\PTER 14 Switching Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make one-on-one communication possible. One solution is to install a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a mesh topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology). These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks, The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost efficient, and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time. Imagine a network of six devices: A, B, C, D, E, and F, If device A has point-to-point links to devices B,C, D, E, and F, then whenever only A and B are connected, the links connecting A to each of the other devices are idle and wasted. Other topologies employing multipoint connections, such as a bus, are ruled out because the distances between devices and the total number of devices increase beyond the capacities of the media and equipment. A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of inter- linked nodes, called switches, Switches are hardware and/or software devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the communicating devices. Others are used only for routing. Figure 14.1 shows a switched network. The communicating devices (in this exam- ple, computers) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the switches I, II, IIL, IV, and so on, Each switch is connected to multiple links and is used to complete the connections between them, two at a time. Traditionally, three methods of switching have been important: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching (see Figure 14.2). The first two are commonly used today, The third has been phased out in general communications but still has net- working applications. New switching strategies are gaining prominence, among them cell relay (ATM) and Frame Relay. We will discuss these technologies in Chapters 18 and 19. Understanding the older methods provides a good basis for understanding the newer ones, so we will examine the older methods first 431432 CHAPTER 14 SWITCHING Figure 14.1 Switched nenvork r ieee Figure 14.2. Switching methods > im —_ se} Circuit switching] Packet switching Message switching] L 14.1. CIRCUIT SWITCHING » B, and C) to the four computers on the Tight (D. E, F. and G), requiring 12 links, we can use four switches to rete the num- ber and the total length of the links. In Figure 14.3, computer A is connected through switches I, I, and II] to computer D. By moving the levers of the switches, any com- Puter on the left can be connected to any computer on the right. A circuit switch is a device with n inputs and m outputs that creates a temporary snmucction between an input link and an output link (see Figure 14.4), The number cr inputs does not have to match the number of outputs, An m-by-n folded switch ean connect n lines in full-duplex mode, For example, it cin connect m telephones in such a way that each phone can be connected to every other phone (see Figure 14.5), Circuit switching today can use either of two technologies: space-division switches or time-division switches (see Figure 14.6),Figure 14.3 SECTION 14.1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING Circuit-switched network 433 A circuit switch Figure 14.4434 CHAPTER 14 SWITCHING Figure 14.6 Circuit switching | Space-Division Switches 1m space-division switching, the paths inthe circuit are separated from each other spa? tially. This technology was originally designed for use in analog networks but is used currently in both analog and digital networks. Ithas evolved through a long history of many designs Crossbar Switches A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using electronic micro- Switches (transistors) at each erosspoint (see Figure 14.7). The major limitation of this design is the number of erosspoints required. Connecting n inputs to m outputs using a crossbar switch requires n x m crosspoints. For example, to connect 1000 inputs to 1000 outputs requires a crossbar with 1,000,000 erosspoints. This factor makes the crossbar impractical because it makes the size of the crossbar huge. Such a switeh is also inefficient because statistics show that, in practice, fewer than 25 percent of the Crosspoints are in use at a given time. The rest are idle. Figure 14.7 Crossbar switch : [ Crosspoine To control station Multistage Switches The solution to the limitations of the erossbar switch is to use multistage switches, which combine crossbar switches in several stages. In multistage switching, devices are linked to Switches that, in turn, are linked to a hierarchy of other switches (see Figure 14.8)SECTION 14.1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING 435 Figure 14.8 Multistage switch Stage | Stage 2 Stage 3 ‘The design of a multistage switch depends on the number of stages and the number of switches required (or desired) in each stage. Normally, the middle stages have fewer switches than do the first and last stages. For example, imagine that we want a multi- stage switch as in Figure 14.8 to do the job of a single 15-by-15 crossbar switch. ‘Assume that we have decided on a three-stage design that uses three switches in the first and final stages and two switches in the middle stage, Because there are three of them, each of the first-stage switches has inputs from one-third of the input devices, giving them five inputs each (5 x 3 = 15). Next, each of the first-stage switches must have an output to each of the intermedi- ate switches. There are two intermediate switches; therefore, each first-stage switch has two outputs, Each third-stage switch must have inputs from each of the intermediate switches; two intermediate switches means two inputs. The intermediate switches must connect to all three first-stage switches and all three last-stage switches, and so must have three inputs and three outputs each. Multiple Paths Multistage switches provide several options for connecting each pair of linked devices. Figure 14.9 shows two ways traffic can move from an input to an out- put using the switch designed in the example above. Figure 14.9 Switching parh a. First option436 CHAPTER 14 SWITCHING In Figure 14.9a, a pathway is established between input line 4 and output line 9. In this instance, the path uses the lower intermediate switch and that switch’s center output line to reach the last-stage switch connected to line 9. Figure 14.9b shows a pathway between the same input line 4 and the same output line 9 using the upper intermediate switch. Let us compare the number of crosspoints in a 15-by-15 single-stage crossbar switch with the |5-by-15 multistage switch that we described above. In the single-stage switch, we need 225 crosspoints (15 x 15). In the multistage switch, we need m= Three first-stage switches, each with 10 crosspoints (5 x 2), for a total of 30 cross- points at the first stage. Two second-stage switches, each with 9 crosspoints (3 x 3), for a total of 18 cross- points at the second stage. Three third-stage switches, each with 10:crosspoints (5 x 2), for a total of 30 crosspoints at the last stage. The total number of crosspoints required by our multistage switch is 78. In this example, the multistage switch requires only 35 percent as many crosspoints as the single-stage switch, Blocking This savings comes with a cost, however. The reduction in the number of crosspoints results in a phenomenon catled blocking during periods of heavy traffic. Blocking refers to times when one input cannot be conriected to an output because there is ‘no path available between them—all of the possible intermediate switches are occupied. In a single-stage switch, blocking does not occur. Because every combination of input and output has its own crosspoint, there is always a path. (Cases where two inputs are trying to contact the same output don’t count, That path is not blocked; the output is merely busy.) In the multistage switch described in the example above, however, only two of the first five inputs can use the switch at a time, only two of the second five inputs can use the switch at a time, and so on. The small number of outputs at the mid- dle stage further increases the restriction on the number of available links. In large systems, such as those having 10,000 inputs and outputs, the number of stages can be increased to cut down the number of crosspoints required. As the number of stages increases, however, possible blocking increases as well. Many people have experienced blocking on public telephone systems in the wake of a natural disaster when calls being made to check on of reassure relatives far outnumber the ordinary load of the system. In those cases, itis often impossible to get a connection, Under nor- ‘mal circumstances, however, blocking is not usually a problem. In countries that can afford it, the number of switches between lines is calculated to make blocking unlikely. The formula for finding this number is based on statistical analysis, which is beyond the scope of this book, Time-Division Switches Time-division switching uses tinie-division multiplexing to achieve switching. There are two popular methods used in time-division multiplexing: the time-slot interchange anid the TDM bus.