The Divine Interpretation:

A Study of Metaphor in Dante's Inferno

by Melanie Barker

The Animal Symbolism in Canto I of Inferno emulates the negative connotation

within animal imagery assumed by Christianity. Dante's symbols, the leopard, the
lion, and the she-wolf, symbolize carnal sins which are divided into three categories
of severity: the sins of malice and fraud, the sins of violence and ambition, and the
sins of incontinence, respectively. In contrast, pre-Christian tradition embraces animal
symbolism as a positive and powerful force, intrinsic to human nature. Those cultures
focus on more "honorable" animal traits and distribute these characteristics to humans
in a complimentary manner. Pre-Christian tradition employs animals to describe
favorable traits in people through their own philosophies and beliefs in the majesty of
the animal kingdom.

Dante uses the leopard to represent malicious or fraudulent sins because the leopard,
having a spotted pelt, will disguise himself from a potential creature of prey. The
leopard will bide his time and strike at the most optimal moment, when its prey least
suspects it. Dante develops this association because those who commit sins of fraud
usually present themselves respectably, rather than revealing their true motive. In
Canto XVII Dante introduces Geryon, the embodiment of fraud. He is described as a
horrid beast who at first glance seems an innocent man. Dante writes, "His face was
the face of any honest man, / it shone with such a look of benediction; / and all the rest
of him was serpentine…" (Inferno XVII 10-12). Here Dante is alluding to the
Christian representation of fraud, Satan, who is symbolized by the snake. In relation,
he too presents himself fraudulently as he presents himself to Eve as a creature of
Eden. Satan too became the ultimate predator as he induced the fall of man. This
vicious nature can be compared to that of the leopard.

Following the leopard, Dante the Pilgrim's righteous path is blocked by the lion.
Dante uses the lion to denote sins of violence and ambition because the lion is
considered to be an aggressive and assertive creature that has a tendency to satisfy his
own needs, by whatever violent means necessary. The brutality of the lion's natural
habitat is evident as a lion, who fears no other creature, will assert his position in the
food chain, by use of brute force. Dante makes a metaphoric symbol of the lion, as
one who commits violent and/or ambitious sins can be compared with many
similarities, to a lion that ravages the savannah in search of food or a mate.
The last animal Dante encounters on the path is the she-wolf. Dante employs the she-
wolf to represent the sins that a human cannot resist, such as lust and adultery. He
chooses the she-wolf as she is mysterious and because wolves tend to hunt in packs.
In relation, sins of this irresistible nature tend to be coupled, as the wolves hunt
together, in numbers. For example, one who sins in lust may follow up with another
sin of adultery. The mystery and excitement of an adulterous relationship can be
related to the "mysterious" persona of the wolf. Dante also develops this symbol as
that of a female wolf, as opposed to a male wolf, because the female is infamous for
her sexual treachery throughout ancient culture. Perhaps Dante is developing on the
vision of women described in Isaiah 3:16 which reads, "Moreover the Lord saith,
Because the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched forth necks and
wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet:".
Women have been portrayed as sultry temptresses aimed at enticing Christian men to
do things unbecoming of the god fearing man, as displayed in Christian Literature,
which then filters into the human psyche.

Psychoanalyst Carl Jung emphasizes the collective unconscious as being inhabited

with archetypes that are derived from primal animal behaviors that all humankind
possesses. (Huffman 494) Researcher William McDougal proposes in his "Instinct"
theory of motivation, that humans are compelled by behaviors that are unlearned,
uniform in expression and universal to the species. (Huffman 440) It is these carnal
compellations that Christianity attempts to inhibit that are chronicled throughout
Christian verse. Dante's metaphoric trio is specifically mentioned in the Holy Bible as
noted in the 8th edition of The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. Jeremiah 5:6
reads, "Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings
shall spoil them, a leopard shall watch over their cities: everyone that goeth out thence
shall be torn into pieces: because their transgressions are many and their backslidings
are increased." By using these three particular animals in his symbolism, Dante is
alluding to the negative conception the bible invokes in its symbolic representation of
the animals.

In Inferno, Dante first encounters the leopard which blocks his path to righteousness.
He writes, "Beyond the point the slope begins to rise / sprang up a leopard, trim and
very swift! It was covered by a pelt of many spots. / And everywhere I looked, the
beast was there" (Inferno I 32-35). Here, Dante is drawing on the sinister conception
of the leopard that lays in wait of its prey. This leopard camouflages himself much as
the fraudulent may mask their sinister intentions.

In contrast, this sinister characterization is avoided in Nigerian philosophy, Benin,

which embraces animals as symbolism of deities. In Benin, the Oba or king is all
powerful and is the owner of the land and its people. (Eboreime) The Oba and royal
power, represented by images of the leopard, focuses on more positive traits such as
speed, agility, cunning, and prowess. (Peck, Coote) For example, Dante regards the
preying leopard as a demonic physical threat, whereas Nigerian philosophy would
view this same leopard as a patient and skilled hunter. Another African myth comes
from the pygmies of Zaire. Tore, the wood god, is represented by the leopard. He is
said to be the 'lord of the animal' and patron of the hunt. (Lindemans) This conception
also focuses on the leopard as a graceful hunter. The African people glorify the
leopard for the same characteristics that are frowned upon in Christian literature.

