I

Instructions for Use of 0618 MILLIKAN APPARATUS

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Description: This adaptation of the Millikan oil drop experiment uses convenient plastic spheres of uniform size instead of the traditional oil drops to:

1. d'emonstrate the quantization of the charge on an electron,

2. determine the value of the elementary charge by the balancing field method, and

3. show that terminal velocity of a sphere is proportional to driving force (Stoke's Law).

The apparatus consists of (11) avi,ewing, chamber, microscope, and illuminator for examining the movement of charged particles; (2) capacitor plates (part of the viewing chamber), switch, and binding posts for controlling the forces on the charged particles; and (3) a sphere injector for inserting particles into the chamber. The entire apparatus can be mounted on a support rod by means of a bottom hole and clamping screw; this allows the height to be adjusted to the observer's eye level. A bottle IQf plastic spheres suspended in water is also included. The spheres are a known, uniform size and density to make experimental results easier to analyze.

Description ,of components:

1. Viewing, Chamber: Consists of two circular capacitor plates separated by a plastic ring. A flat window in the ring provides a distortion-free view of moving spheres; the background is blackened for better visibility. Spheres are injected through a hole in the ring. The metal plates are, 4.0 mmapert (this value is precise enough for use in calculations, but can be measured more accurately by disassembling the viewing chamber) and provide a uniform electric field near their center. They

( Sargent-Welch® Scientific Company

7400 NORTH LINDER AVENUE. P.O. BOX 1028 • SKOKIE. ILLINOIS 60076-8026 1-8DO-SARGENT

.!IH9 Prlnled in USA

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are connected to binding posts through a. switch and current-limiting safety resistors. The chamber is held by two knurled thumb nuts, removable for examination or cleaning.

2. Focusable Microscope: Has a 20X magnification and a reticule with graduations representing 0.5 mm in the viewing field. The microscope housing attaches to the chamber using four nylon screws, and is mounted on a rod which moves in and out for focusing.

3. Light Source: Consists of a 6.3 V incandescent lamp and lens. The hinged cover opens for adjusting and replacing the bulb. The housing is fixed; the socket may be rotated about horizontal and vertical axes for positioning. The coiled vertical filament illuminates the entire area between the top and bottom plates.

4. Sphere Injector: Includes a reservoir for the sphere suspension fluid and a rubber bulb, tubing, and nozzle for spraying the spheres into the chamber. The spheres become charged as they are injected.

5. Switch and Binding Posts: Red (+) and black (-) binding posts provide high voltage connections to the plate. A switch reverses the polarity of the plates-when in the up position, the upper plate is positive: in the down position, it is negative. The center position disconnects the supply and shorts the plates to remove the electrical field between them. Current-limiting resistors between each binding post and the plates help minimize chance of shock from a properly grounded case. A black binding post on the side of the base is atso provided for grounding the case. A pair of blue binding posts provides connections for the lamp.

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Switch

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Figure 1:

Circuit Diagram

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+ .; High Voltage

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Req,uir,edl Apparatus: A power suppfy which provides. both a 6.3 V ACmC outlet for the lamp and a continuously variable high voltage source of up to 200 V DC is required for all experiments. S30973-50 (with meter) and S30973-60 (without meter) are recommended power supplies. (A lantern battery may be used if 6.3 V power is not avaitable.) A stop clock and a voltmeter (if not part of the power supply) for measuring the plate voltage will also be needed. A wide variety of voltmeters, stop clocks, and stopwatches are available from Sargent-Welch to suit your laboratory needs: consult your catalog or sales representative. A 13 mm (1/2 in.) support rod and tripod base (such as Cat. No. 878340-D) allow the apparatus to be adjusted to proper viewing height.

Theory: The electrical charge carried by an electron is a fundamental constant of physics. During the years 1909-1933. the American physicist Robert A. Millikan originated the oil drop experiment to demonstrate and measure this quantum of electrical charge. Small drops of oil were otaced between two charg!ed horizontal pa.rallel plates, subjecting them to a combination of electrical, gravitational, and viscous retarding forces. The drops were small enough to have acquired random charges equal to small integral multiples of the quantum of charpe, MiI.likan analyzed the motion of the drops under the influence of an electric field to determine the charge on an electron.

The size and mass of oil drops vary, and values must be determined indirectly, making Millikan's original experiment complex. This apparatus substitutes small plastic spheres of known uniform size and density (unavailable to Millikan) to simplify analysis of results. The occasional sphere fragments or clusters can be quickly distinguished by their size and velocity compared to most spheres, and thus can be disreg.arded.

