Université de Versailles et Saint Quentin-en-Yvelines

Bâtiment Descartes – RC27

45, Avenue des Etats-Unis
78035 Versailles – FRANCE

Master 2 SPI – DSME

Responsable: Paolo VANNUCCI (paolo.vannucci@meca.uvsq.fr)
U.E.: Mécanique pour l’Industrie du Pétrole
Cours: Offshore Engineering
Enseignant: P. Vannucci
A.U. 2006-07

Examples of offshore structures calculation

1. Response of a single-degree of freedom structure to a white noise.

A white noise is a completely random signal; this means that the energy is equally distributed
in the frequency domain, i.e. the spectrum is a constant, see the figures. We want to analyse
the response of a single-degree of freedom structure to a white noise.
The mean square of the response is
∞ ∞ 2
σ x2 (t ) = ∫ S xx ( f ) df = ∫ H (if ) S FF ( f ) df .
0 0
The transfer function of such a system is
1
H (iω f ) = ,
K − Mω 2f + i (Cω f )

and with the angular frequency f=ω/2π we get

1
H (if ) = .
2 2
K − 4π f M + i 2π f C
The spectrum of the force is of the type
S FF ( f ) = S ,
so that
∞ S
σ x2 (t ) = ∫ df .
0
(K − 4π 2 2
f M ) + (2π f C )
2 2

To perform integration, it is worth to transform the above expression as

∞ S 1 K 
σ x2 (t ) = ∫  dΩ
0 2
K  1− Ω

2 2
(
+ (2ξΩ ) 

)
2   2π M 


with

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

2πf C
Ω= , ξ= .
K 2 MK
M
In the case, relevant for real structures, of small ξ, we get
S K S
σ x2 ( t ) = = .
8ξ K 2 M 4C K
The standard deviation of the response is hence

1 S K 1 S
σ x (t ) = = .
2K 2ξ M 2 CK
The distribution of the response being Gaussian with zero mean, the probability that the
response be less than σx in absolute value is 68.27% (i.e. for the 68.27% of the time the
absolute value of the response is less than σx), while it is of 95.45% for 2σx. For the 50% of
the time, in addition, the absolute value of the response is less than 0.6745 σx.
To remark that σx decreases with the damping and stiffness of the system in the same way,
and that increases with the spectral density.
The mean square value is dominated by the peak in the transfer function, corresponding to the
natural frequency of the system,
1 K
fs = .
2π M
The results found so far are substantially valid also when the spectral density is not constant,
but sufficiently "flat", like the case in the figure.
A general remark: σx is inversely proportional to the square root of ξ. In the case of a
perfectly sinusoidal force, the magnification is 1/2ξ. This means that damping has a greater
effect on a on a resonant response due to a sinusoidal force than on a response to a random
force.
SFF(f ) White noise spectrum
S
Time history of a "white
noise" signal
F(t) f
|H(if )|²
Transfer function

t fs f
SFF(f )
S

fs f
Typical actual spectrum and
idealised white noise spectrum

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

2. Study of a single-column structure.

Let us consider the simple case of a single-column structure, composed by a vertical circular
cylinder of diameter D, surmounted by a deck carrying some facilities. Such a structure is
sometimes used in offshore engineering to host some simple facilities (a loading terminal for
instance, or a light or radio instruments for navigation, or even a wind mill for power
generation).
The scheme is that in the figure, along with the mechanical model; the data are reported in the
table, and refer to a light tower for navigation aid. The level of the pile fixity, in the absence
of more detailed data, is assumed to be about 6 D, i.e. 2 m.

M
M
Data Symbol Value
h Pile external diameter D 324 mm
D Wall thickness t 9.5 mm
SWL
Water depth d 8m
l Height of tip mass above SWL h 7m
l
Pile mass m 73.8 kg/m
d
Tip mass M 300 kg
Inertial moment of the pile J 0.116×10-3 m4
Sea bed Young's modules of the pile E 205×109 N/m2
s Depth of the pile fixity level s 2m
Pile fixity level
Effective pile length l 17 m
Damping ratio ξ 0.008
Water density ρ 1015 kg/m3

a. To calculate the natural frequency of the structure.

Effective mass per unit length in water:

πD 2 π ( D − 2t ) 2
mw = m + µ + mi = m + ρ +ρ = 73.8 + 84.5 + 74.8 = 233.1 kg/m.
4 4
Effective tip mass: it is calculated with the static scheme below
mw
m M

MT
d+s h

The result is MT = 1006 kg.

3EJ
The bending stiffness of the pile is KT = = 14520 N/m.
l3
KT
The natural circular frequency is ω1 = = 3.8 rad/s.
MT

ω
The natural angular frequency is N1 = 1 = 0.6 Hz.
2π

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

b. To calculate the response to a monochromatic force: a horizontal sinusoidal force of

amplitude Fo= 330 N and frequency Nf= 0.33 Hz applied at the top.
The response is given by the general equation
− iω f t
x(t ) = H (iω f ) F (t ) = H (iω f ) e .

For a single-degree of freedom, the complex transfer function is

1
H (iω f ) = ,
K − Mω 2f + i (Cω f )

and hence the amplitude of the response, in this case the horizontal displacement of the top of
the structure, is
1
x0 = H (iω f ) Fo = H (iω f ) H (iω f ) Fo = Fo .
(K − Mω 2f
2
) + (Cω f )2
In this case:
ω f = 2πN f = 2.07 rad/s,
C = 2ξ MK = 61.2 N s/m,
xo = 0.032 m.

