DIGITAL NETWORKS

I. Introduction to Digital Transmission

eKalkarN_énkarbBa¢ÚnsBaØa Digital manlkçN³xusKñaTaMgRsugBIkarbBa¢ÚnnUvsBaØa Analog.
Analog signal mankarpSaynUvsBaØamanlkçN³Cab;KñabnþrhUt ehIyvaxusEbøkBIkarpSay Digital

signal EdlmanlkçN³dac;²BIKñaeTAvij . smasFatuBt’mankñúgTMrg;Ca Analog signal

RtUv)anbBa¢Úntamry³tMél rWTMhMrbs;lkçN³sBaØamYycMnYndUcCa Amplitude rW Frequency rW Phase

rbs;tg;süúg rW Amplitude rW Duration éncrnþ rW TItaMgmMuén Shaft mYy rWk¾sMBaFén Fluid.
edIm,ITajyknUvBt’man vasMxan;Nas;EdlRtUveFVIkareRbobeFobtMél rWTMhMénsBaØaeTAnwgmaRtdæan
NamYy. bNþaBt’manén Digital signal mYy KWmanTMnak;TMngCamYynwgsBaØadac;² dUcCakarmancrnþ
rWk¾tg;süúg rWGt;, kugtak;biT rWebIk, tg;süúgviC¢man rWGviC¢man rWmanePøIg rWk¾Gt;. sBaØaTaMgenaH
RtUVv)anpþl;edaykarkMnt;tMélCaelx rWk¾RbePTTinñn½yepSg²eTotkñúgbNþúMénsBaØadac;²Kña.
(Éksareyag ) 1

]TahrN_én Digital signal Edl)anniyayxagelIsuT§EtsßitkñúgTMrg; Binary.

CakarBitNas; sBaØaEdlCaRbePT Binary GacpÞúk)ankñúgTMrg; 0bits nig 1bits b:ueNÑaH.
dMeNIrkarelIRbB½n§eKalBIrEbbenH )ansnSMsMécCaeRcInEdleyageTAtamehtuplmYycMnYn. TImYyKW
RbB½n§eKalBIr(Binary) eyIgGaceRbIR)as;EtelxBIrKt; (0bit nig 1bit) nigGacdMeNIrkarelIemelx
Binary dUcRbB½n§FmμtaEdr. ehtupld¾l¥mYyeTotKWvas½káismnwgykmkeRbICamYyRbePT Decision

circuit EdlsikSaelIEtlkçxNÐBIrKWelx 0 mann½yfaBit nigelx 1 mann½yfaminBit.

GtßRbeyaCn_cMbgrbs;karbBa¢ÚnsBaØa Digital KWdMeNIrkardUcCa Decision circuit

EdleyIgehAfa Regenerators. sBaØa Digital NaEdlxUc KWRtUv)anpÞúkenAkñúgEpñkmYydac;edayELk
ehIycMeBaHsBaØaEdll¥ RtwmRtUvRtUv)anpÞúkenAkEnøgmYyeTotsMrab;bBa¢Únbnþ. pÞúyeTAvij cMeBaHbNþúM
énsMelg Analog NaEdlxUc minRtUv)anEbgEckeGay)anRtwmRtUveT ehIykarbBa¢ÚnsBaØaenH
1. Fundamentals of Telecommunications, Second Edition, by Roger L. Freeman
ISBN 0-471-71045-8 Copyright ∧ 2005 by Roger L. Freeman

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nwgRtUvbBaÄb;enARtg; Regenerator. enHKWCaKuNvibtþimYyd¾FMrbs;karbBa¢ÚnsBaØa Analog cMeBaHbNþúM
sMelgEdlvaminekItmaneLIgcMeBaHsBaØa Digital .
enAmanKuNsm,tiþCaeRcIneTot cMeBaHkarbBa¢ÚnsBaØa Digital tamTMrg; Binary.
vaRtUvKñaCamYynwgRbePT Integrated Circuit mYycMnYndUcCa LSI, VLSI nig VHSIC. PCs
EdleRbICalkçN³ Digital. sBaØa Digital manlkçN³Fn;nwgsMelgCagsBaØa Analog. b:uEnþeTaHbICa
y:agNak¾eday k¾vaenAEtmanKuNvibtiþkñúgdMeNIrkarminRbRktI CamYynwgel,ÓnbBa¢ÚnBt’manEdl
exSayCag 1 × 10 cMeBaHdMeNIrkarCasMelg.
-2

