurrent with and deep to Extensor
Digitorum)
 Extensor Digitorum
► Extensor Digiti Minimi
 ANATOMICAL SNUFFBOX:
► In between the Extensor Pollicis Longus and
Extensor Pollicis Brevis. The Abductor Pollicis
Longus is directly lateral to it.
► The Radial Nerve runs over the superficial part
of the anatomical snuffbox, to innervate the lateral
cutaneous hand.
► The Radial Artery is the "floor" of the snuffbox,
snugged right on top of the Scaphoid bone.
 You can take a pulse in anatomical snuffbox, by
palpating the radial artery against the Scaphoid bone.
 THE FLEXOR FOREARM

► THE FLEXOR FOREARM

► MEDIAN NERVE: Lies in between the flexor digitorum superficialis and
flexor digitorum profundus in the forearm.
► Travels into the hand deep to the palmaris longus (right in the middle,
anterior surface), traveling through the carpal tunnel.
► Supplies all of flexor forearm EXCEPT the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris and the
medial half of the Flexor Digitorum Profundus.
► INJURY: Can be injured in wrist slashing and carpal tunnel syndrome.
 Lost sensation to area supplied by median nerve in hand.
 Paralysis of long flexors of wrist (except the two ulnar flexors)
 Thenar muscles atrophy, with the result that opposition of thumb is lost.
 Loss of pronation, depending on where the severance occurs (wrist or elbow)
► SUMMARY OF INJURY: Very crippling: loss of action of thumb and
cutaneous sensation on palm of hand.
 ULNAR NERVE
► In the forearm, it supplies the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
and the medial half of the Flexor Digitorum
Profundus.
► It passes superficial to the flexor retinaculum.
► INJURY: Commonly injured around the posterior of
the medial epicondyle -- right where the funny
bone is.
 Claw-Hand: Paralysis of small muscles of hand
supplied by Ulnar Nerve. This is the result of loss of
control over intrinsic hand muscles, which supply the
"balance" between the long flexor and extensor
tendons. Result is over-flexion of distal phalanges and
extension of proximal phalanges.
 RADIAL NERVE
► Enters the forearm by traveling over the lateral epicondyle.
Splits into two branches.
► Superficial Branch of the Radial Nerve: Travels deep
to the brachioradialis to go to the hand.
► Deep Branch of the Radial Nerve -- Goes deep back to
posterior compartment, where it is Posterior
Interosseus Nerve. the
► INJURY: Wrist-Drop is the sign of radial nerve injury.
 It is the most frequently injured, due to breaks in the middle of the
humerus.
 Paralysis of the long extensors of the fingers.
 Lateral (radial deviation) of hand is difficult.
 Movement (extension and abduction) of thumb is difficult.
 Intrinsic hand muscles
► T1: INTRINSIC MUSCLES -- All intrinsic muscles
of the hand are supplied by T1 fibers, whether
from the Ulnar or Radial nerves.
► LATERAL ANTEBRACHIAL CUTANEOUS
NERVE: From the Musculocutaneous Nerve, it
innervates the lateral part of the anterior forearm.
► MEDIAL ANTEBRACHIAL CUTANEOUS
NERVE: From the medial cord of the brachial
plexus, it innervates the medial part of the
cutaneous flexor forearm.
 Arterial supply
► RADIAL ARTERY: One of the terminal branches of the
Brachial Artery.
► Gives off the Deep Palmar Arch.
► Gives off the Dorsalis Pollicis and Dorsalis Indices Arteries.
► CLINICAL -- RADIAL PULSE: On the palmar lateral wrist,
at the location of the Radial Trio, you can feel the pulse.
 The Radial Artery is found lateral to the Flexor Carpi Radialis
and Flexor Pollicis Longus tendons at this location in the wrist.
Those are the components of the radial trio.
► PATH: Then the radial artery goes to the floor of the
anatomical snuffbox ------> through the adductor pollicis
and dorsal interosseus muscles ------> deep palmar arch.
 Arterial supply
► ULNAR ARTERY: One of the terminal
branches of the Brachial Artery.
► Does not pass through the Flexor
Retinaculum.
► Gives off the Superficial Palmar Arch.
 FLEXOR RETINACULUM
► The sheath that contains the flexor tendons on the
anterior wrist.
► Goes from the Trapezium to the Scaphoid.
► CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME: The Median
Nerve passes deep to the flexor retinaculum. If it
is entrapped, carpal tunnel syndrome results.
 Causes numbness and tingling in the lateral part of the
hand supplied by the median nerve, and some motor
dysfunction.
 Treatment: Cut the flexor retinaculum and relieve the
pressure.
 Flexor ……..
► MOBILE WAD: The lateral compartment of the
flexor forearm, which is more loosely connected
than the other compartments. It contains two
muscles:
► Brachioradialis
► Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
► PALMARIS LONGUS MUSCLE: Absent in about
30% of people, and a good candidate for surgical
tendon transfers when it is present.
 Flexors ……
► FLEXOR DIGITORUM: Acts differently than the extensor digitorum.
► Superficial Flexor Digitorum: Inserts on the distal phalanx and
crosses over the DIP joint.
► Profunda Flexor Digitorum: Inserts on the proximal phalanx and
crosses over the PIP joint.
► SPACE OF PARONA: The potential space between the superficial and
deep groups of anterior muscles -- essentially between the Flexor
Digitorum Superficialis and Flexor Digitorum Profundus.
► FASCIA ANTEBRACHIALIS: Thick fascial plane over the anterior
forearm.
► INTEROSSEUS MEMBRANE: Between the radius and ulna, the
posterior limit to the anterior compartment. The Anterior Interosseus
Nerve and Artery, and the Flexor Digitorum Profundus, are directly
superficial to it.
 JOINTS OF THE UPPER
EXTREMITY
► Types of Joints: Joints are structures that connects bones together.
► Fibrous Joints: Collagen joints.
 Suture of the skull.
 The interosseus membrane between the radius and ulna. This is a type of
syndesmosis -- i.e. a sheet of fibrous tissue.
► Cartilaginous Joints:
 Examples:
► Epiphyseal Plates
► Costochondral Joints
► Intervertebral Disc
► Pubic Symphysis
 Primary Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses -- hyaline cartilage.
 Secondary Cartilaginous Joints: Symphysis -- hyaline cartilage along with
fibrous tissue or fibrous cartilage.
 Joints of Upper extremity
► Types of Joints: Joints are structures that connects bones together.
► Fibrous Joints: Collagen joints.
 Suture of the skull.
 The interosseus membrane between the radius and ulna. This is a type of
syndesmosis -- i.e. a sheet of fibrous tissue.
► Cartilaginous Joints:
 Examples:
► Epiphyseal Plates
► Costochondral Joints
► Intervertebral Disc
► Pubic Symphysis
 Primary Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses -- hyaline cartilage.
 Secondary Cartilaginous Joints: Symphysis -- hyaline cartilage along with
fibrous tissue or fibrous cartilage.
 Joints of upper extremity
► Synovial Joints:
 Characterized by four things.
►A joint cavity, filled with a viscous lubricant substance -- synovial fluid.
► A synovial membrane, which produces the synovial fluid to fill the joint
cavity.
► Articular cartilage
► \Fibrous Capsule
 Types of Synovial Joints
► Plane Joint -- moveable only in one axis, in one plane.
► Hinge Joint -- moveable only in one axis -- i.e. flexion and extension.
► Pivot Joint -- moveable only in one axis -- i.e. rotation.
► Condyloid Joint -- moveable in two axes -- i.e. flexion-extension, or
abduction-adduction.
 It is usually ellipsoid in shape.
► Saddle Joint -- two axes.
► Ball and Socket Joint -- Multi-axis movement.
 Movements of joints
► Synovial Joints:
 Characterized by four things.
►A joint cavity, filled with a viscous lubricant substance -- synovial fluid.
► A synovial membrane, which produces the synovial fluid to fill the joint
cavity.
► Articular cartilage
► \Fibrous Capsule
 Types of Synovial Joints
► Plane Joint -- moveable only in one axis, in one plane.
► Hinge Joint -- moveable only in one axis -- i.e. flexion and extension.
► Pivot Joint -- moveable only in one axis -- i.e. rotation.
► Condyloid Joint -- moveable in two axes -- i.e. flexion-extension, or
abduction-adduction.
 It is usually ellipsoid in shape.
► Saddle Joint -- two axes.
► Ball and Socket Joint -- Multi-axis movement.
 Clinical….