The maximum displacement can be calculated also as xo = Q xs , where Q is the magnification

factor and xs the static response:
1 F
Q= , xs = o ,
(χ 2 − 1)2 + 4ωα2 χ 2 K
2

ωf C
with χ = = 0.545, α = = ξω1 = 0.030.
ω1 2M
We get hence xs = 0.023 m and Q = 1.41. The dynamical response (in terms of deflection,
but also of stresses and strains, as the system is considered as having a linear mechanical
behaviour) is hence 41% higher than the static case.

c. To calculate the wave force and the overturning moment spectra: the sea state is defined by
a significant wave height Hs= 1.5 m and a peak energy frequency fm=0.33 Hz.
First of all, we calculate the wave spectrum (i.e. the spectral density of the surface elevation)
Sηη(f); for this, we choose to use the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum, which is given, as a
function of Hs and the zero-crossing period Tz, by:
16π 3
2 −
e (ωTz ) .
Hs 4
Sηη (ω ) =
4πTz4
Tz is related to fm by

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

2π 1
ωz = = 1.4 ωm = 1.4 × 2 π f m → Tz = = 2.16 s.
Tz 1.4 f m
Hence, in this case, the Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum is
16π 3 1 1.462×10− 2
4 2 − 2 − −3 −
8π H s (ωTz )4 8.225 × 10
e π ( f Tz )
Hs 4
f4
Sηη (ω ) = e → Sηη ( f ) = = e .
ω 5Tz4 4π f 5Tz4 f5
This wave spectrum is plotted in the next figure.

Sηη( f )
[m²/Hz]

f [Hz]

We take as cut-off frequency the value f *=1.5 Hz; actually, beyond this value the waves have
a such short period that their energy content is negligible.
Let us calculate now the mean square of the surface elevation η:
1
−
H2
ση2 = ∫ Sηη ( f ) df ≅ ∫ Sηη ( f ) df = s e π ( f *Tz ) = 0.14 m 2 .
∞ f* 4

0 0 16

The standard deviation is hence ση = 0.374 m. Assuming a zero-mean Gaussian distribution

of η, the surface elevation is hence in the interval ±0.374 m for the 68.27% of the time.
The frequency at which most of the energy is concentrated is
∞ 2 f* 2

νη =
∫0 f Sηη ( f ) df ≅
∫0 f Sηη ( f ) df =
1 1 − erf ( π f *2 Tz2 )
= 0.45 Hz.
∞ f* Tz 1
∫0 Sηη ( f ) df ∫0 Sηη ( f ) df − 4 4
e π f * Tz
Using the linear approximation of Borgman, the wave force spectrum, concerning the linear
separation range, i.e. the case of the Morison's equation, is given by
 cosh 2 kz  8 2 2 2 2 2 

S FF ( f ) = Sηη ( f )4π 2 f 2 k
 d u σ + 4π f k i  ,
 sinh 2 kd  π  

with

1 π D2
kd = ρ C D D , ki = ρ C M ;
2 4
the mean square value of the particles horizontal velocity is given by

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

∞ ∞ 2
σ u2 = ∫ Suu ( f ) df = ∫ H u ( f ) Sηη ( f ) df .
0 0
To remark that the spectrum above depends not only upon f but also upon z, i.e. it is a
spectrum of the sectional force at the height z above the sea bed.
For what concerns CD and CM we choose CD= 1.3 and CM=2; in this way, kd=213.76 kg/m²
and ki= 167.37 kg/m.
We need first to calculate σu; the transfer function is
cosh kz
H u ( f ) = 2π f .
sinh kd
This function depends upon the wave number k, which is related to the wave frequency by the
dispersion equation:
g 2πd
ω 2 = gk tanh kd → f2= tanh .
2πL L
The above wave spectrum shows that the wave with f<0.2 Hz are completely insignificant. a
numerical solution of the dispersion relation above gives for this value L= 34.9 m. Thus, only
waves with a length less than this value are significant, and for these waves the number
kd=2π d/L is greater than 1.44; hence, the deep water approximation can be used, that is
tanh kd≅1 so that

2 4π 2 2
ω ≅ gk → k= f .
g
Hence, the expression of the mean square of the velocity wave force spectrum is
 4π 2 2 
cosh 2  f z − 1
2
π Hs 1  g 
f * 2
σ u2 ( z ) = ∫ H u ( f ) Sηη ( f ) df = ∫
f *   e π f 4Tz4 df .
0 0 Tz4 f 3  4π 2 2 
sinh 2  f d
 g 
 
This integral can be calculated numerically for different values of z (in the figure).

σu² [m²]

z [m]

In the same way, the spectrum of the wave force per unit length can be found in the same
way, applying the expression given above. It is a function of f and z, and it is plotted in the
next figure, for different values of z.

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

SFF( f ) z= 8 m
[N²/Hz]

z= 7.75 m

z= 7.25 m z= 7.5 m
z= 7 m
z= 6.75 m

f [Hz]

The spectrum of the total force acting upon the column is obtained after integration over z and
is given by:


 32π f 2 k d2 d 2  2 2 
2  4π
S FFtot ( f ) = Sηη ( f ) ∫ σ ( z ) cosh f z dz +
 2  0 u  g 
 2  4π 2   
 sinh f d
 g 
  
 
 4π 2 2 
 4π 2 2  f d
2 g 
+ 2π f g ki  tanh
2 2
f d +
 .
 g 
 sinh 2  4π f 2 d  
2
  
  g  
   
The numerical integration over z gives the following diagram for the wave force spectrum:

SFFtot( f )
[N²/Hz]

f [Hz]
The standard deviation of the total force spectrum can be calculated numerically, and gives:
∞ f*
σF
tot
= ∫0 S FFtot ( f ) df ≅ ∫0 S FFtot ( f ) df = 441 N.

