BSIOP 4-1D

[LIFE CYCLES OF PARASITES] Microbiology and

Parasitology
Nematodes, Page 2; Trematodes, Page 6; Cestodes, Page 8; Protozoans, Page 11.
ESTEBAN, Ruperto T.
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY

LIFE CYCLE OF A NEMATODE

Egg

 Temperature and moisture levels determine when the egg hatches, and the larva will not emerge from the egg until the
environment is one that is favorable for survival.

 In some types of nematodes, the parasite will molt for the first time while still within the egg, so it is a second-stage larva
that emerges.

 While many types of nematodes do not enter their host until after their third molt in the larval stages, a few species---
including many of the intestinal parasites---will enter their hosts while in the egg stage of development.

Larval

 The newly hatched larva, called the L1 stage, feeds and grows until it must molt. The molting process will occur four
times before the nematode reaches the adult stage.

Parasitic

 In many types of parasitic nematodes, the larva will infect its host following its second molt, L2. The infection occurs
when the nematode is in the L3 stage of its development.

Adult

 The fourth and final molt, L4, will take place within the host in most species. That host may be an insect, plant or animal.
Following the final molt, the nematode will be an adult but not yet capable of reproduction.

Reproduction

 A final phase of growth makes the adult capable of sexual reproduction and it is only at this final phase in the nematode
life cycle that genders are established. The life cycle begins again when the adults reproduce and lay eggs. These eggs
usually pass from the host's body and will develop to infect another plant, animal or insect.

TYPES OF NEMATODES

Nematodes are a type of non-segmented roundworm, different from the segmented earthworm or flatworm. Living in soil,
some nematodes are the beneficial insect parasitic type while others are the damaging plant parasitic kind. It is the plant
devouring nematode which destroys plants and can be so destructive that states have formed agricultural boards dedicated
to controlling crop loss.

Insect Parasitic

Nematodes eat insects, and complete at least part of their life-cycle living inside them. While the plant eating variety of
nematodes are viewed as destructive, parasitic feeding nematodes devour insects and are generally seen as beneficial.
Their life span is more than four weeks in length, but the actual life expectancy is not fully understood.

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
Non-Harmful Nematodes

The ring type lives in the more coarse, or dense soils, usually not associated with crop growth. Their movement is
sluggish as compared to the crop eaters, therefore migration is slow. A report from the University of Oregon mentions the
ring type may be responsible for peach tree disease. The spiral and ring nematodes are considered to be relatively
harmless to crops, as they mostly attack certain types of grasses and trees. Farmers do not generally consider these to be a
great risk to crops.

Harmful Nematodes

There are two types of nematodes which are particularly damaging to crops.

 Root Knot is a microscopic worm and, as its name implies, attacks the roots of a variety of plants. It is one of the most
destructive to crop yield in the United States and thrives in the hot climates of the southeast.

The sting type is primarily found in the sandy soil of the Gulf coast states and is widely considered to be one of the most
destructive of all nematodes. It is also the largest of the nematodes and can grow to a length of 3 millimeters. The sting's
favorite crops include cotton, carrots, soybean and potatoes.

Sting Nematode

 Sting nematodes are among the most destructive plant-parasitic nematodes on a wide range of plants. Adults can reach
lengths greater than 3 mm, making them one of the largest plant-parasitic nematodes. While there are several species of
sting nematodes described, only Belonolaimus longicaudatus Rau is known to cause widespreadcrop damage.

 Distribution

Belonolaimus longicaudatus is found primarily in the sandy coastal plains of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts but also occurs
naturally in sandy areas of some Midwestern plains states such as Kansas and Nebraska. Sting nematodes can be
introduced to new areas on infested turf sod and have been introduced by this means to some golf courses in California
and internationally to some of the Caribbean islands, Puerto Rico, Bermuda and Australia. Sting nematodes require at
least 80 percent sand content in soil to survive, so they are typically only found in sandy soil environments.

