Biology

VARIATIONS

2010
SEKOLAH SULTAN ALAM SHAH
Farid Ibrahim
5 USAHA
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VARIATIONS
The important of variation in organisms

1. Helps a species to survive changes in the environment

2. Enable individuals with different features to exploit a new habitat which is suitable
3. Ensure their survival from predators

Example of variation in humans

Tongue rolling Straight hair Curly hair

Attached earlobe Free earlobe

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Curves

Loops

Whorl

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Type Of Variation

1. Continuous variation.
a. A type of variation in which the differences in a character are not distinct, but forms a
continuum or continuous range of intermediate phenotypes between two extremes
b. Examples in humans:
i. Height
ii. Weight
iii. Chest circumferences
iv. Body mass
v. Hand span
c. The graph on human height produces a bell-shaped curve called a normal distribution
curve
d. Characteristics:
i. No distinctive categories into which individuals can be placed
ii. Usually quantitative
iii. Controlled by a large number of genes
iv. Are significantly affected by the environment
v. Result of the combined effects of genes and the environment
e. The graph:

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2. Discontinuous variation.
a. A type of variation in which the differences in a character can be divided into two or a
few types of distinct phenotypes, with no intermediate characteristics.
b. Examples:
i. The four types of fingerprint patterns
ii. The A, B, AB and o blood group
iii. The ability to roll the tongue
iv. Attached or free ear lobes
v. Thumb hyperextension
c. Characteristics
i. There are distinctive and definite categories into which individuals can be placed
ii. An individual either has the characteristics or does not have it
iii. Usually qualitative
iv. Controlled by one gene or a small number of genes
v. Largely unaffected by the environment
vi. Are the resultant effects of genes
vii. Rare in humans and animals but are more common in plants
d. The graph

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Comparison between continuous variation and discontinuous variation

Continuous variation Aspect Discontinuous variation

Similarities

1. Both create varieties in the population of a species. No two organisms are 100% alike
2. Are caused by environmental factors or genetics factors or both. Variation that is caused by genetic
factors can be inherited

Differences

A type of variation in which the Definition A type of variation in which the

differences in a character are not
distinctive
Height and weight
Exhibits a spectrum of phenotypes with
intermediate characters
 The characters are quantitative
 They can be measured and graded
from one extreme to the other
Shows a normal distribution
differences in a character are distinctive
Example A, B, AB and O blood groups,
fingerprints patterns, haemophilia and
albinism
Intermediate Exhibits a few distinctive phenotypes
characteristics with no intermediate characters
Quantitative or  The characters are qualitative
qualitative  They cannot be measured or graded
from one extreme to the other
Graph distribution Shows a discrete distribution

Influenced by environmental factors Environmental factors Is not influenced by environmental

factors
Two or more genes control the same Genes A single gene determines the
character differences in the traits of a character
The phenotype is usually controlled by Phenotype The phenotype x is controlled by a pair
many pairs of alleles of alleles

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2010
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Factors causing variation

Variations can be caused by

a) Genetic factors
b) Environmental factors
c) The interactions between genetic factors and environmental factors

Effects of genetic factors on variation

The genetic factors that cause variation are the events of sexual reproduction such as crossing over
during Meiosis I, independent assortment of chromosomes and random fertilization

Genetic recombination by crossing over

1. During prophase I of meiosis, when two homologous chromosomes are paired up in a bivalent,
crossing over occurs between the chromatids.
2. The exchange of genetic materials between the chromatids results in new, different genetic
combination of genes from the parents. The new genetic combinations result in variations.

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Independent assortment during meiosis

1. During metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes arrange themselves randomly at the

equator (metaphase plate
2. The random arrangement and separation of each homologous pair is independent of one
another.
3. Independent assortment produces various genetic combinations in the gametes.

Random fertilization

1. Each gamete has a unique set or combination of genes. A male gamete can fertilise any of the
female gametes.
2. The fertilization between a male gamete and a female gamete occurs randomly
3. As a result, each zygote is unique
4. With random fertilization, variations occur in the offspring.