The frequency at which the mean energy of the force occurs is

∞ 2 f* 2

νF =
∫0 f S FFtot ( f ) df ≅
∫0 f S FFtot ( f ) df = 0.59 Hz.
∞ f*
∫0 S FFtot ( f ) df ∫0 S FFtot ( f ) df

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

It is interesting to notice that νF>νη, because the energy increases with frequency.
The spectrum of the overturning moment can be calculated as well:

Sηη ( f )   2 2 
2 2 d 2  4π
S MM ( f ) = 2
32π f k d ∫0 zσ u ( z ) cosh  f z dz +
 2  g 
2  4π 2    
sinh f d
 g 
 
g ki2  2 2  4π 2 2 

 4π 2 2 
+ 8π f g d cosh f d sinh 
 f d +
16π 2 f 2   g   g 
   
 4π 2 2  
+ g 2 + 16π 4 f 4 d 2 − g 2 cosh 2  f d  .
 g 
  

SMM( f )
[N²m²/Hz]

f [Hz]

We find also, with an analogous meaning, σ M = 1289.7 Nm, ν M = 0.464 Hz.

d. To calculate the expected maximum value of the force and of the overturning moment in a
sea state of duration 5 hours.
Assumed the force to be a zero-mean Gaussian random process, we have
 γ   γ 
Fmax = σ FF  2 ln (ν F T ) + ; M max = σ MM  2 ln (ν M T ) + .

 2 ln (
ν F T ) 


 2 ln (
ν M T ) 

T is the duration of the sea state, in seconds: T = 5 × 3600 = 18000 s. γ is the Euler's constant:
γ =0.5772. We get hence Fmax= 1956.8 N and Mmax= 5656.5 Nm.

e. To calculate the response, in terms of horizontal displacement at the SWL, of the structure
to the previous sea state.
The calculation of the response passes through the transfer function of the response. This
transfer function describes the way the structure responses dynamically to the exciting force
acting upon it. In this case, the exciting force, the wave force, is a force distributed on the
column, with a hyperbolic variation with water depth and maximum at the still water level.

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

So, we need the response of the structure to such an exciting force. This can be done, but it is
very cumbersome. So, we prefer to follow another simpler way, which gives a sufficiently
approximated result.
In fact, as already said, the force has a hyperbolic distribution: this means that it varies very
quickly with the depth. A good approximation of it, and anyway a conservative
approximation, is to consider that the wave force is a concentrated load applied to the
structure in correspondence of the still water level, see the figure.

M M

Concentrated
SWL wave load
Mo
Distributed l
wave load l
d
lo=d+s lo

Sea bed
s
Pile fixity level

We know the transfer function for the case of the simple oscillator, that is, for the case of the
last model on the right in the figure above. In order to have a good approximation, the
equivalent mass Mo must be determined such that the natural frequency of the final model is
equal to that of the previous model (central model in the figure above).
Hence:
3
Ko KT K l 
ωo = ω1 → = → M o = M T o = M T   = 4942 kg.
Mo MT KT  lo 
The response of the structure is now given by the relationship
2
S xx ( f ) = H (if ) S FFtot ( f ),

with SFF( f ) the wave force spectrum found above and the transfer function
2 1
H (if ) = .
 2 2 2

2   f     f  
Ko  1 − 
 N   +  2ξ N  
  o    o 
 
|H(if)|²
In this case, for what said above No=N1= 0.6 Hz, and [m²/N²]
3EJ
Ko = = 71340 N/m. Hence, see also the figure,
lo3
2 1
H (if ) = .


[ 2
] 
5089395600  1 − 2.7778 f 2 + 0.000711 f 2 
 f [Hz]

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

The spectrum of the response is hence readily found and represented in the figure below.

Sxx( f )
[m²/Hz]

f [Hz]
To be remarked that the response at the natural frequency (0.6 Hz) is much more significant
than the response at the peak of the force spectrum (∼ 0.38 Hz). The frequency at which most
of the energy is concentrated is
∞ 2 f* 2

νx =
∫0 f S xx ( f ) df ≅
∫0 f S xx ( f ) df = 0.595 Hz.
∞ f*
∫0 S xx ( f ) df ∫0 S xx ( f ) df
to be remarked that this value is practically coincident with the natural frequency of the
structure, 0.6 Hz, because the response is narrow-banded.
The standard deviation of the response is
∞ f*
σx = ∫0 S xx ( f ) df ≅ ∫0 S xx ( f ) df = 0.051 m

and the expected maximum horizontal displacement at the SWL in a 5 hours sea state is
 γ 
xmax = σ xx  2 ln (ν xT ) +  = 0.226 m.

 2 ln (
ν T
x ) 

For the 68.27% of time, the horizontal displacement is hence less than 5.1 cm.

f. To calculate the natural frequency of the structure by the Rayleigh method.

