2 Standards N Units

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STANDARDS, UNITS AND

DATA PRESENTATION
Mohd Zaki Nuawi

Mohd Hanif Md Saad
Dept of Mechanical & Materials Engineering
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Introduction
w A vital part of the measurement-evaluation process is

the comparison of the result of your measurement
against an appropriate reference or standard.
w This comparison process allows you to attach some
judgment of quality or merit to your measurement
result.
w When a measurement system is calibrated, its
indicated value is compared directly with a reference
value – the standard.
KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 2

Standards of Length and Time
w In the past, standards of length included ‘sepemeluk, sehasta’

etc. “Standards” for time included a standard burning candle,
a sundial, ‘sepuntung rokok’...
w Nowadays, the standard may be based on the output from a
piece of equipment, from an object having a well-defined
physical attribute to be used as comparison, or from a well-
accepted technique known to produce a reliable value.

Standards
w A dimension defines a physical variable that is used to

describe some aspect of a physical system.
w A unit defines a quantitative measure of a dimension.
Dimension Unit
Mass Kg
Length Meter
Time second
w A primary standard defines the value of a unit.

Standards
w To avoid confusion, units are defined by international

agreement through the use of primary standards.
w Primary standard of time:
n 1 s = duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of cesium 133
radiation... (essentially “Atomic clock” is the standard)

w Primary standard of length:
n 1 m = path traveled by light in vacuum in 1/299,792,458 s
(i.e, speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s)

Standards
w Primary standard of mass:

n Originally, the unit of the kilogram was defined by the
mass of one liter of water at room temperature.
n Today, more consistent definition – the kilogram is the
mass of a particular platinum-iridium cylindrical bar that
is maintained under very specific conditions at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures located in
Sevres, France.
n This bar forms the primary standard for the kilogram.

Hierarchy of standards
w Actual primary standards are impractical as standards for

normal calibration use.
w But they serve as a reference for exactness.
w For practical reasons, there exists a hierarchy of reference
and secondary standards used to duplicate the primary
standards.
w As one moves down through the standards lineage, the
degree of exactness by which a standard approximates the
primary standard deteriorates.

Hierarchy of Standards

A case for metric system:

Various units for mass, volume, weight

... and on and on ...
KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 10


And just when you thought that’s all
KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 12

SI Unit systems:
Primary & Derived
Units
Only a few
derived units
are shown as
examples;
there are
many more.
KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 13
More on Primary Standards

ampere [A]
The ampere is the basic unit of electric current. It is that current
which produces a specified force between two parallel wires
which are 1 metre apart in a vacuum.It is named after the French
physicist Andre Ampere (1775-1836).
kelvin [K]
The kelvin is the basic unit of temperature. It is 1/273.16th of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. It is
named after the Scottish mathematician and physicist William
Thomson 1st Lord Kelvin (1824-1907).

More on Primary Standards
mole [mol]
The mole is the basic unit of substance. It is the amount of
substance that contains as many elementary units as there
are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
candela [cd]
The candela is the basic unit of luminous intensity. It is the
intensity of a source of light of a specified frequency, which
gives a specified amount of power in a given direction.

The Prefixes of the SI Units
w The S I (Systeme Internationale) allows the sizes of units to

be made bigger or smaller by the use of appropriate prefixes.
For example, the electrical unit of a watt is not a big unit
even in terms of ordinary household use, so it is generally
used in terms of 1000 watts at a time.
w The prefix for 1000 is kilo so we use kilowatts[kW] as our
unit of measurement. For makers of electricity, or bigger
users such as industry, it is common to use megawatts[MW]
or even gigawatts [GW].

The full range of prefixes with their [symbols or abbreviations] and their
multiplying factors
yotta [Y] 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10^24
zetta [Z] 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10^21
exa [E] 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10^18
peta [P] 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 10^15
tera [T] 1 000 000 000 000 = 10^12
giga [G] 1 000 000 000 (a thousand millions = a
billion)
mega [M] 1 000 000 (a million)
kilo [k] 1 000 (a thousand)
hecto [h] 100 (a hundred)
deca [da]10 (ten)
1
deci [d] 0.1 (a tenth)
centi [c] 0.01 (a hundredth)
milli [m] 0.001 (a thousandth)
micro [µ] 0.000 001 (a millionth)
nano [n] 0.000 000 001 (a thousand millionth)
pico [p] 0.000 000 000 001 = 10^-12
femto [f] 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10^-15
atto [a] 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10^-18
zepto [z] 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10^-21
yocto [y] 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10^-24

w http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ess/halaki/meas&anal
ys_lectures.html
w http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ess/halaki/meas&analys_lectures.html

w http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ess/halaki/meas&analys_lectures.html