Following the leopard, Dante encounters the lion, which he uses to symbolize sins of
violence and ambition. A group of lions is called a pride, which is also a sin of
ambition, punishable in Dante's Hell. A lion is the ruler of the land and asserts himself
as such. Dante writes of the lion, "…he was coming straight toward me, it seemed, /
with head raised high, and furious with hunger" (Inferno I 46-47). The reader draws
the violent, destructive nature from the lion symbol which is also displayed in
Christian literature. Perhaps I Peter 5:8 displays this paradigm best as it reads, "Be
self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion
looking for someone to devour." Dante invokes the reader's conception of the lion as
he uses him to represent sins that involve violence against others. This symbolism
births feelings of fear and recognition of the danger of the lion as one to fear, which
spawns a literary barrier to serve as a deterrent from sin.

The lion is also symbolic in Egyptian Mythology. The goddess of war and vengeance,
Sekhmet or "Powerful One", contrasts this negative perspective of animal symbolism
that Dante portrays. She is pictured with the head of a lioness and symbolizes divine
retribution. The Egyptian Sun God, Ra, calls upon his daughter, Sekhmet, to slaughter
humans that had concocted a plan to rebel against him, in his aging and vulnerable
state. Ra punishes humanity be sending his vengeful daughter. She single handedly
defends her father, the almighty Ra by ravaging through the rebellious village,
devouring those who plotted against him. Sekhmet, in all her glory, wades through the
blood of the punished, claiming her father's exaltation. (Willis 41) Beginning around
1000 B.C.E., Sekhmet began to be portrayed with an alter persona, Bastet. With the
changing persona, her appearance changed as well. She began to be depicted as a
domesticated cat. Her new duty is to be an "avenger," and slay enemies of Egypt and
enemies of the gods. (Cass)

While Egyptian myth conjures the vicious and vengeful spirit of the lion, they do so
respectfully and recognize the strength and brutality in a grandiose manner. The story
of Sekhmet's wrath recognizes that she attacked only to protect her father. Sekhmet's
power was dually respected and feared. Messengers of Sekhmet were thought to be
infectious disease. Following this notion, her priests also served as doctors. (Willis
50) While the Egyptians shared many of the same characterizations of the lion as
Christians, they applied them differently. Egyptian conception focuses on the strength
and power of the lion and makes its mission divine retribution, as opposed to the
brutality and violent nature that is the focus of Dante's symbolic representation.

Following the lion on the path is the she-wolf. Dante, using the she-wolf to represent
the sins of incontinence writes of the she-wolf, "And now a she-wolf came, that in her
leanness / seemed racked with every kind of greediness / (how many people she has
brought to grief!)" (Inferno I 49-51). He draws from the reader's negative perception
of the wolf, which attributes the wolf as of a predatory nature. The she-wolf is
portrayed as a callous hunter who does not differentiate her victims, nor is she
merciful. This view is also displayed in Christian literature, especially in the Bible.
Genesis 49:27 reads, "Benjamin is a ravenous wolf; in the morning he devours the
prey, in the evening he devours the plunder." The author focuses on the negative
characteristics of the wolf as a violent and agitated hunter whereas other culture and
mythology revere the wolf for its majestic power. Dante opposes this positive vision
with his symbolism, as he uses the wolf to represent the sins that humans find
irresistible. He uses the mystery and power of the wolf to emphasize the enticing and
alluring manner of these particular sins.

Contrastingly, Native American kinship with the wolf is prevalent as they view the
wolf as the brother of man. (Maxwell 348) The Chipewyans honor the wolf as their
creator. Their creation myth attributes the body of a wolf to have become the world.
The land is made of his flesh, fish are made from his internal organs, and birds were
created from his skin. (Maxwell 330) Sub arctic tribes, such as the Ingalik and
Koyukon of Alaska, hold the wolf in the highest regard. Members of the tribe are
forbidden to kill wolves, as they are considered as brothers to the tribesmen. (Maxwell
348) Native American antiquity accounts for humanity having spawned from animals
and does not differentiate the two. They believe their ancestors began life as animals
and then transformed themselves into human beings. (Willis 31) The First Nations
view wolves as teachers or pathfinders. A wolf is seen as fiercely loyal to their mates
and therefore dedicated to their families. (Beaupre)

Roman Mythology offers another positive conception of the wolf, with the ancient
story of Romulus. Along with his infant twin Remus, he was abandoned beside a
river. They were rescued by a she-wolf and reared alongside her cubs for a few years.
(Lindemans) This mythological she-wolf is given a nurturing and affectionate persona
that may stem from the animal's loyalty to the pack. While focusing on the
characteristics more becoming to the wolf, the Romans have allowed a positive
conception into human psyche that differs drastically from the sinister huntress we
encounter in Dante's Inferno.
While many pre-Christian and non-Christian faiths may use animals symbolically,
they tend to focus on less sinister traits or emphasize these animalistic traits in a
positive light. Christianity has long sought to exterminate the primal instinct of
humanity. Thus, their use of animals in a symbolic manner tends to focus on the
negativity of animal behavior. Animals will submit to their carnal desires
instinctively, as will humans, which is an underlying problem in the Christian plight
to purify humanity and deter them from sin.

By experiencing Dante's animal symbolism in the Inferno, the reader is connected to

his negative view of animal behavior which is the exact form of carnal human nature
the Church sought to eradicate from humanity, so as to lessen chance of sin. Human
beings are prone to their impulses. Mankind bears an interpersonal conflict between
his urges and his will. These "animalistic" urges force one of Christian faith to feel
guilt for having submitted to them. Some may say that it is will and faith in God that
separates us from the animal kingdom. This is the reasoning behind Dante's choice of
individual animals as representative of the three dimensions of sins depicted
in Inferno. One can clearly see the type of negative animal symbolism that pervades
both the Old and New Testaments, in Dante's Inferno.