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2010
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Effects of environmental variation factors on variation

1. Environmental factors that cause variation include abiotic factors such as:
a. Temperature
b. Light intensity
c. Humidity
d. Nutrition
e. Soil fertility
2. Two plants may have the same genes. However, one may grow better than the other because it
receives a better supply of water or more light.
3. For example:
a. When a child has an unbalanced diet, his growth is likely to be stunted and he may not
reach his full height even tough he has the gene for tallness.
b. A medium-sized man who eats a right diet and carries weights can alter his phenotype
dramatically and achieve the physique of a bodybuilder.
c. If one identical twin is brought up in a well-nourished environment and the other in a
poorly-nourished environment, the former will be heavier and has a larger build than
the later.
4. Sunlight and temperature can change a person’s hair and skin colours.
5. A wet and dry condition can affect the texture of the skin.

Effects of Interaction between Genetic Factors and Environmental factors on Variation

1. The traits of an organism are controlled by alleles.

2. Some traits are controlled by a single pair of alleles and some by several pairs of alleles.
3. Those controlled by several pairs of alleles are influenced by the environment
4. These alleles interact with one another and with the environment, resulting in continuous
variation.
5. For example, a person may inherit a mixture of tall and short genes, leading to average height.
6. However, this height is also influenced by the environmental factors like nutrition, causing
further change to the height.

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2010
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Mutation

1. Mutation is a sudden random change in the genetic composition of a cell.

2. This change can happen to particular genes or chromosomes
3. A mutation can occur in somatic cells or gametes.
4. Mutation in gametes can be inherited causing abnormal development in the offspring
5. There are two types of mutation:
a. Chromosomal mutation
b. Gene mutation

Chromosomal mutation

1. Chromosomal mutation involve either

a. An increase or a decrease in the number of chromosome
b. A change in the structure of the chromosome

1. An increase or a decrease in the number of chromosome

1. When homologous chromosome or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis, this
results in an increase or a decrease in the chromosomal number
2. This error usually occurs during the anaphase of meiosis I or II. The resultant gametes have
an abnormal number of chromosomes.

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3. If this occurred in humans, the gamete produced would have 22 chromosomes or 24

chromosome instead of 23 chromosome
4. Genetic disorders, for example, Down’s syndrome or trisomy 21, occur when a gamete with
24 chromosome fuses with a normal gamete.

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5. An individual with Down’s syndrome has an extra copy of chromosome number 21.
In a normal meiotic division, If homologous chromosomes or
chromosomes are distributed sister chromatids fail to separate,
equally between gametes there is an uneven distribution of
the parental chromosome at meiosis

6. The homologous chromosome which fail to separate could be the sex chromosome.
1. For example, a sperm can have 22 autosomes and no sex chromosome. Such sperms are
called O. Alternatively, a sperm can have two sex chromosomes and be XX, XY or YY. In
females, an ovum can be O or XX.
2. When a normal gamete fuse with these dafectove sperms or ova, the resultant zygotes
have a normal number of autosomes but an abnormal number of sex chromosome.
3. The most common abnormalities are XO, XXX, XXY and XYY

Sex chromosomes Sex chromosome of a Sex chromosome

Phenotype
of a defective sperm normal ovum of offspring
O (none) X XO Female: Turner’s syndrome
XX X XXX Female: trisomy X
YY X XYY XYY male
XY X XXY Male: Klinefelter’s syndrome

Sex chromosomes Sex chromosome of a Sex chromosome

Phenotype
of a defective ovum normal sperm of offspring
O (none) X XO Female: Turner’s syndrome
O (none) Y YO Dies at the embryonic stage
XX X XXX Female: trisomy X
XX Y XXY Male: Klinefelter’s syndrome