In this method, actually an energy method, the system is assumed to be undamped and the
frequency is found equating the maximum potential energy and the maximum kinetic energy
on a period. This leads to the expression of ω:
l 2
2
ω =
∫0 EJy′′ dx
.
l
∫0 ρAy 2 dx + ∑ M i yi2
i

In the equation above, y(x) is the deflection mode shape of the beam. In the Rayleigh method
y(x) must be assumed and the result depends upon its choice; nevertheless, usually simple
choices of y(x), leading to simple calculations, give good results, and most part of times, the
choice of y(x) is not critical. To show this point, we use two different choices for y(x). The

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

fundamental restriction in the choice of y(x) is that it must satisfy the boundary condition at
the point of fixity or support, in our case the clamped edge.
 π x
In the first choice we use a trigonometric approximation, y ( x) = 1 − cos  yo , yo being the
 2l 
end deflection. In this way it is
l l EJπ 4 2
∫0 EJy ′′2 dx = EJ ∫ y ′′2 dx = y = 1.47 × 10 4 yo2 N/m;
0 3 o
32 l
l l 2 lo 2
∫0 ρAy dx =m∫0 y dx + (mw − m)∫0
2
y dx = 282.5 yo2 kg + 52.4 yo2 kg = 334.9 yo2 kg;

∑ M i yi2 = M yo2 = 300 yo2 kg;

i

1.47 × 10 4 yo2 ω
ω= = 4.81 rad/s, N1 = = 0.766 Hz.
(282.5 + 52.4 + 300) yo2 2π

Let us now to take a polynomial for y(x): y = ax 2 (x − 4l )2 , with a a constant; we get:

l 2 l
∫0 EJy′′ dx = EJ ∫ y ′′2 dx = 8.54 × 1015 a 2 N/m;
0
l l l
∫ ρAy 2 dx =m y 2 dx + (mw − m ) o y 2 dx = 1.767 × 1014 a 2 + 4.049 × 1013 a 2
∫ ∫ kg;
0 0 0

∑ 2 14 2
M i yi = 1.695 × 10 a kg;
i

8.54 × 1015 a 2 ω
ω= = 4.7 rad/s, N1 = = 0.748 Hz.
(1.767 + 0.4049 + 1.695) × 10 14 2
a 2π

It can be easily checked that both the assumptions made for y(x) respect the conditions at the
clamped edge, i.e. y(0)=y'(0)=0.
The difference between the first and the second approximation is 2.3% of the first; however,
the difference with respect to the natural frequency previously calculated with a rigid-like
model, 0.6 Hz, is 21.7%, which shows that this last was not a so good approximation.

g. To calculate the wave loads produced by a H= 1.5 m high wave having a period T= 3 s.
The frequency is ω =2π/T= 2.094 Hz. The wave length can be calculated by the dispersion
equation:
2π g 2πd
ω 2 = gk tanh kd → = tanh .
T2 L L
The numerical solution of this equation gives L= 14.03 m. The wave number is k=0.448 m-1
and kd= 3.58>1: the deep waters condition can be applied. In fact, tanh kd= 0.998, so that

gT 2
ω 2 ≅ gk → L ≅ = 14.06 m.
2π

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

To avoid the numerical solution of the dispersion equation, the deep waters approximation
can be used at first and once the value of L found, its validity checked.
D 0.324
The ratio = = 0.023 < 0.2. The Keulegan-Carpenter number is
L 14.03
u T π (H/L) πH
KC = max = ≅ = 14.53 > 4.
D (D/L) tanh kd D
The highest value of the wave height for the given value of the wave length is
L L
H max = tanh kd ≅ = 2 ,
7 7
so that H / H max = 0.75 > 0.5 .
The consequence of these evaluations is that for the case in object the wave action should be
calculated in the non-linear separation range that is, using the Lighthill correction to the
Morison's equation:
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 ,
with:
• F1: the Froude-Krylov term, computed in deep waters and with the linear wave theory:

∂ ϕ1 π D2
F1 = − ρ ∫ n ds = ρ g a C M cos ωt = 1231.42 cos ωt ;
∂Ω ∂ t 4
in this calculation we have get CM=2; in fact, the Reynolds number in deep waters is
HD
Re ≈ 3 × 106 = 3.9 × 105 ; the diagrams usually employed give for a smooth
L
cylinder and for these values of Re and KC, CM=1.8; conservatively, we take CM =2;
• F2: the drag force, computed in the theoretical framework of the linear deep waters
wave theory:
1
F2 = C D ρ g a 2 D sin ωt sin ωt = 589.77 sin ωt sin ωt ;
4
we have taken the value CD= 1.3, once again corresponding to the above values of Re
and KC for a smooth cylinder;
• F3: due to the quadratic term of the velocity potential in a second order Stokes-like
potential decomposition:
π  0,28 
F3 = − ρ ∫ w(∇ϕ1 )2 ds = ρ g a 2 b 4 k 3 16 ln − 3  sin 2ωt = 10.13 sin 2ωt ;
z =d 2  kb 
• F4: due to the kinetic pressure, relative to the only linear potential:
1 π
F4 = ρ ∫ (∇ϕ1 ) 2 cos θ ds = ρ g a 2 b 2 k sin 2ωt = 51.7sin 2ωt;
2 S 4
• F5: present only if the cylinder cross the free surface; it is due to the fact that the
boundary condition is written on the actual surface, and not on z=d:

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

2
ρ  ∂ ϕ1 
F5 = ∫ 
2g C  ∂ t 
 cos θ dl = 4 F4 = 206.8 sin 2ωt.

The time variation of the five components is shown in the next figure.

F [N] F1
F2
F5
F3
F4

The contribution of the first and second order terms is put in light in the next figure.

