* CHAPTER 2 Basic Concepts Before examini he specifies of how data are transmitted from one device to another i1 is important to understand the relationship between the eon cling devices, Five neral concepts provide the bs ior this relationship: Line configuration @ & Topology. a Transmission mode, B Categories of networks. a Internetworks, 2.1 LINE CONFIGURATION Line configuration refers 1» the way {vo oF more communication deviees aah to 3 fink, A fink is the physical commmunicstion pautiway that teansters dt to another. For the purposes of viswatization, i is sinsplest to iin any link ws a Tine drawn between two points, For communication to occur, twa devices must be eon- nected in some way to the same Tink atthe sa 1 time, There are lwo possible fine con io Point-to-Point A point-to-poi The entire {line configuration provides a dedicated link hetween two devives wity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those Ovo. devices. Most point-to-point line configurations use an actuall length of wire or cable 10 connect the two enels, but other op! ). When you el ns, such as microwave or sulellite links, are also possible (see Figur nge television chanels by infrared remote con soint-to-point line configuration between the remote controlCHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPIS: re 2.1 Tire categories of line configurat ire 2.2 Point-ronprint fine eanfigueranion | Workstation Workstation | workstation Workstation Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) li wo specitic devices share « single link (see ion is one in which more than tn a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially I devices can use the Link simultaneously, itis a spat or temporally. If sever jy shared! uration, LF users, take turns, itis a tinre-shared fine coatiguration, 2.2. TOPOLOGY The term topology refers o the way a network is laid out, either physically or | Tw. of more devices comncet to t link: Oe oF more links form a topology, The topol- gy of a network is the geometti¢ representation of relationship of all the links and inking devices (usally called nodes) to cach other, There are five basic topologies possible: mesh, stu, tree, bus, and ring (seg Figure 2.4) aSECTION22 TOPOLOGY — 2% Kigure 2.8. Multipoine bine configuration Workstation ‘Workstation EE Maintame Figure 2.4 Caregories of topolos j “Topalngy eee ro Toe Topology defines tte physic ‘al arrangettcnl of links iva network, ‘These five labels describe how the devices in a network are intereonnected rather than their physical arrangement, For example, having a star topology does not mean that all of the computers in the network must be pliced physically around a hub in a star shape. A consideration when choosing « topology is the relative status of the devices 10 be linked. Two relationships are possible: peer-to-peer, where the devices share the link equally, and primary-secondary, where one device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it, Ring and mesh topologies are more convenient far peer-to- peer transmission, while star and tree are more eonvei mary-secondary, A sat for pr bus topology is equally convenient for either. Mesh In a mesh topology, every devive has a dedicated point-to-point fink to every other device. The term dedicared means that the link carries trallic only between the (wor devices it connects, A fully connected mesh network therefore has (v1 ~ 1)/2 physical channels to link 1 devices. To accommodate that many Tinks, every device on the nel work must have 1 inputfoutput (VO) ports (see Figure 2.5).24 CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS Pally connected mesh topology (for five devices) ‘A mesh ollers several advantages over ather network topotogies. First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection hating the tallic probleins that ean occur when Finks must be shated by multiple de ees carry its own data Hoael thus ebiani- Second, a mesh topology is robust, If one Tink becomes unusable, HC does ot inet pacitate the entire system, ‘Another advantage is privacy or security. When every message sent travels along dedieated ‘ine, only the intended recipient sees it, Physical boundaries prevent other sets from gaining access to messages, Finally, point-to-point links make fautt identification and fault Isolation easy, Teal- fie ean be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the net- work manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution. The main disadvantages of a mesh are related 10 the amount of cabling and thy number af WO ports required. First, because every device must be conneeted {0 every dither device, installation and reconligaration are difficult, Second, the sheer bulls of the wiring can be seater thn the 2 alble space (in walls, ceilings, oF floors) ean secon ink (VO parts and gable) modate. And, finally, the hardware required to connect can be prohibitively expensive, For these reasons «mesh topology is usually imple- mented in at limited fashion—for example, at backbone conn cers of a hybrid network that can include several other topolog! ng. the matin comput ‘The Lucky Ducky Corporation