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Darcy'S Law The Field Equations of The Flow of Underground Fluids
Darcy'S Law The Field Equations of The Flow of Underground Fluids
INTRODUCTION
In Paris in the year 1856 there was published by
Victor Dalmont as a part of the Libraire des Corps
lmptriaux des Ponts et Chausse'es et des Mines a mono-
graph by the French engineer Henry Darcy,' Inspector
General of Bridges and Roads, bearing the title:
"LES
FONTAINES PUBLIQUES FIG. FACSIMILE OF DARCY'SILLUSTRATION OF HIS
D E LA VILLE D E DIJON EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. (FROMLes Fontaines Pub-
Exposition et Application liques de la Ville de Dijon, Atlas, FIG. 3 ) .
DES PRINCIPES A SUIVRE E T DES
FORMULES A EMPLOYER
Dans les Questions 1. This consisted of a vertical iron pipe, 0.35 m in
de diameter and 3.50 m in length (the figure shows 3.50 m
DISTRIBUTION D'EAU but the text says 2.50), flanged at both ends. At a
Ouvrage Termini5 height of 0.20 m above the base of the column, there
Par un Appendice Relatif aux Fournitures was placed a horizontal screen supported by an iron
d'Eau de Plusieurs Villes grillwork upon which rested a column, a meter or so
AU FILTRAGE DES EAUX in length, of loose sand. Water could be admitted into
et the system by means of a pipe, tapped into the column
A la Fabrication des Tuyaux de Fonte, near its top, from the building water supply, and could
de Plomb, de Tole et de Bitume." be discharged through a faucet from the open charn-
ber near its bottom. The faucet discharged into a meas-
For several years previously M. Henry Darcy had
been engaged in modernizing and enlarging the pub- uring tank 1 m square and 0.50 m deep, and the flow
lic water works of the town of Dijon, and this treatise, rate could be controlled by means of adjustable valves
comprising a 647-page volume of text and an accom- in both the inlet pipe and the outlet faucet.
panying Atlar of illustrations, constitutes an engineer- For measuring the pressures mercury manometers
ing report on that enterprise. were used, one tapped into each of the open chambers
The item of present interest represents only a detail above and below the sand column. The unit of pres-
of the general work and appears in an appendix on sure employed was the meter o f water and all man-
pages 590 to 594 under the heading "Determination of ometer readings were reported in meters of water meas-
the Law of Flow of Water Through Sand," and per- ured above the bottom of the sand which was taken as
tains to a problem encountered by Darcy in designing an elevation datum. The observations of the mercury
a suitable filter for the system. Darcy needed to know manometers were accordingly expressed directly in terms
how large a filter would be required for a given quan- of the heights of the water columns of equivalent water
tity of water per day and, unable to find the desired
manometers above a standard datum.
information in the published literature, he proceeded
to obtain it experimentally. The experiments comprised several series of obser-
A drawing of the apparatus used is given as Fig. 3 vations made between Oct. 29 and Nov. 2, 1855, and
in the Atlas and is here reproduced in facsimile as Fig. some additional experiments made during Feb. 17 to
18, 1856. For each series the system was charged with
'References glven a t end of paper. a different sand and completely filled with water.
V O L . 2 0 7 . 1956
By adjustment of the inlet and o~ltletvalves the water.
was made to flow downward through the sand at ;I
series of successively increasing rates. For each rate a
reading of the manometers was taken and recorded as a
pressure difference in meters of water above the bottom
of the sand. The results o f two of these series, using
different sands, are shown graphically in Fig. 2. In [I is the logarithm to the base e.]
each instance it will be seen that the total rate of dis- "Si la valeur h, correspond au temps t,, et h h un
charge increases linearly with the drop in head across temps quelconque t , il viendra
the sand of the two equivalent water manometers. I<
I(h + e l = / ( h a+
, el - - [t - t,] . . . . (I)
Darcy's own summary of the results of his experi-
ments is given in the following passage (p. 5 9 4 ) : "Si on remplace maintenant h +e et h,, + e par
"Ainsi, en appelant e l'epaisseur de la couche cie q,,e
d e sable, s sa superficie, P la pression atmospher- - et - , il viendra
.sk .sk
ique, h la hauteur de l'eau sur cette couche, on
aura P +
h pour la pression A laquelle sera soumise
la base superieure; soient, de plus, P -'- h,, la pres-
sion supportke par la surface infkrieure, k un coef- et les deux equations ( I ) et ( 2 ) donnent, soit la loi
ficient dkpendant de la perm5ahilitC de la couche. q d'abaissement de la hauteur sur le filtre, soit la loi
le volume dCbitC, on a d e variation des volumes debit& i partir du
temps t o .