F [N] Ftot
F1+ F2

F3+ F4+ F5

The second-order terms are smaller than the first-order ones, but in this case not completely
negligible. In fact, by differentiation and numerical solution, one gets the following values of
the maximum of the different components:
• |F1+F2|max= 1231.42 N for t =0 (and t= 1.5 s);
• |F2+F3+F4|max= 268.63 N for t =0.375 s (and t = 1.125 s, 1.875 s, 2.625 s);
• (Ftot)max=1455.49 N for t =0.3 s.
The increase in the value of the maximum force considering the second-order terms is hence
of 224.07 N, i.e. the 18.2% of the maximum first order force; in addition, this maximum
produces with a delay equal to T/10.
For the purpose of the structural calculation, the bending moment at the clamped edge is
perhaps more important. In this case, considering, as already done, the wave action as a
concentrated load applied at the SWL, we get M max = Ftotmax lo = 14554.9 Nm.

h. To determine the minimum current velocity that produce flow-induced oscillations by

vortex shedding and the amplitude of these oscillations.
2meδ
First of all we control the stability parameter K s = . If Ks >1.8 in-line oscillations do
ρD 2
not occur, while if Ks>10 cross-flow oscillations do not occur.
The effective mass per unit-length is given by

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

l 2 d 2 l
∫ m ζ (s) ds = ∫0 mw ζ ( s ) ds + ∫ m ζ 2 ( s ) ds + Mζ 2 (l )
me = 0 d ,
d 2 d 2
∫0 ζ (s) ds ∫0 ζ ( s ) ds

ζ being the mode. If we take for the mode the polynomial approximation already used,
ζ = ax 2 (x − 4l )2 , we get me=1526 kg/m. Hence, considering that the logarithmic decrement is
δ = 2πξ = 0.05, it is Ks=1.4<1.8: in-line oscillations and cross-flow oscillations can occur.
The knowledge of the natural frequency and of Ks allows the Vr
calculation of the reduced velocity Vr, corresponding to the
onset of vortex shedding instability, by the diagram in the
figure. As natural frequency, we use that calculated by the
energy method with the polynomial approximation used above:
N1= 0.748 Hz.
Hence we get for the reduced velocity the value Vr=2.2 and
Ks
V
consequently, being Vr = , the value of the current velocity
N1D
producing the onset of instability is V= 0.53 m/s. The instability
η
is located in the second region, and the following diagram gives (for Vr=1.9)

the relative amplitude η as a function of Ks. For the value of

concern, we obtain:
η = 0.04 → xmax = ηD = 0.013 m. (for Vr=2.5)

The case of cross-flow oscillations must also be considered. In

this case, the value of the reduced velocity at the onset of vortex Ks

shedding and that in correspondence of the maximum amplitude

of oscillations, are given by the next diagram as a function of
Re. Being Re a function of V, just as Vr, an iterative calculation Vr

must be done.
So, trying Vr= 4.8 we get V= 1.16 m/s and Re=339215; the value
of Vr corresponding to this value of Re is about 4.4; we try hence
Vr= 4.5 and we get V= 1.1 m/s and Re=318014; this value is Re
acceptable. Hence, the cross-flow vibrations begin at V= 1.1
m/s.
η
The value of Vr giving the maximum amplitude of oscillations
can be found with the same technique using the second curve on
the same diagram. We obtain Vr= 5.5, that corresponds to
V=1.33 m/s. By the diagram aside, for the value of Ks previously
calculated, we obtain Ks

η = 1.4 → xmax = ηD = 0.456 m.

Such a value of the oscillations is of course completely intolerable for a structure, which
shows the importance of considering the vortex shedding effects in designing offshore
structures.

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

3. Wave slamming analysis.

The scope of this exercise is to calculate the dynamical response of a horizontal brace of a
jacket structure subjected to wave slamming. The brace can be considered as a beam clamped
at both the edges; it has a hollow circular section and it is empty. The wave can be described
by the linear wave theory and using the deep waters approximation.
The data are summarized below:
• Beam length: L= 10 m;
• External diameter: D= 10"= 254 mm;
• Thickness: t=1/2"=12.7 mm;
• Young's modulus: E= 210 GPa;
• Steel density: ρs:=7850 kg/m3;
• Water density: ρw:=1015 kg/m3;
• Wave height: Hw=10 m;
• Wave period: Tw= 10 s;
• Damping ratio: ξ= 0.03.

Preliminary calculations:

π [ D 2 − ( D − 2t ) 2 ]
Cross area: A = = 9.63 × 10 −3 m 2 ;
4
Mass per unit length: m=ρs A=75.57 kg/m;

π [ D 4 − ( D − 2t ) 4 ]
Inertia moment: J = = 7.03 × 10 −5 m 4 ;
64
2π
Wave frequency: ω w = = 0.628 rad/s;
Tw

ω2
Wave number: k = = 0.04 m −1;
g
2π
Wave length: Lw = = 156.13 m;
k
H
Wave steepness: = 0.128;
L
H /L
Ratio to maximum wave steepness: = 7 × 0.128 = 0.897;
( H / L) max
π
Wave slamming force per unit length: f ws = ρ D ω w2 H 2 = 15987.4 N/m;
8
Total wave slamming force: f wstot = f ws L = 159874 N;

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

Dynamical response calculation: the wave slamming is modelled as an impulsive distributed

force acting instantaneously on a system having only one degree of freedom (i.e., only the
first frequency is considered), determined by the mode shape. The response to such a force is
given by:
y ( x, t ) = η ( x) f ws h(t ),
where η(x) is the mode shape and h(t) the impulse response function:
1
h(t ) = e −ξωt sin  ω 1 − ξ 2 t .
mω 1 − ξ 2  

The mode η(x) and the frequency ω must hence be calculated. We use the Rayleigh approach,
using as mode the static deformation of the beam under a unitary distributed load:

1  x 4 3
2
2 x 
η ( x) = − + Lx − L .
12 EJ  2 2 

The deformation in the middle of the beam, under the wave slamming force considered as a
static load, is hence

