[APTER 7 Transmission Media ‘As discussed in Chapter 4, computers and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data. These signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic signals can travel through a vacuum, air, or other transmission media. Electromagnetic energy, a combination of electrical and magnetic fields vibrating in relation to each other, includes power, voice, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X, gamma, and cosmic cays. Each of these constitutes a por- tion of the electromagnetic spectrum (see Figure 7.1). Not all portions of the spec- trum are currently usable for telecommunications, however, and media to harness those ‘ that are usable are limited to a few types. Voice-band frequencies are generally tran: mitted as current over metal cables, such as twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Radio fre- ‘i quencies can travel through air or space but require specific transmitting and receiving ‘& mechanisms. Visible light, the third type of electromagnetic energy currently used for communications, is harnessed using fiber-optic cable. Figure 7.1 Electromagnetic spectrum Visible tight, 430-750 THz | Si | | Power Radio communication Totrred | | UN® Tx, gamma, ; vive Radio, microwave, satelite vent | | MoS cosmeraye 0 3KHz 300 GHz Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and unguided i (see Figure 7.2). 187188, CHAPTER 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media —— oO Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable (see Figure 7.3). A sig- nal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light. 3° Categories of guided media . Twisted-Pair Cable Twisted-pair cable comes in two forms: unshielded and shielded. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is the most common type of telecommunication medium in use-today. Although most familiar from its use in telephone systems, its fre~ quency range is suitable for transmitting both data and voice (see Figure 7.4). A twisted pair consists of two conductors (usually copper), each with its own colored plastic ins lation. The plastic insulation is color-banded for identification (see Figure 7.5). Colors are used both to identify the specific conductors in a cable and to indicate which wires belong in pairs and how they relate to other pairs in a larger bundle. ‘A twisted pair consists of two conductors each surrounded by an insulating materialSECTION 7.1 GUID. MEDIA 189 Figure 7.4 Frequency range for nwisted-pair cable ‘Twisted-pair cable 100 Hz 5 MHz, Figure 7.5 Twisted-pair cable Outer insulator Solid copper or PVC ‘conductors In the past, two parallel flat wires were used for communication. However, electro- magnetic interference from devices such as a motor can create noise over those wires. If the two wires are parallel, the wire closest to the source of the noise gets more interfer- ence and ends up with a higher voltage level than the wire farther away, which results in an uneven load and a damaged signal (see Figure 7.6). Figure 7.6 Effect of noise on parallel lines Noise source The total effect is 1612-4 Noise effect = 16 units Sender Receiver 2 units190 CHAPTER7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA If, however, the two wires are twisted around each other at regular intervals (between 2 and 12 twists per foot), cach wire is closer to the noise source for half the time and farther away for the other half. With twisting, therefore, the cumulative effect of the interference is equal on both wires (examine Figure 7.7). Each section of wire has a “load” of 4 when it is on the top of the twist and 3 when it is on the bottom. The total effect of the noise at the receiver is therefore 0 (14 — 14), Twisting does not always. eliminate the impact of noise, but it does significantly reduce it Figure 7.7. Effect of noise on twisted-pair lines Noise source The total effeet 14 Sender| Receiver Advantages of UTP are its cost and ease of use. UTP is cheap, flexible, and easy to install. Higher grades of UTP are used in many LAN technologies, including Ethernet and Token Ring. Figure 7.8 shows a cable containing five unshielded twisted pai Figure 7.8 Cuble with five unshielded owisted pairs of wiresSECTION 7.1 GUIDED MEDIA 191 The Electronic Industries Association (BIA) has developed standards to grade UTP cables by quality. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 5 as the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for certain uses and not for others m Category 1. The basic twisted-pair cabling used in telephone systems. This level of quality is fine for voice but inadequate for all but low-speed data communication. Category 2. The next higher grade, suitable for voice and for data transmission of up to 4 Mbps. Category 3. Required to have at least three twists per foot and can be used for data transmission of up to 10 Mbps. It is now the standard cable for most telephone systems. = Category 4. Must also have at least three twists per foot as well as other conditions to bring the possible transmission rate to 16 Mbps. = Category 5. Used for data transmission up to 100 Mbps. UTP Connectors UTP is most commonly connected to network devices via a type of snap-in plug like that used with telephone jacks. Connectors are either male (the plug) or female (the receptacle). Male connectors snap into female connectors and have a repress- ible tab (called a key) that locks them in place. Each wire in a cable is attached to one conductor (or pin) in the connector. The most frequently used of these plugs is an RJ45 connector with eight conductors, one for each wire of four twisted pairs (see Figure 7.9). Figure 7.9 UTP connection 4-conductor 6-conductor S-conductor f TTT | L4 Lo Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors (see Figure 7.10), The metal casing prevents the penetra- tion of electromagnetic noise. It also can eliminate a phenomenon called crosstalk, which is the undesired effect of one circuit (or channel) on another circuit (or channel). It occurs when one line (acting as a kind of receiving antenna) picks up some of the signals travel ing down another line (acting as a kind of sending antenna). This effect can be experi- enced during telephone conversations when one can hear other conversations in the background, Shielding each pair of a twisted-pair cable can eliminate most crosstalk.2 CHAPTER 7 TRANSMISSION MEDIA Figure 7.10 Shielded twisted-pair cable STP has the same quality considerations and uses the same connectors as UTP, but the shield must be connected to a ground. Materials and manufacturing requirements make STP more expensive than UTP but less susceptible to noise. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable (or coux) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable (see Figure 7.11), in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two (also usually copper). The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conduc- tor, which completes the circuit. This outer gonductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure 7.12). Figure 7.11 Frequency range of coaxial cable Coaxial cable 100 KHz 300 MHz, L Coaxial Cable Standards Different coaxial cable designs are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construc- n of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by RG ratings is adapted for a specialized function. The follow- ing are a few of the common ones: m@ RG-8, Used in thick Ethernet. ). Used in thick Ethernet. @ RG-11, Used in thick Ethernet.