"Si k et e Ctaient inconnus, on voit qu'il faudrait
deux expCriences prCliminaires pour faire disparaitre
qui se rCduit h k
de la seconde le rapport inconnu - ."
e
Translating Darcy's statements into the notation
quand h., = 0, ou lorsque la pression sous le filtre est which will subsequently be used in the present paper,
Cgale B la pression atmospherique. what Darcy found and stated was that, when water
"I1 est facile de dbterminer la loi de dCcroissance flows vertically downward through a sand, the volume
d e la hauteur d'eau 11 sur le filtre; en effet, soit of water Q passing through the system in unit time is
dh la quantite dont cette hauteur s'abaisse pen- given by
dant un temps (11, sa vitesse d'abaissement sera h , - h, h , - h,
Q=KA- , o r by -KA -; . ( 1 )
I I
- dh : mais 13Cquation ci-dessus donne encore pour and the volume crossing unit area in unit time by
dt
cette vitesse I'expression
k
- v = - ( h + e )
- -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
s e where K is a factor of proportionality, A the area of
"On aura donc cross section and 1 the thickness of the sand, and h, and
h, the heights above a standard reference elevation of
water in equivalent water manometers terminated above
and below the sand, respectively.
Writing Eq. 2 in differential form gives
FIRST S E R I E S
OCTOBER 2 9 - N O V E M B E R 2 . 1 8 5 5 q = -K ( d h / d l ) . . . . . . . . ( 3)
Soon after the publication of Darcy's account of these
experiments, the relationship expressed by Eqs. 1 to 3
became known, appropriately, as Darcy's law.
It has subsequently come to be universally acknowl-
edged that Darcy's law plays the same role in the theory
of the conduction of fluids through porous solids as
Ohm's law in the conduction of electricity, o r of Four-
ier's law in the conduction of heat. O n the other hand,
Darcy's own statement of the law was in an empirical
form which conveys no insight into the physics of the
phenomenon. Consequently, during the succeeding cen-
tury many separate attempts were made to give the
statement of the law a more general and physically sat-
isfactory form, with the result that there appeared in
the technical literature a great variety of expressions,
many mutually contradictory, but all credited directly
"0 5 10 15 o r indirectly to Henry Darcy.
DROP I N HEAD ACROSS SAND I M E T E R S I
It has accordingly become recently the fashion, when
FIG. 2-GRAPHS COMPILEDFROM DARCY'STABULAR some of these expressions have been found to be
DATAON HIS EXPERIMENTS OF OCT. 29 'ro Nov. 2 . physically untenable, to attribute the error to Darcy
1855, A N D OF FEB. 17-18, 1856, SHOWINGLINEARRE- himself. In fact one recent author, in discussing a sup-
LATION BETWEEN FLOW RATE AND DIFFERENCESIN posed statement of Darcy's law which is valid for hori-
HEIGHTSOF EQUIVALENT WATERMANOMETERS. zontal flow only, has gone so far as to explain that
ometers, at an axial distance I apart, are connected by
flexible rubber tubing, we can determine the validity
of Darcy's law with respect to the direction of flow.
With the apparatus vertical and the flow downward at
a total rate Q, the manometer difference h? - h, will
have some fixed value ~ h Now, . keeping Q constant
and inverting the column so that the flow will be ver-
tically upward, it will be found that ~h also remains
constant. Next, setting the column horizontal, ~h still
remains constant. In this manner we easily establish
that Darcy's law is invariant with respect to the direc-
tion of the flow in the earth's gravity field, and that for
a given Ah the flow rate Q remains constant whether
0-
R E F E R E N C E ELEVATION\
P V V
the flow be in the direction of gravity or opposed to it,
or in any other direction in three-dimensional space.
