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Organisation of American States National Council for Science & Technology Barbados Association of Professional Engineers

Code of Practice for Wind Loads for Structural Design

November 1981

)

Consulting Engineers Partnership Ltd

Tony Gibbs, BSe, DCT (Leeds), CEng, FICE, FIStructEJ MASCE H E Browne, . MSc, BSe (Eng)

and

Caribbean Meteorological Institute B A Rocheford, MS, BSc

CONTENTS

FOREWCRD THE CODE

1. Scope

PAGE 1

2

2. Definitions 2

3. Symbols 3

4. Outline of procedure for calculating

wi nd loads on s tructu res 4

')

5. Design wind speed

6. Dynamic pressure of the wind

7. Pressure coefficients and force coefficients

8. Wind loads on uncla~ structure~

6 12

12 , 42

APPENDICES

A. Ground roughnesst building size and height above 9round - the'basis of the S2 factors

B. Explanatory notes on gusts and the wind-speed averaging time

C. Factor S3 - Explanatory note on building life factorS3

D. The effective heightH of a building near the edge of a cliff or escarpment

47

51

61

63

E. The effect of internal pressures 65

F. Wind forces on circular sections 68

G. Dynamic response of buildings and

other structures to wind loads 71

H. Derivation of pressure coefficients' 80

L Addresses of Meteorological Services 82

J.

TABLES 1.

Metric/Imperial Conversions and Equivalents 83

2. 3.

Basic wind spe~ds in m/s for some Common-

wealth Caribbean countries 6

Topography factor S1 7

~round roughness~ building size and height

above ground factor S2 10

4. 5.

Values of q

Pres~ure"coefficients Cpe for the walls of rectangular clad buildings

Pressure coefficients Cpe for the roofs of rectangular clad buildings

PAGE 13

17

6.

18

Pressure coefficients Cpe for monopitch

roofs of rectangular clad buildings

with h/w < 2

Force coefficients Cf for rectangular clad buildings

Force coefficients C for clad bUildings

'of uniform section (acting in the direction of the wind)

10. Pressure coefficients Cpefor clad rectangular building with saw-tooth roofs

11. Pressure coefficients Cpe for clad rectangular buildings with" multi-span saw-

tooth roofs (all spans equa 1) wi th h-tw 25

7.

19

8.

20

9.

21 "

)

24

12. Pressure coefficients epe for pitch roofs of multi span builaings (all spans

equa 1) wi th h.> Wi 26

13. Pressure coefficients for clad rectan~

gular buildings with one long side open 27

14. Pressure coefficients for clad rectan-

gular buildings with one short s ideopen 27

15. Pressure coeffi.cients for clad rectan-

gular buildings with both long iidesopen 28

16. Pressure coefficients for clad rectan-

gular bUildings with both short sides open

17. Pressure coefficients for grandstand with three sides open

18. Pressure coefficients for sh~lter roof without walls (300 r60f pitch)

28

)

29

30

19. Pressure coefficients for shelter roof without walls (100 roof pitch)

20. Pressure coefficients for shelter roof without walls (-100 roof pitch)

21. Pressure coefficients Cp for canopy roofs wi th ~ ~ ~/w'<: 1

22. Pressure distribution around cylindrical structures

23. "Force coefficients Cf for wires and cables (e/D 100)

24. Pressure coefficients and force coefficient for sphere

31

32

33

35

36

37

PAGE
25. Pressure coefficients for structures
with arched roofs 38
26. Values of reduction factor K for
members of finite length and slenderness 39
27. Force coefficients for individual
structural members (flat sides) of infinite length 40
28. Force coefficients Cf for individual
structural members of circular section
and infinite length 41
29. Force coefficients Cf for a single frame 42
30. Shielding factor. 44
I
3l. Overall force coefficient Cf for towers
with flatsided members 45
c, ) 32. Overall force coefficient Cf for square
towers composed of rounded members 46
33. Overall force coefficients Cf for equiva-
lent triangular towers composed of rounded 46
members )

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The National Council for Science & Technol~gy~ a body charged with advising the Government of Barbados on matters of science and technology~ recommended that a revision should be made to the Code of Practice for Wind Loads for Structural Design, originally published by the Barbados Association of Professional Engineers in 1970.

Consulting Engineers Partnership Ltd was commissioned to undertake this work. Funding was provided by the Organisation of American States, from The "Science & Technology Planning for Energy and Other Priority Areas" Project which is administered by Council.

)

FOREWORD

During recent years techniques of structural design and construction have developed to such an extent that buildings and other structures have become more susceptible to the wind. There isa corresponding tendency to reduce the safety margins (often 'prnvi ded-by "non-s tructuralll elements) that have enabled,older buildings to survive. At the same time' there have been sign; ficantadvancesi nthe knowledge of wind and its effects on strLictUres. Prdperappl ication of this knowledge is necessary to everconeeconomtca lIy-tne problems of the inherently more wind~sensitive modern structures.

In1970,theBarbaciosAssociatibn ,ofProfessionalEngtneers sponsored a Code so as to promote a more serious,logicalanduriiform approach byengi'neers tothe'prob 1 emofdes,i grii nq and, erecting structures resistant to, wi ndJorces., 'ThatCodewaswid~ lycirculatedand used thrcuqhout- the': Coinmonwea 1 th Caribbean and further af'ie Id; It has also been adopted by the University of the West Indies asa standard text book for their Civil Engineering degree programme.

During 'the elevenyears sincethef.irst'edi.fion ofthe/8arbados

Ass ocia t icniof" ProfessiOnalcEngineers CodeofPrCl,tti~e.for, wind loads forStructura 1 Design was publ ished,·sufficient additlonal i nformati on has become available to warrantrev;isions to that' document.

','.:

The range of building shapes for which pressure and forcetoefficients are provided has been extended. The concept of frictional drag has

also been given greater prominence and.additional appendices included

on wind forces bncircular sections and thedyhamicresponse of buildings to wind loads. Meteorological data for Barbados has been

used to revise figure l'significantly, which is a plot of the statistical factOrS3against'buHding life and level of safety.

Extensive use has been made of the British Standards Institution Code

of Practice CP3 ; Chapter V: Part 2: 1 972 Wind Loads in order to provt de the extended range of pressure and force coefficients. The appendix on the dynamic response of buil dings to wind loads i s- based on the Arneri can National Standard ANSI ASS.l - 19BOlDraftwithadditional information from Supplement No.4 to the National Building Code of Canada (1970).

In this code, numerical values have been given in SI units, however, an appendix is included in which there are equivalents in imperial units.

Like all proqressive codes, this is an interim Code. It is hoped that this Code would assist in continuinq to stimulate interest in wind loadinq amon~ enqineers of the reqion. NCST and BAPE would welcome comments and suqqestions from other enqineers and meteorologists for consideration when revisions to this Code are being prepared.

1. SCOPE

1.1 This Code gives methods for calculating the wind loads whi~h should be taken into account when designing buildings, structures and components thereof.

It does not apply to buildings or structures which are of unusual shape or location for which special investigations may be necessary to determine the wind load:sand their effects.

To take account of the fluctuating nature of wind, its interaction with buildings and the dynamic properties, of buildings in resisting wind loads, the Code gives a procedure for calculating a gust effect factor. Thi stactor,i smul ti pl i edby the wind force determined in accordance with the other provisi ons of the Code to give an equiva 1 entstati c force whi chwould produce the same peak load effect as the turbulent wind.

)

Slender buildings and structures may be subject to serious wind

,induced osci 11 ati onsand r. the des ignof these buildings and structures should incJude the eff'ect s of forces resulting from these qscillations. T~e Code provides an approximate method of evaluating these forces for ~lrcul ~r t?wers and chimneys. Other bui 1 di ng shapes may requi re further lnvestl§atlon.

2. DEFINITIONS

For the purposes of this Code, the following definitions apply:

breadth,

depth

element of surface area

The horizontal dimension of thebui lding normal to the direction of the wi nd,

The horizontal dimension of the building measured in the direction of the wind.

The area of surface over which the pressure coefficient is taken to be constant.

effective fron- The area normal to the direction of the wind or

tal area Ishadow areal.

height above ground

height

1 ength

width

The vertical distance measured above the general level of the ground.

The greatest vertical dimension of a building above the ground adjacent t6 that building.

The greater horizontal dimension of a building

'above the ground adjacent to that building.

The lesser horizontal dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building.

dynamic pressure The free stream dynamic pressure resultant from

of wind the design wind speed.

pressure coefficient

The ratio of the pressure actina at a point on a surface to the dynamiC pressure of the incident wi nd ,

force ... coefficient

A non-dimensional coefficient such that the total wind force on a body is the product of the force coefficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure of the incideht wind times an appropriate area, as defined in the Code.

The nature of the earthls surface as influenced by the hill and valley configurations.

ground roughness The nature of theearthls surface as influenced by small scale obstructions such as ~rees and buildings.

topography

flexible buildings and structures

)

Slehder buildings and other structures having a height exceeding five times the least horizontal dimension or. a-f'undemen ta 1 natural frequency of less than 1 Hz. Where the horizontal dimensions vary with height, the least horizontal dimension at mid-height shall be used.

3. SYMBOLS*
A element of surf~cearea
Ae effective fronlal area
b breadth
Cf force coefficient
efn normal force coefficient
Cft transverse force coefficient
Cfl frictional drag coefficient
Cp pressure coefficient
Cpe external pressure coefficient
Cpi internal pressure coefficient
d depth
0 diameter
F force
Fn normal force
Ft transverse force
F' frictional force *

Excluding those used in the appendices.

3

h H k

height

height above ground'

a constant

K

reduction factor

1

length

number of spans .6f multispan roof

n

p

pressure on surface external pressure

Pe

p

internal pressure tota 1 load i ntensi ty

Pi

q

dynamic pressure of wind

Re

neynol ds Number,

topography factor

ground roughness, building size and height above ground factor

a statistical factor

basic wind speed design wind speed

w

width of building

bay width in multi-bay buildings wind angle

)

ae rodynami c so 1 i di ty

shielding factor

kinematic viscosity geometric solidity ratio

4. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING WIND LOADS ON STRUCTURES

4.1 The wind load on a structure should be calculated for:

(1) the structure as a whole;

(2) individual structural elements such as roof and walls; (3) individual cladding units and their fixings.

4

4.2 It is important to note that the wind load on a partially completed structure wi 11 be dependent on the method and sequence of construction and may be critical. It is reasonable to assume that the maximum designed wind speed Vs will not occur during a short construction period, and a reduced factor 53 can be used to calculate the probable maxtmumwind~ The graphs of Figure 1 should not, however, be extrapolated to a' period of less than

two years . . '.

4.3 The assessment of wind load should be made as follows:

(1) The basic wind speed V appropriate to the place where the structure fs'to,be erected is determined in accordance with 5.2 and TableT.

(2) The basic wind speed is multiplied by factors 51 52 and 53

to give the design wind speed V~ for the part under consideration (see 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6)

Vs:: V51S2S3

(3) The design wind speed is converted to dynamic pressure Iq' using the relationship

q = kV~

(a)

Table 4 gives corresponding values of q and Vs in sr units~ The dynartJicpressure qis then multiplied by an appropriate pressure coefficientCptogive;the pressure p exerted at any point on the surface of a building.

)

p = Cp.q

If the value of the pressure coefficient CQ is negative, this indicates that p is a suction as distinct from a positive pressure.

S1-hce the resultant load on an element depends on the difference of pressure between opposing faces, pressure coefficients may be given for external surfaces Cpe and internal surfaces Cpi. The resultant wind load on an element of surface acts in

a direction normal to that surface and then is:

F = (Cpe - Cpi)q A

where A is the area of the surface.

A negative value for F indicates that the resultant force is outwards.

The total wind load on a structure may be obtained by vectorial summation of the loads on all the surfaces.

5

.':":' .. ' ' .. _:.'

(b)

There is however, another and shorter method of finding the total wind load on the building as a whole by using a force coefficient Cf where such is available.

The total wind load is then: F ~ Cf q Ae

where Ae is the effective ,frontal area of the structure. The direction in which the force acts is specified in the tables for the force coefficients.

Pressure coefficients and force coefficients are given in Section 7 for alirriited range of building shapes. Force coefficients for unclad structures are given in Section 8.

5. DESIGN WIND SPEED

5. 1

The design wind speed Vs should be calculated from:

·'·''''0

)

where V is the basic wind speed (see 5.2), and 51 ) 52, S3 are design wind speed factors (see 5.3 to 5.6 inclusive).

5.2 Basic Wind Speed

5.241 The basic wind speed V is the 3-second gust speed estimated to be exceeded on the average only once tn, 50 years. This speed has been assessed for,anl.Jmber of;Commonwealth Caribbean countries and the values are given in Table 1.' They represent the 3-second gust speed at a height of 10 m above the ground in an open situation that is likely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years.

5.2.2 It should be assumed that the basic wind may blow from any horizohtal directi6n.

An explanatory note (Appendix B) +ndtcatas how these speeds have been estimated and gives the basi~ for selecting the 3-second gust speed.

TABLE 1 - Basic Wind Speed for Some Commonwealth Caribbean Countries

metres/sec

Guyana

Trinidad Tobago, Grenada

Barbados. St Vincent, St Lucia, Dominica

Antigua, Leeward Islands, British Virgin Islands Jamaica

22
45
50
58 Based on studies for Bar-bad.
64 Based on studies for Anti qu:
56 fi

5.3 Wind Speed Factors

)

5.3.1 The basic wind speed given in Table 1 applies to flat coastal areas and must be adjusted to take account of variations from this standard. A topography factor, S1) described more fully

in 5.4, takes account of la.rge variations in the ground surface; it deaTs with the effects of hills and of sheltering in valleys. Variations in ground roughness and the effects of obstructions such as trees and buildings are combined in the factorS2 (5.5). Finally, the intended life...,time of the building isconsiaered in modifying the basic speed, and for this the factor S3 (5.6) may

be used. .

5.4 Topography Factor Sl

Study of wi nd s peed records shows that hei ght of the site above sea level is not by itself a factor which affects the value of the basic speed, so Linless special local effects are present, the value of S, should be taken as 1.0. .

Exposed hills rising well above the general level of the surrounding terrain may give rise to accelerated winds. So may some valleys, particularly tho$e that are so shaped that funnelling of the wind occurs with wind blowing along the valley: Sites so affected are often well known 1 dean y for theirabnorma 1 winds. For the above mentioned sites) values of S1 of 1.1 should be used.

On the other hand,. there are some steep sided. enclosed valleys where wi nd speeds.may bel ess than normal. Caution is necessary in applying a reduCing factor butfbrs uch cases a value of 0.9 mai b~ Lised for Sl.