L f ws L4
η s = f wsη ( x = ) = (−) = 0.028 m.
2 384 EJ
The frequency is given by
L 2
ω=
∫0 EJy′′ dx = α EJ
,
L 2 2 m
∫0 my dx L
with
L 2
α=L 2 ∫0 y′′ dx = 6 14 ≅ 22.45.
L 2
∫0 y dx
Finally,
6 14 EJ
ω= = 99.2 rad/s.
L2 m
The dynamic response can then be calculated:
y ( x, t )
= h(t ) = 1.33 × 10 −4 e −2.976t sin(99.15t ).
f wsη ( x)
This is also, for each x, the dynamical magnification factor, i.e. the ratio between the dynamic
and static response. This function is plotted below, and it is apparent that the dynamic effect is
very important but also rapidly vanishing. Actually, the fact that the wave period is much
higher than the natural period of the beam has as a result that the impulses given by two
successive wave slamming have not mutual influence. In other words, the dynamic response
is dominated by the response to only one slamming.

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

h(t)
h(t)
zoom

t [s]
t [s]

4. Dynamics of a MINI-TLP.
The scope of this exercise is to analyze the dynamic behaviour of a MINI-TLP, i.e. of a TLP
having only one column. The scheme is that in the figure, and the data are summarized in the
table below. To a first approximation, used here, the tethers and the pontoons are considered
as rigid and the wave action on them is neglected. The tethers are linked to the pontoons and
to the sea bed by pin joints; so, the system behaves articulated and has only one degree of
freedom (twisting is neglected here).

Data Symbol Value

Column diameter D 15 m
Column immersion p 30 m p
Column height c 40 m
Water depth d 500 m
Water clearance h 470 m D
Total TLP mass MTLP 106 kg d
Air gap ag 0.5 m h
Wave height H 7.7 m
Wave period T 6.2 s
Water density ρ 1025 kg/m3 z
o x

a. Wave force: the first thing to do is to calculate the wave force.

The frequency is ω =2π/T= 1.01 Hz. The wave length can be calculated by the dispersion
equation, written for deep waters:

ω2 2π
ω 2 ≅ gk → k ≅ = 0.105 m -1 → L = = 60 m.
g k
We have also kd= 52.35>1: the deep waters condition can actually be applied.
D 15
The ratio = = 0.25 > 0.2. The Keulegan-Carpenter number is
L 60
u T π (H/L) πH
KC = max = ≅ = 1.616 < 4.
D (D/L) tanh kd D
The highest value of the wave height for the given value of the wave length is

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

L L
H max = tanh kd ≅ = 8.57 m,
7 7
so that H / H max = 0.9 > 0.5 .
The consequence of these evaluations is that for the case in object the wave action should be
calculated in the non-linear diffraction range. As the cylinder is truncated, the non-linear
Garrett solution gives the wave forces. We use the simplified solution given by Vannucci.
Before calculating the wave loads, we compute some parameters used in the formulae:
• column radius: b=D/2= 7.5 m;
• depth parameter: λ=kd= 52.36;
• radius parameter: µ=kb=0.78;
• clearance parameter: ν=kh=49.22;
• ratio ν/λ=0.94;
• wave amplitude: a=H/2=3.85 m;
• wave parameter: α=ka=0.40;
• wave amplitude buoyancy: B=π ρ g a b² =6.854×106 N.
With the above parameters, by the following diagrams we can calculate the reduction
coefficients χx and χz.
ν/λ=0
1χ
1 z 0.3
χx 0.5 0.995
0.9 0.6 0.6
0.99
1 0.7 1 0.985
0.8
χx 2 0.8 χz 2 0.98
0.8 0.99
1.5 0.7 1.5 0.975 0.9
0.6 0.98
υ/λ=0.9 µ=0.5
1 0.6
ν/λ=0.8 1 0.97 µ=0.5
ν/λ=0.8 µ
0.965
5
0.5 5 µ
10
0.5 0.5
10 0 5 10 15 20
λ 15 0 5 10 15 λ 20 15 λ
λ
20 20 a) b)

Considering the above diagrams and conservatively, we can take for both the coefficients the
value 1.
Finally, as µ<1, we can use the approximated expressions of the Bessel's functions appearing
in the formulae of the first order forces.
The wave loads are hence:
• a first order horizontal force:
8Bχ xsinh λ − sinh ν
X= cos ωt = 1.180 × 107 cos ωt N;
2 4
16 + π µ cosh λ

• a first order vertical force:

4 Bχ z sinh ν ν + e −ν
Z= cos ωt = 5.33 × 105 cos ωt N;
2 4 cosh λ ν
16 + π µ
• a horizontal drift;

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

2α B ∞  m(m + 1) 2λ − 2ν + sinh 2λ − sinh 2ν

XD = ∑ζ m (µ )
π 2 µ 3 m =0 sinh 2λ
+
 µ 2
− 2λ + 2ν + sinh 2λ − sinh 2ν 
+ ,
sinh 2λ 
with
M m N m+1 − N m M m+1
ζ m (λ , µ ,ν ) = 2 2 2 2
,
(M m + Nm )( M m +1 + N m+1 )
M m (λ , µ ,ν ) = σ m (λ , µ ,ν )J m (µ ) − J m
′ (µ ),
N m (λ , µ ,ν ) = σ m (λ , µ ,ν )Ym (µ ) − Ym′ (µ ),
where
 nπ µ 
2 ∞ I′m  
8π sinh ν n  ν  ;
σ m (λ , µ ,ν ) = ∑
2λ + sinh 2λ ν 2 n=1  2 2 2 I  n π µ 
1 + π 
n m
 ν 