Life Cycle and Biology

Sting nematodes are ectoparasites of plant roots, meaning that they remain in the soil and feed by inserting a long stylet or
mouth spear into root tips. The nematodes then inject enzymes into root tissues and suck plant juices out through the
stylet. Root tips typically cease growing in response to feeding by sting nematodes. Sting nematodes cause particular
damage to young plants with a developing root system.

Sting nematodes reproduce sexually, so both males and females are common in soil. After mating the female lays eggs in
pairs in the soil and will continue to lay eggs as long as food is available. The eggs hatch after about five days. The young
nematodes must locate a plant root and begin feeding to survive. Once feeding commences the juvenile nematodes grow
and undergo three molts before becoming adults. The total life cycle from egg to reproducing adult takes 18 to 24 days.

Lance Nematode

Among nematodes, which are often too small to be accurately detected by sight, the lance nematode Hoplolaimus galeatus
(Cobb, 1913) Thorne, 1935, is one of the larger species. As adults they measure about 1.5 mm in length. Although other
species of lance nematodes can be very damaging to agronomic crops, H. galeatus is known primarily as a pest of
turfgrasses.

Distribution

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
In the U.S., H. galeatus can be found along the East Coast from New England to Florida and the Mississippi River basin
from Minnesota and Wisconsin to Louisiana, as well as in Colorado, California and Texas. Internationally, it is found in
Canada, Sumatra, India, Tanzania, and Central and South America.

Root Nematode

Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist in soil in areas with hot
climates or short winters. About 2000 plants are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause
approximately 5% of global crop loss (Sasser and Carter, 1985). Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the
development of root-knot galls that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal,
while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield.

 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are one of the three most economically damaging genera of plant-parasitic
nematodes on horticultural and field crops. Root knot nematodes are distributed worldwide, and are obligate parasites of
the roots of thousands of plant species, including monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous herbaceous and woody plants.
The genus includes more than 60 species, with some species having several races. Four Meloidogyne species (M.
javanica, M. arenaria, M. incognita, M. hapla) are major pests worldwide with another seven important on a local basis
(Eisenback and Triantaphyllou, 1991). Meloidogyne occurs in 23 of 43 crops listed as having plant-parasitic nematodes of
major importance, ranging from field crops, through pasture and grasses, to horticultural, ornamental and vegetable crops
(Stirling et al., 1992). If root-knot nematodes become established in deep-rooted perennial crops, control is difficult and
options are limited. Vegetable crops grown in warm climates can experience severe losses from root-knot nematodes, and
are often routinely treated with a chemical nematicide. Root-knot nematode damage results in poor growth, a decline in
quality and yield of the crop and reduced resistance to other stresses (e.g. drought, other diseases). A high level of root-
knot nematode damage can lead to total crop loss. Nematode-damaged roots do not use water and fertilisers as effectively,
leading to additional losses for the grower.

Lesion Nematode

Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are the most common nematodes attacking mint and cause substantial damage.
P. penetrans appears to be the only species on mint in the Willamette Valley, and while both P. penetrans and P. neglectus
have been found on mint in Central Oregon, P. penetrans appears to be increasing in frequency. Root-lesion nematodes
are migratory endoparasites.  Females of P. penetrans lay about 1 to 2 eggs/day for about 35 days, with a maximum of 68
eggs laid by one female. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters in both soil and roots. Males are required for reproduction by
P. penetrans but not by P. neglectus.

Root-lesion nematodes prefer to invade roots 3 to 13 mm behind the root tip with some preference for the dense root-hair
zone. Young feeder roots are generally selected, with a reduction in attack as tissues age. Feeding by P. penetrans
produces lesions on roots, which initially appear as water soaked areas at the root surface. These sites later become
yellow, and eventually develop dark brown centers. Discreet brown lesions of necrosis usually appear in two to four
weeks. Field symptoms of damage generally occur as circular to irrgular patches, perhaps 30-150 feet in diamater, that
have thin stand and stunted plants. Mint often has a reddish color. Presence of root-lesion nematodes can be detected by
looking for reddish-brown lesions on roots of groundsel.