Values of the topography factor 51 are given in Table 2 to cover illost conditions. Local knowledge may help the destgner to select the Sl value,but if he is in doubt on the matter the advice of the.appropriate meteorological service should be sought. Addresses of the relevant advisory offices are given in Appendix 1.

TABLE 2 - Topography Factor Sl Topography

Value of Sl

a All cases except those in b & c below 1.0
Very exposed hi 11 s lopes and crests
where acceleration of the wind is known
to occur 1.1
b Valleys shaped to produce a funnelling
of the wind
Sites that are known to be abnormally
windy due to some local influence
c Steep sided, enclosed valleys with a
reputation for being sheltered from all
winds 0.9 7

5.5 Ground roughness, building size and height above ground-factor 52·

The factor 52 takes account of the combined ~ffett of ground roughness, the variation of wind speed with height above ground and the size of the building or component part under considerati on.

In conditions of strong wind, the wind speed usually increases with height above ground. The rate of increase depends on ground roughness, and also on whether short gusts or mean wind speeds are being considered. This is related to buildin~ size to take account of the fact that small buil di ngs and elements of a buil ding are more effected by short gusts than are larger buildings, for which a longer wind-averaging period, is more appropriate.

For Code purposes. the ground roughness is divided into four categories and buildings and their elements are divided into three classes as follows:

)

5.5.1 Ground Roughness

5.5.1.1 Ground roughness 1 ~ long fetches of open s , Ievel or nearly level country with no shelter. Examples are flat coastal areas, swamps and rice paddies, airfields and grassland, +arml'andwt thout hedges around the fields.

5.5.1.4

5.5; 1.2 Ground roughness 2- fl at or undulati n<}cQuntry wi th obstructions such as hedges around fields, scatter~dwindbrea~s of trees and occasional buildings .. Examples are most farmland and estates with the exception of those parts that are well wooded.

5.5.1.3 Ground roughness 3. - surfaces covered by numerous large obstructions. Examples are well-wooded or forest areas and towns and their suburbs. The general level of roo+-topsand obstructions is assumed at about 10 m, but the category will include built-up areas generally apart from those that qualify for category 4.

Ground roughness 4 - surfaces covered by large numerous obstructions with a general roof height of about 25 m or more. This category covers only the centres of large towns and cities where the buildings are not only high, but are also not too widely spaced. As at 1981, it is considered -that no Commonwealth Caribbean city falls into this category, although several may do so by the end of the decade.

)

5.5.2

Further explanation of these ground roughness categories will be found in Appendix A.

Cladding and BUllding Size

The wind speed fluctuates from moment to moment and can be averaged over any chosen period of time. The shortest period

over which wind speed is normally measured is about 3 seconds and it has been found that a 3-second gust is of such a size that it may envelop obstacles up to 20 m across. The longer the averaging time for the gust, the larger is the obstacle that may be fully enveloped. For this reason three classes have been selected.

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5.6

Class A - All units of cladding~ glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings, and individual members of unclad structures.

Cl ass B - All bui 1 di ngs and structures where net ther the greatest horizontal nor the greatest vertical dimension exceeds 50 m.

Class C - All buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal or greate~t vertical dimehsion exceeds 50 m.

The values of 52 for variation of wind speed with height above ground for the variQus ground roughness categories and the building size classes are given in Table 3.

The height should be taken to the top of the structure or

al ter-nat ive ly , the height of the structure may be divided into convenient parts and the wind load on each part should be calculated using a factor 52 which corresponds to the height above ground of the top o~ that part4 The load should be a~plied at the mid-height of the structure or part respectively. This also applies to pitched roofs.

Further explanatiori of the relationship between gusts and wind speed averaging times is given in Appendix B.

In the previoUS paragraphs) height above ground means the dimension abqve the general level of the ground in the vicinity

of the bu t ld i nq , assuming there are no unusual conditions. Allowances should~ however, be made for special conditions. For example, the height above ground of a building on a cliff top or a steeplysloped escarpment should be taken as the dimension above the foot of the cliff or escarpment for winds from that direction. Details of the rule to be followed are given in Appendix D.

The effect of turbulence on the pressure .and force coefficients is dealt with in Section 7.

Factor S3

53 is a factor based on statistical concepts, given in Appendix

C, which takes account of the degree of security required and the period of time in years during which there will be exposure to wind. Whatever wind speed is adopted for design purposes~ there is always a probability, however small, that it may be exceeded in a storm of exceptional violence; the greater the period of years over which there will be exposure to. the wind, the greater is this probability. Figure 1 shows values of 53 plotted against this period of years for Barbados.

Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = 1 with the following exceptions:

(a) temporary structures;

(b) structures where a shorter period of exposure to the wind may be expected;

9

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(c) structures where a longer period of exposure to the wind may be required;

(d) structures where additional safety is required,

For these special cases~ both the period of exposure to the wind and the probability level may be varied according to circumstances. Some examples are given in Appendix C.

6. DYNAMIC PRESSURE OF THE WIND

From the value of the design wind speed Vs obtained from Section 5, the dynamic pressure of the wind q above atmospheric pressure is obtained from Table 4.

This table has been derived from the equation:

q = ~fN~

where? > the density of air at any point is taken as Po the density of air at sea level in International Standard Atmospheric Conditions. Since pais constant) if' may be replaced by a constant k in the above equation.

~ = 1.2256 kg/m3 k = 0.6128 kg/m3

The possibility of adopting a lower value of k, in view of the generally lower air densities prevailing in the Caribbean area, was considered. Whileitis true that air density may be some 5 to 10 percent lower than in temperate latitudes, th~ effect of this wi 11 be~ to some extent, cancelled out by the fact that tropical storms are almost always accompanied by heavy rain, moving almost horizontally and so increasing the pressure on any exposed surface. It was therefore considered conservative to accept the standard air density as applicable also to hurricane conditions.

7. PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS

7.1 General

In the preceding sections, the method of assessing the dynamic pressure q is given. In order to determine the forces on a building or structure, or part thereof, the pressure has to be multiplied by. a coefficient which is dependent on the shape of the building 'or structure, and by the area of the building or structure, or part thereof.

There are two types of coefficient. These are: (a) Pressure coefficients Cp

(b) Force coefficients Cf

12

)
(/')
I-
I-i
Z
::>
,__.
(/')
0"""
!J._
0
(/')
LU
::>
_J
cl:
>
<d-
LU
_J
CO
cl:
I- 1.0 (Y) M I.D 0 0 0
· (Y) M 1.0 0 r-, I.D
0'> N 1.0 0'> U) .- Q)
.- N N
0 r- I.D N 0 0 0
· N ,...... (Y) r-, M N
0'> N U') m <d- r- Q)
.- N N
U) 0 00 m 0 0 0
· r- 0'> 0 <d- O CO
CO N <d- O'> o;;j" .--- co.
.--- N N
0 m .--- 1.0 0 0 0
· Q) CO co .--- I.D (Y)
CO r- <d- ec o;;j" 0 CO
.--- N N
U') CO <;;t N 0 0 a
CO I.D I.D CO (Y) 0'>
r-.... ,...... <::T CO M 0 r-....
.--- N N
0 r-.... r-, '" 0 0 0
· r-, <::T M U') m U)
r-, ..- <d- CO (Y) Q) r-
.--- .--- N
LO r-.... 0 r-.... 0 a 0
· I.D M .--- M I.D ..-
0.0 ..- <;;t CO M 0'> r-....
.-- .-- N
0 r-, <::t o;;j" 0 0 b
· L!"l .--- O"l 0 N r-,
l.O ....- <d- r-.... M '" 0.0
.--- r- N
lD r-... 0'> M 0 0 0
· <:;t- O'> r- r-.... m M
U') r- (V) r-; N CO 0.0
.--- .-- N
0 CO (V) .-- a a 0
· (Y) co LJ:') <d- r..n m
LD .-- (V) r- N ex') L!"l
r- .-- N
Ln O"l co 0 0 0 0
· ..-.. N l.O M r- N L()
<:;t- N ,........ (V) r- N co lD
E ,...... ,...... N
-
Z
0 ..._, 0 (V") 0'> 0 0 0
N tn 0 0"1 0"1 r-
-e- O""" r- M r-; r- r- Ln
r- r- N
Ln N '" ro 0 0 0
· .-- M co l.O Ln r-....
M ,...... (V) I.D .---- r- <d-
.-- .-- N
0 <::T <d- CO 0 0 0
· 0 N 0.0 M N ("')
(Y) r- M t..D r- r- <d-
.-- .-- N
co
Ln · 0 r- 0 0 0
· U") ....-. <:;t- .- O"l O"l.
N 0'1 M 0.0 .- I.D M
.-- r- N
(Y)
0 · i--, co 0 0 0
· co 0'> N co I.D 1.0
N . co N I.D 0 I.D ("')
r- ,...... N
....-
co · CT') co 0 0 0
· .-- co 0 I.D ("') N
.- co N 1.0 0 I.D ("')
.-- r- N
N
0 · 0 0'> 0 0 0
· <:;t- r-.... co (Y) 0'> co
r- r- N L!"l 0 U) N
r- .---- N
I.D
U) · co 0 a a 0 ,
· r- Ln r- r- 1.0 <::T
0 I.D N L!"l a U) N
f .- r- N
M
· LO N .--- 0 0 0
0 .-- <:;t- LO co M c- o
I.D N LO 0"1 U") ~ g
.---
....--..
ell 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ell - r- N M <:;t- Ln I.D r-
> E
..__.. 13

.... :.

Values of these coefficients for some building shapes are given in tables in this section. These tables may be used for other buildings of generally similar shape.

These coefficients are of necessity obtained from measurements on models in wind tunnels, and the great majority of data available has been obtained in conditions of relatively smooth flow. Where sufficient field data exists as in the case of rectangular or circular buildings, values have been adjusted to allow for turbulent flow.

7.2 Pressure Coefficients

Pressure coefficients are always given for a particular surface or part of the surface of a building and when multiplied by· the area of that surface, or part of the surface, and by the dynamic pressure q give the wind load acting in a direction normal to that particular surface or part thereof. The total wind load on

a building is then obtained by vectorial summation of the loads ')

acting on each of the surfaces or parts of the surfaces of the

bun ding.

Average values of the pressure coefficients are given in the tables for critical wind directions in one or more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load on the bu i l d inq , the total load should be calculated for each of the critical directions shown from all quadrants.

Where considerable variation of pressure occurs over a surface~ it has been sub-divided and mean pressure co~fficients given for each of its several parts.

In addition, areas of high local suction frequently occurring near the edges of walls and roofs, are separately shown. These coefficients for local effects should be used only to calculate the loads on individual cladding units and their fixings and should not be used for calculating the load on individual structural elements such as roofs and walls or the structure as a whole.

Note: For the design Of cLadding or its fixings to a structural member Class A should be used with the pressure coefficient applicable to the particular area in which the cladding lies.·

For the design Of a structural member carrying the cladding~ Class B or C should be used with the pressure coefficient applicable to the area in which the member lies. In considering the design against high local pressures of the structural member carrying the cLadding~ the secondary effects such as distribution due to the stiffness of the cladding should be taken into account.

For main stfl!ctunal members, the design should be Class B or C '..A.sir:g the normal coefficients for the whole area.

14

When calculating the wind load on an individual structural element such as roofs and walls, and individual cladding units and their fixings, it is essential to take account of the pressure difference between opposite faces of suth elements

or uni ts. For c l ad structures , it is therefore necessary to know the internal pressure as well as the external pressure. The following distinguishing pressure coefficients are therefore used:

)

External pressure coefficient = Cpe Internal pressure coeffici ent = Cpi

The pressure on an individual structural element or cladding unit therefore is p = (Cpe - Cpi)q

The load acting in a direction normal to the individual structural Element of cladding unit therefore is:

F = (Cpe - Cpi)qA

where A is the surface area of the structural element or cladding unit. A negative value f6r F indicates that the resultant force is outwards.

Values of Cpe are given in the tables in this section and a method of assessing the values of Cpi is given in Appendix E.

7.3 Force Coefficients

Force coefficients when given, apply to a building or structure as a whole, and when multiplied by the effective frontal area

Ae of the building or structure, and by the dynamic pressure q give the total wind load on that particular building or structure thus;

)

where F is the force acting in a direction specified in the table, and Cf is the force coefficient for the wind.

It should be noted that the value of the force coefficient differs for the wind acting on different faces of a building or structure. In order to determine the maximum load, the total wind load should be calculated for each wind direction.

If the wind load is calculated by dividing the area into parts, the values of Cf applied to each part ~hould be that for the building as a whole.

7.4 Frictional Drag

In certain buildings of special shape, a force due to frictional drag should be taken into account in addition to those loads. determined from 7.2 and 7.3. For rectangUlar clad buildings, this addition is necessary only where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. The frictional drag F' in the direction of the the wind is given by the following:

15

if h ~ b

F' = Cf'qb(d 4h) + Cf'q2hld 4h) F' = Cf'qb(d 4b) + Cf'q2h{d 4b)

or if h> b

The first term in each case gives the drag on the roof and the second the drag on the walls. The terms are given separately to a110w for the use of different values 6f Cf' and q on the different surfaces.

Cf' = 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction

Cf' = 0.02 for surfates with corrugations across the wind direction

Cf' = 0.04 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.

For other bUildings, the frictional drag will be indicated where

necessary in the tables of pressure coefficients ·and force )

coefficients which follow.

7.5 Enclosed Rectangular B~ildings

Pressure coefficients for the walls of enclosed rectangular buildings are given in Table 5 covering a range of building hei ghts.

The pressure coefficients for the roofs of such builtlings for a range of roof pitches are given in Tabl~ 6.

)

Hi

__ -'-----.--'---~ ~_._. ~., __ ~, ..... ...:. •• : __ .:. L·.~

TABLE 5 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR THE WALLS OF_ RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS

I Building Bui) di ng Wind CDe for Surface Local
I Height Plan Side Plan IAngle C_Qe...'c
Ratio Ratio Elevation ~ A B C 0 ~
I ~ c 00 0.7 -0.2 -0.5 -0.5 }
ot,ADB
I L:.£(.3 -fI- -0.8
w~7 O. 0 900 -0.5 -0.5 +0.7 -0.2
I' h 1 ~
-,.(7 Ami
w -...; Ir=I. 00 0.7 -0.25 -0.6 -O.6}
J i<6< 4
) -1.0
0 900 -0.5 -0.5 0.7 -0. 1
I
I AOS
I 1<t{_3 n 00 0.7 -0.25 -0.6 -O.6J
-1.1
w~7 0 900 -0.6 -0.6 0.7 -0.2_
1 h 3
!"Z<w~>Z [l {} 00 0.7 -:-0.3 -0.7 -0.7}
j 3 <£ < 4 - 1 . 1
L w 900 -0.5 -0.5 0.7 -0. 1
0
I IJ c 00
I 1< t t. 3 US 0.8 -0.25 -0.8 -0.8 J
-1.2
'W""Z 0 900 -0.8 -0.8 0.8 -0.25
I 3 <.!!_<6
n ,.J,;_ 00
I"Z W 3 , A B 0.7 -0.4 -0.7 -0.7]
2< w < 4 -1. 2
( '--- 900 -0.5 -0.5 0.8 -0.1
0 h = height = the greatest vertical dimension of a building above the ground adjacent. to that building

t = length = the greater horizontal dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building

w = width = the lesser horizontal dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building

17

_ ~ ...... _ ... -'':''~.-'-~'--.';:. ,~~::. _

TABLE 6 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR THE PITCH ROOFS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS (as amended in June 1971)

3 2.