Stationary particles in an electric field: If m is the mass of the sphere under observation, the gravitational force on it is:

Fg ;:;; mg

(1 )

If the electric field E is varied until the electric force FE on the sphere equals the gravitational force Fg, the sphere will remain stationary. The viscous force will be zero because there Is no net movement, so:

or

mg '" FI;

(2)

The electric field E is defined as the force exerted on a unit charge at a given point; so the force FE on a particle of charge q can be expressed as:

thus:

FE = qE, q = mg/E

(3) (4)

In the general. case, the electric fiBld E Is a. vector, equivalent to -dV/cW, the potential gradient at a given paint in the field. Since the field between two parallel charg.ed plates is always uniform near the center of the' plates,

E =-dV/dr ;:;; vis.

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hence:

q = mgd/V

(5)

where dls the distance between plates and V Is the voltage. across the plates.

Since m, g, and d. are constant,

qo 11V.

The rnass m of a sphere may be computed from the, radius and density specified on the bottle. The plate spacing d (4.0 mm) and the gravitational acceleration g (9.8 m/s2) are known. Thus to calculate the charge q on a particular sphere, you need only measure V using a voltmeter. When many observations are made, the resultant calculated values ofq will be found to be Integral multiples of a certain small value. This value is the fundamental unit (or quantum) of charge.

NOTE: Forces, electric field. and velocity are all vector quantities which,in these experiments, can only be directed up or down. All symbols for these quantities will thus refer to scalar magnitudes, not vectors, unless otherwise noted. Similarly., q will refer to only the magnitude and not the sign of a charge unless otherwise noted.

Moving pa.rticles in the absence of a field: A sphere moving through a fluid medium at a constant velocity v is subject to a viscous re.tarding force Fa,given by Stoke's Law:

Fa = Krv

(6)

where K is a constant which depends onllY on the fluid's viscosity and r is the· radius of the sphere. Since r is a constant in these experiments, Kr can be replaced by a constant C, and equation (6) becomes:

(7)

In the absence of an electric field, a free-falling particle quickly reaches a constant terminal velocity due to the retarding force of the fluid. At. the terminal velocity, Fg = Fa, so:

mg = CVg where "g is the free-fall terminal velocity.

(8)

Moving particles' in an electric field: An electric field E acting on a sphere with charge q applies a torce on the sphere, FE, given by equation (3). If this force is applied upwards, it will oppose the force of gravity. When the sphere reaches anequHibrium velocity 'Ie, the sum of the forces on the sphere must be zero (the forces are in equilibrium). When the field is large enough to more than overcome the force of gravity (as. is always the case in these experiments), FE IS greater than Fg; the forces Fa and F g are in the opposite direction as FE, so:

FE - F(l - Fg = 0 Plug in equations (3). (7), and (1) to get:

qE- CVe + rng q = (Cve + mg)/E

or

(9)

Plug in equation (8) to get:

q = CIE (ve + Vg).

(10) (1 1 ) (12)

or

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Analogous equations can be derived when FE is directed downward. For plastic spheres of uniform size in a constant electric field. a change in the charge q on the sphere results only in a change in equilibrium velocity ve:

t.q = (C/E) aVe

(13)

where the signs of q, E, and V,e are considered. If many experimental values of AVe are measured, they are all found to be integral multiples of a, certain small value. The same must thus be true for 6q: the charge gained or lost is an exact multiple of some small charge. Thus the quantization of charge may be demonstrated even without obtaining a numerical value for the fundamental charge.

Preparation for Use: Connect a 6,.3 V supply to the blue binding posts marked 6,.3 V. (WARNING; Do not connect the high voltage yeti) Turn on the power supply,; the lamp should light

Remove the two knurled nuts from the viewing chamber and lift off the cover and upper plate. Place a narrow strip of paper vertically at the center of the lower plate. A Slightly enlarged image of the lamp filament should be vislble on the paper strip. If the image is not centered, raise the light source cover and move the lamp socket horizontally to place the image at the center. (f necessary, move the (amp socket vertically until the lower end of the filament image, just touches the lower plate. Replace the light source cover and the top of the viewing chamber.

Insert the metal nozzle of the sphere injector into the viewing chamber as far as it will' go. Mount the microscope (wrapped separately) in the apparatus by placing the objective end into the housing. Move it into position by turning the focusing knob. Rotate the entire microscope if necessary to make the reticule scale vertical. then focus the eyepiece on the graduations. Adjust the focusing knob until the tip of the injector nozzle is in sharp focus. If the light source has been properly adjusted, thetip should be brightly illuminated. The microscope and lamp are' now ready for viewing the spheres.

