Integrated circuits

HARPREET SINGH
100806043
 CONTENTS

 Introduction
 Mosfet
 History
 Challenges
 Fabrication
 Advantages and
disadvantages
 Materials used
 Some notable ic’s
 Classification
 Monolithic &
Hybrid IC
 Integration
Introduction
 In electronics, an integrated circuit
(also known as IC, microcircuit,
microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a
miniaturized electronic circuit that has
been manufactured in the surface of a
thin substrate of semiconductor material.
 Integrated circuits are used in almost all
electronic equipment in use today and
have revolutionized the world of
electronics.
 History
 The first integrated circuit was
developed in the 1950’s by Jack
Kilby.
 Jack Kilby recorded his initial
ideas concerning the integrated
circuit in July 1958 . Kilby won
the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics
for his part of the invention of
the integrated circuit
 Another person called
Robert Noyce also came up with
his own idea of an integrated
circuit half a year later than
Kilby. Noyce's chip solved many
practical problems that Kilby's
had not. Noyce's chip, made at
Fairchild Semiconductor, was
made of silicon, whereas Kilby's
chip was made of germanium.
Fabrication
 Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process
which includes these key process steps:
 Imaging
 Deposition
 Etching
 The main process steps are supplemented by doping
and cleaning.
 Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used as the
substrate.
 Main fabrication processes include:
 i) Thermal oxidation
 ii) diffusion, ion implantation for doping impurities,
Dopant incorporation by diffusion takes place at
high temperatures ~1000oC in a furnace
FABRICATION
 iii) after this photolithographic
process for defining pattern,
 iv) etching is done of insulator, metal,
or Si by chemical solution or Plasma.
 v) next step is DEPOSITION of
polycrystalline Si , silicon oxide, silicon
nitride by chemical vapour
deposition (CVD).
 for imaging Electron-beam techniques and
sample-preparation methods have been
established to determine the layout of
each layer in the circuit and the layer-to-
layer interconnection.
Materials used
 Pure silicon is the basis for most integrated
circuits. It provides the base, or substrate for the
entire chip and is chemically doped to provide the
N and P regions that make up the integrated
circuit components.
 Typical N-type dopants include phosphorus and
arsenic. Boron and gallium are typical P-type
dopants.
 Aluminum is commonly used as a connector
between the various IC components. The thin
wire leads from the integrated circuit chip to its
mounting package may be aluminum or gold. The
mounting package itself may be made from
ceramic or plastic materials
classification
 ANALOG SIGNAL
 DIGITAL SIGNAL
 MIXED SIGNAL
DIGITAL CIRCUITS

 Digital circuits, typically microprocessors,

and micro controllers work using binary
mathematics to process "one" and "zero"
signals.These circuits find use in
"true/false" logical operations and digital
computation.
 The small size of these circuits allows high
speed, low power dissipation, and
reduced manufacturing cost.
ANALOG CIRCUITS

 Analog ICs, such as sensors, power

management circuits, and
operational amplifiers, work by
processing continuous signals. They
perform functions like amplification,
active filtering, demodulation,
mixing, etc .
MIXED CIRCUITS

 Mixed ic’s combine analog and

digital circuits on a single chip to
create functions such as
A/D converters and D/A converters.
Such circuits offer smaller size and
lower cost, but must carefully
account for signal interference .
MONOLITHIC & HYBRID IC
 Monolithic Integrated Circuits
 Circuits that are placed entirely on a single chip of
semiconductor (usually Si) are called monolithic integrated
circuits.
 A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic
circuit constructed of individual devices, such as
semiconductor devices (e.g. transistors and diodes) and
passive components (e.g. resistors, inductors, transformers,
and capacitors), bonded to a substrate or
printed circuit board (PCB). Hybrid circuits are often
encapsulated in epoxy, as shown in the photo.
The advantage of hybrid circuits is that components which
cannot be included in a monolithic IC can be used, e.g.,
capacitors of large value, wound components, crystals.
MONOLITHIC HYBRID
Integration
 SSI
 MSI
 LSI
 VLSI
 ULSI
 WSI
 SOC
 3D-IC
MOORE’S LAW