Bui l di ng Roof Wind Angle oc; Wind An~J 1 e t>< Local Coefficients
Height Angle 00 900 ~~I . I' ~I lu·;"~':;"\
1'/27......:l
Ratio Degrees EF GH EG FH
0 -0.8 -0.4 -0.8 -0.4 -2.Q -2.0 -2.0 -
h c. 1- 5 -0.9 -0.4 I -0.8 -0.4 -1.4 -1.2 -1.2 -1.0
W - 2. 10 -1.2 -0.4 -0.8 -0.6 -1.4 -1.4 -1 .2
O-f
20 -0.4 -0.4 -0.7 -0.6 -1.0 -1.2
~. 30 0 -0.4 I -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -1.1
\ I 45 +0.3 -0.5 -0.7 -0.6 -1,·.··1.
60 +0.7 -0.6 -0.7· -0.6 -Lf
0 -0.8 -0.6 -1.0 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 -
h ?. .2 5 -0.9 -0.6 -0.9 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1 .0
w' z
n-t- 10 -1 . 1 -0.6 -0.8 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1 .2
20 '-0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -0.6 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -1.0
30 -0,2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8 -1.0 -1.0
~T 45 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8
60 +0.6 -0.5 -0~8 -0.8
'.
0 -0.7 -0.6 -0.9 -0.7 -2.0 -2.0 -2. o, -
<.b.< 6 5 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 . -2.0 -1.5 -1.0
w
IJ~ 10 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1 2
"\
20 -0.8 -0.6 -0.8' -0.8 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -l.t..
30 -1.0 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.5
40 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.0
LJT 50 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7
60 +0.5 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 1-< 2.

y y

tJrlr !

v= h or 0 ·15W Y.- LLL.<1_E._; G_ '~

Whichever is I I

the lesser. Wind ~ F ~ H !

o(_ ' l!

~_j_

NOTE: h = height to eaves or parapet w = width = lesser horizontal

- dimension of a building

The pressure coefficient on the underside of any roof overhang should be taken as that on the adjoining wall surface. Where no local coefficients are given the overall coefficients shall apply.

N V 3: <, £

::r:

I-

.......

3:

(/) C.!:l Z

......

o

~

~ CC

-, ~ )_.J

_.d· U

0::: « ......I ~ C.!:l Z

~

U LJ.J 0:::

I..L. o

(/) I..L. o o 0:::

::r:

U I-

...... C!... o Z o ::E

0::: o

)l1..

c..

U

(/) IZ LJ.J ...... U ...... u, li.. LJ.J o U

l.L.1 0::: ~ (/) (/) W 0::: c.,

I 0 a 0 a 0 a
OJ · · · · ·
! ......I N N N N N N
I I I I I I
0 a 0 a a 0
ill · · · · ·
:r: N N N N N N
I I I I I I
I I.Cl I.Cl .q- ..r 0-. .1..0
N · · · · · ·
IV ......I ,..... ..-- ,..... ..... a 0
D.. I I . I I I I
U I a a co co 0-. I.Cl
,..... ,..... · · · · · ·
n::l ...J N N t- ..... a 0
U 1 I I I I I
I
0 I I.Cl a, CO
......I I.Cl r-, I.Cl
N · · · · ·
::r: r- t- o 0 0 a
I I I I I I
,..... 0 a CO co co CO
::r: · · · · · ·
N N r- r- r-- ,.....
I I I J I I
i
I 0 0 0 0 0'1 '-0
! ......I · · · · · ·
g,1 ..... r- ...- r- 0 0
I I I I I 1
cor
I ...-1 I.Cl
I::r: .q- M N ...-
· · · · · 0
0 0 D. 0 CJ
I i I I I I I
J
1......1 0 0 0 0 m '-0
· · · · · ·
..- ...- r- ..... 0 CJ
I 0 I I I I I r
I I.Cl
! I M 0'1
i r- co '-0 I.Cl M .....
· · · ·
I :c: 0 0 CJ CJ 0 0
I I I I I r I
I 'r1 j [
OJ ......I Applies to I.Cl I.Cl I.Cl I.Cl I.Cl I.Cl
r- o<:! · · · · · ·
O"l :r: remainder 0 0 0 0 0 0
c 0 I I I I I I
-ec 0
m Applies to length
"0 co
C _J 0 0 0 0'1 co
''-- o<:! w/2 from wi ndward · · · · ·
3: ::r: r-r- t- ,..- 0 0 0
end I I I I I I
0-. 00 ("'"-..; 1.0 '-0 '-0
......I · · · · · . ·
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 I I I 1 I I
I.Cl
.q- 0
0 0 0 0 0
::r: · · · · · ·
r- r-r- ,..... ..... .-- ,....
I 1 I I I I
1.1) 1.1) L!1 L!1 1.1) 1.1)
· · · ·
......I a 0 0 a 0 0
I I I I I I
0
0
0 0 O'l CO ...... I.Cl
:c · · · · ·
...- ,..... 0 0 cs 0
s I I I I I I
.--..
OJ
OJ
1Vr... I.Cl 0 I.Cl a L!1 0
4- r- 0'1 ,..... ..- N N M
0 0'1 Q)
0 co
0::: « ~
J 19

til til

Q).,. OJ

'0 N'O N

::I::r: ::I.....J

r- ,.....

u'O Uv CC cc

..... n::l .... n::l

::r: r-......I r-

::r: .' ......I

n::l n::l

OJ OJ

s, Q) s, OJ «::r: « _J

w Ia z

! ~I

I

0'1. C"O -r-' c "0 .• ',,-' ..-4J "'r- .,..:::J" ~~.'

...0 .::1 ...0 tel

-. n::l

4- 04-

o c ot:

· ... ·0 Vl,9r- ..

t:UI Q)t:

EOJ -e- E

ClJ"O -e-'0 '0

.. ...- r-« ..

UltCl'...' .jJ":n::s

r.... C +-' ClJOC 3:NO 0·...,. N ..- r... .....

or... +-'£0 n::l ..!::

r...

Ula.ir... OJ+-,QJ >n::lUl n::lOJUl OJs..ClJ

en ..... o

+-' II II

,..- Ul

o

s, s..<lI 0> <lis.... ..!::...c:: OJ UIf) II ..... If) ...c:: <lI >,3:....-

+-' ..c

.c +-' .c men+-' ...... t:'O OJ QJ;.£..-3:

11 II II

..c~3:

W Io Z

TABLE 8 - FORCE COEFFICIENTS Cf··FOR RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS WITH FLAT ROOFS CAC lING LNl BE. DIREC I ION OF I HE wIND)·

Cf for height/breadth ratio:
Plan Shape 1 b Up to
-- a ! 1 2 4 6
w
--1dr-
Wing, ~_-Tb ')'4 1.2 1.3 I 1.4 I 1.5 1.6
I
~4
k- d-J I
. , __{_ 1 0.7 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.75
- WP///,l-t ~4

I
T' ! I
,
I
-- jb I 3 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.35 1 .4 I
._}_ I
~d~ _L 3 I i I
I
I
~Vff/Zl:+ I 1/3 0.7 0.75 0.8
I 0.751 0.75
I
I 1
-.._j r- I I
; d. I I
~r I i
I I I
---~Ib I
I
I I 1 . 151
I i 2 1.0 i 1.05 1.1 1.2 I
. ....t I . I !
i~d~ 2 I
! I
--~~I. I
i 1 0.75 0.75 0 .. 8 I 0.851 0.9
! "2
I I I
f- 0-1
---- ~-l
I ,b 11 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.1 1.15
. 1 2
l--<i~ 1 ~
--~·~Tb 2/3 0.8 0.85 0.91 0.95 1.0
Plan Shape 1 b Cf for height/breadth ratio:
w a Up to
1 1 2 4 6 10 20
2
,. d I

~~lb I I
,
r~'-""-"" 1 1 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.05 1. ., 1.2 I 1.4
I Note. b is the dimension of the building normal to the wind, d is the dimension of the building measured in the direction of the wind, 1 is the greater horizontal dimension of a building and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building.

20

TABLE 9 - FORCE COEFFI.CIENTS. C FOR CLAD BUILDINGS OF UNIFORM SECTION (ACTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE WIND)

)

Cf for height/breadth ratio
Plan Shape Vsb Up to 00
j_ 1 2 5 10 20
o=r All surfaces m2/s I
u.: L.. 6 I I
I
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.810.9 1.0 I 1.2
Rough or with I I
. projections >-6 I I
I I
See also Appendix F Smooth J6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.510.5 o 6 n fi
0.51 I I
I' d +.l I
L10 0.5 0.5 0.5 I 0.6 0.6 I 0.7
CJ+ Ell ipse I i !
10.2 021 0.2 [ .. 0.2 ;
bId = 1/2 I I
:;:>: 10 0.2 0.2 , 0.2
i
.. I
I I I !
OJ ! ! i I
I
« 8 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.011.1 )1.3 I 1.7 !
I ,
Ell ipse I !
I I I ! I
I
b/d = 2 ~8 10.8! 0.9 I I : 1. 5 1
0.8 1 . 0 11. 1[ 1 . 3
I
!
I i ! I
LJ ' I . i
bid 1 <.4 0.6 I 0.6 i 0.6 0.71 0.8 _[ 0.8 I 1.0
= I ,
r/b = 1/3 i I ! I ! ,
,
5:-4 0.4 i 0.41 0.4 0.4 i 0.5 i 0.5 0.5 !
! ! ;
I I ,
I I I . I i ,
0 I I
b/d = 1 ..( 10 0.7 I 0.8 I 0.8 0.9 '1.0 1 .0 I 1.3 ;
I I
r/b = 1/6 I ! i
710 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 :
\ !
.". j
J d ;
~.- j-----r,: bid = 1/2 0.3-'0.3
Sr .(_ 3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 l
-
I b r/b = 1/2 I
_j_ ~3 I 0.3 i
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
I---d---l I
u=:Ib bId = 1/2 All
i
. rIb = 1/6 Values 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 . 0.6 0.6 .. 0.7 I
I
I d I \
0 I i
b/d = 2 All 1.91
b rIb = 1/12 Values 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.5

o~~ I
! \
L:..6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.6
b/d = 2 I
rib = 1/4 . I -.-----t
i
76 0.5 I 0.5\ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 I 0.6 ,
l -
I I
I Ii I I . -.

21

TABLE 9 (continued)

Plan Shape

Cf for height/breadth ratio

Vsb Up tol I I I

~ I 1 2 5! 10 j 20 ! co

m2/s 'I!' r! J

« 10 0.8 10.8 0.9 1.0 i 1.1 J 1.3 _~1~-,.~5 __

ria = 1/3 I ! I

::>10 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 I 0.5 i 0.6

Ii!

0.6

o

- iii i i

ria = 1/12 All I Ii J 1 I I

Values 0.9 i 0.9 10.9 11.1 11.211.3/

1.6

I ; I I

' j i

I ; ,

All I I i

ria = 1/48 Values 0.9 0.910.9 iLl i 1.2/ l.3 j

c--------;-----'---------t-----+---;-i - -- .... , .. ---.--- -t-----+---c-~-+-; ~-~-

- - -<E8[ d_~---'b «: 11 10.7 0.7 10.7 [0.8 : 0.9; 1.0

-. rib ;;;: 1/4 I I

:> 11 10.4 0.4 10.4 :0.4 ! 0.51 0.5

(j__j__ ! c !

1.6

)

1.2

0.5

rib = 1/12

! I

All I

Values/O.8

I

1.4

--1..------.------'-----t---; ,

-<J] I I !
I ; !
All , ,
rib;;;: 1/48 ! ! -i
Values 0.7 0.7 0.8 1°.9 :1.0 1.1 i 1.3
I I
I
,
rfSJ I I i
1.011.1 I
<. 8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 i 1.3
rib = 1/4 i
-- 0.5 '0.5
:--
:> 8· 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 I 0.5
__ v
r
[:> I
1/48 < rib All I
<·1/12 Values 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 11.6 1.7 I 2. 1
I
I ,
n 12-sided .(. 12 0.7 0.7 0.8 10.9 I 1 . ° 11. 1 I 1.3
._.
I -- .... -

polygon

:> 12l 10. 7 ',0 .7 l~IO. 7 I 0.8 I O. 9

__ L__LI _~,--L-~!-~'--_---

c______ .

1.1

22

, .. ~.' .... _.: .: __ ;

TABLE 9 (continued)

breadth ratio
Plan Shape Vsb
2 5 10 20 00
m2js

All
- Octagon Values 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 Where strakes are used, b may be taken as the breadth over the strakes. Structures that, because of their size and the design wind velocity, are in the supercritical flow re'gime may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest Toads do not occur at some wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be subcritical.

The coefficients are for buildings without projections, except where otherwise shown.

I

In this table, Vsb is used as an indication of the airflow regime. Structures with height/breadth ratio of 10 and over may be specially prone to aerodynamic oscillation. Expert advice may be necessary. The Code provides in Appendix G, a procedure for calculating gust response factors and vortex shedding frequencies for flexible buildings and structures.

23

'.:.:.! .. ,' .

7.6 Enclosed rectangular buildings with saw-tooth, roofs.

Pressure coefficients for the wall and roof elements of these buildings are given in Table 10 and Table 11.

TABLE 10 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS CDe FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS

WITH SAW-TOOTH ROOF PITCH 600 AND 300 h ~ w

d. A B C D E. F G H
00 0.9 -0.5 -0.6 -0.6 0.6 0.6 -0.5 -0.5
..
450 0.5 -0.8 0~4 -0.5 0.2 -0.1 -'1.0 -0.8
900 -0.4 -0.4 0.9 -0.3 -0.4 0 -0.4 0
1800 -0.5 0.9 -0.6 -0.6 -0.5 -0.5 -0. 1 -0. 1 For ~= 450 on surface.m Cpe = -1.3 P = (Cpe - Cpi)q

Frictional drag: when wind angle >< = 00 horizontal forces due to frictional drag are allowed for in the above

va 1 ues ;

when wi nd ang 1 e DC;;;; 900 allow for fri cti ona 1 drag in accordance with 7.4

NOTE: Evi dence on these bui 1 di ngs is f r aqmerrtat-y and any departures from the cases given should be investigated separately.