This leads immediately to a generalization for flow
in three-dimensional space. At each point in such space
FIG. APPARATUS FOR VERIFYINGDARCY'SLAWFOR there must exist a particular value of a scalar quantity
FLOWIN VARIOUSDIRECTIONS. h, defined as the height above a standard elevation
datum of the water column in a manometer terminated
at the given point. The ensemble of such values then
Darcy was led to the commission of this error by re- gives rise to a scalar field in the quantity h with its at-
stricting his experiments to flow in a horizontal direc- tendant family of surfaces, h = constant. In such a
tion. scalar field water will flow in the direction perpen-
On this centennial occasion of Darcy's original pub- dicular to the surfaces, h = constant, and at a rate
lication, it would appear to be fitting, therefore, in- given by
stead of merely paying our respects to Darcy in the
q = - K grad h . . . . . . . . . (4)
form of an empty homage, that we first establish un-
equivocally what Darcy himself did and said with respect Continuing our empirical experimentation, we find
to the relationship which bears his name; second, try that when we change either of the fluid properties, den-
to ascertain the generality and physical content of the sity or viscosity, or the geometrical properties of the
relationship and to give it a proper physical expression; sand, Eq. 4 still remains valid but the value of K
and third, attempt to see how this fits into a general changes. In particular, by varying one factor at a time,
field theory of the flow of fluids through porous solids we find
in three-dimensional space.
The first of these objectives has already been ac-
complished; the second and third will now be given
our attention. where p is the density and p is the viscosity of the fluid.
Likewise, if we use a number of geometrically similar
sands which differ only in grain size, we find that
T H E PHYSICAL CONTENT O F DARCY'S LAW
As we have seen heretofore, what Darcy determined where d is a length such as the mean grain diameter,
was that, when water flows vertically downward through which characterizes the size scale of the pore structure
a sand, the relation of the volume of water crossing unit of the sand.
area normal to the flow direction in unit time, to the
thickness of the sand, and to the difference in heights Introducing the results of Eqs. 5 and 6 into Eq. 4
of equivalent water manometers terminated above and then gives
below the sand, is given by the following equation: q = grad h ) , . . . . . (7)
K' d ( p / p ) ( -
where
. . . . . . . . . . . . . (16)
1
q = ( N d 2 ) ( p / p ) ( - g g r a d h ) , . . . (12) o = [ ( N d ' )( p l p l l
in which N is a final factor of proportionality. Dimen- is the volume conductivity of the system. In the last
sional inspection shows that N is dimensionless, and a of Eqs. 16, the bracketed term
physical review indicates that no dynamical variables
have been omitted, so that N must be related to the [~g-gradp]=pE=H. . . . . . (17)
only remaining variable, namely the shape of the represents the force H per unit volume.
passages through which the flow occurs. Since shape When we compare Darcy's law in the form:
is expressed by angular measurement and angles are
q = oE = o grad Q, ,
dimensionless, [ L / L ] , then N must be a dimensionless -
shape factor whose value is constant for systems which with Ohm's law:
are either identically, or statistically, similar geo- i = a, E, = - o, grad V ,
metrically. By identical similarity is meant similarity
in the strict Euclidean sense: all corresponding angles where i is the current density, o, the electrical con-
equal, and all corresponding lengths proportional. By ductivity, E, the electrical force-field intensity, and V
statistical similarity is meant that two complex geo- the electrical potential, the physical as well as the
metrical systems which may not be identically simi- mathematical analogy between Darcy's law and Ohm's
lar on a microscopic scale are still indistinguishable as law becomes immediately apparent.
to shape on a macroscopic scale--for example, two
sets of randomly packed uniform spheres.
Now that we have achieved a complete physical state-
The term (---g grad h ) can also be written in the
ment of Darcy's law, it remains for us to define what
form
shall be meant by the permeability of the system.