RbB½n§ PSTN enAkñúg]sSahnIykmμBiPBelakKWmanlkçN³ Digital 100%. ehIykarvivtþn_

Epñkesdækic©esÞIrEtTaMgRsug KWsuT§EteRbICalkçN³ Digital pgEdr. b:uEnþk¾enAmanEpñkmYycMnYntUcEdl
enAEteRbIlkçN³ Analog.
bNþaj Digital KWGaRs½ynwg Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). KMrUénRbB½n§ PCM
TUeTAmYyRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayelak Reeve EdlCavisVkrEpñk ITT mkBI Standard Telephone
Laboratories (STL) enAqñaM 1937 CaeBlmYyEdlelakkMBugeFVITsSnkic©enA French ITT
subsidiary. vamin)ankøayCaRbB½n§mYyc,as;las;enAeLIy rhUtdl;karbegáIteLIgnUv Transistor

edaymnÞIrBiesaFn_ Shockley’s (Bell Telephone Laboratories). karBiesaFn_elIRbB½n§ PCM

manlkçN³c,as;las;enAedImqñaM 1952 kñúgGaemricxageCIg.
PCM KWCaTMrg;éneBlEdlEbgEckCaBhuKuNCaeRcIn. va)aneFVIkarvivtþn_eTAelIRbB½n§
Telecommunication sUm,IEt Compact Disc(CD) EdlmanKuNPaBl¥k¾GaRs½yelI PCM.

1. Two Different PCM Standards

enAeBlEdleyIgsikSaemeronenH eyIgRtUvdågBIRbePT PCM Standards BIrEdlmanRbePT
xusKñaTaMgRsug. TI1 KWCaRbePT PCM Standard EdlmanenA North American RtUv)aneKehAfa T1
ehIyRtUv)aneKniymehAfa DS1 PCM hierarchy . Standard mYyeTotKW E1 hierarchy
EdleBlxøHeKsMedAeTAelI ”European” system. taMgBIedImrhUtmkdl;qñaM 1988 E1 RtUv)aneKehAfa
CEPT30+2 EdlBakü CEPT mkBIPasa)araMgKW Conference European Post and Telegraph. RbeTs

Japan k¾eRbIRbB½n§kat;én CEPT Edr. dUcenH eyIgmincaM)ac;eTArk E1 system hierarchy dl; United

states enAEpñkxagt,Úgén Rio Grande(Mexico) eLIy.

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 II. Basis of Pulse Code Modulation
eyIgnwgeXIjBIkarvivtþrbs;sBaØa PCM mYyEdl)anmkBIkarbMElgsBaØa analog EdlsMKal;
edaykarbeBa©jsMelgmnusS. Model sytem énsBaØa Analog GacCasMelgFmμta Edlniyaykñúg
kMrit 1200 Hz Edltageday sine wave.
tMNak;kalTaMg 3 kñúgkarbMElgsBaØa Analog mYyeGayeTACasBaØa PCM ³
1. sampling
2. quantization
3. coding

1. Sampling
karbgðajRbB½n§ PCM eFVIkarCa Nyquist sampling theorem Edlbgðaj .(Éksareyag ) 2

RbsinebI band limited signal mYyRtUv)aneFVI Sample enAcenøaHeBld¾eTogTat; nigmanGRta

eTogTat;esμI²Kña rWx<s;CagBIrdgén signal Frequency bnÞab;mkkareFVI sample enH)anpÞúknUvBt’manén
signal edImTaMgGs;. ehIy signal edImTaMgenaHnwgRtUv)anerobcMeLIgvijeday ]bkrN_ low-pass

filter .