Data Presentation
w There is a difference between ‘data’ and

‘information’. Raw numbers need to be
processed in order to give useful information.
w Eg: The numbers 78, 64, 36, 70 52, can be
processed in different ways
78 64 36 70 52
http://www.crowsworld.co.uk/rcat/datapresentation.htm
Data Presentation
w If they were student marks, they could be averaged to give

the result of 60%. The minimum mark, however, is less than
the pass mark, and the maximum would be a Distinction.
This kind of processing gives more useful information to a
tutor or course manager than the raw data.
w You can show the characteristics of a set of data or highlight
important patterns.
w People tend to look at diagrams (hence the saying ‘One
picture is worth a thousand words’). People are good at
recognising patterns and can extract a lot of information in a
short time. However, a badly presented diagram will not
inform at all, and so they need careful planning and thought.
Data Reduction
w If raw data is given in report form, as lists of numbers,
people would find it boring at best and indigestible at worst.
They would skip to more interesting material. They would
ignore the figures, despite the fact that they may be
important. They would not take the time to pick out any
outstanding data or try to extract any meaning from the
whole.
w To try to make figures less daunting. In most cases we are
not interested in the small detail and merely want an overall
picture.
w Data reduction can give a simplified and accurate view of
the data which shows the underlying patterns but does not
overwhelm with detail.
Data Reduction
w Data reduction has the advantages of enabling

results to be viewed:
n in a compact form
n easy to understand
n presented graphically
n demonstrate overall patterns
n make comparisons
w However, it has disadvantages in that
n details of the original data are lost
n the process is irreversible.

Data Presentation: Graphs
w A bar graph compares values across categories or

treatments. The x-axis gives the treatment values
(independent variable), while the y-axis depicts
the values of the dependent variable.
w The values of the bars can be raw data, totals or
means.
http://scene.asu.edu/habitat/data_present.html

Sample graph: numbers of insects of three different species found in

plants growing at different densities. The independent variable on the x-
axis is plant density and the dependent variable on the y-axis is the raw
number of insects.

Combining two sets of data on one graph can be done, and

the visual juxtaposition of the two different sets of
information that results can be very illuminating
KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 28

A common statistical test calculated with means is the standard

deviation. Standard deviations can be presented visually on bar, line and
data point graphs. Here is a bar graph with the standard deviation value
for each mean. They are called error bars when on a graph.
KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 29
Line graph: Line graphs are used to show data points

over time. Each line is for a single treatment (independent
variable).

The x-axis shows the time interval and the y-axis depicts the
values of the dependent variable. The graph can have data
points (shown in the preceding slide) or just the lines (below).

Pie Chart: Pie charts are used to show the contribution of

each item to the whole. The values are commonly given as
a percent or a proportion.

ATOMIC CLOCK
Atomic clocks are so accurate that minute adjustments must be made
periodically to the length of the year to keep the calendar exactly synchronized
with the Earth's rotation, which has a tendency to slow down. 3 types of
atomic clock
1. ammonia clock, invented at the US National Bureau of Standards in 1948. It was regulated
by measuring the speed at which the nitrogen atom in an ammonia molecule vibrated back and
forth. The rate of molecular vibration is not affected by temperature, pressure, or other external
influences, and can be used to regulate an electronic clock.
2. A more accurate atomic clock is the caesium clock. Because of its internal structure, a
caesium atom produces or absorbs radiation of a very precise frequency (9,192,631,770 Hz) that
varies by less than one part in 10 billion. This frequency has been used to define the second, and
is the basis of atomic clocks used in international timekeeping.
3. Hydrogen maser clocks, based on the radiation from hydrogen atoms, are the most accurate.
The hydrogen maser clock at the US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, is estimated
to lose one second in 1,700,000 years. Cooled hydrogen maser clocks could theoretically be
accurate to within one second in 300 million years.
KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 back 33

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Generated by Foxit PDF Creator © Foxit Software

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STANDARDS, UNITS AND

Mohd Zaki Nuawi

w A vital part of the measurement-evaluation process is

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 2

Standards of Length and Time

w In the past, standards of length included ‘sepemeluk, sehasta’

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 3

w A dimension defines a physical variable that is used to

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 4

w To avoid confusion, units are defined by international

radiation... (essentially “Atomic clock” is the standard)

(i.e, speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s)

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 5

w Primary standard of mass:

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 6

w Actual primary standards are impractical as standards for

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 7

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 8

A case for metric system:

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 9

... and on and on ...

KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 10

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 11

And just when you thought that’s all

KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 12

More on Primary Standards

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 14

More on Primary Standards

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 15

The Prefixes of the SI Units

w The S I (Systeme Internationale) allows the sizes of units to

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 16

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 17

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 19

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 20

w There is a difference between ‘data’ and

w If they were student marks, they could be averaged to give

w Data reduction has the advantages of enabling

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 25

Data Presentation: Graphs

w A bar graph compares values across categories or

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 26

Sample graph: numbers of insects of three different species found in

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 27

Combining two sets of data on one graph can be done, and

KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Sesi 2006/2007 28

A common statistical test calculated with means is the standard

Line graph: Line graphs are used to show data points

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 30

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 31

Pie Chart: Pie charts are used to show the contribution of

KJ2313 Sem 1 Session 0809 32

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