- g grad h = - grad ( g h ) , . (13)
It will be recalled that Darcy stated that the factor
where gh represents the amount of work required to K is "a coefficient depending upon the permeability
lift a unit mass of water from the standard datum of of the sand." Following this it has often been the cus-
elevation outside the system to the height h of the water tom, especially among ground-water hydrologists, to
in the manometer. Then, since the additional work re- define the permeability of a system to be synonymous
quired to transport the water down the water-filled with K. But, as we have seen, the factor K is the
tube of the manometer to its terminus is zero, it fol- lumped parameter,
lows that
K = ( N d 2 )( p / p ) g,
gh = 4, . . . . . . . . . . . ( 1 4 )
comprising the geometrical properties of the sand, the
dynamical properties of the fluid, and even the accelera-
tion of gravity. Consequently, if K is taken as a meas-
ure of the permeability, it will be seen that the same
sand will have different permeabilities to different
fluids.
During recent years there has been a convergence
of opinion toward the conclusion that permeability
should be a constant of the solid independently of the
fluids involved. If we accept this view, then it is seen
that the only property of the solid affecting the rate of
flow is the geometrical factor,
k=Nd',
F ~ G4-RELATION
. OF FORCEPER UNIT MASS, E, TO which we may accordingly define to he its permeability.
THE PRIMARY FORCESg AND - ( 1 / p ) GRAD p; AND OF Then since N is dimensionless and d is a length, it fol-
THE FLOWVECTORq TO E. lows that the dimensions of permeability are [La];and
an area, or a length, respectively. the mass dm to the acceleration a, and with this substitu-
tion Eq. 28 becomes
The microscopic scale, on the contrary, is a scale
commensurate with the grain o r pore size of the solid,
51.1tstill large as compared with molecular dimensions Of these forces, dF,, which is imposed from without
c r of tk.c motional irregularities due to Brownian or and does not depend primarily upon the motion of the
molecular movements. fluid, may be regarded as the independent variable. The
forces dl?. and dF,both owe their existences to the fluid
motion, and their effect is to impede that motion.
Let us next consider the steady, macroscopically recti- The relation of the separate terms of Eq. 29 to the
linear flow of an incompressible fluid through a porous externally applied forces and the fluid motion are given
solid which is macroscopically homogeneous and iso- by the equation of Navier and Stokes, which in vector
tropic with respect to porosity and permeability. We form may be written as follows:
shall then have the fluid flowing with a constant macro-
scopic flow rate q under a constant impelling force per P [g ( l / p ) grad PI dV = p (Dv/Dt) dV
+
-
unit of mass E, and in virtue of the isotropy of the - [ V ' V (1/3) VV.v] dV, . (30)
system, we shall have in which v is the microscopic velocity, and
q = a E , . . . . . . . . . . . (23) p = - (1/3) (ox + + a, o,) is the microscopic pressure
at a point. The a's are normal components of microscopic
where a is an unknown scalar whose value we shall seek stress.
to determine.
The expression Dv/Dt is the total derivative with re-
Then, choosing x-, y-, and z-axes, spect to time of the velocity v, and is equal to the accel-
eration a. This can be expanded into
and
q x = uE,,
1
qY = oEy . . . . . . . . . . . (25)
q . = uE, ,
where i, j, and k are unit vectors parallel to the x-, y-.
and z-axes, respectively, and the subscripts signify the
corresponding scalar components of the vectors.
Further, there will be no loss of generality, and our
analysis will be somewhat simplified, if we choose the
x-axis in the macroscopic direction of flow. Then
q = = i q x ; E= i E , ,
and
qr = q . = O ; E , = E, = 0 . I . . . . (26)
-
as obtained by integrating the microscopic forces dF,,, is:
F,, . j dF, = .S (pg - g r a d p ) dV
fAV
matically similar, all corresponding forces will have the
same directions and their magnitudes the same ratio
(Fig. 6 ) .
= ( p g - g r a d p ) f A V , . . . . . (32) Thus
-
where grad p is the volumetric average of the microscopic
grad p over the fluid volume f n v .