 The law is named after Intel co-

founder Gordon E. Moore, who
described the trend in his 1965 paper
Moore's law describes a long-term trend
in the history of computing hardware i.e
the number of transistors that can be
placed on an integrated circuit has
doubled approximately every two years.
The trend has continued for more than
half a century and is not expected to stop
until 2015 or later
SSI,MSI,LSI
 The first integrated circuits contained only
a few transistors. "Small-Scale
Integration" (SSI), digital circuits
contained ten transistors per chip.
 The next step in the development of ic’s
was medium scale integration (MSI)
devices which contained hundreds of
transistors on each chip.
 Further development ,led to "Large-
Scale Integration" (LSI) with tens of
thousands of transistors per chip.
 VLSI
 “Very large-scale integration" (VLSI)
consists of hundreds of thousands of
transisters on a single chip.
 ULSI
 The term ULSI that stands for "ultra-
large-scale integration" was proposed for
chips of complexity of more than 1 million
transistors.
VLSI ULSI
 WSI
 Wafer-scale integration
(WSI) is a yet-unused
system of building
very-large integrated
circuits that uses an
entire silicon wafer to
produce a single
"super-chip". Through
a combination of large
size and reduced
packaging, WSI could
lead to dramatically
reduced costs for some
systems, notably
massively parallel
supercomputers.
 A system-on-a-chip (SOC) refers to integrating
all components of a computer or other electronic
system into a single integrated circuit (chip). It
may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and
often radio-frequency functions – all on a single
chip substrate.
 3D-IC
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC)
has two or more layers of active electronic
components that are integrated both vertically
and horizontally into a single circuit. 3D
packaging saves space by stacking separate chips
in a single package.
 MOSFET
 MOSFET is the most common
transistor in both digital and
analog circuits.
 The metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect
transistor is a device used for
amplifying or switching
electronic signals. In MOSFETs,
a voltage on the oxide-insulated
gate electrode can induce a
conducting channel between the
two other contacts called source
and drain. The channel can be of
n-type or p-type and is
accordingly called an nMOSFET
or a pMOSFET (also commonly
nMOS, pMOS).
 CMOS
 Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) is a
technology for constructing integrated circuits
 CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to
implement logic gates and other digital circuits found in computers,
telecommunications equipment, and signal processing equipment
 typical commercial CMOS products are integrated circuits composed of
millions of transistors of both types on a rectangular piece of silicon of
between 0.1 and 4 square centimeters.
CHALLENGES


Process variation – As lithography techniques tend closer
to the fundamental laws of optics, achieving high accuracy
in doping concentrations and etched wires is becoming
more difficult and prone to errors due to variation.
Stricter design rules –Due to lithography and etch issues
with scaling, design rules for layout have become
increasingly stringent. Designers must keep ever more of
these rules in mind while laying out custom circuits
Power usage/Heat dissipation – As threshold voltages
have ceased to scale with advancing process technology,
dynamic power dissipation has not scaled proportionally.
Maintaining logic complexity when scaling the design down
only means that the power dissipation per area will go
up.So there is a challenge to minimize overall power.
ADVANTAGES
 Small size
 Low cost
 Low weight
 Easy replacement
 Best quality
ADVANTAGES
 Integrated circuits are smaller and
usually require less power to
operate.
 IC's have the advantage in weight,
size and power consumption, giving
IC's the nod on portability.
 They are also less prone to damage
from physical jarring (irregular
movements).
DISADVANTAGES
 A potential disadvantage of integrated
circuits is the cost of replacing an IC that
has failed.
 Another disadvantage of integrated
circuits is that design corrections and
incremental design improvements are not
readily made.
 they are extremely difficult to modify or
repair
 The IC is also more susceptable to electric
damage from a power surge(a brief
strong increase in electrical power supply)
SOME NOTABLE IC’S
 The 555 common multivibrator sub-circuit
(common in electronic timing circuits)
 The 741 operational amplifier
 Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor,
which led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the
IBM PC's 8088, 80286, 486 etc.
 The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related
chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series
(used in some Apple computers).
555 TIMER IC
 The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip)
implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator
applications It has been claimed that the 555 gets its
name from the three 5 kΩ resistors used in typical early
implementations.
 The 555 has three operating modes:
 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a
"one-shot". Applications include timers, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement,etc.
 Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an
oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse
generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
etc.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as
a flip-flop,. Uses include bouncefree latched switches, etc.
555 TIMER IC
741 OP-AMP

 An op-amp produces an output voltage

that is typically millions of times larger
than the voltage difference between its
input terminals.
 The most common op amp is 741.741ic
can be used as an inverting and non
inverting amplifier , an integrator and also
as a differentiator.
PIN DIAGRAM OF 741 OP-AMP
 INVERTING & NON INVERTING MODE
 The output of the amplifier in inverting mode is
180 degree out of phase with the input.
 In non-inverting mode output is amplified but is
in same phase with the input.
 INTEGRATOR
 Here the output voltage is proportional to the
integral of input voltage for example if we give
sine wave as input we will get cosine wave as
output.
 DIFFERENTIATOR
 Here the output is proportional to differentiation
of input.
 REFERENCES
 www.wikipedia./i.c/.org
 www.theinquirer.net/default.aspx