► CLINICAL -- Injuries / Diseases of the Joints:
► Dislocation: Complete loss of apposition between two
articular surfaces.
► Subluxation: Partial dislocation; partial loss of apposition
between two articular surfaces.
► Osteoarthritis: Degeneration of articular cartilage and/or
surfaces in weight-bearing joints, resulting from age
and/or trauma.
► Rheumatoid Arthritis: Connective tissue disorder
affecting the whole body, mainly affecting the small joints
in terms of joints.
► Gout: Painful inflammation of the joint from excess uric
acid, resulting sodium biurate deposits in joints.
 Movements of joints….
► CONJUNCT ROTATION: Instinctive or automatic
rotation of the forearm, as demonstrated by
Codman's paradox, where you hold your palm to
your side, abduct it, rotate it anteriorly, and bring
it back to your body, to discover that it is now
facing the other way.
► ADJUNCT ROTATION: Deliberate rotation of the
joint, such as when you point your hands laterally
and then try to abduct your arm.
 GLENOHUMERAL JOINT:
► ROTATOR CUFF: The tendons of the muscles surrounding the shoulder joint.
They rotate the shoulder.
 Anterior Border: Subscapularis
 Superolateral Border: Head of the biceps
 Posterior Border: Infraspinatus and Teres Minor
 Superior Border: Supraspinatus
► CLINICAL: The joint is covered on all sides except inferiorly. Hence shoulder
dislocations tend to occur inferiorly.
 In this case you have to watch for damage to the axillary nerve and Posterior
Circumflex Humeral Artery, both of which are directly inferior, in the
Quadrangular Space, because this is straight below the shoulder joint.
 TEST for Axillary Nerve damage: Cutaneous sensation in the Deltoid region
► THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM: Circumduction + Rotation. Hence it is a mobile
but unstable joint.
 The glenohumeral joint is an incongruent joint -- note that the head of the humerus
does not fit in perfectly with the Glenoid Cavity of the Scapula.
► STABILIZING MUSCLES: The deltoid and biceps help stabilize the shoulder,
due to the incongruence of the joint.
ULNOHUMERAL JOINT (ELBOW)

► Has higher stability and lower mobility: only one degree of

freedom (flexion / extension).
► The Humerus articulates only with the Ulna -- the radius
has nothing to do with it!
► Radial Collateral Ligament -- Lateral ligament support.
► Ulnar Collateral Ligament -- Medial ligament support.
► CONGRUENCE: The Olecranon of the Ulna fits much better
into the Olecranon Fossa of the Humerus, as compared to
the shoulder joint.
► Posterior Elbow: The joint capsule is lax on the posterior, so
that the elbow can flex and extend.
 ULNORADIAL JOINT (ELBOW)

► Proximal Ulnoradial Joint: Annular

Ligament holds the Radial Head in place in
the Radial Notch of the Ulna.
► Intermediate Ulnoradial Joint: Interosseus
Membrane holds them together along the
shafts of both bones.
► Distal Ulnoradial Joint: Anterior and
Posterior Ulnoradial Ligaments.
 RADIOCARPAL JOINT (WRIST)
The Radius articulates with the Carpal Bones -- not the Ulna at all!
► TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM: We can circumduct the wrist.
► Much of flexion (especially) and extension actually occurs at the
Intercarpal Joints between the two rows of Carpal Bones.
► Joint of Knuckles and Fingers:
► Carpometacarpal Joints: Joints between distal row of carpal bones
and metacarpals.
► Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Joints: The knuckles, between the
metacarpals and proximal phalanges.
► Proximal Interphalangeal (PIP) Joints: Between the proximal and
middle phalanges.
► Distal Interphalangeal (DIP) Joints: Between the middle and
distal phalanges (not present in thumb).
► THUMB -- NOT A STABLE JOINT compared to the other fingers. The
thumb has more mobility, too, to allow opposition.
 THE HAND
► Movements of the Fingers:
► Flexion and Extension of Fingers: Uses the fingernails as a
fan.
► Abduction and Adduction of Fingers: Uses the fingernails to
slice through the air, centered around the middle finger.
► THUMB: Same goes for thumb -- flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction are based on the position of the
thumb-nail.
► Circumduction: The combination action of flexion,
extension, abduction, and adduction. Moving around in a
circle, as you can do with your fingers, wrist, and shoulder.