)

m

D

w

TABLE 11 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WITH MULTI-SPAN SAW-TOOTH ROOFS (ALL~SPANS EQUAL) WITH htw

E

.. 1-

1 I

w ..

.... _

.1

-)

Roof Plan y;;;h or O.lw whichever is the lesser

J r:=h 1

Section· . .

Roof

I Wind First sl Fi r s t i nter- Other inter- End Spans ILoca 1 ,Coeffi ci ent I
I pan mediate Span mediate Spans
I Angle eL- I I , zl~·~·
I a b c d m n i x
, .. ." I
I I 'il': i}
t;aees I I 1
+0.6 -0.7 1-0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0 2 i-O 1 ,-0.3 .
-0.31-0.3 . i • i· . -2.0 -1.5
0 -0.5 -0.3 1 -0.4 -0.6 1-0.61-0.1 . . )

Wind I Distance
Angl e o(_ hl h2 h3 I
.. I
Degrees
90 -0.8 -0.6 -0.2
270 -0.2 -0.6 -0.8 Walls

Wind I I
AnJQe I r i F G i H
I I ! !
i
00 ·0.9· -0.3 -0.4 I -0.4
900 -0.4 0.4 -0.9 i -0.3
1800 ...,0.3 -0.9 0.3 -0.3
2700 -0.4 -0.4 -0.3 0.9 I I

Frictional dr-aq : ' when wind angle oC- = 00 horizontal forces due to frictional drag are allowed for in the· above values;

when wind angle~ = 900 allow for frictional drag in accordance wHh 7.4.

NOTE: Evidence on these buildings is fragmentary and any departures from the cases given should be investigated separately.

25

7.7 Enclosed rectangular multi-span buildings with pitch roofs.

Pressure coeff ictents for the roofs of' these buildings are

given in Tabl~ 12. .

TABLE 12 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR PITCH ROOFS OF MULTI-SPAN BUILDIN~S (ALL SPANS·EQUAL) WITH h.}w ·1 .

O.lwLt ~I

--i-i f-- 0

y=h or O.lw whichever is the lesser

_h_l :.._; h_2= h

Roof Plan

..", )

Section

Roof \ Wind I First Span I Local
Fi rst i nter-j Other i nter- End Span Coefficient
mediate Span mediate S~an~
Ang 1 e lAng 1 eJ b c I d m n x ! z ~ ~ ..
I cL a
I
50 00 -0.9 -0.6 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3
100 -1.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 -0~3 -0.3 -0.4
200 -0.7 -0.6 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.5 >- -2.0 -1 .. 5
300 -0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 -0.5
450 +0.3 -0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.4 -0.2 -0.5
L-... Roof Wind Distance
Angle Angle cL h, h2 h3
Degrees Degrees
Up to 45 90 -0.8 -0.6 -0.2 ". Frictional drag: when \~ind angle ~ ~ 00 horizontal forces due to frictional drag are allowed for in the above values;

when wind angle d = 900 allow for frictional drag in accordance with 7.4

NOTE: Evidence on these buildings is fragmentary and any departures from the cases given should be investigated separately.

26

· .... :

Cl adrectangul ar build i ngs with one or more si des open.

These buildings represent extreme cases of uneVenly distributed permeability and the loadings may vary greatly according to the direction of the wind in relation to the open side. Pressure

, coefficients for critical .winddirections are given in Tables 13 to 17.

TABLE 13 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAO'RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WTTHONE LQNG SI DE OPEN~ ROOF PITCH' 300 ' W:!!=::.- 2h

7.8

)

c

.-, D 1

---'--. 1.···',

"AS

E, '".,

lj

"
C Pressure Coeffi c ients , Long Wall Open
p
ex: A B C 0 E F G ,H J K
00 0.8 -0.5 -0.7 0.8 0.8 .,.0.7 ... 0.3 0.8 -0.4 0.8
45° 0.7 -0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 -0.4 -0.2 0~6 -0.7 0.7
600 0.3 -0.7 0.7 0.3 0.4 -0.4 -0.3 0.2 -0.6 0.2
1s0d -O.S ~6\ 5 '.,'. lO.4
-0~5 0.9 -0.5 ;'0.8 ~0;5 .;.0.2 -0.5
, .. " p = (Cpe - Cpi)q

TABLE 14 - - PRESSURE, (OEFFIeI ENTS FORCLAD RECTANGUl.AR BUILDINGS WITH ON!; 'SHORT SIDE OPEN ~ ROOF PITCH 300 w =. 2h

)

iOnJ

,

h

A S

C 0

Cp Pressure Coefficients, End W'all Open
D( A B C 0 E F G H J K
00 0.9 ... O.} -0.7 -0.4 -0.7 -0.8 -0.2 -0.7 -0.4 -0.7
450 0.5 0.7 0.8 -0.5 0.7 -0.4 -0.3 0.7 -0.6 0.8
60° O. 1 0.9 0.9 -0.6 0.9 -0.4 -0.3 0.9 -0.7 0.9
1800 -0.5 0.8 0.8 -0.5 0.8 -0.3 -0.4 ,0.8 .,.0.4 0.8 l

p = (Cpe - Cpi)q

27

.. _.--,:., ... _: .. '.

'-:'-.·":':'-"'L __ L_:".,'·

, '._ , '

TABLE 15 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS . WITH BOTH LONG SIDES OPEN ~ ROOF· PITCH 300 w·~2h

~

Fi =~D=~il

I I

i W -l l

c

E

Cp Pressure Coefficients, Long.Wal1s Open
c<. C 0 .. E. . .F .G .. .H. J K
00 -0.2 -0.'7· ..,0;7 -0 . .2 0.4 -0.9 -0.5 -O.S
450 0.5 -0.4 0.5 -0.4 0 -0.3 -0.6 0
600 0.7 -0.6 0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.1 -0.7 -0.3 .)

TABLE 16 - PRESSURE CdEFFICI.ENTS {OR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WITH BOTH SHORT SIDES OPEN, ROOF PITCH 300 w ~2h

A 8 eDt

Cp Pressure Coefficients, End Walls Open
C( A B C 0 G. H J K
.
00 0.9 -0.7 -s.: -0.4 -0.2 -0.7 -0.4 -0.7
450 0.5 -0.4 -0.1 -0.8 -0.3 -0.4 -0.8 -0.3
600 0.3 -0.2 O. 1 -0.5 -0.3 -0.1 -0.8 O. 1
600 Gable section c = 0.7, d = -0.6
Gable section e = 0.6, f = -0.8
- ', )

28

TABLE 17 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR GRANDSTAND WITH THREE SIDES OPE~

ROOF PITCH -:-50

h.~ O~8w

[ A C lEG
) B 0 IF H
I m
W

mR )

For 0( ::;: 900

I Cp Pressure Coefficients for Top and
Bottom on'Roof'
p( A B C .0, .E F G H
00 -1.0 0.9 -1.0 .0.9 ;"03 0.9 -0.7 0.9
--'
450 -1.0 0.7 -O~7 0.4- -:0.5 0.8 -0.5 0.3
" ;--,
-- -'
1350 1'_0.4 . ;;'1
-1.1 -0.7 ;':'1.0 .;.,0.9 . 1 -0.9 -1 .0
-- -
1800 -0 6 -:0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3
1< -- - • .
45° IImRII Cp Top ::;: -2.0
'450 "m .. C ;-Bottoln =1.0
-- R P -,
-- .-. Cp Front & Back of Wall
0( J K L M
00 0.9 -0.5 . · --- 0.9 -0.5
-, I-
450 ,0.8 -0.6 0.4 -0.4
;
-,
1350 I- , -1.0 0.4
... 1.1 0.6
I,
1800 ,..0.3 0.9 -0.3 0.9
600 11m II Cp K - -1.0
w
60° IImw u Cp J :::: 1.0 Frictional Drag F' = 0.05 q 1 w on roof

29

.:._._._._, __ :._-.

7.9 Shelter roofs without walls.

Wi nd loads on shelter roofs may be seriously altered by the presence or absence of obstructions such as stores or vehicles under or adjacent to the roof. It is therefore necessary to take account of the various conditions that may prevail.

Some probable circumstances are covered in Tables 18 to 21

and pressure coefficients are given for the roofs under these conditions. Not~that frictional drag of the wind on the roof surface may be significant in these cases and should be included in the load calculation. The frictiona1coefficien-t used allows for one surface of the roof to be re lat i ve 1y smooth, and the other to be'rough, such as with corrugated cladding and normal supporting members.

Table 21 iists the resultant: pressure coefficient on canopy roofs' wi th va ryi n9 ang 1 e of pitch.

TABLE 18 - PRESSURECOEFFI Clj:NTS FOR~HEL TER ROOF WITHOUT

WALLS, ROOF PITCH 300 w ~2h

J

Roof Slopes

00 opes
D( A B I C 0
00 0.6 -1.0 ;...0.5 -0.9
450 O. 1 '-0.3 .. 0.6 -0.3
900 -0.3 -0.4 -0.3 -0.4 R f Sl

0( A B C 0
00 0.1 0.8 -0.7 0.9
450 -0. 1 0.5 -0.8 0.5
900 -0.4 -0.5 -0.4 -0.5
1800 -0.3 -0.6 0.4 -0.6 •••• 1:1

Gable Ends

Gable Ends

'" J K L M
900 0.8 -0.4 0.3 -0.3 0( J K L M
900 0.8 -0.4 0.3 -0.3 For ~ = 450 on surface m Cp (upper surf ace j v= -1.0

Cp (lower surface) = -0.2

In both cases:

For OC = 00 and 450 apply values for A to 0 over whole length 1 Fort< = 900 apply values for A to 0 over the length 11

For~ = 900 include frictional drag on roof F' = 0.05 q 1 w

For q = 450 on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.5

Cp (lower surface) = 0.5

p = (Cpe - Cpi)q 30

RQOF PITCH' 1 00

w~·2h

TABLE 19 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS'FOR'SHELTER ROOF WITHOUT WALLS

F'

A C '0"

~--

8 D l-

t

m

K

--R

c ,

D l"w

- l

Po

90

Roof Slopes

0(, A 'B C 0
0°', -l.0 0.3 -0.5 0.2
450 -0.3 O.l I' _(). 3 O. 1
900 -0.3 0 . -0.3 0
'.' Gable Ends

)

For ~ = 00 on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.0

Cp (lower surface) = 0.4

F'

~_06

8 D

___ ......... q_.__ ~" O. B h

rm

A. I C.,. -.fl .... ".·W B rD.·.·· .l

-h-' l

. F' o· ..

I 90 .

"

J

I

I

L

Roof Slopes

K A B C 0
00 -1.3 0.8 -0.6 0.7
..
450 -'0.5 0.4 -0.3 0.3
.'
900 . .. 0.3 0 -0.3 0
.
~800 '-0.4 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 Gable Ends

~ J K L M
900 0.8 -0.6 0.3 -0.4 For ~ = 00 on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.6

Cp (lower surface) = 0.9

In both cases:

For~ = AD, 450 (and 1800) apply values for A to p over whole length 1 For K = 900 apply values for A to Dover 1 ength 1

For x = 00 and 900 include frictional drag on roof F' = 0.06 q lw

1,1

ROOF PITCH -100

w~'2h

TABLE 20 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR SHELTER ROOF WITHOUT WALLS

l'= w

c o

1-

,

.1

w

Roof Slopes

c<. A B C 0
00 0.3 -O.? ". 0.2 -0.9
450 0 -0.2 O. 1 -0.3
900 -0. 1 0.1 -0.1 O. 1 These values are valid only for a relatively smooth lower surface

For D< ::: 00 on surface m

Cp (upper surface)::: 0.4 Cp (lower surface)::: -1.5

F' 0

A C 0

~--

_____ gL..!-l__.__h ,; O. B h

m

A I C t'= w

B 0

--1--

t~oo I

I

w

,

-I

Roof Slopes

K A B C 0
00 -:0.7 0.8 -0.6 0.6
450 '-0.4 0.3. -0.2 0.2
--
90b -0.1 O. 1 ':'0.1 0.1
1800 -0.4 -0.2 -0.6 -0.3 For 0< ::: 00 on surfacem Cp (upper surface) = -1.1 Cp (lower surface) = 0.9

In both cases:

For c< ::: 00, 450 (and 1800) apply values for A to D over whole length 1 For b( '" 900 apply values for A to 0 over 1 ength l'

For ~ = 00 and 900 include frictional drag on roof F' = 0.06 q 1 w

32

TABLE 21 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cn FOR CANOPY ROOFS WITH ! ~ h/w' <::'1

Section Roof Angle Windward Slope Leeward Slope
(degrees)
5 -0.8 or 1.2 -1.0
cp 10 -0.6 or 1.4 -1.0
15 -0.4 or . 1 ~ 6 -1.0
20 -0.2 or 1.8 -0.7
25 0 or 2.0 -0.2
30 0 or 2.0 0
) 5 -1.? or 0.8 1.0
10 -1 .4.or 0.6 1.0
15 -1.6 or 0.4 1.0
cp 20 -loB or 0.2 0.7
25 -2.0··or; 0 0.2
30 -2.0 or a 0
Wihd 00 Wind 1800
~ 0 -1.0 or 1.0 -1.0 or 1.0
5 -1.0 or 1.05 -1.05 or 1.0
Cp 10 1.1 -1. 1
15 1.J5 -1.15
Wind 0° Wind lBOo 20 1.2 -1.2
\ - _'
.I 25 1.25 -, .25
30 1.3 -1.3 The coefficients take account of the combined effect of the wind on both upper and lower surfaces of the canopy. Where alternative coefficients

are given, the canopy should be designed to accept both loading conditions. In addition to the uplift forces, there will be horizontal loads on the canopy due to the wind pressure on any fascia and to wind friction over the surface of the roof. For any wind direction, only one of these two, the more onerous, need be taken into account. Fascia loads should be calculated on the area of the surface facing the wind, using a force coefficient of 1.3.

Frictional drag should be calculated using the coefficients given in 7.4

Cp for individual cladding panels should be taken at ! 2.0.

For monopitch canopies the centre of pressure should be taken as acting at 0.25 of the span from the windward edge. For double pitch canopies, the centre of pressure should be taken as acting at the mid-point of each slope.