The sphere suspension is concentrated for shipment and must be diluted before use in the injector reservoir: add about 15 drops of the suspension to, 1 ml of distilled water and 0.5 to 1 mL of isopropyl alcohol (which helps minimize sticking and speeds evaporatlon).

Connect the high voltage supply, attaching positive to the red binding post, and negative to black. Turn the voltage to maximum and set the reversing. switch to the center (shorting) position. For Experiment I,. attach a voltmeter across the red and black binding posts to measure the potential difference between the' two plates. Withdraw the injector nozzle until the tip is just out of the field of view. The apparatus is now ready for use.

T,O begin, squeeze the rubber bulb several times to releas'e some spheres Into the viewing chamber. View the chamber through the microscope-the fluid quickly evaporates, leaving a cloud of spheres which look like bright points of light against the dark background. Since the microscope image is inverted. falling spheres will appear to move upward. Fine adjustment of the microscope focus may be needed. In all laboratory work, students should work in pairs, taking turns making observations and recording data.

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~periment I, This is, tile classic MHlikan experiment for determining the charge of an electron.

Squeeze the rubber bulb several times to release some' spheres into the' view,jng chamber. M.ost of the spheres will be electrically charged by the friction of injecti.on. Move the reversing switch up or down to. create an electric field and observe the ,effect on the spheres. The upper plate is positive with the swi1ch in the • up" position and negative with the switch in the "down" position. Some spheres will move up and others down, indicating that there are both negatively and positiv,e,I,y charged spheres. The more highly charged spheres move faster and Quickly disappear from the field o·f view. Vary the field intensity by means of the, power supply volt.age control and note thai effect. Keep in mind that the microscope inverts the field, and the actual direction of motion is oppostte the apparent one.

With the switch in the center position. the plates are shorted and ther'a is no electric flel'd,; the> spheres Call freely under gravity. Look for occasional. clumps of spheres falling more rapidly andfragmel1ts falling more slowly than single whole spheres. Do not use these in your measurements.

Turn the switch beck to the up position, so that the top plate will be positively charged to attract negativ,ely charged spheres, Set the applied voltag!B to about 200 V. Select a single sphere that is moving slow/yin the electric field and try to make it stop by carefully adjusting the Voltage. Observe it long enough to make certain it is motionless, then record the voltage across the p'lates as measured by the voltmeter. Remember: the, smaller the charge, the higher t.he \loltag:e required to stop the sphere. Record the stopping voltage V for a number of spheres. trying to pick out spheres requiring the highest voltages to stop-thes9,sre tha, ones with t'he lowest c'harges.

Cal:cullation of ~.he numertcel val'ue ,of an eleme,ntary 'Ch,l:ugle. (The following calculations use mks unns.) 'Each plastic sphere measures 1.01 microns = , .01 x 10-6 m in diameter, and has a density of 1.05 g/cm3 = 1050 kg,/m,3 (these values are obtained from the label). Then the! mass of a sphere, density times volume, IS:

= (p) (%1lirS) = (1050)(%)(3.1:4)(0.50.5:<10-6)3 = 5 .. .7 x 10-16 kg (14)

The plate spacing d = 4.0 xlO-3 m, andg = 9.8 m/s,2. The constant mgd becomes:

mgd = 1(5.7x10-16)(9.8)(4.0x10-3) = 2.2x10-17Nm

(15)

Usel this value: in equation (5) to calculate the charge on each sphere .. For example: if a particular spharels stopped by a potential of 1'30 V, its charge, must be:

q = (2.2x 10-17)(1!/130) = 1 .. 7x10-19coulombs

(16)

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Charge on:sphe~e q Make a chart Qf the ,e,xperimentaHy determined values of q. The charge on the spheres will appear to duster around certain values as shown in the figure. These' values are Integral: multiples of the clilarg,e, on an electron, which can thus Ibel determined .

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Ex,periment U. This experiment demonstrates that particles quickly reach a terminal velocity proportional to the driving force.

Inject some spheres into the viewing chamber. Use a stop clock to measure the time for a sphere to move through two graduations of the reticule (a movement of 1 mm in the chamber). Measure the velocity of a single sphere in free fall at two different parts o't the field' of view. Tihe two velocities should be essentially the same, indicating that the sphere has reached its terminal velocity.