From the macroscopic equations, the driving force F, Since only two of the three forces are independent, we
is given by: need to consider the ratios of only the first two, and, by
reciprocation,
F,, = p f A V E = p l g - ( l / p ) g r a d p l f n v . (33)
Then by combining Eqs. 32 and 33,
.S (pg - grad P) dV = (pg -
-
grad p ) f n V
indicating that for each system the ratio of the inertial to
fAV
the viscous force must be the same.
= P f A v [g - ( l / p ) grad P I , (34)
From Eq. 3 1
from which it is seen that the macroscopic grad p is equal
to the volumetric average, grad p, of the microscopic
grad p.
Integrating the inertial term:
F,, = JdF, = p J v.Vv dV
In Eq. 41 v.Vv expands into the sum of a series of
terms, each of the form u au/ax, which is a velocity
squared divided by a length. In Eq. 42 V'V expands into a
series of terms, each of the form a'u/ax2, which is a veloc-
ity divided by the square of a length. Then, since the
ratios of all corresponding velocities and of all corre-
sponding lengths of the two systems are constant, we may
Since there is no net gain in velocity with macroscopic choose any suitable velocity and any convenient length.
distance, each separate integral of the expanded form of We accordingly choose for the velocity the macro-
Eq. 35 is equal to zero, and we obtain for the volunle ele- scopic flow rate q whose dimensions are [ L Y - ' T-'], or
ment AV, [LT']. For the characteristic length we choose d, which
F : , = , I ' d F ; , = = O . . . . . . . (36) must be some convenient statistical length parameter of
the microscopic geometry of the system. With these sub-
Then, in virtue of Eq. 36, stitutions the first two terms of Eq. 39 become
.(' dF.. = p J'
V'V dV = - F,, . (37)
fAV
Ordinarily the evaluation of
and, by reciprocation, Eq. 40 becomes
(' O'V dV
fdv
would require a detailed consideration of the geometry
of the void space through which the flow occurs and of
the flow field within that space. This difficulty can be
circumvented, however. and the integral evaluated except
The dimensionless quantity (qd)/(p/p) is the Reyn-
olds number R of the system, which, as seen from its deri- g il/p) grad pl f n V =
~ [- - ,I' d ~ ,= Cf
. Nd' av,
vation, is a measure of the ratio of the inertial to the vis-
cous forces of the system. Our criterion for kinematic
similarity between the two systems thus reduces to the
requirement that which is the derived Darcy's law in the same form as
Eq. 16 deduced earlier from empirical data.
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 6 1 0 1 2 14
RECIPROCAL M E A N P R E S S U R E l A T M I-'
Then, since lL> > h', it follows that the additional FIG.7-VARIATIONAS A FUNCTION OF 1/p OF THE APPAR-
frictional drag caused by the divergence term is negli- E N T PERMEABILITY OF A GIVENSOLIDAS DETERMINED
gible, and this term may be deleted from the equation. BY THE DIFFERENT GASES.THE VALUEOF 2.75 MD, AS
We conclude, therefore, from this approximate analy- ( l / p ) TENDSTO 0, DIFFERSBUT SLIGHTLY FROM THAT
sis, that Darcy's law in its differential form is the OF 2.55 M D OBTAINED USINGA LIQUID(AFTERL. J.
same for a gas as for a liquid, provided that the flow KLINKENBERG,
API Drill. and Prod. Prac.. 1941).
problem is complicated, however, by the fact that the 0 A g = 0. Also
fluids considered may be either of constant o r of var- - 0 x [ ( l / p ) Opl = - O ( l / p ) x O p
iable density; that one o r several different fluids, either - (]/PIO x VP
intermixed o r segregated into separate macroscopic = - O(l/p) X Op.
spaces, may be present simultaneously; and that all de-
Consequently
grees of saturation of the space considered are possible.
curl E = - O ( l / p ) X O p = O p X O ( l / p ) ,
The problem of dealing with such cases becomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (85)
tractable when we recognize that the behavior of each so that
different fluid can be treated separately. Thus, for a curl E = 0 when V p X O ( l / p ) = 0 . ( 8 6 )
specified fluid, there will exist at each point in space
Therefore, in order for the field to be irrotational, and
capable of being occupied by that fluid a rnacroscopic hence derivable from a scalar potential, it is necessary
force intensity vector E, defined as the force per unit either that O p = 0, corresponding to constant pres-
mass that would act upon a macroscopic element of sure, o r V ( l / p ) = 0, corresponding to constant den-
the fluid if placed at that point. In addition, if the sity, o r else that the vectors O p and O ( l / p ) be collinear,
fluid does occupy the space, its macroscopic flow rate corresponding to a coincidence of the surfaces of equal
at the given point will be indicated by the velocity vec- density and equal pressure.