]TahrN_énRTwsIþbT Nyquist sampling EdleyIgeFIVkarTajykmkBI sampling rate .

1. The nominal 4-KHz voice channel: sampling rate KW 8000 times kñúgry³eBl 1s
(i.e.,2 ×4000).
2. A 15-Khz program channel: Sampling rate KW 30,000 times kñúgry³eBl 1s
(i.e., 2×15,000).
3. An analog radar mYy)anbegIátnUv channel 56 KHz wide: Sampling rate KW 112,000

dgkñúgry³eBl 1s ( i.e. 2×56,000) .

GIVEdleyIgcab;GarmμN_enATIenH KW normal 4-KHz voice channel sampled 8000 dg kñúgry³eBl
1s. eday sample EckCamYynwg 125 μsec rW 1 sec/8000 .

1.1 The Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Wave

elIkElgkrNImYycMnYn RbB½n§ PCM Cab;Tak;TgCamYy time division multiplexing . kar
Sampling kñúgkrNIenH KWminRtwmEtmanTMnak;TMngCamYy voice channel mYyeT b:uEnþvaTak;TineTAnwg

voice channels CaeRcIn. kñúgkarGnuvtþn_RbB½n§ PCM T1 mYyeFVI sample )an 24 voice channels

2. A program channel is a communication channel that carries radio broadcast material such as music and commentary. It is a
facility offered by the PSTN to radio and television broadcasters.

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tamlMdab;lMeday ehIyedayELkRbB½n§ PCM E1 vijGaceFVI samples )anrhUtdl; 30 voice
channels. lT§plénkareFVI sampling CaeRcIneFVIeGayeyIgTTYl)annUvrlksBaØamYyKW Pulse

Amplitude Modulation (PAM) wave . rlksBaØa simplified PAM mYyRtUv)anbgðajkñúgrUbPaB 6.1.

kñúgkrNIenH vaKWCaCMh‘anrag Sinusoid (sine wave) EtmYyKt;. A simplified diagram

éndMeNIrkarEdlCab;Tak;TgnwgrlksBaØa Multiplex PAM mYybgðajkñúgrUbPaB 6.2.
edIm,IPaBgayRsYl eyIgykEt 3 voice channels Etb:ueNÑaHmkeFVI Sample kat;CabMENk .
The sampling RtUv)anbB©ab;enAeBlvaeTAdl; gating maneQμaHfa A “gate”
EdlRtUv)anebIkkñúgry³eBld¾xøI EdlGaceGaytg;süúgqøgkat;)an. CamYyRbB½n§ DS1 (T1) rbs;
North American man 24 voice channels RtUv)an sampled tamlMdab;lMeday ehIyRtUv)andak;bnþbnÞab;

edIm,IbegáIt)anCarlksBaØa PAM Multiplex. ry³eBl Gate )anebIkRbEhlCa 5.2μsec (125/24)

sMrab; voice channel nImYy² . lMdab;lMedayén Channel TaMg 24 RtUv)an sample CabnþbnÞab;KñaBI
channel 1 dl; channel 24 kñúgry³eBl 125-μsec . ehIyeyIgGacehAry³eBl 125-μsec enHfa

Frame ehIyenAkñúg Frame enH Channels TaMg 24 RtUv)an Sample kñúgeBlEtmYy.

RbB½n§epSgeTotEdleRbIR)as;enAeRkAshrdæGaemric nig kaNadaKW E1 Edlman 30 voice

channels nwgbUkbEnßm 2 channels eTotEdlCa service channels srubKW 32 channels .

tamRTwsIþRbB½n§enH kareFVI sample KWRtUveFVI 8000 dgkñúg 1s BIeRBaHvaEtgEteFIVkarbBa¢ÚnCasMelg

pgEdr. dUecñH ry³eBl Frame rbs;vaKW)ankMnt; 125μsec . eyIgRtUvkMnt; 32 channels edImI,eGay
Gate bgðajnUv 125/32 μsec rW 3.906 μsec .