Genetic disorder
Turner’s syndrome  Female

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 At puberty, hormone deficiencies prevent XO female from menstruating or

developing secondary sexual characteristics. XO females are usually infertile.
(XO)  Other characteristics are a short stature, a thick neck, and an increased risk of
2n – 1 = 45 (44+XO) cardiovascular diseases and hearing loss.
 Since they have only X chromosome, they display X-linked recessive disorders
such as colour blindness more frequently than a normal X female
Trisomy X  Tall and usually have below normal levels of intelligence. However, they have
(XXX) no obvious defects.
2n + 1 = 47 (44+XXX)  XXX females are usually fertile and have normal pregnancies.
Klinefelter’s syndrome  XXY are men that show mixed secondary sexual characteristics, including
(XXY) partial breast development, broadening of the hips and small testes
2n + 1 = 47 (44+XXY)  They are usually infertile because low sperm count.
 XYY males are tall, have high levels of testosterone and often have severe
XYY males acne problems.
2n + 1 = 47 (44+XXY)  These males are believed to be more predisposed to criminal activities and
behavioural problems.

7. Another type of mutation is the addition of one or more sets of chromosome in an

organism. This condition is known as polyploidy
8. Poliploidy organisms are named according to the number of sets of chromosome they have.
1. Triploids (3n) - have three chromosome of one type of three sets of
chromosome

2. Tetraploids (4n) - have four sets of chromosome

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2. A change in the structure of the chromosome

1. Chromosomal mutation
1. Is the change in the chromosomal structure involving the rearrangement of whole
blocks of genes on a chromosome
2. Results in a alteration in the number of genes or in the sequence of whole sets of gene
on a chromosomes.
2. There are four types of chromosomal mutations:
1. Duplication
2. Translocation
3. Deletion
4. Inversion

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Gene mutation

1. Gene mutation involves a chemical change in the structure of the gene.

2. There is an alteration in the base sequence of the DNA, hence changing the genetic code and order
of amino acids fir synthesis of protein.
3. Gene mutation occurs at a single locus on a chromosome
4. It may involve the substitution, deletion or insertion of a nucleotide base.

5. The change in the sequence of bases usually results in defective protein synthesised or that no
protein is produced at all.
6. Base insertion or base deletion usually causes more harm when compared to base substitution.

7. The changes in the DNA can lead to changes in cell functions:

Change Change Change Change Change Change

in the in the in amino in in in cell
bases of bases of acids of protein protein function
DNA mRNA protein sturcture function

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8. Gene mutation may occur in a recessive or dominant gene.

9. Many Inherited diseases are caused by gene mutation.
a. Sickle-cell anaemia - caused by a mutation of allele responsible for the production of
haemoglobin. The mutated allele causes the production of abnormal haemoglobin which
crystallizes and binds together when oxygen levels are low. The haemoglobin crystals cause the
red blood cells to change into sickle or crescent shapes.

b. Albinism is caused by a gene mutation of an autosomal recessive allele. People who suffer from
this disorder are called albinos and the condition is called albinism. Albinos have white hair and
pink eyes and skin. This is because they do not have an enzyme responsible for the production
of melanin, the skin pigment.

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2010
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The important of variation in the survival of a species.

1. Variation within a species causes some individuals to adapt better to environmental conditions.
2. These individuals are better adapted for survival than others.
3. They will survive and transmit the advantageous genes to their offspring.
4. Over time, there will be changes in the individual of a particular species, with the better adapted
ones increasing in population; resulting in a new species.
5. This is called `survival of the fittest’ or Natural Selection.
6. Colour in snails is an example of discontinuous variation which enables the snails to survive in
different habitat.
7. The snail, Cepaea nemoralisI exists in a variety of colours and banding depending on the alleles
present.
8. Different phenotypes are selected in different habitats to camouflage them from their preadtors.
9. Some snails, such as yellow snails are also better adapted to the sun and high temperature
10. This contributes to their widespread distribution on sand dunes.

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2010