 Force Transduction through the
Hand and Arm:
► Weight-bearing on the hand can be transmitted as
follows:
 SCAPHOID ------> RadioCarpal joints ------> RADIUS
------> Interosseus Membrane ------> ULNA ------>
Olecranon ------> HUMERUS ------> Glenohumeral Joint
------> SCAPULA ------> Coracoclavicular Ligaments
------> CLAVICLE
► The clavicle is
the only bony articulation
between the upper limb and trunk.
► Most common points of fracture in a fall:
 The surgical neck of the humerus
 The middle of the clavicle
 Common Wrist Fractures:
► Colles Fracture: Fracture of the distal
radius.
► Scaphoid Fractures: Fracture of the
scaphoid bone.
 Hand functions…
► Extrinsic Muscles of the Hands: Mostly
concerned with grip.
► Intrinsic Muscles of the Hands: Concerned
with manipulation of the digits. All of them
are basically innervated by T1.
► PALMAR APONEUROSIS: Deep to the
skin and fascia. It holds it down, so that the
skin on the palm is tight and hairless.
 Clinical….
► DUPUYTREN'S CONTRACTURE: Flexion
of the 4th and 5th digits, resulting from
progressive shortening of the palmar
aponeuroses, from hypertrophy and
hyperplasia. Unknown cause.
 FIBROUS FLEXOR SHEATHS
► Strong sheath covering the long tendons
going into the hand, distal to the flexor
retinaculum.
► The fibrous sheaths of the fingers contain
two tendons: The tendons of the Flexor
Digitorum Superficialis and the Flexor
Digitorum Profundus.
► The fibrous sheath of the thumb contains
one tendon: The Flexor Pollicis Longus.
 SYNOVIAL FLEXOR SHEATHS
► ): The fibrous sheaths are enclosed in
synovial sheaths in areas where there is
friction. Primarily:
► Deep to the flexor retinaculum.
► Within the digits.
► There are NO SYNOVIAL SHEATHS in the
central palm of the hand.
 Bursae…
► RADIAL BURSA:
► Contains the Pollicis Longus tendon.
► Communicates with Ulnar Bursa in 50% of people.
► ULNAR BURSA:
► Contains the Flexor Digitorum Superficialis and
Profundus tendons.
► Communicates with Radial Bursa in 50% of
people.
 CLINICAL
HORSESHOE INFECTION: Infection spreading
from little finger to thumb or vice versa, as a
consequence of the communication between the
radial and ulnar bursae.
DORSAL SUBCUTANEOUS SPACE will receive lymph
from the palmar aspect of the hand. Thus a hand-
infection can easily result in swelling on posterior
aspect of the hand, in which case it would be
lymph -- not pus -- so don't incise it.
 Arterial supply of hand
► SUPERFICIAL PALMAR ARCH: Main
arterial supply to the hand.
► Literally it is formed by a continuation of the
artery, and it anastomoses with the
Superficial Palmar Branch of the Radial
Artery.
► It gives off Common Palmar Digital
Arteries ------> Proper Palmar Digital
Arteries
 Arterial supply of hand
► DEEP PALMAR ARCH: Lies deep to the
flexor retinaculum.
► This is formed by the radial artery, and it
anastomoses with the terminal ulnar artery.
► It gives off the Palmar Metacarpal
Arteries ------> Proper Palmar Digital
Arteries
 Arterial supply of hand
► DORSAL CARPAL ARCH: From the dorsal
carpal branches of the Radial and Ulnar
arteries.
► It gives off the Dorsal Metacarpal
Arteries ------> Dorsal Digital Arteries.
 Other parts …..
► THENAR SPACE: The area deep to the 1st
lumbrical muscle and the 2st flexor tendon,
in the palm of the hand.
► MIDPALMAR SPACE: The medial part of
the deep palm of the hand, deep to the rest
of the flexor tendons. It is next to the
Thenar Space.
► A SEPTUM separates the Thenar from
MidPalmar spaces.
 CUTANEOUS INNERVATION OF
HAND, FOREARM, ARM
► Axillary N:
 Shoulder and Deltoid regions
► Musculocutaneous N / Lateral Antebrachial Cutaneous N:
 Lateral forearm (both posterior and anterior)
► Medial Antebrachial Cutaneous N:
 Medial Forearm (both posterior and anterior)
► Radial N:
 Central posterior arm and forearm
 Lateral 2/3 of posterior hand (up to middle of 4th digit or so) -- EXCEPT the finger
tips!!