Awl Nematode

Awl nematodes were first described in 1914 from specimens collected at Silver Springs, Florida, and Douglas Lake,
Michigan. Species of Dolichodorus are found worldwide, but two species, D. heterocephalus and D. miradvulvus, are the
most common in Florida. Usually, awl nematodes are found in moist to wet soil, low areas of fields, and near irrigation
ditches and other bodies of fresh water. Because these nematodes prefer moist to wet soils they rarely occur in agricultural
fields and are not as well studied as many other plant-parasitic nematodes.

Life Cycle and Biology

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
Adult awl nematodes range in length from about 1.5 mm to 3 mm, making them one of the largest plant-parasitic
nematodes. Both sexes are present throughout the life cycle. Eggs hatch after 14 to 17 days. Adults and all juvenile stages
feed on roots, sometimes remaining in one spot for up to a week. Awl nematodes can survive in a fallowed greenhouse pot
for up to three months. An ectoparasite, awl nematode feeds on small or large roots, root tips and the hypocotyl. Twelve
hours after inoculation, it feeds near the root tip. The cells there become brownish-yellow after several days, and brown
lesions form. The result is tissue disorganization, root curvature and dead or dying root tips.

Spiral Nematode

Damage to Corn.  Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus  is a common and well-known parasite of corn, especially in the mid-
western U.S.  Crop losses are hard to measure because this nematode often occurs with other species of parasitic
nematodes.

Biology.   At least three species of spiral nematodes are known as parasites of corn.  These nematodes have a
characteristic arcuate to spiral body shape when at rest.

Ecology.  Spiral nematodes are seemingly ubiquitous with corn, and can occur in large numbers in a wide variety of soils.

Symptoms.   Mild stunting and reduced yields occur where populations are large.  Small light to dark brown lesions may
also occur on infected plants.

Damage to other crops.

Dagger Nematode

Dagger nematodes are large plant-parasitic nematodes that feed as ectoparasites (outside the host) on plant roots. High
population densities of these nematodes can injure small and tree fruits. Their feeding often results in swollen root tips
preventing the roots from functioning properly. Roots often die as a result of this feeding. Therefore, dagger nematodes
can affect a plant’s growth and yield even if they are not harboring viruses.

Damage.   Dagger nematodes cause root stunting and tip galling.  In addition, as virus vectors they can be damaging at
very low population levels.

Biology.  Dagger nematodes are migratory ectoparasites (piercing the roots to feed) found only in soil.

Ecology.   Xiphinema americanum is widely distributed, especially in sandy soils.

Symptoms.  Enlarged root tips and feeder roots may occur which could result in a 'witches' broom' effect on the root.
Yields may be reduced when nematode populations reach high levels.

Damage to other crops.  Xiphinema americanum has a wide host range  including strawberries, soybeans, forest trees
(spruce, pine, etc.), perennial orchards as well as grape.

Ring Nematode

Ring nematodes (Criconemella xenoplax) are migratory ectoparasites (Fig. 1) related to pin nematodes but they are
slightly longer and wider. They have a larger stylet and are easily distinguished by distinctive coarse ridges (annulations)
around the body. Ring nematodes are not easily recovered by some soil extraction methods and may not be reported in
accurate densities on some test reports. Thus, ring nematodes may be more prevalent in mint than previously believed.
Recent work in the Willamette Valley of western Oregon has identified several fields with moderate to high densities of
ring nematodes. Ring nematodes have a wide host range that also includes many woody plant species.