 ν 2 

three terms are sufficient for the convergence of the above series: XD=3.33×105 N;
• a vertical drift:

ZD = −
8 α B sinh 2 ν ∞
2 4 2 sinh 2λ
π µ ν
∑ M 2
1
+ N
b
2 ∫0
2
r Am 2
+ Bm (
dr , )
m =1 m m
with
nπr
m −1 ∞ ′ 
Im 
mr 2π n  h 
Am =  
b b
+ ∑
h n =1 n 2π 2 n π b
,
1+ 2 Im 
ν  h 

  nπ r 
 m ∞ Im  
m  r  n  h  ;
Bm = −   + 2∑
r  b  = n 2π 2  n π b 
 n 11+ Im 
 ν2  h 

with six terms in the series above, we obtain ZD= −1444.3 N;

• a second order time depending horizontal force, approximated by the following term,
due to only the first order velocity potential:
2 α B  3 sinh 2λ − sinh 2ν − 2λ + 2ν
X2 = − P12 + Q12 +
2 3  sinh 2λ
π µ
sinh 2λ − sinh 2ν + 2λ − 2ν 
+ P22 + Q22 cos 2 ω t ,
sinh 2λ 
with

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

∞ ∞
Pm Q
P1 = ∑ (− 1)m Rm
; Q1 = ∑ (− 1)m m ;
Rm
m =0 m =0
∞ ∞
P Q
P2 = ∑ (− 1)m m(m + 1) Rm ; Q2 = ∑ (− 1)m m(m + 1) Rm ;
m=0 m m =0 m
Pm = M m N m+1 + N m M m+1; Qm = M m M m+1 − N m N m+1;
2
Rm = M m (2
+ Nm 2
Mm )(
2
+1 + N m +1 ; )
with three terms in the series, we obtain X2=2.82×106 cos 2ωt N;
• a second order time depending vertical force, approximated by the following term, due
to only the first order velocity potential:
2
4α B cosh 2ν − 1  3ν 2 + π 2 
1
Z2 = − U 2 + V 2 cos 2 ω t ,
π 2 µ 3 µ ν 2 sinh 2λ  ν 2 + π 2 
with
∞ ∞
Um V
U = ∑ (− 1) m ; V = ∑ (− 1)m m m ;
m
m =0
Wm m =0
Wm
2
Um = M m 2
− Nm 2
; Vm = −2 M m N m ; Wm = M m 2
+ Nm ; ( )2
with three terms in the series, we obtain Z2=12.2 cos 2ωt N.
Finally, the results show that:
• Z/X=0.045;
• XD/X=0.028;
• ZD/X=1.22×10−4;
• X2/X=0.239;
• Z2/X=2.02×10−8.
Hence, we will consider in the following only the forces X, Z, XD and X2. In addition, and
conservatively, we assume that X and X2 have the same phase, while Z has a phase of π; in
fact, this is the condition which maximizes the displacements of the platform (when the
horizontal force is the highest, the vertical force is maximum downward). Hence, the wave
actions are:
Z(t)
• along x:
X(t)
M
X = 1.180 × 107 cos ωt N; X2(t)
XD
X2=2.82×106 cos 2ωt N; A(θ)
5 h
XD=3.33×10 N;
θ
• along z: z
o
Z = 5.33 × 105 cos(ωt − π ) N. x

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

The mechanical model is hence that in the figure above, acted upon by the above forces; the
only degree of freedom is the angle θ; the mass M is the total mass of the system plus the
added mass; considering the ratio p/D=2, the added mass coefficient is CA= 0.72 (obtained by
interpolation of the data in the figure below, from Sarpkaya & Isaacson).

Hence, the dynamical mass is

πD 2
M = CA ρ p + M TLP = 4.912 × 106 kg.
4
Conservatively, we neglect in the dynamical analysis the radiation damping, caused by the
scattering of waves from the moving hull.
The stiffness of the system is given by the restoring force A, the buoyancy, which depends
upon θ:

π D2
A(θ ) = ρ g [ p + h(1 − cosθ )] − M TLP g = 8.7864 × 108 (1 − 0.95 cosθ ) N.
4
The minimum restoring force is at rest, θ=0°, where it is about 3 times the highest horizontal
force. The maximum possible angle θ is that for which the immersion of the hull leaves out of
water the height ag+a=4.35 m. Hence, the maximum allowed additional immersion of the hull
is c−(ag+a)=5.65 m. This value is obtained for an angle θadm such that
p + a + ag − c
cosθ = 1 + = 0.988 → θ adm = 8,893°.
h A(θ)
The variation of A with θ is shown in the figure. [N]

We can now write the motion equation of the system:

∂ ∂L ∂L
− = 0.
∂t ∂θ& ∂θ
The Lagrangian L is θ [°]

L = K +U,
with:
• K: kinetic energy of the system; we make the simplifying assumptions that the tethers
have a negligible inertia with respect to that of the TLP and that the mass of the TLP is
concentrated at the top of the tethers (this last assumption is justified by the actual
lengths):
1
K= ITLPθ& 2 ;
2

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

ITLP is the inertial moment of the TLP with respect to the point o:
1
ITLP = M h 2 → K= M h 2θ& 2 ;
2
• U: total potential of the forces acting upon the system:
U = U A +U X +U X2 +U XD +UZ ,

with
ƒ UA: potential of the restoring force A(θ); if p(θ) is the draught of the hull and
z(θ) its vertical position, we have:
1 1
U A = − M TLP g z (θ ) − π ρ g b 2 p (θ ) 2 = − M TLP g h cosθ − π ρ g b 2 [ p + h(1 − cosθ )]2 ;
2 2
ƒ UX: potential of the horizontal wave force X; if x(θ) is the horizontal position
of the hull, we have:
U X = X x(θ ) = X h sin θ = X h sin θ cos ωt ;

ƒ UX2: potential of the second-order horizontal wave force X2:

U X 2 = X 2 x(θ ) = X 2 h sin θ = X 2 h sin θ cos 2ωt ;

ƒ UXD: potential of the horizontal drift:

U X D = X D x(θ ) = X D h sin θ ;

ƒ UZ: potential of the vertical wave force:

U Z = Z z (θ ) = Zh cosθ = Z h cosθ cos(ωt − π ).