tor q, the volume of the fluid crossing unit area nor- The second of these three cases is satisfied by a
mal to the flow direction in unit time. liquid of constant density, and the third by a gas whose
density is a function of the pressure only, such as oc-
W e shall thus have for each fluid two superposed
curs under either isothermal o r adiabatic conditions.
fields, a field of force and a field of flow, each inde- For the general case, however, of a gas for which p =
pendently determinable. The equations describing the f ( p , T ) , and the surfaces of equal temperature do not
properties of each of these fields, and their mutual in- coincide with those of equal pressure, then the sur-
terrelations, comprise the field equations of the system; faces p = const will also not coincide with the surfaces
these in turn, in conjunction with the boundary condi- p = const and we shall have two intersecting families
tions, determine the nature of the flow. of surfaces, ( l / p ) = const, and p = const, for which
Eq. 8 5 applies.
This is the condition corresponding to thermal con-
vection, and the fluid will have a convective circula-
We have seen already that the force per unit mas5 tion in the direction that will tend to bring the surfaces
is given by of equal density into coincidence with those of equal
E = g - ( l / p ) grad p , . . . . . (15) pressure, with the less dense fluid uppermost.
Hence, subject to the condition that either p = const,
and the force per unit volume by
o r 11 = f ( p ) ,
c u r l E = O a n d E = g r a d @ . . . . (87)
Either of these force vectors could be used, and either The value of @ at any arbitrary point P in space
is determinable from the other, but before choosing Fig. 8 ) is then obtained by
one in preference to the other, let us first consider the
properties of their respective fields, of which the most
important for present purposes is whether o r not the
field has a potential. T o simplify our analysis we will
+ ( P ) = @ ( P o )-
P
J
Po
E, ds
1
make the approximations that
g = const, . . . . . . . . . . ( 8 2 )
and for chemically homogeneous liquids under the
range of temperatures and pressures normally encoun-
tered in the earth to drillable depths,
= const. . . . . . . . . . . ( 8 3 )
F o r gases, on the other hand, we shall h a w an equa-
tion of state
p = f ( p , 7') . . . . . . . . . (84)
where the integral from Po to P is taken along any path
3,Then by setting @ ( P o ) = 0 when z = 0 and p,, = 1
where T is the absolute temperature. atmosphere, we obtain
The vector E has a particular value at each point in
space and the ensemble of such values comprises its
vector field. The criterion of whether this field has a
potential, that is to say, of whether where p is now the gauge pressure, o r the absolute pres-
E = - grad a], sure less 1 atmosphere.
where is a scalar field, is whether the field E is irro- If the fluid is incompressible and chemically homogen-
tational, which can be determined from its curl. From eous, this reduces to the simpler form
Eq. 1 5 ,
curl E = curl [g - ( l / p ) grad p] For this case, if a manometer is tapped into the sys-
= 0 r: g - 0 X [(l/p)0pl. tem at the point P , the height h above the level z = 0,
to which the liquid will rise, will be
As is well known, the gravity field is irrotational
even without the assumption that g = const, so that
PETROLEIlM TRANSACTIONS, AlME
only for the special case of liquids of constant density,
then there is no advantage in using the latter in pref-
erence to the former, and henceforth it shall be dropped
from further consideration.
The generality of the field of force, as herein de-
fined, merits attention. The force vector E for any given
fluid not only has values in space occupied by that fluid,
but also in any space capable of being occupied by the
fluid. At a point in air, for example, the force E, for
water would be
E w = g - ( l/pw) grad P,
and since, in air, grad p is pairg, then
t. . . . (97)
PETROLEUM T R A X S A C T I O S S , A l M E
response to suitable impermeable barriers, will tend to
become completely segregated.