Life Cycle and Biology

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
The life cycle takes 25-35 days (Seshadri, 1964). After feeding for several days on roots, females deposit single eggs
every two to four days (Thomas, 1959). Second stage juveniles (J2) hatch from the egg in 11-15 days, molt to J3 in three-
five days which then molt to J4 in four-seven days to become adults five-six days later. Adult females begin to lay eggs in
two-three days (Seshadri, 1964). Males are almost never observed. Ring nematodes increase more in coarse than in fine
textured soils. Optimum conditions for reproduction include a pH near 7 and soil temperatures between 75 and 80 F. Ring
nematodes appear to be sensitive to low soil moisture and low pH.

LIFE CYCLE OF A TREMATODE

Eggs

The adult fluke, living in the organ of a mammal specific to its species, will release immature eggs that are passed from
the body in the stool. The eggs develop in water and each egg releases a larva that seeks out a snail as an intermediate
host. Rather than living in an organ, the blood fluke lives within the blood vessels of its host. Eggs are passed into the
blood vessels until they find their way to the host's tissue and are passed from the body in urine or stool. Female flukes
may discharge up to 300 eggs per day, depending upon species.

Larvae

Within the snail, the fluke will go through several stages of development, including the sporocyst stage. In this stage, cells
begin dividing to produce additional sporocysts that will develop into larvae. Eventually, the parasitic larvae will emerge
from the snail and will enclose themselves in a cyst on a surface in the water. The blood fluke does not go through this
part of the cycle.

Infection

A mammal will eat the vegetation, including the cyst. After ingestion, the larvae will leave the cyst and migrate through
the intestinal wall to the organ where its specific species lives. Development will continue to the adult stage within the
organ. From ingestion to maturity usually takes 3 to 4 months. Again, the exception is the blood fluke. Blood flukes
emerge from the snail and seek out their primary host, penetrating the skin and finding their way to the bloodstream.

Adult

The adult fluke will be flat and leaf-shaped with an unsegmented body. It will live in the organ of the mammal that is
specific to its species. Blood flukes live in the veins, attaching themselves to the blood vessel walls.

Reproduction

Most trematode species are hermaphroditic, meaning both sexes are contained in one individual fluke and the individual
performs self-fertilization. An exception is the blood fluke. In this species, the male and female attach permanently and
mate for life.

TYPES OF TREMATODES

 Trematodes are flukes of the class Trematoda; phylum Platyhelminthes. Important ones affecting man belong to the
genera Schistosoma (blood fluke), Echinostoma (intestinal fluke), Fasciolopsis (liver fluke), Gastrodiscoides (intestinal
fluke), Heterophyes (intestinal fluke), Metagonimus (intestinal fluke), Clonorchis (Asiatic liver fluke), Fasciola (liver
Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
fluke), Dicrocoelium (liver fluke), Opisthorchis (liver fluke), and Paragonimus  (lung fluke). Man usually becomes
infected after ingesting insufficiently cooked fish, crustaceans, or vegetables that contain their larvae. The cycle begins
when larvae are released into freshwater by infected snails. The free-swimming larvae can then directly penetrate the skin
of humans while swimming or be ingested after encycsting in or on various edible vegetation, fish, or crustaceans.

The oval-shaped fluke (sometimes called a flatworm) has a tough outer body layer called a tegument that covers layers of
circular, longitudinal, and diagonal muscles that protects it from the human digestive tract. Some can inhabit the liver, bile
duct, or lymph vessels. They can be several inches long, an inch or so wide, and only thick enough to hold themselves
together. Below are just a very few examples of the thousands known.

Blood flukes

Schistosoma japonicum, S. mansoni, S. haematobium are three species of blood flukes (schistosomes) that cause the
disease schistosomiasis, which infects about 200 million people worldwide. One of the three types of disease, S.
japonicum is found in Asia; S. mansoni occurs in Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Caribbean, and South America;
the third, S. haematobium is found in Egypt . Freshwater snails play intermediate host in the life cycle development of
these blood flukes. The snails release larvae into the water, where they can penetrate the skin of swimmers or bathers. The
parasites burrow into the skin, and then are carried into the bloodstream to be taken to the liver, intestines, or bladder.
There are two forms of schistosomiasis. With one, inflammation begins when the worms lodge in the lining of the
intestine or liver. With the other form, the bladder and urinary tract can become fatally infected by worms as they lodge in
the walls. Travellers to Africa , especially, are warned not to bath, wade, or swim in fresh water because of possible
infestations blood flukes. Infection causes fever and chills, but also elevates the number of white blood cells (eosinophils),
as well as producing abdominal pain resulting from enlargements of the liver and spleen. Often, these symptoms do not
show up for four to eight weeks after exposure, and, therefore, may not be associated with the possibility of parasite
infestation while on vacation.