33

'. _._. c: . __ .'_

7.10 Structure~ of nearly-circular cross-section.

The pressure coefficients and force coefficients for structures

or elements of rounded sh~pe are dependent not only on the shape of the structure, but also on the flow conditions as expressed

by Reynold's Number~ which is a fUnction of the size of the structure and the wind speed. In consequence, the force coefficients and pressure coefficients apply only within certain limiting values of 0 Vs. The limits do, however, cover most of the circumstances that are important in practice. It will be noted also that the roughness of the surface affects the coefficients for rounded bodies and the tables cover a limited but practical range of surface conditions.

7.10.1 Cylinders, chimneys and tanks.

The force coefficients for this group of structures are included in Table 9. It will be noted that the values given apply only when D Vs'>- 6 m2/sec. but this will cover, in general, most structures with a diameter greater than 0.25 ~.

The pressure coefficients for these structures are given in Table 22. The table is lim{ted to two values of the ratio hiD, but coefficients for intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation. The values of Cpe in Table 22 may be used to calculate the wind forces that act in such a way as to deform the cylindrical structure. They apply to supercritical flow only and should therefore only be used where 0). 0.3 m. They may be used for wind blowing normal to the axis of cylinders having their axis normal

to the ground plane, ie. chimneys, silos and to cylinders having their axis parallel with the ground plane~ ie. horizontal tanks, provided that the clearance between the tank and the ground is

not less than D.

.).

his the hei ght of a verti ca 1 cyl inder or 1 ength of a hori zonta 1 cylinder. Where there is a free flow of air around both ends, h is to be taken as half the length when calculating hiD.

34

TABLE 22 - PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION>AROUND'CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES

D

Wind

) Positi on Pressure coefficient Cpe
on
periphery 6 ....
. .,' ". _ .. ~ " . , .. t: ' --
Surface: rough or with Surface: smooth
. 'I' . projections
degrees h/D = 10 h/D::po 2.5 h/D = 10 hiD ~2.5
0 1.0 1 .0 1.0 1.0
10 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
20 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
30 0.4 0.4 0.35 0.35
40 0 0 0 0
50 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.5
60 - 0.95 - 0.8 - 1.2 - 1.05
70 - 1.25 - 1 . 1 - 1.4 - 1.25
80 - 1.2 - 1.05 - 1.45 - 1.3
90 - 1.0 - 0.85 - 1.4 - 1.2
100 - 0.8 - 0.65 - 1.1 - 0.85
120 - 0.5 - 0.35 - 0.6 - 0.4
-- ) 140 - 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.35 - 0.25
160 - 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.35 - 0.25
180 - 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.35 - 0.25 In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value of Cpi shall be taken into account.

For open ended cylinders where h/D~ 0.3 Cpt may be taken as - 0.8. For open ended cylinders where h/D< 0.3 CRi may be taken as - 0.5. For the roof (or end) of closed cylinder of tank take epe as - 1.0.

35

7.10.2 Tubes~ rods and wires of nearly circular crOss-section.

The important distinction between the subjects of this paragraph and the p~eceding one is that the diameter is generally small in relation to the length; and because of the small diameter involved, values of 0 Vs less than 6 m2;sec will frequently apply. In consequence alternative values of Cf are given for subjects of di'ffering cross section. Border line cases will arjse when a wind speed somewhat below the maximum will necessitate the use of the higher value of Cf. Care should be taken to cover the worst condition (allowing of course for an appropriate reduction in q consistent with' the lower values of Vs).

TABLE 23 - .FORCE COE~FICIENTS Cf FOR WIRES AND CABLES (.1/0>100)

Fll)w Regime

Force Coefficient Cf for~

Smooth surface wire

Mbd~rately smoo thwt re (ga Ivani zed or painted)

Fine stranded cables

Thi ck stranded cables

DVs <: 0.6 m2/s 1 .2 1.3
DVs ~ 0.6 m2/s 0.9 1.1
DVs~6m2/s 1.2 1.2
DVs ~ 6 m2/s 0.5 0.7 F = CfqlD

)

7.10.3 Spheres.

The pressure coefficients and force coefficient for spheres are given 1n Table 24. They apply only to spheres having a ~oderately smooth surface and in circumstances where OVs is

greater than 30 m2/s. (Seecdmment irt7.9~) .

TABLE 24 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS ANO"FORCE·COEFFICIENTS FOR SPHERE

Force coefficient Cf = 0.2

)

~

0<-

---:;> _j_" -+-~ ---+- -- -+--.._-

direction of the Wind

K 00 150l 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 l350 150Ci 1650 1800
Cpe 1.0 0.9 0.5 -0.1 -0.7 -1.1 -1.2 -1.0 -0.6 -0.2 O. 1 0.3 0.4 The above coefficients apply to a moderately smooth sphere when DVs7' 30 m2js.

37

7.11 Structures with arched roofs.

The pressure coefficients for a typical hangar-type structure are given in Table 25. With ~his type of building where there are normally large doors' which may admit or extract air rapidly, depending on. the direction of the wind, it is especially important to allow for extremes of internal pressure as indicated in Appendix E.

TABLE 25 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR STRUCTURES WITH ARCHED ROOFS

L-c.-w ~12.h

I

A~T3B~/6

91 I I

o .~5w! • w -

I

~ A N 8 ~
---
I: ...

1- 0 .I
w --
J f>( A B C 0 E F G H J K -~ ~
00 0.7 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -0.1 -0.5 -0.8 :-0.8 -0.4 -0. 1 _ . -1.2 ... ..
300 0.6 -0.3 0.2 -0.4 -0. 1 -0.4 -0.7 -0.9. -0.7 -0.4 ' ... .·c2.0
.--- . _,0.- __ • __
C( A B C 0 L M N 0 P 'Q ..
... .. -
900 -0.3 -0.3 0.9 -0.3 -0.8 -0.7 cO.5 -0.3 -0.1 '-0. T -
__j__ 7.12 Ind iv i dua l structural members.

)

The force coeff tc i ents in Table 27 are given for two mutual1yperpendtcul an di-rections relative to a reference axis on the structural member. They are designated Cfn and Cft and give the forces normal and transverse respectively to the reference planet as will be apparent from the diagrams.

The coeffi ci ents refertomembers of infi nile 1 ength. For. members of fin; te 1 enqth , the coeffici ents sha 11 be mul ti P li ed by a factor K which depends on t.heratio l/h~ where 1 is the

1 ength of the member and ~i s the wi dth across the direct; on of the wind. Values of K are given in Table 26~

Where anymember+abuts on to a plate or wall in such away

that freefl ow of a.i.r ar-ound the end of the member is cbs true ted, the rat; a l/h..: shall be"doubled for the purpose of deter-mini ng k. When both ends of a member are so obstructed, the rat; osha 11 be

taken as infinity. .

TABLE 26 - VALlIES OF REDUCTION FACTOR K FOR MEMBERS OF FINITE LENGTH AND SLENDERNESS

l/ht( or'l/D 2 5· . 10 20 40 50 100 CIa
Ci r cul ar cylinder, ,: ..
subcriticaTfTow 0,58 0.62 0.68 0.74 '0.82 0.87 0.98 .1.0
..
Circular cylinder,
supert~itical flow 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 Lo 1.0
Flat plate perpen-
dicular to wind 0.62 0.66 0.69 . 0.81 d.87 0.:90 0.95 1.0 )

39

~:"'SL:: 27 - FORCE CC:U-~ICIE;~TS FOR JND1VlLUAL STRUCTUR.\L J-:HbE:RS

T 51D--' OF t f-N]T- '~"~TH

(FLA -:.)) .• :~ 1 ,= LU"\;l1 ,

Ff .,. Ft Ft+ .... 1'" Ft + Ft
O.5~ r- -~ L~i O.45h =t"l Ft
-r Ib:zi+~ F~:ro El--t,
~yT]--.
r ~.-t7
d- L._ h .
Fn . Fn 1_ a·11i f ~43t
-j~Jh ' 1.1 h ---<
- . . . ,
. .. . . . . .
IX.. Cfn eft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn eft
00 1.9 0.95 1.8 1.8 1. 75 O. 1 1.6 0 2.0 0 2.05 0
450 1.8 0.8 2.1 1.8 0.85 0.85 1.5 -0.·1 1.2 0.9 1 .85 0.6
900 2.0 1.7 -1.9 -1.0 O. 1 1.75 -0~95 0.7 -1.6 2.15 0 0.6
1350 -1.8 -0.1 -2.0 0.3 -0.75 0.75 -0.5 1.05 -1. 1 2.4 -1.6 0.4
....
1800 -2.0 O. 1 -1.4 -1.4 -1.75 -0. 1 -1 .5 0 -1. 7 +2.1 -1.8 0
- )

t- Ft t- Ft i Ft "i Ft .'t Ft t Ft
'--3:[ l-I • T=j-c+ ~ • r __ -»
00 : o·Sh i-- _ _.,. ~:&
\1h- .~. -;: l-h th_ --..-
l__ •.. , Fn _L_ Fn _1_ Fn
V-l_ I.Gh.1 0.48~.· I. I I Fn - Fn
I I - I~ LU
O:lh--{ . 'h
_ h ~ I f.. O.5h

0( Cfn Cft Cfn eft Cfn eft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft
00 1.4 0 2.05 0 1.6 0 2.0 a 2.1 0 2.0 0
450 1.2 1.6 1. 95 0.6 1.5 1.5 1.8 O. 1 1.4 0.7 1.55 1. 55
900 0 2.2 0.5 0.9 0 1.9 0 O. 1 0 0.75 0 2.0 For slenderness

hK is to be used: ~ Fres

I- L k I"~ ~

~ p___ /80b;(' ...

~ , ffi'vo/"FO

Force coefficients are for wind normal to longitudinal axis of member.

1 ~ length of member

h as indicated in diagram

:~Orina 1 force F n = Cfn q k 1 h

Tangential force Ft = eft q k h

7.13 Circular sections.

For circular sections, the force' coefficients Cf~ which are dependent upon values of DVs, are given in Table 28. The values of Cf given in this table are suitable for all surfaces of evenly d i s tr i buted roughnes·s of height less than 1/100

di ame ter , that is t for a 11 norma 1 surface fi ni shes and for members of infinit~ length.

Force, F = C~K1D, where K is given in Table 26.

TABLE·28 - FORCECOEFFICIENT$ Ct FOR INDIVIDUA~ STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF CIRCULAR SECTION AND INFINITE LENGTH

)

Flow Regime

Force Coefficient Cf

Subcritical flow DVs<"6 m2/s

Re <. 4. 1 x 105

1.2

6~DVs<"12"m2/s

4.1 x 1 05~Re<'8.2 x 105

0.6

12~DVs <.33 m2js Supercritical flow

8.2 x 105~ Re<'22 .6 x 105

0.7

DVs?33 m2/s Rep22.6"··x 105

0.8

)

A description of sUpercritical flow and Reynolds Number (Re in above tab 1 e) is gi yen in Append; x F.

41

8. WIND LOADS ON UNCLAD STRUCTURES

8.1 Genera 1

This Section applies to permanently unclad structures and structural frameworks whilst temporarily unclad.

It does not apply to aerodynamically responsive structures. nor to structures of unusual sh~pe.

8.2 Single frames

The wind load on a~ing]e frame shall. be. calculated for the condition where the wind is at right angles.tothe frame. This load shall bE.< assumed. to apply for any other wind direction except when t t'can be shown that a lesser l oad is appropriate.

The wind load F acting in the direction of the wind shall be taken as:

)

J

where Ae is the effecti vearea of the frame

q is the pressure head of the wi~d (see Section 6) Cf is the forcecoefficiert.

The effectiv~ area Ae sh~llbe the shadow area of the frame, projected on to the wind front.

The (a) (b)

force coefficient for a single frame consisting of: circular members, or

ci rcul ar secti on members j nwhich an the members of the frame have DVsvalues less than £'m2/s or all members have DVs values greater than 6 m2/s are given in Table 29.

TABLE 29 - EFFECTIV.E FORCE. CO~EFFICIENTS Cf FOR SINGLE FRAMES

)

Force Coefficient Cf for:
Solidity ratio 0 Flat-sided members Circular sections·
Subcritical Supercri ti cal
Fl ow DV s.c:: 6m2/ s Flow DVs~ 6m2/s
0.1 1.9 1.2 0.7
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.8
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8
0.4 l.} 1.1 0.8
0.5 1."6 1.1 0.8
0.75 1.6 1.5 1.4
1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 II?

The solidity ratio 0 is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind direction d'iv i ded by the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction.

When single frames are composed of circular section members, it is possible that the larger members wil l bei"n the supercritical flow regime (ie. DVs~6 m2;s) and the smaller members will not (ie.

DVs<6 m2/s). there may also be some details fabricated from flat-sided sections ..

In this situatio~, the wind force acting on the frame should be calculated using an effective force coefficient equal to

Z.Cf(super) + (1 - Z) A(circ.sub),Cf(sub) + (l-Z)A(flat).Cf(flat)

A(s~b) .. A(sub)

where Cf(super) is the force coefficient of the supercritical circular sections from Tabl e 28;

Cf{sub) is the for~e coefficient of the, subcritical circular sections

from Table 28; . .... .' '. .'

Cf(flat) is the force coefficient of· the flat~sided member's from Table 27;

A{circ.sub) is the effective area of the subcritical circular sections; A(flat} is the effectiVe area of the flat-sided members;

A(sub} = A(circ.sub) + A(flat);

Z = Area of the frame in'a supercritical flow .

Ae

43

8.3 Multiple frame structures.

This section applies to structures having two or more parallel frames where the windward frame may have a shielding effect on those frames to leeward. The windward frame, and any exposed parts of other frames, shall be cal::ulated in the normal manner, but the wind load on parts of frames which are sheltered shall be taken as:

F '" 1 CfqAe

where 1 is a shielding factor dependent on the sol idt ty ratio of the windward frame and the spacing ratio of the frames.

Values of the shielding factor for frames with flat-sided members are given in Tabl~ 30.

Where there are more than two frames the wind load on the third

and subsequent frames shall be taken as equal to that"on the -)

sscond fra,me. Th~ spaci:ngratioi s the di stance between frames

divided by the smaller overall dimension of the windward frame.