2. Quantization
RbB½n§ PCM mYyCaFmμta vaeFVIkarbBa¢ÚneTAtamtMélrbs; voltage EdlsßitenAkñúgxN³eBlxøI
mYy. eKalbMNgrbs;eyIg KWedIm,IeFVIeGayRbB½n§eKalBIrerobtamlMdab;epÞrtMéleTAkan; voltage Na
mYykñúgcMeNam voltage TaMgenaH . CasMGagkñúgkarCECkenH PAM wave GacmantMélCaGtibrmaBI
+1 V eTA -1 V . enAkñúg PCM waveform GacmancMnYnmineTogTat;eTAtamtMélxusKñarbs;

voltage. ]TahrN_ : tMélRbEhlCa -0.3875631 V epÞreTAeGayRbB½n§eKalBIrerobtamlMdab;

eTAtamtMél voltage nImYy²rbs;va . BYkeyIgRtUvEtbegáIt code eTAtamRbEvgminkMNt;mYy

dUecñHBYkeyIg RtUvEtkMNt;tMélelxrbs; voltage rvag +1 v nig -1 V cMENktMélRtUvEtdac;²

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ecjBIKña. ]TahrN_ : BYkeyIgGacdak;tMéldac;²BIKñacMnYn 20 enAcenøaH +1V nig -1 V CamYynwg
tMélbEnßmdac;²BIKñacMnYn 0.1 v .

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 BIeRBaHBYkeyIgkMBugEteFVIkarenAkñúg binary domain BYkeyIgeFVIkareRCIsyktMéldac;²Kña
srubedIm,IeGay)anCaBhuKuN (]TahrN_ : 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, etc ) . vaCYysMrYl code
eBlbMEbgeTACaRbB½n§eKalBIr . ]TahrN_ : RbsinebImantMélbYn vanwg)antMéldUcenH : 00,
01,10,11 enHKWCa 2-bit code. 3-bit code nwgpþl;eGayelx binary xusKñacMnYn 8

bnÞab;mkcMnYnsrubxus²KñaRtUv)anpþl;eGayeday code mYyrbs; n binary symbols (bit) KW 2 . n

dUecñH 7-bit code GacmankarpSMKñaxus²KñacMnYn 128 ( ]TahrN_ : 2 = 128 ) .

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cMeBaH quantization process BYkeyIgcg;bgðajBI coder a discrete voltage value .

snμtfaCMh‘anrbs; quantization sßitenAkñúgcMnYnbEnßm 0.1 V nigrgVas; voltage rbs;KMrUKW 0.37 V
EdleyIgRtUveFVIkartMeLIgvaeTACa 0.4 V CatMélRbEhl . ehIyRtUveFVIkarcMNaMfa vamankar error
cMnYn 0.03-v . PaBxusKñarvag 0.37 V nig 0.40 V .
rUbPaB 6.3 bgðajBIcMnYnCMumYyén PAM wave EdlmankñúgrUbPaB 6.1 EdleyIgeRbIR)as; 4-bit

enAkñúgrUbPaB 4-bit code RtUv)aneRbIR)as;vaedIm,IeFVIeGaymanlT§PaBxus²KñacMnYn 16

binary-coded rW kMritkñúgcenøaH +1 V nig -1 V . dUecñH eyIgGacepÞrnUvFatuedImEdlsßitenAxag

elIcMnYn 8 nigxageRkamcMnYn 8 . 16 CMh‘anenaHmannUv coded dUcxageRkam :

Step Number Code Step Number Code
____________________________________________________
0 0000 8 1000
1 0001 9 1001
2 0010 10 1010
3 0011 11 1011
4 0100 12 1100
5 0101 13 1101
6 0110 14 1110
7 0111 15 1111

]TahrN_ rUbPaBTI 6.3 bgðajfaCMh‘anTaMg 12 RtUv)aneRbIR)as;eTVrdg . vaminEmnCaeBl

evlaEdlRtUv)aneRbI vaCatMélBitrbs; impinging sinusoid voltage. vaCatMél rounded-off value
ehIytMél rounded-off Values TaMgenHRtUv)anbgðajCamYynwgbnÞat;dac;²enAkñúgrUbPaB 6.3 EdleFVI
eTAtamKMeragTUeTArbs; Sinusoid. sBaØaGviC¢manénbnÞat;edkbgðajBIcMnuc EdlcMnYnefrenaH
pøas;bþÚreTAkMritx<s; rWTab RbsinebI sinusoid curve sßitenAeRkam rW elItMélenaH .

