WHY TAKE A

SAMPLE?
REASON FOR
SAMPLING
• PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATION
• CANNOT ANALYZE
HUGE AMOUNT OF
DATA GENERATED
BY A CENSUS.
 REASON FOR
SAMPLING
• POSSIBLE TO DRAW
VALID INFERENCES ON
THE BASIS OF CAREFUL
OBSERVATION OF
VARIABLES WITHIN A
RELATIVELY SMALL
PROPORTION OF THE
POPULATION.
PURPOSE OF SAMPLE
• EFFICIENT

• ECONOMICAL

• PRACTICAL

• ACCURATE

• TIMELINESS
 SAMPLING
• IS THE PROCESS OF
SELECTING A
FRACTION OF UNITS OF
INTEREST OF THE
POPULATION OF THE
RESERACHER TO BE
ABLE TO DRAW
GENERAL CONCLUSION
ABOUT THE ENTIRE
POPULATION
 POPULATION

• AS THE ENTIRE
GROUP UNDER STUDY
AS SPECIFIED BY THE
OBJECTIVES OF THE
RESEARCH PROJECT
 SAMPLE

• A SUBSET OF THE
POPULATION AND THE
SAMPLE UNIT
PERTAINS TO THE
BASIC LEVEL OF
INVESTIGATION
 SAMPLING ERROR
• ANY ERROR IN A SURVEY
THAT OCCURS BECAUSE A
SAMPLE IS USED
• IT CAN BE CAUSED BY
TWO FACTORS
– METHOD OF SAMPLING
SELECTION
– SIZE OF THE SAMPLE
 SAMPLE FRAME

• A MASTER LIST OF ALL

THE SAMPLE UNITS IN
THE POPULATION.
SAMPLE FRAME
ERROR

• THE DEGREE TO
WHICH IT FAILS TO
ACCOUNT FOR ALL
THE POPULATION.
SAMPLING PROCESS
 SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILITY
– AN OBJECTIVE PROCEDURE IN
WHICH THE PROBABILITY OF
SELECTION IS KNOWN IN
ADVANCE FOR EACH
POPULATION UNIT.
• NON-PROBABILITY
– IS A SUBJECTIVE PROCEDURE
IN WHICH THE PROBABILITY
OF SELECTION FOR EACH
POPULATION UNIT IS
UNKNOWN BEFOREHAND
 SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILITY
– SIMPLE RANDOM
• THE RESEARCHER USES A TABLE
RANDOM NUMBERS, RANDOM
DIALING,OR SOME OTHER
RANDOM SELECTION PROCEDURE
THAT GUARANTEES THAT EACH
MEMBER OF THE POPULATION
HAS AN IDENTICAL CHANCE OF
BEING SELECTED INTO THE
SAMPLE
– BLIND DRAW
– TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBER
SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILITY
– RANDOM WALK SAMPLING
THIS FORM OF SAMPLING IS
USED EXTENSIVELY IN
MARKET RESEARCH AS A
CHEAP APPROXIMATION TO
TRUE RANDOM SAMPLING.
THE SAMPLE INVOLVES
CONDUCTING RANDOM
WALKS IN SMALL AREAS.
 SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILITY
– SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• USING A LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE
POPULATION, THE RESEARCHER SELECTS
A RANDOM STARTING POINT FOR THE
FIRST SAMPLE MEMBER. A CONSTANT
SKIP INTERVAL IS THEN USED TO SELECT
EVERY OTHER SAMPLE MEMBER.
Step 1. Number the subjects serially up to 100
Step 2. Divide 100 by 10 ex. N/n=100/10=10
Step 3. Randomly select your starting point say 10 on the
list
Step 4 Then select every 10th subject after the first
 SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILITY
– CLUSTER SAMPLING
• THE POPULTION IS DIVIDED INTO
GEOGRAPHIC AREAS, EACH OF WHICH
MUST BE CONSIDERED TO BE VERY
SIMILAR TO THE OTHERS. THE
RESEARCHER CAN THEN RANDOMLY
SELECT A FEW AREAS AND PERFORMS
A CENSUS OF EACH ONE.
– Identify population to be sampled
– Identify the salient characteristics
– Locate the areas where subjects with the
characteristics cluster
– Use random selection procedure to select your
sample subject from each cluster
 SAMPLING METHOD
• PROBABILILITY
– STRATIFIED SAMPLING
• THE RESEARCHER IDENTIFIES
SUBPOPULATIONS CALLED STRATA
THEN, A SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE IS
THEN TAKEN OF EACH STRATUM.
WEIGHTING PROCEDURES MAY BE
APPLIED TO ESTIMATE POPULATION
VALUES SUCH AS THE MEAN.
– If 10% of the population is made up of adults
between 60-75, then 10% of the total sample
should be subjects in this age category. After this
categorization the simple random sampling
procedure is used to determine those who make the
selected sample.
 SAMPLING METHOD
• NON-PROBABILILITY
– CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
• THE RESEARCHER OR
INTERVIEWER USES A HIGH
TRAFFIC LOCATION SUCH AS A
BUSY PEDESTRIAN AREA OR A
SHOPPING MALL TO INTERCEPT
POTENCIAL RESPONDENTS.
ERROR OCCURS IN THE FORM OF
MEMBERS OF THE POPULATION
WHO ARE INFREQUENT OR NON-
USERS OF THAT LOCATION.
 SAMPLING METHOD
• NON-PROBABILILITY
– PURPOSIVE/JUDGMENT
SAMPLING
• THE RESEARCHER USES HIS OR
HER JUDGMENT OR THAT SOME
OTHER KNOWLEDGEABLE
PERSON TO IDENTIFY WHO
WILL BE IN THE SAMPLE .
SAMPLING METHOD
• NON-PROBABILILITY
– REFERRAL SAMPLING
• RESPONDENTS ARE ASKED
FOR THE NAMES OR
IDENTITIES OF OTHERS LIKE
THEMSELVES WHO MIGHT
QUALIFY TO TAKE PART IN
THE SURVEY.
SAMPLING METHOD
• NON-PROBABILILITY
– QUOTA SAMPLING
• THE RESERACHER
IDENTIFIES QUOTA
CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS
DEMOGRAPHIC OR PRODUCT
USE FACTORS AND USES
THESE TO SET UP QUOTAS
FOR EACH CLASS OF
RESPONDENTS.
 OTHER SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
• MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
– IS MOST COMMON WHEN THE
POPULATION OF ELEMENTS
IS VERY LARGE OR WHEN
THE ELEMENTS ARE NOT
INDIVIDUALLY IDENTIFIED
– SAMPLING CONTINUES FROM
WITHIN LARGER UNIT UNTIL
THE SMALLEST UNITS ARE
SELECTED
 OTHER SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
• DOUBLE SAMPLING
– This is a modified version of
multistage sampling procedure,
which aims at a high level of
precision through sampling
intensity. This procedure is
sometimes employed by
researchers who have time and
money at their disposal.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINES
THE SELECTION OF A SAMPLE
SIZE
• Type of project
• Purpose of project
• Complexity of project
• Amount of error that may be
tolerated
• Time constraint
• Financial resources available
• Previous research in the area
 SAMPLE SIZE
• THE LARGER THE
SAMPLE ,THE
SMALLER IS THE
MAGNITUDE OF THE
SAMPLING ERROR
AND A GREATER
REPRESENTATION OF
THE POPULATION
 SAMPLE SIZE
• SURVEY STUDIES
SHOULD HAVE
LARGER SAMPLES
COMPARED WITH
EXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES
 SAMPLE SIZE
• WHEN SAMPLES ARE
TO BE DIVIDED,
THERE SHOULD BE
ENOUGH SAMPLE TO
HAVE AN ADEQUATE
SIZE PER SUBGROUP.
 SAMPLE SIZE
• FOR MAILED
QUESTIONNAIRE, A
LARGE INITIAL SAMPLE
IS NEEDED BECAUSE
THERE WOULD BE A
POSSIBLITY OF HAVING
A LOW TURNOVER OF
RESPONSE.
 SAMPLE SIZE
• SUBJECT
AVAILABILITY AND
COST FACTORS ALSO
DETERMINE
APPROPRIATE
SAMPLE SIZE
 SAMPLE SIZE