TABLE 30 ... ~ SHIELDING FACTOR 17

. . ". 1

Spacing ratio Value of 'lf or .aJl aerodynami c, solidt ty ratiop, of'
O. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 and over
up to 1.0 1.0 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.68 0.54 0.44 0.37
2.0 1.0 0.97 0.91 0.82 0.71 0.58 0.49 0.43
3.0 1.0 0.97 0.92 0.84 0.74 0.63 0.54 0.48
4.0 1.0 0~98 0.93 0.86 0.77 0.67 0.59 0.54
5.0 1.0 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.60
6.0 and over 1.0 0.99 0.95 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.69 0.66 The spacing ratio is equal to the distance, centre to centre, )

of the frames, beams or girders divided by the least overall

dimension of the frame~ beam or girder measured at right angles

to the direction of the wind. For triangular framed structures

or rectangular framed structures diagonal to the wind the

spacing ratio should be calculated from the mean distance between the frames in the direction of the wind.

The aerodynamic solidity- ratio used in Table 30 enables all cross sections of single members to be incorporated.

Aerodynamic solidity ratio ~ ~ solidity ratio (0) x a constant where the constant ~ 1.6 for flat-sided members;

= 1.2 for circular sections in the subcritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunction with such ctrcular sections;

= 0.5 for circular sections in the supercritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunction with such circular sections.

AA

8.4 Lattice towers.

8.4.1 Lattice towers of square and triangu1~r settion constitute special cases for which it may be conveni"ent to use an overall force coefficient in the calculation of wind load. The wind load shall, for convenience, bacal culated for the condition when the wind blo~s against any face.

The wi~d1oad F acting in the direction of the wind shall be taken as:

F = CfAeq

where Ae is the effective area of the f'ace (see 8.2)

q is the dynamic pressure of the wind (see Section 6) and Cf is the overall force coefficient.

8.4.2 For towers with flat-sidedmembers~ the values of the overall force coefficient are given in Table 31.

)

TABLE 31 - OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENT Cf FOR TOWERS· WITH FLAT-SIDt:D MEMBERS

0.1 0:2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Equilateral "Triangular Towers

Solidity Ratio ~

3.8 3.3 ·2.8 2~ 3: 2.1

··3.1 2. T 2.3 1.9 1.5.

)

For square lattice towers the maximum load occurs when the wind blows on to a corner. It may be taken as 1.2 times the load for the face-on wind.

For triangular lattice towers the same wind load may be assumed for any inclination of the wind to a face.

8.4.3 Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular cross settion that all the members of a lattice tower are in the same.flow regime, i.e. either subcritica1 or supercritical, wind forc~ calculations should be carried out as described in 8.2 for single frames, due account being taken of the shielding factors given in 8.3.

When it can be shown that a 11 members of the tower are wholly in the same flow regime, the overall force coefficients Cf given in Tables 32 and 33 may be used. These taBles are based on actual measurements and give somewhat lower values than would be obtained using Tables 29 and 30.

TABLE 32 - OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENT Cf'FORSQUARE TDWERS:COMPOSED 'OF'RQUNDED MEMBERS

Force Cbeffie; ent Cf for: . . ..
Solidity ratio Subcritica1 flow Supercritical flow
of front face DVs< 6m2Js DV >"6 2/'
s;;.o' m .. s
~
Onto face Onto corner Dntoface Dnto corner
5 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.2
O. 1 2.2 .. 2.3 1 .2 1.3
0.2 1.9 2.1 1.3 1.6
D.3 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.4 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.5 1.4 1.9· 1.4 1.6 )

TABLE 33 - DV[R~LL FORCE COEFFICIENT Cf FOR EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR TDWERSCOMPOSED OF ROUNDED MEMBERS

Force .•...•..
Coefficient Cf .for:
.'.
Solidity ratio of Subcritical flow Supercritica1 flow
front face ~ DVs< 6 m2ls . 2
DVs~ 6 m /5
All wind directions All wind directions
0.05 1.8 0.8
O. 1 1.7 0.8
0.2 1.6 1.1
0.3 1.5 1.1
0.4 1.5 1.1
0.5 1.4 1.2 )

8.5 Individual structural members.

For individual structural members of unclad frames, use the force coefficient in 7.12 and 7.13.

APPENDIX A

Ground Roughness Buildin95ize'and:Height'AboV~ ~t6und - The Basis'of the 52 Factors

)

Roughness

Near the ground~ the wind encounters various obstacles .i n its path and

the gustiness of the wind depends on the size, frequency and geometri ca 1 arrangement of these obstacles. If the obstructions are large and frequent, the sur-race over which the wind flows is said to be rough; if the ground surface itself is level and there are no obstructions, then

the surface is said to be smooth. A rough surface w1'11 produce a wind flow with much gustiness whereas a smooth surface win not add appreciably tofhe gusti ness a lreadydevel oped tn. the Iower: ayers of the atmosphere. The gust; ness can be defined numerically ina number of ways, but "the one adopted for code purposes is 'ther-atio of them~ximum·gust,V, to the maximum hourly mean wind speed, V; each at an effective height of lO.m

and each having a probability of 0.02 of being exceeded in 'any one year. This ratio has been found to vary, from about 1.2 over very smooth

surfaces to about 2.4 over very rough surfaces. Site roughness may therefore be c lass! fied~nto .fo.urbroad ca~ggor;es;eachhaving an

associated mean ratioVjV,as follows: . ._

Category 1

Open level country

VjV = 1.5

2 Rolling country with few obstructions and isolated

small villages VjV = 1.7

3

Wooded country of small towns

VjV = 1.9

4

City centres where the general level of rooftops is as defined in 5.5.1

-

VjV =2.1

Averaging Time

It is shown in Appendix B that maximum wind speeds of a stated return period and averaged over periods of time equal to 3 sec, 5 sec and 15 sec are required for design purposes. Because anemographs in widespread use do not provide records from which 5 and 15 sec maximum speeds can be extracted, the resu1 ts of speci a 1 measurements must be used to obtain relationship between the maximum 3 sec gust speed and maximum speeds averaged over 5 and 15 secs. It has been found that on the average at an effective height of 10 m these relationships are:

5 sec speed = 0.95 x 3 sec speed 15 sec speed = 0.90 x 3 sec speed

47

Variation with Height

Above the 10 m level, it is sufficient to assume that both mean hourly wind speeds and gust speeds averaged over any selected interval of time between 1 hour and 3 sec vary with hei'ght according to a power law:

V(Z) = V(X)· [ir~

where V(Z) is the maximum speed averaged over a given interval of time at hei ght Z

V(X) is the maximum speed averaged over the same interval. of time at height X (usually X= 10. m)

and ol... is the exponent for the power law which must be specified for each averaging time and roughness category.

However, special experiments using three anemometers London have also showfl that the general level of the taken into consideration and the power law modified.

top level is X ; the powe r law becomes :

'V(Z) =V(X)I~ =2cXwhere X ~ -. x = 10 m.

Interact; on Between Averaging Ti:me,.Height and Roughness

at the GPO Tower in rooftops may be

If the general roof

' .. J

It is easy to show that the relationship between the 3 sec gust and the required speed in any category at height levels above X are given by:

V(Z,t) = [Z-X+10JC«C,.t) k{t)

~X;:3") . 10- .

where V(Z,t) is the speed averaged over t sec at height Z V(X,3) is the speed averaged over 3 sec at height X

o«c,t) is the exponent for roughness category.c and averaging time t k(t) is the ratio of the t sec speed to the 3 sec speed.

Finally, whatever the terrain, it has been assumed that the wind speed averaged over any time interval at gradient wind level is the. same. Allowances for the variation of gradient wind height with roughness of terrain cannot be made exactly but using the power law formula, it is possible to calculate speed ratios at different heights and the factor q(c) has been introduced such that at certain heights, different for

each value of category c, the 3 sec gust speed is constant whatever the roughness of the underlying terrain. Because the basic wind speed refers to a standard level of 10 m in open level country, all the S2 factors have been adjusted by the use of the factor q(c} to convert this basic speed into the speed required at any height Z i~ any surfac~ roughness category c and averaged over any time interval t.

The final equation if Z>'Z(c) is:

52 = V(Z,t,c) = q(C)k(t)rZ"X(~~+lOl~ (c,t)

V(X(I),3,rr l j

where V(Z,t,c) is the t sec speed at height Z in category c V(X(1),3,1) is the 3 sec speed at height X in category 1 (as

given in Table 1).· .. .

qlc) is a factor which ensures that at near gradient wind level, all 3 sec speeds are the same whatever the surface roughness category.

k(t) is the ratio of the t sec to the 3 sec speed
X(c) is the standard datum 1 eve 1 in category c
and ~ (c,t) is the selected power law expdnent~ The val ues adopted from eXperiment$.,·· measurements and tti al and error methods are:

)

_' ... _
Category X(c) q (c) k(t) ! ~.( c. t)
metres t=3 5 15.sec 3, 5. 15
1 10 1.00 1.00 0.95 0.90 .080 .090 .100
2 12 0.98 1.00 0.95 0.90 .085 .095 .105
3 20 0.95 1.00 0.95 0.90 .090 .100 .110
4 35 0.94 1.00 0.95 0.90 .090 .105 .115 For heights below Xc in each category 52 factors have been obtained by assuming a linear increase with height from a selected value at 3 m to the value at Xc. It should be noted that'X(c)-lO represents a general obstruction level. In category 1 this t s zero, in category 2, it is about 2 m, in category 3 about 10m and in category 4 about 25 m. Category 4 is thus seen to represent the centres of densely packed city centres only where the buildings are tall (25 m or so) and the streets

) relatively narrow.

Influence of Fetch

Although classification of ground roughness intomtegories 1 to 4 has been made, it should be recognised that the change from one ground roughness to another is necessarily a gradual process. The wind must traverse a certain ground distance before equilibrium is established in a new velocity profile. The :::hange starts first in the layers of wind nearest the ground and the new profile extends to an increasingly deep layer as the fetch increases.

For practical purposes, it may be assumed that a fetch of a kilometre or more is necessary to es tab l ish a d if f'erent roughness category. but that within the actual roughness layer, ie. below the general rooftop

or obstruction level to windward, a lesser distance may apply as follows, depending on the density of buildings and other obstructions on the ground.

49 .

" "Ground Covefage

" "Requ; red Fetch

~ 10% {: 15% 1- 30%

500 m 250 m

100 m

Shelter due to an individual building or ob~truction shoOld not be considered without expert guidance.

For a.s i te where thegrQl,Indroughness. is di fferent from di fferent directions, the most sev~~~ gr~dirig should be u~ed, or, exceptionally~ appropriate gradings may be used for different wind direction~. For example, the sea-front of a coastal town would generally rank as

ground rouqhnes s i cateqory 1 (see also Appendix Dif cliffs are involved).

)

50

APPENDIX B

Explanatory Notes on Gusts and·the·Wind.:.Speed:Averaging Time

)

The natural peri ad of asci Tl at ion of most structures is only a few seconds or less and, since impulsive forces lasting only about a hal f -per-iod ofosci.llatian are effective in deflecting a structure, it follows that gusts of only a few- seconds duration would produce significant wind loads if they developed simultaneously over the

who 1 eS tru ctu re. . ... . .

The incidence and spread of gusts over:a building has been·studied at the Bui lcting Research Station where it has-been found that the gust loading on a tall rectcingular office block is significantly greater than the mean load averaged over one ~inute as used in the 1952 edition of the Bfitish standard COde of Practice.

Measurements suggest that the time interval over which maximum wind speeds should be averaged will depend on the size of th~ building or part. of. astructureunder.consideration .. This averaging time varies from about 15 secfor.byildin.9sof50 mheightor·horizontalspread tol secor lessfor small·elements such aswindows, claddirig units and roofcQveti ngs. .... . ... ...

As a routine, meteorbloQjcaT stations equipped with anemcqraphs iof the type used by the UK Metebrolpgi cal Office ,extractfrbtn the' recordsthe mean hourly speeds and the maximum gust speed foreac:h dai.· BecB.use of the chara.cteristicsof'theanemomete·r ,themaxirnum gust speed represehts ·the' mean wi nd s'peedaverageq over about 3secs. It i ssard to have)n averag; n9' time of 3 sec and is of ten called: the Jsec gust. Similarly the mean hourly windspeed·hasari averaging

ti me of one hour.

Relatively little is known about the tnc i dence and intensity of gus.ts averaged over periods of time sho.rter than3 sees, so that , although

it is desirable to determine maximum wind loads. on small units using gusts withshotter averagi ng time, it is not at present pass; ble to . specify magnitudes in strong winds. The standards adopted in the ..

Code are therefore the maximum 3 sec gust speeds for all units of glazing, cladding and roofing, whatever the size or proportion of the building concerned. A wind speed with 5 sec averaging time is used

for the structural design of buildings and structures where neither the'greatest horizontal nor vertical dimension exceeds 50 m. For buildings and structures whose largest horizontal or vertical dimension exceeds 50 m a wind speed of 15 sec averaging time is used.

51

For each station equipped with an anemograph of the above-mentioned type, it is possible to analyse the series of annual maximum gust speeds stattstically following the methods of Gumbel. A similar procedure may be adopted, for the analysis of a series of annual maximum mean hourly wind speeds_ However, in order to prepare a

map or table of extreme values) the data must be homogeneous and

refer to a standard datum level in a standard site. The data for

each station should also coyer a period of at least 20 years. It

has not been establ i shed thatthe Gumbel methods areiappli cabl e to . extreme wind speeds in thetaribbean, ~hich is a tropical storm area, and in any case sufficiently long, homogeneous, records aren6t

yet available. The basic speeds q iveri i n Iab le 1 had to be obtained therefore by a different method, descri bedi nthe next paragraph. Nevertheless, they are maxtmum 3 sec gust speeds likely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years, chosen because:

(a) (b)

of the case for selecting the 3 sec gus( givenabdye

the average lifetime of most buildings covered in this Code is

near 50 years. _ ..

)

It has been-shown by HCS .Ihom of the US environmental Sci~nce Services Administration that thestati s t ica lcifsfributiqns of extreme wind speeds in tropi ca 1 storms have quite a different shape cha:rac~eristic from those for extra-tropical storms. In the tropical storm area of the North Atlantic. he has showntha ta series of annua1extrel11e winds is always a sample from a mixtur·e of tropica landextra.-tropi·d.l storms $ which is fitted by amixed e;:.treme valuedistributi0t:l.Thqmalso

deve.l oped a method ofcomputi ng . such .a .. djstritJuti on fgrany. place in

an area 1; ab1 e to tropicalst.Qrms, proyid¢d that,t\10 facto:rs are known or may be reasonably es t imated . Thesear~ the mean annuCiltropical

s tormfrequency and the average wind s peed i h theinos t w; npy month.