Apply an electric field between the' plates and measure the velocity of a sphere in two different parts of the field of view. The two velocities should again beessent,lally the same. 8e sure tc choose a slowly moving sphere. The plate voltage should be kept constant for all measurements at about 200 V (it is not necessary to know the exact value in this experiment).

To cl'early show the relationship between velocity and driving force, make three velocity measurements on each of about ten spheres; (a) the velocity under free tall, (b) the velocity when the electric and gravrtational fields are in opposite directions. and (c) the, velocity when the electric and gJavitational fields are in the same direction. The forces acting on the sphere in each of these cases can be represented by vector arrows. (Remember that the viscous force exactly balances Fg and F£ at terminal velocity; the "dr.iving force" in each figure bel'ow thus equals the viscous force. The total force Is, of course, zero.):

(a) vfree fall

(b) vup

Driving farce:

-IF, + Fm = -(mg + qE11

Drivingforca:

F& = mg

Driving force:

FE - F, = qE - mg

Record the data in a table similar to the one below. The designations "up" and "down" refer to actual direction of motion (opposite the apparent direction).

Sphere I Free Fall Up Down
Time (5) v (mm/s) Time (5) I, v tiD (mm/s) Time (5) I, vdQ\\'D (mmJs)
1
2 , I'
3 I To avoid using data from fragments or clusters. throw out data on any sphere with a free fall time markedly different from the majority. If all spheres measured have the same mass, and the field strength is held constant, the driving force will differ only due to the charge on the sphere q.

Plot a graph of velocity versus electric force, designating downward force and velocity as negative and upward as positive. The graph of the measurements on each sphere should be a straight line. The slopes will be different because there are different charges on the spheres and hence different values of F1> The graph (see exampfeto right) shows that ve~ locity is proportional to driving force.

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Experiment In. This experiment demonstrates that the charge on each sphere is a multiple of 50mB small quantum of charge. By equation (13). velocity is proportional to charge in a constant field. so we can analyze velocity data to determine charge. The procedure is similar to Experiment II; if desired. data from that experiment can be used for this one.

As noted before, sphere clumps and fragments must not be used. Since vdo\\"ll is proportional to FE + Fg and "up is proportional to FE - Fg• then the vector sum, V:p + Vdown (for a given sphere). is proportional to 2Fg and the difference, v;1p - V;;OWTJ' is proportional to 2F E' We can use the values of V:p + "Vitown to screen out all but sing.le spheres, and the values of ~p - VdO\tD for these' selectad spheres to determine charge quanta.

Set up the apparatus as described in Experiment II. For each of a number of slowly moving spheres. measure the velocity VdOWl'lI when FE is in the same direction as Fg and "uP' when FE opposes Fg• Record the data in a table similar to this:

Sphere Up Down I
lime (5) Yup (mm/s) Time {s) Ydown (mm/s) ....... -- "up - Vdown
vup + vdown
1 I
2
3 Remember that the directions of\tup and""1dQWI1 are opposite when adding these quantlties .. Examine theVup + vaown column and disregard spheres for which the value is markedly differen,t from average; these will be fragments or clumps with a different mass than that of a typical sphere.

Make a bar graph of \'up - "down for the selected spheres. The data shoutd indicate that these values are integral multiples of some small value and, therefore, that the charges on the spheres are also integral multiples of some small value. See the dlsouasion follOwing Experiment I for calculation of results,

Notes and Comments. The plate spacing in this apparatus should be sufflclently uniform from unit to unit to allow pooling of results from the entire class for calculations in Experiment Ill.

Each observer should check and readjust the height of the apparatus on the support rod to the best viewing height for each person.

One of the main reasons that spheres could be hard to view is improper microscope focus; check by pushing in the inject.or nozzle and focusing on the tip.

The stem of the atomizer attached to the injector bulb should be positioned with its tip at the bottom of the reservoir to allow use of a minimum quantity of sphere fluid.

Before storing the apparatus, return the diluted sphere fluid to a storage bottle and thoroughly clean the, injector, reservoir, and viewing chamber by rinsing with distilled water.

Discard the sphere fluid if it has dried out; rewetting does not provide a satisfactory product. Replaoement 10 mL bottles of spheres are available (Cat. No. 0618A).

b"!'. :ctions for Use of S30973-60 Power Supply

:POWER SUPPLY

DC. 'r{OU"GE ADruSTM~Nl

Description: This power supply serves as an economical source of high voltage, low current DC and a low voltage AC source. The high voltage can be used for applications such as charging capacitor plates as in the Millikan Experiment, or for other uses where high DC voltage at low current is required. Filtering is adequate for such applications.