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 ykCMh‘anTI 14 BIkñúgbnÞat;ekageFVICa]TahrN_. ExSekagEdlTmøak;cuHBIcMnucEdlx<s;bMput
RtUv)anpþl;eGaytMélBIbnÞab;BIlMdab;TI 14 . elIkTI 1 ExSbnÞat;ekagsßitenABIelI 14 ehIyelIkTI 2
sßitenAxageRkam 14. kñúgkrNITI 14 va error BI quantum value eTAkan;tMélBit RtUv)aneKehAfa :
quantizing distortion . enAkñúgdMeNIrkaxusBIPaBedImenHvaCaRbPBd¾sMxan;mYyEdlxVHxatenAkñúgRbB½n§

PCM .

eyIgEbrmkniyayBIRbvtiþén analogy mYYy. kUnRsI´mñak;manbBaðaCamYykarEckelxd¾tUc

mYyenAsalaeron. tamBitman«BuknagenAcaMCYynag. 13 Ecknwg 4 cMelIyKW 3 ehIysl;sMNl;
1. 22 Ecknwg 5 cMelIyKW 4 ehIysl;sMNl; 2 . karBitnagRtUvR)ab;BIsMNl;Edlsl;

b:uEnþsMrab;GñkCaGñkGan´KitfaKYrNaEtecalnUvsMNl; . dUcEdleyIge)aHecalnUvtMél error rvag

tMél quantized nig tMélBit . tMélEdleyIge)aHecalbegáIt)anCa quantization distortion .
enAkñúgrUbPaB 6.3 varkSaTMnak;TMng -1, 0, +1 CMh‘anCak;lak;BI 16 eTAdl; 32 .
etImanviFIGVIxøHedIm,IedaHRsaybBaða quantization distortion eGayRbesIreLIg ? dMbUgRtUvkMNt;nUvcMnYn
millivolts enAkñúgkrNInimYy²rbs;va . enAkñúgkrNITImYycMnYnsrub 2000 mV RtYv)anEckCa 16

CMh‘an rW 125 mV kñúgmYyCMh‘anénkrNITIBIman 2000/32 rW 62.5 mV kñúgmYyCMh‘an . cMeBaHkrNITaMg

16 CMh‘anenaH kar quantizing error (distortion) Edl error ticCageKenaHekIteLIg enAeBlEdl

input mYyRtUv)an quantize enARtwmBak;kNþaléndMNak;kal rW 125/5=62.5 mV BIelIrWxageRkam

Ek,rCMh‘anénkar quantization. cMEnkÉkrNI 32-steps enaH quantizing error xøaMgnwgekItmanenARtg;

Bak;kNþaléndMNak;kal rW 62.5/31.25 mV. dUecñH karvivtþén decibels sMrab;cMnYnBIrdgCMh‘an
quantizing KW³

vaGacRtwmRtUv)anEtcMeBaH linear quantization Etb:ueNÑaH . dUecñHkarekIneLIgnUvelxCMhanrbs;

quantizing cMeBaHlMdab;efréntMélEdl)anbBa©Úl KWedIm,Ikat;bnßy quantizing distortion .

bBaðamYyEdlbgðajBIkarbBa¢ÚnsMelg vamanlMdab; dynamic d¾FMmYy lMdab;cab;BI 50 dB .

EdlvaKWCa level range cab;BIBüagÁx<s;CageKrbs;GñkEdlniyaylWxøaMgeTAkan;BüagÁTabCageKrbs;
GñkEdlniyayexSayCageK . kareRbIR)as; linear quantization eyIgKitfavanwgtMrUveGayman
CMh‘andac;²KñacMnYn 2048 edIm,IerobcMcMnYnTaMgGs;eGayRtwmRtUv . eRBaHfa 2048 KWesμInwg 2 11

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vamann½yfaeyIgRtUvkar 11-bit code dUcCa code sampled 8000 dgkñúgmYyvinaTI dwknaMeday
88,000-bps smmUlnwg voice channel nig 88-kHz bandwidth , snμt 1 bit kñúg 1 Hz .