Liver fluke

Clonorchis sinensis is common in the Orient and Hawaii , and is transmitted through the ingestion of raw, dried, salted,
pickled, or undercooked fish. Snails, carp, and forty additional fish species have been known to play the intermediate host
to this fluke. In humans, it inhabits the bile ducts of the liver, causing it to enlarge and become tender, as well as
producing chills, fever, jaundice, and a type of hepatitis.

Oriental lung fluke

Paragonimus westermani is found mainly in the Far East , where it enters the body, producing the disease called
paragonimiasis. Humans acquire the fluke ingesting infected crabs and crayfish that have not been sufficiently cooked or
are served raw. The adult worms go to the lungs, and, sometimes, the brain, where seizures similar to epilepsy can occur.
Symptoms include an occasional mild cough, producing a peculiar rusty brown sputum. The lung fluke can perforate lung
tissue and deplete oxygen supplies to the entire bloodstream. Symptoms often resemble those of pulmonary tuberculosis.

Sheep liver fluke

Fasciola hepatica is more common in Central and South America, parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia . Infection is usually
acquired from eating the larva worms encysted on such aquatic vegetation as watercress. Worms migrate to the liver and
bile ducts, where they produce upper right quadrant abdominal pain, liver abscesses, and fibrosis.

Intestinal fluke

Fasciolopsis buski is more common in Southeast Asia , Australia , and Latin America . Transmission occurs when
individuals bite into the unpeeled outer skin of plants that harbor encycsted larvae. Such plants can be water chestnuts,
bamboo shoots, and lotus plant roots because they are often cultivated in ponds and streams infected by animal waste.

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
Adult flukes live in the duodenum (the shortest and widest part of the small intestine) and jejunum (connects the
duodenum and the ileum, which opens into the large intestine), where they cause ulceration. Symptoms include the
following: diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, as well as facial and abdominal edema.

LIFE CYCLE OF A CESTODE

Reproduction

Tapeworms are hermaphroditic, meaning that they contain both male and female sexual organs. Each segment of a
tapeworm's body has male and female sex organs and can fertilize itself, producing eggs.

Egg Production

Cestode adults attach themselves to the intestinal wall of the host animal using their head section containing several teeth.
Once the head has attached itself to the intestinal wall, it begins to grow body segments. Each cestode body segment
contains reproductive organs. As the tapeworm increases in size, the segments on the end of the body fall off, releasing
the body segments containing eggs into the host's digestive tract.

Egg Release

Once the body segments are released into the host's digestive system, they are discharged from the host's body in its feces.
The body segments are roughly the size of a grain of rice and can move on their own. The body segment eventually dries
up and opens, releasing the eggs into the environment.

Larvae

Once cestode eggs have been released from the body segment, they are often eaten by an animal called an intermediate
host. Within this host, the larvae are called cysts. When the intermediate host is eaten by the primary host, the larvae can
then develop into adult cestodes. Cestode larvae can cause severe disease within the host animal when they implant into
areas other than the intestines. The larvae can infect various organs within the body including the brain, muscles and
lungs.

Adult

Adult cestodes live within the intestines of carnivorous mammals. They do not have a digestive system of their own and
instead take in nutrients by absorbing them through their skin from their host's intestines. Adult tapeworms can vary
widely in size according to species, but all adult tapeworms have three distinct body segments. These include the head,
called the scolex, which secures the tapeworm onto the intestine of the host, a neck portion and several body segments,
called proglottids.