Once this segregation is achieved, for any further
steady motion of either of the fluids, the interface
will appear as an impermeable barrier. Across this in-
terface, neglecting minor pressure differences due to
capillarity, the pressure in the two fluids must be the
same. Then, in case neither of the fluids is in motion,
the interface will have to be horizontal, with the less
dense fluid uppermost, since this is the only inclination
of the surface for which the pressures on opposite sides
can be the same.
When either or both of the fluids is in motion, how-
ever, in a nonvertical direction, the vectors ( l / ~ , )grad p
and ( l / p , ) grad p will be inclined from the vertical,
and the corresponding equipressure surfaces will be in-
clined from the horizontal by the same amounts. At the
interface every equipressure surface in one system must
match that of the same value in the other.
- grad p. Since this is far from true, there is some ques- At the same time, the flowlines in each system must
tion of the degree of reliability of the results of such be parallel to the interface so that the (E,, E,)-plane
experiments. Even so, the existing evidence indicates must be tangent to the interface. Consequently the in-
that for saturations greater than some critical minimum terfacial surface and the flow patterns in the two sys-
the flow obeys Darcy's law in the form given in Eqs. tems must mutually adjust themselves until these condi-
1 0 8 . For saturations less than this limit, there should tions are simultaneously satisfied before a steady state
still be a general drift of discontinuous fluid elements in of flow becomes possible.
the direction of the field E, but with, as yet, no well- Of particular interest is the special case of this gen-
defined relationship between q and E. eral situation wherein one of the two fluids is in motion
The migration of petroleum and natural gas, through and the other is completely static. In this case the
an otherwise water-saturated underground environment, equipressure surfaces in the static fluid are horizontal
from an initial state of high dispersion to final positions and surfaces having equal difference of pressure are
of concentration and entrapment, constitutes an exam- equally spaced; whereas, in the moving fluid the equipres-
ple of the latter kind. sure surfaces are inclined downward in the direction of
the horizontal component of the flow. Their lines of inter-
section at the interface must accordingly be horizontal.
Although the present paper does not permit of th& Also, since the vector, grad p, lies in the same vertical
elaboration, practically everything that is now known plane as the vector E of the flowing fluid, it follows
concerning the flow of fluids in a porous-solid, three- that the horizontal component of the flow direction
dimensional space is deducible from the foregoing field must be parallel to the direction of steepest slope of the
equations. The equations for the flow of an incom- interface.
pressible fluid are of the same form as those for the If we consider a vertical plane parallel to the flow
steady conduction of electricity. Consequently the well- direction and perpendicular to the interface, then in this
known solutions to the electrical equations can be ap- plane the surfaces of constant pressure will appear as
plied directly to analogous situations in fluid flow. The lines of constant pressure, inclined in the flowing fluid
unsteady flow of a compressible fluid, when the force and refracting into the horizontal across the interface in
field is irrotational, is closely analogous, although some- the static fluid. Let the flowing fluid be denoted by the
what more complex, to the unsteady conduction of heat, subscript 1 and the static fluid by the subscript 2. Then
and the solutions of the heat equations can be adapted
along the interface in the direction of the flow
with some modification to the analogous fluid-flow
problems. (ap/as), = (ap/as), . . . . . . . ,109)
The fluid phenomena which are unique and have no In the static fluid
counterpart in other more familiar field theory are ( a p / a s ) ? = - pzg sin 8 , . . . . . . (110)
those involving multiple fluids. If we consider the flow and consequently depends only upon the density p,
of two immiscible fluids of unequal densities, such as and the angle of slope 0 of the interface, where 0 is posi-
water and oil, interspersed in the same macroscopic tive when the slope is upward in the flow direction.
space, we have seen from Eq. 9 7 that, in general, the
In the flowing fluid, since
force fields E, and E, of the two fluids will lie in the
same vertical plane, but will have divergent directions, E = g, - ( l i p , ) ( a p i a ~ ),,
that for the less dense fluid being upward with respect then
to that for the more dense. As a consequence the two ( a p / a s ) , = p,g, p l ~
-
PETHOLEITM TRAYSACTIOYS, A I M E
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