The Jaw voltage AC source operates at a fixed 6,3 volts, and is provided continuously and independently of the DC voltage control. A maximum of 2 amperes rmsis available. This is sufficient for operation of electron tube filaments and for small illuminator lamps that typically operate at that voltage.

The outputs are inductively iso'lated from the power line for safety .. The primary of the power supply trarrstorrner is fuse protected, Output is avaii'ablefi0m 5-way bi:.ding peats. Operation of the power supply is from 115 volts AC. 50/60 Hz.

SWIT(.f/

FUSE ~ a.

SlO 810

BLK 71

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C/2!

RI 180K 2W

RED

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Schematic Diagram of S30973-S0

The,ory of Operatlcn: Refer to the Schematic Diagram. The line voltage is converted to 127 VAC and 6.3 VAC by transformer Tt , The 6.3 VAG output is available directly from the binding posts. The 127 VACoutput is connected to autotransformer T2 which adjusts the output to the half-wave, voltage doubler network: diode CR 1 and capacitor C2. and diode CR2 and capacitor C 1. Filtering is provided by capacitor C3. Resistor Rl is added for safety to provide short-circuit protection and voltape regulation under no external load conditions; it also discharges C3 when the power is turned off.

SARGENT-W'ELCH

VWR SCIEN'TIF.fC

Specifications:

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Maximum DC voltage 300 volts ±10%
Maximum DC current 30 mA
Ripple voltage 2% max at full load
AC voltage 6.3 volts rms
Maximum AC current 2 Arms
Input voltage 115 volts AC, 50/60 Hz
Power consumption 30 watts
Dimensions (hxwxd) 14x16.2x14.6 cm (5.5x6.4x5.75 in.) Instrument Controls:

Power Switch - A slide switch is located at the lower left hand corner of the front panel. When in the up or ON position, the, circuitry is energized and the pilot light will be lit. When the switch is in the down or OFF position. power is removed from the circuitry.

DC Voltagle Adju,st.ment Control - The control, located at the lower middle of the' front panel, adjusts the DC voltage' output. When the indicator line on the knob is, in the extreme counterclockwise position I the voltage output will be 0 .. When in the extreme clockwise position, the full voltage output will be supplied. Graduations are marked 0 to 100 around this control to facilitate resetting to the desired position.

Line Fuse - Located on rear panel: protects the primary of the power supply transformer from overloading. Output Terminals - These terminals are floating: they are not connected to the power supply chassis.

(+) DC positive, red

(-) DC negative. black

(AC) Blue

(AC) Blue

Operation: This instrument is operated from 115 volts AC, 50/60 Hz. It is equipped' with a 3-wire cord and plug to fit the standard 115 volt grounded receptacle. This ensures that power to the instrument is properly polarized and grounded. The case is grounded through connection to the grounded receptacle. The instrument is designed for operation by connection to the power source by this method only.

To use the power supply, follcw these procedures:

1. Turn the DC Voltage Adjustment Knob to the extreme counterclockwise position and the Power Switch to the OFF position.

2. Connect line cord to polarized, grounded receptacle, providing 115 volts AC, 50/60 Hz.

3. Connect the loadl(s) across the appropriate AC lor DC terminals (or both) as desired. observing the polarity as indicated.

4. Apply power to the instrument by placing the' Power 8witch in the ON position.

5. When power is on, 6.3 volts AC wit! be supplied to the AC terminals. This output is fixed and is independent of the DC Voltage Adjustment Knob.

6. To adjust DC voltage, turn the DC Voltage Adjustment Knob clockwise to increase the voltage output.

Hazards: The 830973-60 Power Supply derives its power from the AC line. The line voltage is present at the power input sections of the circuit and may present a hazard if normal precautions are not taken. These precautions include use of properly g.rounded circuits and standard connectors only.

The line plug should be disconnected when the instrument cover is removed. If it is necessary to service the instrument while energized. it should be done by experienced personnel only. and with a knowledge of the locations where line voltage is present.

If the fuse requires replacement, use a fuse rated at Voil A only. Use of a fuse with a higher current rating may cause damage to the power sup pry and equipment connected to it. A potential fire hazard will also exist.

SARGE NT-WE LC.H.

VWR

5CIENTI,FIC

'911 Commerce Court .• Butf.·Io, Grove· lIIil'lIQi, 60089' I~OI727-4.368 • Fax (708) 459·888511