Life Span

Cestodes have different life cycles depending on their species and the life span of their host animal, but some cestodes can
live for up to 20 years inside the body of the host animal. When the tapeworm dies, it is deposited in the feces of the host
animal like the body segments that are shed throughout the tapeworm's life cycle.

 TYPES OF CESTODES

 Cestodes are tapeworms: class Cestoidea; phylum Platyhelminthes; subclass Cestoda. They are specialized flatworms,
looking very much like a narrow piece of adhesive tape. Tapeworms are the largest, and among the oldest, of the intestinal
parasites that have plagued humans and other animals since time began. Found all over the world, tapeworms exist in

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
many different forms, but they have no close relatives living outside of animal hosts. Tapeworms do not have a mouth like
the fluke, nor do they have a head or a digestive tract with digestive enzymes. The ends differ, but neither has any organs
or sensors that could be associated with what is commonly thought of being a "head." However, through a segment called
a scolex, they are able to absorb predigested food. The scolex attaches to the intestinal wall by hooks or suckers. The body
contains hundreds of segments (proglottids), and each is a sexually complete unit that can reproduce, if necessary. Some
tapeworms have reached lengths of more than ten meters (thirty feet) with a lifespan, inside a host, of thirty years or more.
Cestodaria is the unsegmented subclass of tapeworm affecting various fish and some reptiles.

 Tapeworms are dependent on two hosts for their development, one human and the other animal. Larvae are found in
animal hosts, while the adult worm is found in humans. However, there are two species where this development is
reversed. Echinococcus granulosis and E. multilocularis differ from other tapeworms in that it is the adult worm that
infects an animal host, while the larvae form produces slow growing cysts in humans. This condition is known as
echinococcosis or Hydatid disease, which takes surgical intervention to remove the cysts.

 Human infection comes as a result of eating insufficiently cooked meat (especially beef, pork, and fish), where the larvae
are buried in the tissues of the animal involved. The fleas of both dogs and cats can also transmit tapeworm larvae. Rice-
shaped particles that resemble pumpkin seeds in the stool can be a sign of a dog tapeworm, which can easily be mistaken
for pinworms. It is important to deflea household animals frequently.

 Some of the conditions and symptoms that tapeworms can cause include the following: mineral imbalances, abnormal
thyroid function, intestinal gas, blood sugar imbalances, bloating, jaundice, fluid buildup, dizziness, fuzzy thinking,
hunger pains, poor digestion, allergies, sensitivity to touch, weight changes, and symptoms of pernicious anemia.
Treatment can take months before the entire worm is expelled. It is suggested that long periods of fasting not be
undertaken since tapeworms cannot be starved, but will only leave the person feeling weak and nauseated. It is better to
eat foods that tapeworms do not like, as onions and garlic. This weakens the worm so that it loses its grip. Then it is easily
dislodged and can be expelled.

 Tapeworms known as Spirometra and a roundworm called Gnathostoma can develop in humans after eating raw snake.
Spirometra causes a bizarre eye disease called Sparganosis. In the Far East, sometimes poultices of raw frogs or snake
muscle are put directly on the eye to cure various ailments. Tapeworm larvae then migrate into the tissue around the eye.
This is not solely a condition possible only in underdeveloped countries. For example, raw meat is often used in the
western world for bruises and black eyes. The other unusual tapeworm is the gnathstomes worm, which attaches to the
stomach wall of animals and humans. It eventually passes the eggs of a tiny one-eyed bug called a "cyclops". Fish, frogs,
or snakes later eat these infected bugs, which ultimately infect that animal. As it moves up the food chain, humans become
infected.

 There are five types of tapeworms that can infect humans.