In 1970, He Shellard applied the me thod to a number of s tati ons in the C~ribbean area for which these data were available. giving estimates of the "fas tes t mi 1 ell speeds in mph at 9m above the ground and having a 50 year return per-iod.. These fastest mi le speeds were then converted to 3-secdnd gust speeds atTOrn above the ground uS'ing experimental

measured re 1 a t i onsh+ps between wi ndspeedsaveraged 'over periods of )

time varying from 3 seconds or less to 1 minute or more and applicable

to open l~vel ground~

Using more recent data than that available to Shellard, BA Rocheford re-computed the maximum 3 second gust speed for Antigua and for Barbados, He found that the values calculated were higher than those presented by Shellard. The accompanying paper "Extreme Wind Speeds in Barbados and Antiguall sets out the details of the study. Using this information, the maximum 3 second gust speeds for· the other territories, except Guyana, were revised to produce Table 1. Shellard had stated that since Guyana was not affected by tropical storms, the maximum 3 second gust speed

had been estimated from the highest gust speed on record.

References:

HCS Thorn

- Toward a Universal Climatological Extreme Wind Distribution. Paper 24 of the Proceedings of the International Research Seminar on Wind .. Effects on Buildings and Structures, Ottawa, Canada, 1967 (UTP)

- ExtreineWind Speeds in the CommOnwealth Caribbean.

BAPE Journal, December 1972

HC Shellard

BA Rocheford

- Extreme Wind Speeds in Barbados and Antigua.

Caribbean Meteorological Institute, 1982.

53

EXTREME WIND SPEEDS IN BARBADOS AND ANTIGUA

Introduction

. .

HC Shell ard (1970) produced estimates of Bas i c Desi gn Wi nd Speeds for some Co~~nwealth countries including Barbados and Antigua. These estimates were obtained from. the Frechet Extreme Value Distribution.

F{v) = exp L - (v)-f' J.

»

with a shape parame'ter' &' and asca le parameter ,P.

Thorn (1968) has suggested that the population of annual extreme wind events in the southern north Atlantic and the Caribbean would be a mixture of extremes from tropical and extra-tropical storm populations giving a mixed Extreme Value distribution function G(v), the variable v being the

fastest mile of wind of the form)

G(v) = PEFE (v) + PTFT (v)
where FE(v) = exp [- V~J-9
FT(v) = exp [- v/j-I1-4.5
PE = 1 - PT PT is the probability of an annual extreme wind being produced by a tropical storm, and which Thorn showed can be estimated from f, the mean number of tropi ca 1 storm pas'saqes per year through the area concerned.

Thus, PT =[ 1 + 99 exp {-3.0)f]-1

~, the scale parameter, has also been shown by Thorn (1968) to be well correlated with the maximum mean monthly wind speed v by the equation:

? = (320.5 v + 248.7)~ - 15.7

Since, in the Caribbean the variable of interest is the maximum 3-second gust speed, estimates of this are obtained from the formula:

9 = 1.09 v + 8

where g is the 3-second maximum gust speed measured in mph.

The data used by Sh e'llard to estimate v for Barbados related to the period 1954-1960 and for Antigua to the period 1941-1948, and f was obtained from Thom1s map in his 1968 publication.

54

This paper presents estimates of Gt the fastest mile speedt and g, maximum 3-second gust speed for Barbados and Antigua using more recent data.

Methodology

1. Estimation of ft the mean number of tropical storms per yeart and calculation of PT.

The number of hurricanes and tropical storms passing within a square centred on each island of sides 5 degrees of latitude, ie. approximately 350 miles, and in addition for Barbados onlYt within a squareofside 2~degrees of latitude,ie. approximately 175

mil es ,; were determihedforthe years 1886 to 1980. The year 1979 was exc1 uded from the Anti gua data. For the peri ad 1886 to 1963 , the data were obtained from the publication "Trop i cal Cyclones of the North Atlantic Oceanu,,1965t and for the period 1964 to 1980t from issues of the UMonthly Weather Reviewu•

Territory Barbados Antigua
Square of Side 2~O 50 50
No. of Hurricanes
in 1886-1980 22 31 59 excludi ng 179
No. of Tropical
Storms in 1886-1980 45 65 68 excluding 179
Total 67 96 l27
f 0.71 1.02 1.35
PT 0.08 0.18 0.37
0.92 0.82 0.63 .," .
PE 2.

Estimation of i, the maximum mean monthly wind speed and calculation of ,,6 •

Data for Grant1ey Adams (Seawell) Airport, Barbados, for the period 1951 to 1979 were examined and for Coolidge Airport, Antigua for the per'i odJ-969 to 1978. FrOITl the data was extracted the mean speed of

the windiest month. .

Territory

Windiest month Highest mean speed V Sea 1 e parameter I'

Barbados

May 151, 155, 161 18.4 mph

62.7

Antigua January 174 19.3 mph 64.55

Results

The estimated Frechet Extreme Wind Distribut.ion with logarithm of v plotted against probability is shown in figures 2 and 3 for Barbadcis, and in figure 4 for Antigua. From these graphs, the fastest mile speeds for various Return Periods are read off to give the values in Table 34 below. Maximum 3-second gust speeds are then computed from these by

the relation:

g = 1.09v + 8 mph

55

TABLE 34 - FASTEST MILE SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS RETURN PERIODS

Return Period (Years) Fastest r~il e Speed (miles/hour)
Barbados Antigua
Square of Side 210 50 Sa
2
10 85 87 93
20 93 98 106
25 97 102 110
50 107 112 124
100 117 126 141
150 123 132 148. Return Peri ad '(Years) 3 Second Maximum GU$t Speed
Barbados Antigua
Square of Side 210 50 50
2
mph m/s mph m/s mph m/s
10 101 45 103 46 110 49
20 109 49 115 51 123 55
25 114 51 119 53 128 57
50 125 56 130 58 144 64
100 136 61 145 65 161 72
150 142 63 152 68 16~ 76 Discussion

A comparison of the maximum gust speeds for various Return Periods obtained by Shellard (1970) and 'in this study are given below,

Return Period (Years)·

10 20 50

100

Barbados

She11ard Present Study

50 square 50 sq. 2~0 sq

94 103 Tal

104 115 109

117 130 125

128 145 136

Maximum Gust Speed (mph) Antigua

She ll arc Present Study

50. square 50 square

93 110

104 123

120 144

132 161

)

The estimates from the present study are higher than those presented

in the Shellard Study. This arises from the higher value of V, the mean speed of the windiest month. For Barbados, this was 18.4 mph as against 16.5 mph in the Shel1ard Study and for Antigua 19.3 mph as against 15.0 mph.

For the analysis of the Barbados gust speeds, a 29 year period of wind data was used to determine ~ as against a 7 year period in the Shellard Study. The longer period would h~ve a higher probability of containing an extreme event than the shorter period. Two different sizes of square centred on Barbados were used to determine f, the mean number of the tropical storms per year and from it PT' the probability of an annual extreme wind being produced by a tropical storm. It is clear that the larger size of the square used, the larger would be the number of the tropical storms passing through that square. Consequently; the larger will be the values of f and PT' and finally the larger the maximum gust speed for a given Return

Period. This effect is shown in results of the study where the maximum gust speeds for all Return Periods are higher for the 5 degree square than

the 2! degree square.

56

The choice of size of square is somewhat arbitrary, but must in some degree be related to the area over which a tropical storm located at the square1s centre will produce extreme winds. A square of side 21 degrees will cover a maximum distance from its centre of about 125 miles, which is about the maximum distance from the centre over which a hurricane or a tropical storm will produce very high winds.

For this reason, a 2l degree square is preferred rather than a 5 degree square. However, further investigation into the relationship between PT and the size of the area used will be required before a firm choice may be made.

References

HCS Thorn

New'Distribution of Extreme Winds in the United States. Journal of the Structural Division, Jl.rnerican Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Vol. 94,1968, PP 1787-1801 .

. )

US Weather Bureau - Technical Paper No.55 Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1965.

He Shell ard - Extreme Wi nd Speeds in the Commonwealth Car; bbean

1970, BAPE Journal, December 1972.

)

57

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60

a M

APPENDIX C *

Factor 53

Factor 53 is based on statistical concepts and this Ap~endix shows how the factor has been computed from the data and describes some of its uses.

. . .

The wind speed haying a return per-tod , T 5 of 50 years shoul.d more properly be called that speed wh ichhas a prqbability p = 0.02 of being exceeded in any oneY€<1r. Return period and probab il ity are

connected by the re 1 a han: . . ..

)

Tp = 1

Now the probability that a ve lue Tess .than or equal to wind speed x will occur in one year is q .: 1 - p. In a peri()d of N years, the probabil i ty. Q. that a val ue less than or equal to x wi ll occur is:

". Q = qN

The probability P that a value greater than x wi 1 T occur at least once, in a period of N years is!

p = 1 Q
= 1 qN
= 1 ( 1 p)N
= 1 (1 - l}N
T )

For N :::: 50 and T :;;; 50, P= 0.63., Therefore, there is a probability of 0.63 that the once in 50 years wind speed will be exceeded at least once in a peri od of 50 years.

Factor 53 has been obtained by selecting values of P and N and-so l vinq the equation for T, and by calculating values of XT the once in T year speed. The value of $3 for the given P and N is the ratio of XT/X where X is the once in 50 year value of the speed. Figure 1 is a plot of $3 factors as a function of P and N. The data used to produce this figure

are for Barbad~s and Antigua. The value of the factor 53 may be read off for any pal r of values of P, the probabi 1 ity 1 eve l and N the expo~ure period of years. Normally 53 will be taken a~ 1.0 b~t Figure

1 .Wh1Ch may be us~d.i~ se~eral different ways, provides the designer w1th greater flexlblllty 1n choice of wind speed than is provided by Table 1, or by several such tables.

For the calculation of wind loads during construction or for calculation of wind loads on temporary structures whose probable life is shor~ wind speeds may be reduced using Factor 53. It is undersirable to consider an exposure period of less than 2 years in this context although the critical period may be only 2 weeks. As an exmaple with P = 0.63, the value of 53

= 0.64 for an exposure period of 2 years. Therefore there is a probability of 0.63 that a speed which is 0.64 times the once in 50 year wind speed. will be exceeded at least once in a period of 2 years.

61

Because normally a level of 0.63 will be used for all design work, the loads during construction maybe calculated using a wind speed equal to 0.64 times the speed in Table 1.

The calculations for the completed structure of building should use an appropriate value of 53 (normally S3 = 1.0).

The designer may also use Figure T to estimate wind loads which would result from choosing a different return period for the basic speed. For exposure periods greater than 10 years, with probability level equal to 0.63, the , exposure 'period .t s roughly equal to the return

peri cd in years. lhe,effect ofrnulti plying a basic wipd speed by

any gi ven factor can be es t imatedri n terms of return peri od, From Figure 1 the once in 100 years speed is roughly 1.12 t+mes the once in 50 years speed.

The effect ofgrea ter ?afety c~n a 1 so be assessed. Suppose that ~ except; ana lly, 'a probabi 1 i ty '1 eve 1 of 0.01 had been selected then 53

== 2.0.3. Al thpugh it cannot be seen from thedi ag ram , theapplicati on of th is factor converts' the 'once in 50 years 'wi nd to'a once in' 4975 years wind. The probability that such a wind will be exceeded in any one year is .0002. It must be remembered that wind speeds having such low va lues of probabi 1 ity associ ated w,i ththem cannot be es t imated satisfactorily frcim a record of 'even 50 years data and tha tthere may be other factors which affect the value of such an extreme. Fbr these reasons, the use of probability levels other than 0.63 should be restricted to special cases.

.. J

When the wind load for a selected wind speed has been calculated, it is common practice to apply a load or safety factor specified in

other Codes of Practi ce. If it is as sumed that the effect of thi s

load factor is to increase the return p~riod of the wind speed on1y~ then-ttte resulting change in the return period can beca Iculated from Figure 1. Suppose a, load factor of 1. 2 isapp 1 i e d, Thi s . would, correspond to an increase of wind of ,Jl":2 (.= 1.1) over the design wind speed. Reference to Figure 1 will show that such an increase of wind speed, which would have been brought about by the·use of a factor of 1.1 ~ •. '. corresponds" to the use of a return period of 90 years at the prbbab i l i ty 1 eve 1 of 0.63.

)

*

Information for the reV1Slon of this Appendix has been provided

by He 5~ellard and N Helliwell of the United Kingdom Meteorological Office.

62

APPENDIX D

The Effective Height H of "a Building Near"theEdge'ofa Cliff'or Escarpment

Zl is the general level of the ground at the foot of the escarpment. Z2 is the general level of the top of the escarpment.

The difference of level Z2 - Zl = z.

The artificial base from which H is measured is Zc.

e is the inclination of the mean slope of the cliff to the horizontal.

Three cases are considered:

)

(1) The average slope tan lIof the escarpment is ~ 0.3.

(2) 0.3 < ta nG < 2.

(3) tanB ~ 2.

(1) The average slope tan&of the escarpment is:::; 0.3. Fi gure 5

The artificial base Zc is that of the ground immediately around the buil di ng.

(2) O.3<tane <.2

Fi gure 6

63

The following points serve for reference:

A_ the point of intersection of the level Zl and the mean slope of the escar.pment;

B the point of intersection of the level Z2 and the mean slope of the escarpment;

C such that BC = Z;

D_ such that CD = 3z

Zc is then taken such that:

In front of A~ Zc = Zl

From B to C, Ze = Z 1 + 2 - tan e . z 1.7

Beyond D, Zc = Z2

Between A and Band· between G and D, Zc is obtained by 1 i nea r interpolation.

)

(3)

tan fj ? 2.

Figure 7

3z

)

,

"

A, 8, C and D are as defined in ease (2).

In front of A, Ze = Zl From A To C, Ze = Zl Beyond D~ Zc = Z2

Between C and 0, Zc is obtained by linear interpolation.

NOTE: This method of defining the e f f'ec t ive height of a building is taken from the French Code of Practice Regles NV 65.

hd

APPENDIX E

The Effect of Internal Pressures

The tota 1 wind force on a wall or roof depends on the di fference of . pressure between the outerand inner f'aces, Opendoors ,windows or . venti 1 ators on the wi ndward side of abuj Id i ng wi 11 fnc:reaseair pressure inside the building and this will increase the 16adingon

. those parts of the roof and walls which are,sybj!;!cted to external suction as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8

)

Conversely, openi ngs at 'pos t ti ons which are experi enci Q9 external suction will reduce the pressure inside the building, fhusincreasing total loads on a windward wall as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9

)

j

Most bui 1 di_ngs have some degree of permeab i l i ty on each face, throuqlrwindows, ventilati_on louvres, leakage gaps around doors and windows and to some extent through the cladding itself; if there are chimneys, these can provide a low-resistance path for air flow.

Permeabili.ty is expressed as the ratio of such openings to the total area of the face.