has a Tully connected mesh network consisting of eight devices culate the total number of cable links needed and the number of ports Far cach deview Solution ‘The formula for the number of finks For a fully connected mesh is u(r — 12, where a is the number of devives, Num ber of tink n(n 1 =8 (8 = HP Number of parts per device = 11 ~ =8-127SECTION 2.2 TOPOLOGY — 25 Star hia star topo each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a cent controller, usually called a hub, The devices are not directly linked to each other Unlike a mesh topology. a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controtier acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the dita to the other connected device (see Figure 2.6), Hub A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one fink and one VO port 10 connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed, andl aulditions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the bub, Other ava other links rem iiges include robustness, [fone link fails, only that Link is affected. Ait n active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it ean be used to monitor link problems and bypass defeetive links. However, although a star requires far fess cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. Bor this reason more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as tree, ring. or bus) Tree A tree topology is a variation of a star. Ax in a star, nodes in a tree are linked 10 a cone tral hub that controls the traflic to the nenwork. However, not every device plugs Uireetly into the central hub. The majority of devices connect to a secondary hub that in turn is connected to the central nub (see Figure 2.7). ‘The central hub in the tree is an active hub, An active hub contains « repeater, which is « hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out (repeaters are discussed at length in Chapter 21). Repeating strengthens trans- missions and inereases the distane at signal ean travel2% CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS Figure 2.7 Tive wpolesy “The secondary hubs may be active or passive hubs. A passive hub provides t si ple physical connection between the advantages and disadvantages of a tree topology are generally the same as those of a star. The addition of secondary hubs, however, b First, it allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub and cun therefore increase the distance a signal can travel between devices. Second, it allows the network mmunications trom-different computers. For example, the computers atlached to one secondary hub can be given priority ov toan tached devices. two further adv to isolate and prioritize c& computers attached other secondkiry hub. In this way, the network desi ners and operator ¢ tee that time-sensitive data will not have to wait for access to the network. cable TV te 1 ollice is divided into mi iaran= A good exumple of tree topology can be seen pnology where the main cable from the m: 1 branches and each branch is divided into smaller branches and so on, The hubs are used when a cable is Bus The preceding examples all deserib the other hand, in the network (see Fi point-to-point configurations. A bus topology, ct < multipoiut, One long cable acts as & backbone to Tink all the devices re 2.8). Novles are connected to the bus cable by drop fines and taps. A drop fine is a con- nection runnin splices into the ma between the device and the main cable. A ap is a connector that either n cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create & contact with the metallic core. As @ signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is truns formed into heat. Therefore. it becomes weaker and weaker the farther it has to travel For this reason there is a limit on the number of (aps a bus can support and on the dis: tance between those laps. Aadvitit include ease of installation, Backbone cable eat be aid along the most efficient path, the ss af a bus topolos connected to the nodes by d op Tines of va Tr this way, a hus uses fess cabling than mesh, star, oF tree topologies, Ina starSECTION 2.2, TOPOLOGY 27 Figure 28 fs topology Drop | Drop | line | tine Canie end? TP Caine end for example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the back~ hone cable stretches through the entire facility, as the nearest point on the backbone, Disadvantages include difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation, A bus is usually’ designed to be optimally efficient at installation, It can therefore be difficult io add new devices. As mentioned above, signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable, Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the buckbone, In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the problem, The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions. zach drop Tine has to reach only as far Ring In a ring topolog uration only with the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one diree- tion, from device to device, until it reaches its destination, Buch device in the ring incorporates a repeater, When at device receives a st each device has