Taenia saginata

Taenia saginata is the beef tapeworm that is transmitted to humans after the ingestion of undercooked or raw beef. The
worm can grow to a strand of 1,000 to 2,000 segments. Each segment is known as a proglottid, and contains both male
and female reproductive organs, capable of bearing fertilized eggs. Tapeworms thrive on the diet of the host, and is
dependant on their carbohydrates, but also utilizing the tissues to obtain proteins. Usually, there is only one worm that will
infect the system. Despite its length, it usually does not produce any marked symptoms. Therefore, it can be quite
surprising when it passes out of the body. If there are symptoms, they will include diarrhea, abdominal cramping,
nervousness, nausea, and loss of appetite.

Taenia solium

Taenia solium is the pork tapeworm, and the one capable of causing the greatest harm to the human host. It is similar to
the beef tapeworm, but shorter, having fewer than 1,000 proglottids. When a tapeworm egg is ingested, the shell around
the egg is dissolved in the stomach, and a living embryo called an "oncosphere" is released. After about sixty to seventy
days, these oncospheres become mature bladder worms called cysticerci or "cysts" that attach to the intestinal, using a

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
head composed of four suckers and eight hooks. When its wastes are absorbed by the host, it produces toxic effects, as
well as intestinal obstruction as the worm swells. This worm can remain in a human host for twenty-five to thirty years,
reaching lengths of two and one-half to three meters (eight to ten feet). Humans become infected after eating undercooked
pork or smoked ham or sausage where cysts are imbedded in the tissue. Unlike the beef tapeworm, pork tapeworm
infestation is usually caused by multiple worms rather than just one. Infection with the adult stage of the pork tapeworm is
called taeniasis, which is not a serious health threat. However, the eggs can still be carried under the fingernails of those
preparing foods or be on their skin or clothes. Eggs will appear in the stool eight to twelve weeks after eating infected
pork, but eggs from a carrier can take several days to ten years to develop in another person. Infectiousness remains as
long as the worm is in the intestines. Twenty to thirty thousand eggs every day can be shed into the feces of a carrier. On
the other hand, the larval stage causes a much more serious condition, known as cysticercosis, producing seizures and
brain deterioration that is often misdiagnosed as epilepsy. Over time, the tapeworm can riddle the brain with its grape-
sized bladders, causing progressive brain deterioration to the point of death. The larvae can also develop and spread
through the CNS into the muscles, heart, and eyes. Amazingly, this parasitic worm does not alert the immune system. It
secretes a substance that suppresses the inflammatory response to its presence, and also controls the amount of fluid
passing across its membranes from the brain. Not until the death of the worm, does the body begin to respond to the
"foreigner" in its midst, when these once-protective substances are no longer produced by the worm.

Diphyllobothrium latum

Diphyllobothrium latum is the fish tapeworm, and is the largest parasite found in humans, with its length reaching 4,000
proglottids. It is commonly found in Scandinavia, Russia, Japan, Australia, the Great Lakes of Canada, and Alaska. It is
usually picked up after eating raw or lightly cooked freshwater fish or such species of migratory fish as Alaskan salmon,
perch, pike, pickerel, and American turbot. In the intestine, a fish tapeworm can consume 80 to 100% of the host's vitamin
B12. It is this deficiency (pernicious anemia) that is the most debilitating effect. After it has been eliminated from the
body, it can take up to a year for B12 levels to return to normal. Digestive disturbances that include pain and fullness in
the upper abdomen, nausea, and anorexia are common symptoms.

Dipylidium canium

Dipylidium canium is the dog tapeworm. It is transmitted to humans by infected dog fleas. Children are the most
frequently affected. By kissing a dog or having it lick the face, an infected dog flea can easily be swallowed. Called the
"pumpkin seed" tapeworm, the first hint of infection may be finding seed-like particles in the stool or undergarments.
These particles are actually the egg-bearing segments of the tapeworm. After the flea is swallowed, the larvae is liberated,
reaching maturity in about twenty days. Symptoms are vague, but include restlessness and persistent diarrhea.