To remark that the derivatives of the potentials with respect to θ give the moments of the
respective forces about the point o.
The equation of motion is hence:

M h 2θ&& − M TLP gh sin θ + πρgb 2 [ p + h(1 − cosθ )]h sin θ − X h cosθ cos ωt −
− X 2 h cosθ cos 2ωt − X D h cosθ + Z h sin θ cos(ωt − π ) = 0.

The equation is non-linear, and its numerical solution gives the following variation of θ with
the time:
θ [rad]

t [s]

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

The maximum value of the angle θ is about 0.015 rad, i.e. 0.859° (which is <θadm), to which
correspond a horizontal displacement of 7.04 m and an additional immersion of 0.053 m, for
an increase of the buoyancy of 0.17% (93952 N) with respect to the buoyancy at θ=0°
(5.33×107 N).
The value of θstat for which the TLP is in static equilibrium under the only action of the drift is
given by the equilibrium equation

∇(U A + U X D ) = 0 → − M TLP gh sin θ + πρgb 2 [ p + h(1 − cosθ )]h sin θ − X D h cosθ = 0.

The solution is θstat=0.4384°, to which corresponds the horizontal displacement

xstat = h sin θ stat = 3.6 m.
The linearized motion equation is readily obtained, considering only the constant term in a
McLaurin time expansion of the vertical wave force and considering that
sin θ ≅ θ , cosθ ≅ 1 → Mh 2θ&& + (πρb 2 p − M TLP − Z ) ghθ =
= X h cos ωt + X 2 h cos 2ωt + X D h.
This gives the frequency and period

(πρb 2 p − M TLP − Z ) g
ωTLP = = 0.129 rad/s →
M h
ω 1
fTLP = TLP = 0.020 Hz → TTLP = = 48.8 s.
2π fTLP
The ratio between the wave and TLP frequency is χ=7.87, hence very far from resonance.
The response, with the linearized motion equation, can be found also by the superposition of
the responses to each force, found by the transfer function:

θ (t ) = Re[ H (iω ) Xeiωt ] + Re[ H (i 2ω ) X 2ei 2ωt ] + Re[ H (i 0ω ) X D ei 0ωt ].

The transfer function to a harmonic force of frequency ωf is
1
H (iω f ) = ;
k − mω 2f + i (cω f )

in this case, the damping coefficient c=0, so that the transfer function is real valued.

The stiffness is k= (πρb 2 p − M TLP − Z ) g and the inertia is m=Mh, so that

1 1 1
H (ω f ) = = = .
k − m ω 2f 2
m (ωTLP − ω 2f ) 2
Mh (ωTLP − ω 2f )
We obtain hence:
1 1 1
θ (t ) = 2 2
X cos ωt +
2 2
X 2 cos 2ωt +
2
X D.
Mh(ωTLP −ω ) Mh(ωTLP − 4ω ) (πρb p − M TLP − Z ) g
This equation shows that the linearized response is obtained as the sum of two harmonics,

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

having the wave frequency and the double of the wave frequency, superposed to a constant
force which gives the mean position (the last term). Introducing the numerical values gives:

θ (t )lin = −5.06 × 10−3 cos(1.013t ) − 2.9 × 10−4 cos(2.027t ) + 8.7 × 10−3.

The variation of θ(t)lin is plotted in blue in the following figure, superposed to the non-linear
response (in red).
θ, θlin [rad]

t [s]

The magnification factors for the two time depending forces are
2 2
ωTLP ωTLP
QX = 2
= 0.016, Q X2 = = 0.004.
ωTLP − ω2 2
ωTLP − 4ω 2
Actually, the dynamical behaviour of the TLP diminishes the response to the exciting forces
with respect to the case where they act statically, essentially due to the fact that the wave
forces have a frequency much higher than the natural frequency of the TLP.
Finally, the linearized mean position is given by the third term in the above equation, which
corresponds to an angle of 0.498°, the 13.7% more than the value found by the non-linear
equilibrium equation. This fact is also visible on the diagrams of the figure above.

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P. Vannucci – Examples of offshore structures calculation

References

• O. C. Zienkiewicz, R. W. Lewis & K. G. Stagg (Eds.): Numerical methods in offshore

engineering. J. Wiley, 1978.
• M. G. Hallam, N. J. Heaf & L. R. Wotton (Eds.): Dynamics of marine structures.
Report UR8 – CIRIA, 1978.
• T. Sarpkaya & Isaacson: Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures. Van
Nostrand, 1981.
• B. Mc Clelland & M. D. Reifel (Eds.): Planning and design of fixed offshore
platforms. Van Nostrand, 1986.
• P. Vannucci: Cours de Mécanique pour l'Industrie du Pétrole – Offshore Engineering.
2006.

Some of the figures and subjects in this document have been partially taken from the above
authors; they are sincerely acknowledged.

__________________
P.Vannucci
January 6, 2007

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