s dedicated point-to-point line con 1 intended far another device. its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along (see Figure 2.9), ‘A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure, Bach device is linked only to its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires moving only two connections, The only constraints are media and traffie considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified Generally in a ting, a signal is circulating at all times, Ione device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it ean issue an alarm, ‘The alarm alerts the network ‘operator to the problem and its Focattion, However, unidirectional traflic ean be « disadvantage. In a simple ring, break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network, This weakness cun be solved by using a duall ring or a switch capable of closing off the break, Example Ie the devices in -xanple 2.1 are configured as a ring instead of 3 mesh, how muany eable links ave sequined’?28 CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS Figure 2.9 Ring 1opology Solution To connect # devices in a ring topology, we need 1 cable Tinks. An ceable links. device ring needs eight Hybrid Topologies Often a network combines several topologies as subnetworks linked together in 2 large topology. For instance, one department of a business may have decided to use a bus topolo viw a central controller in star topology (see Figure 2.10) ‘while another department hus a ring, The two can be connected to each other 10 Hybrid top 2.3 TRANSMISSION MODE The term transmission mode is used 10 deline the direction of signal llow benween two linked devices. There are the full-duplex (see Figure 2.11) + types of transmission moles: simples, half lex. anSECTION 2.3. TRANSMISSION MODE 29 Figure 2.11 Transmission modes Half duplex Simplex In simplex mode, the commun Of the (vo stations on a Tink can transmit: the other can only receive (see Figure 2.1 tion is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one 2. Simplex - Direction of data = | Mainfrvme Keyboards and traditional monitors are both examples of simplex devices, The keyboard can only introduce input: the monitor can only accept output In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time, When one device is sending, the other ean only receive, and vice versa (see Figure 2.13), ‘The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with two-directional traflic. While cars are traveling one direction, cars going the other way must wait, In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two alf-Duplex devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-tatkies and CB (citizen's band) radios are both half-duplex sysiems. Full-Duplex In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations ean transmit and receive sinvul= taneously (see Fignre 2.14).M CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS Figure 213 Halfduplex Direction of data at time | + = Direction of data at tine 2 | Werstaion Worstaon ‘The full-cuplex mode is like st two-way stre tions at the same time, In full-duplex mode, signals going in either direetion share capacity of the link, This sharing ean occur in two ways: either the link must cont wo physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiv ing, oF the capacity of the channel is divided between s directions. with traffic flowing in both dir jgnals traveling in opposite One cominon example of fullluplex communication is the (elephone network When two people are comniunieating by a telephone line, both can (alk and listen at the same time 2.4 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to three primary catego Fies: local area networks, metropolitan area networks, and wide area networks. Into which category a network falls is determined by its size, its ownership, the distance it covers, and its physical architecture (see Figure 2.15), Local Area Network (LAN) A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a site gle office, building, or campus (see Figure 2.16). Depending on the needs of an organi- zation and the type of technology used, a LAN catt-be as simple as two PCs and aNetwork 1 network Metropolitan area network (LAN) van printer in someone's home office, or i ean extend throughout a eompany and inelude voice, sound, and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited (o a few kilometers, 2.16 LAN Boo Es 2 ; Bann _nnee building LAN rer Backbone | , Multiple building LAN LANS are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared ean include ram), oF data, A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links @ work group of task-related computers, for exan- engineering workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be hardware (e a printer), soft ware (e.g., an application prog iven san be arge-capacity disk drive and become a server to the other clients, Software € stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole group. In this exam, the size of the LAN may he determined by lice per copy of software, or by restrictions on the number of users icensed! t6 access the nsing restrictions on the number of users operating system, In addi transmission media and topology. In general, a given LAI transmission medium. The most common LAN topotos’ (on to size, LANS are distinguished from other types of networks by their will use only one type of bus, ring, and star32 CHAPTER2 BASIC CONCEPTS Traditionally, LANs have data rates in the 4 to. 16 Mbps range. Today, however, speeds are increasing and can reach 100 Mbps with gigabit systems in development LANS are discussed at length in Chapter 12. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ‘A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to extend over an entire city. Ht may bea single network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means of connect ing a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-to- LAN as well as device-to-device. For example, a company can use « MAN to connect the LANs in all of its offices throughout a city (see Figure 2.17) re 2.17 MAN Public city network at a _ | aA oe A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may be a service provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company. Many tele- phone companies provide a popular MAN service called Switched Multi-megabit Data vices (SMDS), which is discussed in Chapter 13. Wide Area Network (WAN) A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, and video information over large geographical areas that may comprise a coun try, a continent, or even the whole world (see Figure 2.18), In contrast to LANs (which depend on their own hardware for transmission), WANS may utilize public, leased, or private communication devices, usually ia combi. nations, and can therefore spat an anim ied number of miles.SECTION 2.5 INTERNE WORKS 33 Figu A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often referred to as an enterprise network, 2.5 INTERNETWORKS When two or more networks are connected, tiey become an internetwork, or internet (see Figure 2.19; in the figure, the boxes lakeled R represent routers). Individual net works are joined into internetworks by the use of internetworking devices. These devices, which include routers and gateways, are discussed in Chapter 21. The term internet (lowercase i) should not be confused with the Internet (upperease 1). The first is a generic term used to mean an interconnection of networks. The second is the name of a specific worldwide network. Figure 2.19 Jintemenvork tinternet) ai >) | Tr {fk} MANMy CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS active hub metropolitan area network (MAN) backbone multidrop line configuration bus topology multipoint tine configuration duplex mode full-duplex mode node passive hub half-duplex mode peer-to-peer relationship hub point-to-point line conliguration hybrid topology primary-secondary relationship internet ring topology Internet simplex mode Internetwork line configuration star topology link topology Jocal area network (LAN) tree topology mesh topology wide area network (WAN) 2. 7 SUMMARY A line configuration ¢ munications pathway. In a point-to-point line cont dedicated link. In a multipoint line configuration, three o more devices share a link, nes the relationship of communication devices to a com ration, two and only two devices are connected by a ‘Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network. De} be arranged in a mesh, star. (ve, bus. ring, oF hybrid topoldgy. es may Communication between two devices ean occur in one of thre modes: simplex, hall-duplex, or full-duplex, transmission\ SECTION 2.8. PRACTICE SEF B Simplex transmission means that data flows in one dire, ion only. @ Hall-duplex transmission allows dita to How in both directions, but not at the same time. @ Full-duplex transmission allows data to flow in both directions at the same time. A network can be categorized as a local area network (LAN), a metropolitan arca network (MAN), or a wide area network (WAN), W ALAN is a data communication system within a buildin: between nearby buildings plant, or campus, or WA MAN is a data communication system covering an area the size of a town or city, WA WAN is a data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world. @ An internet is a network of networks. 2.8 PRACTICE SET Review Questions |, How is topology related to line configuration? Define the three transmission modes. Give an advantage for each type of network topology 4. What are the advantages af a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection? 5. What are some of the factors that determine whether & communication system is a LAN, MAN, or WAN? 6. What are the two types of line configuration? 7. Name the five basic network topologies. Distinguish between a peer-to-peer relationship and a primary-secondary relationship. 9. Give a disadvantage for each type of network topology. 10. Give the Formula that finds the number of cable [inks necessary for a mesh network topology, 11, Categori 12, For devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology? 18. What is the difference between a central and « secondary hub? What is the differ- ence between a passive and an active hub? How do these categories interrelate? 