Hymenolepsis nana

Hymenolepsis nana is the dwarf tapeworm. Although it is the most prevalent in the southern US, it does occur worldwide,
requiring an intermediate host. It is a short worm, growing only about one and one-half inches, complete with about 200
segments. The head is small with a ring of hooks and four sucker cups. The tapeworm infects humans only when the eggs
are ingested. Eggs can be transmitted by infected food handlers, grain beetles and other insects that infest grains, as well
as rodent contamination of foods. Mild infestations are usually without symptoms, but if enough are present, symptoms of
diarrhea, itching, abdominal pain, headaches, and other vague digestive complaints occur, especially in children. In severe
cases, symptoms will include the following: general body weakness, weight and appetite loss, insomnia, abdominal pain,
with or without diarrhea, vomiting, dizziness, allergies, nervous disturbances, and anemia. The eggs in fecal samples are
easily identified, displaying two membranes enclosing an embryo with six hooklets. White blood cells may also be
elevated, especially the eosinophils. A similar tapeworm called Hymenolepis diminuta can infect humans after infected
mice and rats contaminate grains, flours, and baked goods with their feces, leaving meal worms and flour beetles.

LIFE CYCLE OF A PROTOZOAN

Page
 MICROBIOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
During its life cycle, a protozoan generally passes through several stages that differ in structure and activity. Trophozoite
(Greek for “animal that feeds”) is a general term for the active, feeding, multiplying stage of most protozoa. In parasitic
species this is the stage usually associated with pathogenesis. In the hemoflagellates the terms amastigote, promastigote,
epimastigote, and trypomastigote designate trophozoite stages that differ in the absence or presence of a flagellum and in
the position of the kinetoplast associated with the flagellum. A variety of terms are employed for stages in the
Apicomplexa, such as tachyzoite and bradyzoite for Toxoplasma gondii. Other stages in the complex asexual and sexual
life cycles seen in this phylum are the merozoite (the form resulting from fission of a multinucleate schizont) and sexual
stages such as gametocytes and gametes. Some protozoa form cysts that contain one or more infective forms.
Multiplication occurs in the cysts of some species so that excystation releases more than one organism. For example,
when the trophozoite of Entamoeba histolytica first forms a cyst, it has a single nucleus. As the cyst matures nuclear
division produces four nuclei and during excystation four uninucleate metacystic amebas appear. Similarly, a freshly
encysted Giardia lamblia has the same number of internal structures (organelles) as the trophozoite. However, as the cyst
matures the organelles double and two trophozoites are formed. Cysts passed in stools have a protective wall, enabling the
parasite to survive in the outside environment for a period ranging from days to a year, depending on the species and
environmental conditions. Cysts formed in tissues do not usually have a heavy protective wall and rely upon carnivorism
for transmission. Oocysts are stages resulting from sexual reproduction in the Apicomplexa. Some apicomplexan oocysts
are passed in the feces of the host, but the oocysts of Plasmodium, the agent of malaria, develop in the body cavity of the
mosquito vector.

TYPES OF PROTOZOANS

Protozoans are single-celled (unicellular) eukaryotes (cell has nucleus) so small that they can only be viewed with the aid
of a microscope. They are found in almost all bodies of water and in damp places. They live freely in the environment or
as parasites  to various animal hosts. These animal-like organisms are able to move using their specialized appendages
like flagella and cilia. Some protozoans behave like plants by undergoing the process of photosynthesis or the conversion
of light energy  into carbohydrates. Protozoans are ecologically important organisms by acting as decomposers in the food
web. They are also important medically by acting as pathogen in various animal and human diseases.

 Flagellate: protozoan that uses a long thin cellular appendage called flagellum to move (e.g. Giardia sp.)

 Amoeboid: protozoan that uses temporary projections called pseudopodia to move (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)

 Ciliate: protozoan that uses tiny threads (cilia) projecting from its body to move (e.g. Paramecium sp.)

 Sporozoa: non-motile protozoan that produce spores (e.g. Plasmodium)

Page