 Lateral part of the thumb
► Median N:
 Lateral two thirds of anterior hand
 Fingertips of lateral 2/3 of posterior hand
► Ulnar N:
 Medial third of the hand, both anterior and posterior.
 LUMBRICALS:
► They provide stability to the digits.
► They are anterior to the Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints (knuckles).
 So they flex the knuckles.
► They are posterior to the proximal and distal interphalangeal (PIP and
DIP) joints.
 So they extend the distal phalanges.
► They originate from the tendon of the flexor digitorum Profundus.
► FUNCTION OF LUMBRICALS: They are rich in neuromuscular
spindle organs, and they are thought to give you proprioception
(spatial orientation) and kinesthesia (sense of motion) of the digits,
due to the tension placed on them by the digital tendons.
► In other words, they allow you to know where your finger is and where
it is going.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES

► SPACE OF PARONA COMPRESSION: Veins are

subject to compression when swelling or fluid
buildup occurs in any potential space. This causes
blood to backflow, which causes the following
course of events.
► Ischemia ------> Necrosis ------> Fibrosis
► FASCIOTOMY: Cutting through the fascia which
is causing the compartment syndrome, thereby
relieving the pressure and hopefully the
compartment syndrome.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► SATURDAY NIGHT SYNDROME: Drunk person falling
asleep on elbow and hence on ulnar nerve. Wake up the
next morning and the ulnar nerve is dead.
► CORACOBRACHIALIS SYNDROME (N447): Loss of the
Musculocutaneous Nerve where it runs through the
Coracobrachialis Muscle. If the muscle dies, then nerve
dies with it.
► YOU ALSO LOSE: Biceps, Brachialis, and Lateral
Antebrachial Cutaneous Nerve.
► LOST FUNCTION:
 Lost flexion at elbow.
 Weak supination due to supinator muscle.
► Lost sensation over lateral aspect of forearm (cutaneous
innervation of medial antebrachial cutaneous N.)
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► SUPINATOR CHANNEL SYNDROME:
Compression of the Deep Branch of the Radial
Nerve between the Superficial and Deep Heads of
the Supinator, and the Lateral Epicondyle.
► This occurs right at the lateral epicondyle,
where the Radial Nerve gives off two branches
(Deep and Superficial) to innervate the forearm.
► Arcade of Frohn: Occurs in 20%-30% of
population, where one head of the Supinator is
actually a sharp tendon inserting on the lateral
epicondyle. This can also lead to Radial N.
damage.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► SUPRACONDYLAR SYNDROME: Entrapment of
the Median N. beneath the Ligament of
Struthers, which connects the Supracondylar
Process to the Medial Epicondyle.
► The Supracondylar Process is a bit of bone sticking
out the medial aspect of the humerus. It is only
present in a small fraction of population.
► LOSS OF FUNCTION AND SENSATION: Anywhere
the median N. innervates.
 Lateral 2/3 of palm of hand, lost cutaneous sensation.
 Lose motor to the palmar thenar muscles.
 Lose motor to the first two lumbricals.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► PRONATOR TERES SYNDROME: Entrapment of
Median N. passing between the Deep and
Superficial Heads of the Pronator Teres.
► The Median N. also passes deep to the Flexor
Digitorum Superficialis tendon, right after it gets
past the Pronator Teres. This can also cause
trouble.
► LOSS OF FUNCTION and SENSATION: Again,
whatever would happen if you lose the Median N.
See above.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► MARTIN-GRUBER ANASTOMOSIS:
Connection between the Median and Ulnar
nerves in the palm of the hand, in about
30% of population. When the connection is
there, it is mainly a motor connection.
► Result = people with Ulnar N. damage may
still have cutaneous anesthesia, but they
may keep some motor function in the hand.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME: The Median Nerve
passes deep to the flexor retinaculum. If it is entrapped,
carpal tunnel syndrome results.
► Carpus is actually U-Shaped.
► LOSS OF FUNCTION:
 Causes numbness and tingling in the lateral part of the hand
supplied by the median nerve.
 Weakening and wasting of the Thenar muscles.
► TREATMENT: Cut the flexor retinaculum and relieve the
pressure.