• RESEARCHERS OFTEN
USE SAMPLES OF 50,75 OR
100 SUBJECTS PER
GROUP(SUCH AS ADULT
18-42 YEARS OLD).
COMPUTATION OF
SAMPLE SIZE
• SLOVIN FORMULA
n=(1+Ne2)
where:
n= sample size
N= population size
e= desired margin of error
* Ignorance of population or
behaviour
COMPUTATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
• MILDRED PARTEN’S FORMULA
n=NZ2pq
Nd2+2pq

where:
n= sample size
Z= critical value at a given
confidence level
d=maximum tolerable error
p=proportion of the respondent
that has a large sample size.
N=population size

*knowledgeable of the population’s behaviour

• Cost and time consideration
always control sample size.
• Although researchers may wish
to use a sample of 1000 for a
survey, the economics of such a
sample are usually prohibitive.
• If a smaller sample is forced on
a researcher by some one else or
circumstance beyond him or
her, the result must be
interpreted accordingly with
caution.
• Multivariate studies always
require larger samples than do
univariate studies because they
involve analyzing multiple
response data.
• 50 =very poor; 100 = poor; 200
= fair; 300 = good; 500 = very
good;1000 = excellent. (Comrey
and Lee, 1992).
• Other researchers suggest using
a sample of 100 plus 1 subject
for each dependent variable in
the analysis (Gorsuch, 1983).
•The larger sample
compensates for those
subjects who drop out of
research studies for one
reason or another, and
allowances must be made
for this in planning the
sample selection.
.
•Researchers can expect
10% - 25% dropout within
the sample in panel studies.
•The larger the sample the
better it is for the researcher
and the readers or other
future researchers.
•A large unrepresentative
sample is as meaningless as
a small unrepresentative
sample, so researchers
should not consider number
alone
•Quality is always more
important in sample
selection than mere size.
END