14, What is the limiting factor in the size of a bus network topology? Include a discus sion of taps in your answer. 15. For each type of network topology, discuss the implication of 16, What is an internet? What is the Internet? - e the five basie topologies in terns of line configuration, asingle cable fault,36 CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS Multiple Choice Questions 17, Which topology requires a central controller or hub? a. mesh b. star e. bus uring IS. Which topology requires a multipoint connection? a. mesh b. star ©. bus a ring 19, Communication beeween a computer and a keyboard involves __ transmission, a. simplex b, half duplex, ¢, full-duplex XU, automatic 20, Ina network with 25 computers, which topology would require the most extensive cabling? a. mesh b star ce. bus uring 21. A tree topology is a variation of a topology. a, mesh by star &. bus a. ring 22. Atelevision broade example of transmission. a, simplex b. half-duplex c. full-duplex cl automatic Ina _ topology, if there are 1 devices in a network, each device has 1 ~ 1 ports for cables. si, mesh bb, star bus . dri26, 29. 30, SECTION 2.8 PRACTICE SET 37 connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. point-to-point hb, multipoint . primary AL secondary Ina connection, more than two devices can share a single link. 4. point-to-point b. multipoint © primary . secondary In transmission, the channel capacity is shared by both communicating devices at all times. 4t, simplex b. half-duplex ©. full-duplex. d. half-simplex . Kenzie Publishing, with headquarters in London and branch offices through- out Asia, Europe, and South Ametica, is probably connected by a a. LAN b. MAN c. WAN d. none of the above BAF Plumbing has a network consisting of two workstations and one printer. This is most probably a a. LAN b. MAN WAN al. none of the above Which topology features a point-to-point line configuration’ a mesh b. ing star dal of the above In link, the only traffic is between the two connected devices. a. secondary b. primary ©. dedicated «l. none of the above38 CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS 3h Ina esh lopology, the rela jonship between one device and another is _ pary-to-peer ary ©. primary-to-secondary dL. peer-to-peer A cable break ina topology stops all transmission al. mesh b, bus star dl. primary 33, A network that contains multiple hubs is pst likely configured in a topolog: 1. mesh b. tee bus dl star Security and privacy are less of an issue for devices in t___ topology. a. mesh b. tee bus dh star Exercises 35. Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed? How many ports are needed for each device? 30. Define the type of topology in Figure 2.20. 00 Evervise 36M7, 9, 40, 4 ee SECTION 2.8 PRACTICE SET 39 Define the type of topology in Figure ure 2.21 Exercise 37 LU | inh] Define the type of topology in Figure 2.23. 23° Kerive 39 (i | SS Define the type of topology in Figure 2.24 Which of the networks in Figure 2.25 is a ring topology? For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a connection fails a. Five devives arranged in a mesh topology. b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub). ¢. Five devices arranged in a bus topology. (. Five devices arranged in a ring topology.40 CHAPTER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS igure 2.24 Exercise 40 Connecting box Figure 2.25. Exercise 4/ a. Md. 45. 46, As. WV. I atte Draw a hybrid topology with a sta backbone and three ring networks Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and (wo bus networks, Draw a hybrid topology with a bus backbone connecting two ring backbones. Each ring backbone connects three star networks, Draw a hybrid topology with a star bs bus backbone connects th ckbone connecting two bus backbones, Each ee ring networks, A network contains four computers. If there are only four Fengths of cable in this network, which topology is used? Match the following to a topology type (each can apply to more than one topology): a, New devices can be added easily, b. Control is through a central device. ¢. Transmission time is spent relaying data through nondestination nodes Suppose you add two new devices to an existing five-device network. Ifyou have a Tully connected mesh topology, how many new cable lines are needed? I, how- ever, the devices are arranged in a ring, how many new cable lines are needed? Five computers are connected to a common cable in a multipoint configuration The cable can transfer only 100,000 bits per second. I all computers have data to send, what is the average data rate for each computer? When a party makes a local telephone call to another party, is this a point-to-point or multipoint line configuration? Explain your answer.SECTION 2.8 PRACTICE SET 4 52, Which transmission mode (simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex) can be compared to the following? Justify your answer Icy b. A computer-to-monitor connection. a. A heated argument between Lucy and Desi. c. A polite conversation between Aunt Gertrude and Aunt Rowena. dl. A television broadcast ce, A reversible commuter lane. A turnstile.