65

The problem is to determine the resulting internal balance of all the contributing leakage points and, for design purposes, to assess the worst possible combination of circumstances that may ari.se~

Normal Permeability

With all windows nomi na l l y closed, the normal permeability of a house or office block is likely to be in the range of 0.01% to 0.05% of the face area depending on thede~ree of dtatight-proofing.

Two Faces Uniformly Permeable

For a rectangular building of which the two opposite faces are uniformly permeable and the other faces impermeable, the value of Cpi shou1d be taken as 0.2 if the wind direction is normal to a permeable face, or -0.3 if the wind direction is normal to an impermeable face.

Four Faces Uniformly Permeable

If all four faces are uniform'ly permeable, Cpi should be taken as -0.3. Differing Permeability

Where the permeability differs from face to face such as when one face contains a dominant opening like an open doorway or window, the value of Cpi will change depending on the size and position of the opening

in relation to the other permeability. The following figures will serve for guidance:

Windward face 3 times more perflieable than any other face, Cpi ::: 0.1. Windward face 4 times more permeable than any other face, Cpi ::: 0.3. Windward face 6 times more permeable than any other face, Cpi = 0.5. Windward face 10 times more permeable than any other face Cpi ::: 0.6.

Where it is not possible, or is not considered justified to estimate the )

range of Cpi for a particular building~ the coefficient should be assumed

to be the more onerous of (a) or (b) for any determination of wall or

roof loadings:

(a) Where there is only a small probability of a dominant opening occurring during a severe storm, Cpi should be taken as the more onerous of 0.2 and -OJ3.

(b) For s i tuat ions where a dominant opening is likely to occur, Cpi should be taken at 0.75 of the value of Cpe outside the opening. The extreme conditions should be determined for the various wind directions that gfve rise to critical loading~ and it should be noted that especially severe internal pressures may be developed if a dominant opening is located in a region of high local external pressure.

66

Control of Internal Pressure

The value of Cpi can.sometimes be limited or controlled to advantage by the deliberate distribution of permeability in the walls and roof or by the deliberate proviSion of a venting device which can serve

as a dominant opening at a position ha~ing a suitable external pressure coefficient. An example of such an application is a ridge.venti"1ator on a low pitch roof which., under all direction of wind, will reduce the uplift force on the roof.

The total wi nd load P on any fl at wall or roof panel of area A. is:

')

P = A q(Cpe - Cpi}

There is a further comp l icat ion in a wall or roof element that comprises severa 11 ayers. For. example, a roof rnayheboarctedand fel ted, and covered with' t il'es. The pressure difference between outsi de, and ins ; de will then be brokendown into steps, across each layer; these steps will depend on th~r~lat.ive 'permeabjlity of' the .var-i ous layers and the access of air to . the spaces between them'.' ,,' Each ,case' needs careful study to ensure that the whole of ,the wind' load is not ·acc.identallytransf:erred

to a single l11embrane'such 'a?athihmetal'sheet Which may not. be designed to carry it.:Sirnilarly~ the pressure difference between windward and leeward faces ofabuiTdittg may be broken down insteps across . internal partitions and impose loads on them.

)

)

67

APPENDIX F

Wind Forces on Circular Sections

The wind force on any object ts gi ven by :

where Cf is the force coefficient.

Ae is the effective area of the object normal to the wind direction q is the dynamic pressure of'the wind.

For most shapes,the force coefficient r-ema tnsapproximatel y cons tant over. the whole range of wi nd speeds 1 i ke ly1;o .be enccun'ter-ed. However, for objects of circular cross sectf on, it varies considerably.

For ,a circular section, the force coeffictent;depe.nds tlpqn the way in )

which the wind flows around it; and, is.d~pendent upon t~e ve'loci ty ,and

ki nemat i c vi scos ity.nf rthe wind and diameter of the s?ction.,. The force coefficient iSljsua,lly quoted.agai.nst a'non.,..dirnensiQnaT' parameter ~ca 11 ed

the Reynolds Number, ,which takesa9count of ,the,yelqcjty' and viscosity

of the flowing medium (il1 this case the wind} and the member: diameter.

Reynolds Number, Re = DVs

.2J

where 0 is the diameter of the member Vs is the design wind speed. and

~);s the kinematic viscosity of the air, which is 1.46 x 10~S m2/s at lSoC and standard atmospheric pressure.

Since in most natural environments the kinematic viscosity of the air is fairly constant, it is convenient to use DVs as the parameter instead of Reynolds Numbers and this has been done in this Code of Practice.

The dependence of a circular section's force coeffici'ent upon Reynolds Number is due to the change in the wake developed behind the body.

At a low Reynolds Number, the wake is as shown in Figure 10 and the force coefficient is typically 1.2. As Reynolds ~umber is increased, the wake gradually changes to that shown in Figure 11, ie. the wake width dw decreases. and the separation point, s, moves from the front to the back of the body.

s

v ...

s

FigurelO- Wake in Subcritical flow

Figurell - Wake in Supercritical Flow

68

As a result, the force coefficient shows a sudden drop at a critical value of Reynolds Number, followed by a gradual rise as Reynolds Number is increased still further.

The vari a t i on of Cf wi th the parameter DV sis shown in Fi gure 12 for infinitely long circular cylinders having various values of relative surface rouqhness (6/D), when subjected to a wind having an intensity and scale of turbulence typical of built-up urban areas. The curve

for a smooth cylinder C€/D = 1 x 10-5) in a steady airstream, as found in a low-turbulence wind tunnel, is shown for comparison.

It can be seen that the main effect of free-stream turbulence is to decrease the critical value of the paramet~r DVs. For subcritical flows, turbulence can produce a considerable reduction in Cf below the steady airstream values. For supercritical flows, thi"s effect becomes significantly smaller.

)

_ ....

)

69

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70 APPENDIX G

Dynami c Response of Buildings and Other Structures to Wi nd Loads

In order to take account of the turbulence of the wind , its i nteracti on with buildings and the dynamic, Pfoper-ti'es of flexible buildings and structures, the wind loads det~rminedforthese buildings by the other provisions of the Code shall be multiplied by a gust response factor G.

The following procedure for calculating the gust response f~ctoris based on the method of the American National . Standard Institut~Code ANSI A58.1.- 1980/Draft. The equations in this section of the appendix are in imperial·unitsand wind speeds are fastest mile·speeds.··The 3- second gust speeds used for the staticanalysis should therefore be converted to fastest mile speeds by the following equation, or by reference to Table 37.

v = l,09Vf + 8 mph

1

where V is the 3-second g~st speed in mph

and Vf is the fastest mile speed in mph.

Table 371ists equivalent values of Vf in mph for values of V in m/s. The gust response factor Gis given by:

G = 0.65 +lp/~ + (3.32T1)2S/(1 + O.002cr]!

2

for buildings and structures, and by:

G = 0.65 +L1.25 PIp + (3.32Tl)2S/(1 + O.OOlc)]! 3

for open framework (latticed) structures.

)

P = "fJY

T = lO.5fh sV

T1 = 2.35{Do)!/(Z/30)1/~

4

5

6

where

G - gust response factor

f - fundamental frequency of the building or structure in Hertz in a direction parallel to the wind

h - height of the structure in feet

5 - surface friction factor given in Table 36 Vf - design wind speed in mph (fastest-mile)

J - pressure profile factor given in Figure 13 as a function of the ratio ~

~ - ratio given in Table 36

Y - resonance factor given in Figure 14 as a function of the ratio ~ and of the ratio c/h. Linear interpolation is permissible within this fi qure .

71

c - mean horizontal dimension in feet of a building or structure in a direction normal to the mean wind

Tl - exposure factor eva1uatedat two-thirds of the

mean roof height of the structure using equation 6 S - structure size factor determine from Figure 15

t5 - structural damping coefficient

Do - surface drag coef f t ci ent as gi veni n Tab 1 e 36 0( - power lawcoeffi·cientasgiven in Table 36

Z - height above ground in ·feet

TABLE 36

.. .
Ground Roughness s ~ L>< Do Zq (ft)
1 0.85 O.02/h 10.0 0.003 . •. ]00
2 l.OO 0.23/h 7.0 0.005 900
3 1.33 3.28/h 4.5 0.010 1200
4 1.46 8,20/h 3.0 0.025 1500 )

TABLE 37- 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS IN m/s CONVERTED TO FASTEST MILE SPEEDS IN mph

V mls 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Vf mph
10 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 28 30 32
20 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
30 54 56 58 60 62 64 67 69 71 73
40 75 77 7-9 81 83 85 87 89 91 93
50 95 97 99 101 103 106 108 110 112 114
60 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134
70 136 138 140 142 145 147 149 151 153 155
-
80 157 159 161 163 165 167 169 171 173 175
I
90 177 179 181 184 186 188 190 192 194 196
.. )

72

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76

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LL

The gust response factor determi ned above does not incl ude all owances for the effects of vortex shsddjnq, instability due to galloping or fl utter, orac::ross wind def Iec't [ons . An approximate method for dea 1- ingwith vor-texsheodt ngof ci rcul ar .towers and chimneys is presented in the 1970 edition of Supplement No.4 to the National Building Code of Canada. The met.hodis outlined below.

The vortex shedding frequencyn for slender structures is given by:

-

n = SV

o

S the Strouha 1 Number = O. 18 for Re~. 2 x 105 .. :: 0.25 for Re>2 xl 05

where the ReynoTds Number Re:::VD x 105

16" .

V~the hourly mean wind speed i nft/s o -:' .. the diameter i nfeet '

( for structures ofangu l a r sections, 5 = 0.15)

3-second gust speeds may be converted to hourly mean speeds by reference to Table 380r the use of Figure 16, which defines the relationship between wind speeds averaged over t seconds, Vt, and the hourly speed" V3600. Figure ,16 i,s basedon-s tat i s t+cal studies of wind

speed records reported by Durst. The data for thi s graph was obtai ned for ground roughness condi ti on 2., HOlJr1y mean speeds may be adjusted for ground roughness 1 ~ 3 or 4 bj eq~ation 8:

7

Vz = 1.63 V2 (Z/Zg) 1/<><:

I9 - the gradient height in Table 36

V2 - the hourly mean speed at 30 ft for ground roughness 2 f(. - the power 1 aw parameter of Table 36

Z - the height aboveground·in· feet.

8

-.

TABLE 38 - 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS, V mis, CONVERTED TO. HOURLY MEAN SPEEDS, V ft/:

v mls 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
V ft/s
10 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 36 38 40
20 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 59 61
30 63 65 67 69 1'1 73 75 77 79 81
40 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102
50 104 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121 123
60 125 127 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144
70 146 148 150 153 155 157 159 161 163 165
80 167 169 171 173 176 178 180 182 184 186
90 188 190 192 194 196 199 201 203 205 207
_.- -- -----~- .. ~- . - - ... -. _. -- ---- .. -~-- 77

1.7

)

1.6

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55 1,3 r')

:.> ....... -+-J

:> 1,2

I,'

1.0

. Fig,ure 16 - Rat. 10 ..... ~ Vt1V3.600;6f ... ······p.· rabab. l.€ .•. M .. aximunl Speeq Averaged Over' Periodtto that AVerag~d Over 9h~HoUr'

..... (Ground Roughpess2) ..• . .

If the structure is free to oscillate in the plane normal to the wind, then large resonant oscillations will develop when the natural frequency is within th.~ range of vortex shedding frequency .. The ampl-itudeof the osct II ati on wi 1'· depend.ion the structural;dampi ng~and; the· dynami c effects in the cross wi nd d i recti on willbe approximately equi va 1 ent to

a static transverse force Ft acting in the direction of the oscillations, such that:

Pt = 0.5 Cft h 0 qr -:&

where P - critical damping ratio

= 0.02 for reinforced concrete = 0.01 for steel structures

= 0.001 for welded steel chimneys.

9

)

eft - force coefficient

= 0.2 for circular cylinders h - height of element

D - diameter

qr - dynamic pressure of mean wind 'speed V at resonance.

{

The British Code of Practice for steel chimneys BS 4076 provides a formula for calculating the critical velocity at which steel chimneys are likely to oscillate due to vortex shedding. This velocity, which may be less than the design wind speed, is given by:

V crit = Sf 0

10

78

References

CS Durst - Wind Speeds over Short Periods of Time, The Meteorological Magazine, Vol. 89, July 1960.

HC Shellard- Extreme Wind Speeds in the Commonwealth Caribbean, BAPE Journal, December 1972.

E Simiu- Revised Procedure for Estimating Along .. W; nd Response , Journal of the Structural Divislon ASCE Vol. 106, January 1980.

JVelloZzi a-nd E CoheA - Gust Response Factors, Journal of the Structural DivisionASCE, Vol. 94, June 1968.

---)

79

APPENDIX H

Derivation of Pressure Coefficients

The total or stagnation pressure ;s the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure.

The stagnation pressure, PSt is the pressure due to the fluid at rest.

The stat i c pressure, Po, is the undi sturbed free stream pressure. The dynamic pressure is the pressure due to speed of the undisturbed stream and is defined by the equation:

dynamic pressure = ~;?V2 where V = speed of undisturbed stream f = density of und i sturbed stream.

Generally, if p is the static pressure at any point in the flow, then a pressure coefficient Cp may be defined by the equation:

)

Cp = p - Po !f V2

From Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flow:

~ ~ + ~v2 + gz = constant

On integratiorl: this reduces to iv2 + P~ + gz = constant where p - pressure

f- density V - speed

z - height above ground

9 - acceleration due to gravity

)

From the above equation:

p + ifQ2 = Po + ~~t V2

where p is static pressure at any point in the flow,

Q is speed of flow at the point where p is measured and Po and V are as defined. above.

p - Po = ~(J (V2 - Q2)
. Cp = 1 - [~r
. .
~p is positive if P;>Po and QL..V
~P is zero if P = Po and Q = V
is negative if p e; Po and Q'> V
P 80

f

At the stagnation point, Q = 0 Ps - Po = ~fV2

and

Cps = Ps - Po = 1 the stagnation pressure coefficient lfv2

2 '

\

,I

)

81

APPENDIX I

Project Manager, Caribbean Meteorological Institute, Husbands, St James, Barbados

Director, Meteorological Services, Coolidge International Airport, PO Box 1051, Antigua.

Director, Meteorological Department, PO Box N8330, Nassau, Bahamas. Director, Meteorological Services, Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados.

Director, National Meteorological Services, Belize International Airport, Belize.

Chief Hydrometeoro1ogical Officer, Hydrometeorological Services, Ministry of Works and Transport, Fort 3, Kingston, Georgetown, Guyana.

Director, Meteorological Services, Norman Manley International Airport, Jamaica.

)

Director, Meteorological Service, Piarco International Airport, Trinidad.

)

82