► Superficial Palmar Branch of Median N does not go
through the Carpal Tunnel. It results in an area of skin in
the middle of the palm that is not affected by Carpel
Tunnel Syndrome.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► CUBITAL TUNNEL SYNDROME: Compression of
the Ulnar Nerve between the two heads of origin
of the Flexor Carpi Ulnaris.
► The Pisiform bone, distally, acts as a lever in
allow the flexor carpi ulnaris to flex the fingers
more strongly.
► LOSS OF FUNCTION: Medial two heads of the
flexor digitorum profundus and most of the
intrinsic muscles of the hand.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► GUYON'S CANAL SYNDROME : Compression of
the Ulnar Nerve in Guyon's Canal, between the
Volar Carpal Ligament and the Flexor Retinaculum.
► Volar Carpal Ligament: Is superficial to the
flexor retinaculum. The ulnar artery and nerve
pass superficial to the flexor retinaculum but deep
to the volar carpal ligament.
► CUBITAL TUNNEL -VS- GUYON'S CANAL: In
Guyon's Canal, only the intrinsic muscles of the
hand are lost, whereas in Cubital Tunnel
Syndrome you also lose the innervation of the
medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► DUPUYTREN'S CONTRACTURE: Progressive shortening
of the palmar aponeuroses, from hypertrophy and
hyperplasia. Unknown cause.
► Found esp. in those who have done a lot of manual labor.
► SYMPTOM: Tends to bring the medial two fingers in
toward the palm and flex them downward a bit.
► LOSS OF FUNCTION: Blood vessels that reach the skin
through the palmar aponeurosis are compromised!!!
► TREATMENT: If caught early enough, incise the
aponeurosis.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► TENOSYNOVITIS: Not to be messed with.
Inflammation of the tendons in the synovial joints,
which can spread proximally all the way to the
elbow.
► INFECTION CAN SPREAD from the Ulnar Bursa
------> Carpal Tunnel (with secondary carpal
tunnel syndrome) ------> Space of Parona
------> Cubital Fossa.
► Tenosynovitis in the index finger flexor tendon can
rupture and get into the Thenar Space, causing a
compartment syndrome there as well.
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► DEQUERVAIN'S DISEASE: A specific
tenosynovitis of the first extensor compartment,
which transmits the Extensor Pollicis Longus and
Brevis.
► Found in people who use their thumb a lot and are
not used to it.
► SYMPTOM: Dull pain around wrist and lack of
desire to move the fingers.
► Dequervain's test: Make a fist like a child with
the thumb inside, and then ulnar deviate (adduct)
the wrist. It hurts even without the disease!
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► SCAPHOID FRACTURE: If the scaphoid is
fractured, there is potential for avascular necrosis
in 1/3 of all people, because blood comes from
only one place -- the distal end.
► This will result in demineralization of the Scaphoid
from lack of use, and it will appear dark on the X-
Ray as a result.
► When the fracture occurs in the neck of the
Scaphoid, blood supply is cut off to the proximal
part.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► TRIGGER FINGER: Swelling of the fibrous
sheaths going around the tendons, such
that, when the tendon is on one side of the
swelling, such that the finger is flexed, it will
stay that way and you can't extend it. Then
you can pull real hard to get the tendon
past the "bottleneck" to the other side of
the swelling, such that the finger extends,
and then you can't flex it again!
 CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► RAYNAUD'S DISEASE: Vascular problem
of too high of sympathetic tone, which can
cause complications in the hand.
► Spasmodic vasoconstriction at the wrist will
cause one or two fingers to become
cyanotic and ischemic.
► You could cut the sympathetic nerves at the
neck to try and treat it.
► It is a very serious disease.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► VARUS: A bone-fracture that creates
angulation toward the midline of the body.
► VALGUS: A bone-fracture that creates
angulation away from the midline of the
body.
CLINICAL STUFF: FRACTURES AND
ENTRAPMENT NEUROPATHIES
► TYPES OF FRACTURES:
► Transverse
► Oblique
► Spiral
► Longitudinal
► Segmental Fracture: Broken bone in two or more
places, creating pieces of bone between the fractures.
► Open Fracture -- fracture within an exposed wound and
hence vulnerable to infection.
► Close Fracture -- not exposed by a wound and hence not
susceptible to infection.
 It’s FREE to join.
http://www.examville.com