GñkKUrbøg;CaeRcInyl;eXIjfa vaKWCa bit rate/bandwidth d¾FMmYy .

eyageTAtambec©kviTüa analog BImunrbs; companding . Companding TajecjmkBIBakü
2 m:at;KW : compression nig expansion . Compression ekIteLIgenAEpñkxagbBa¢Únrbs; circuit

kñúgkMLúgeBl expansion ekIteLIgenAEpñkxagTTYl . Compression kat;bnßy dynamic range

nwg)at;bg;karRtwmRtUvmþgbnþic ehIy expansion nUv signalenHRtlb;eTAPaBedImvij. vaRtUv)aneFVI
edayBaküniyayenAkMritTab elIsBaküEdlniyayenAkMritx<s;bMput . eyIgGacniyay)anfa code
segments CaeRcInRtUv)ankMNt;edaysnÞúHénBaküniyayenAkMritTab CaCagenAkMritEdlx<s;CageK

Edlvakan;EtekIneLIgCalMdab;eRcInCagkMritkat;bnßy . vaRtUv)anbgðajCalkçN³ graphic

enAkñúgrUbPaB 6.4 Edl coded erobtamlMdab;cMnYn 8 RtUv)ankMNt;eTAtamRKb;kMrit .
lMdab;EdltUcCageKekIteLIgEtcMnYn 0.0666 V BIedIm (RtUv)ankMNt;edaykMrit 0-V) .
lMdab;EdlFMCageKelIsBI 0.5 V ehIyvaRtUv)ankMNt;eday coded EdlerobtamlMdab;cMnYn 8
Etb:ueNÑaH .

3. Coding
RbB½n§ PCM CMnan;mun eRbIR)as; 7bit code cMENkRbB½n§fμIEdleRbIR)as;naeBlbc©úb,nñenHKW 8bit
code EdlGaceFVIeGaydMeNIrkarbBa¢ÚnTinñn½ykan;EtRbesIreLIg . dMeNIrkarerobcMbBa¢ÚnTinñn½y nig

coding RtUv)aneFVIkardMNalKña . muxgarénkarb®gYm nigBRgIkTinñn½yeLIgvijKWCa logarithmic.

ExSekagrbs; pseudo logarithmic RtUv)anbegáIteLIgedayExSRtg;én segment EdlbMElgsBaØa

EdlmankMritTab nigticeGayeTACasBaØaEdlmankMritx<s; nigeRcIneLIg. emKuNR)ab;TisénExSekag
yktamc,ab;TI 1 kñúgcMeNamc,ab;TaMgBIrKW A-law nig μ -law (Ganfa c,ab; mu:y ). ExSekagénc,ab;
A-law RtUv)anTajecjBIrUbmnþ :

⎛ Ax ⎞ 1
FA ( x) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ , 0≤ x ≤ ,
⎝ 1 + ln( A) ⎠ A

⎛ 1 + ln Ax ⎞ 1
FA ( x) = ⎜⎜ ⎟ , ≤ x ≤1 ,
⎝ 1 + ln ( A ) ⎟
⎠ A

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Edl A=87.6 (cMNaM : tMél ln EdlbgðajBIcMnYnBitehAfa : e Edl e = 2.71.82818340). A-law
RtUv)aneRbIR)as;CamYynwgRbB½n§ E1 . cMENkrUbmnþbnÞat;ekagénc,ab; μ RtUv)anTajecjBI rUbmnþ :
ln(1 + μ x )
Fμ ( x) =
ln(1 + μ )

Edl x KWCa signal Edltageday GMBøITut cMENk μ =100 cMeBaHRbB½n§ T1

dMbUgeKenAGaemrikxageCIg (bc©úb,nñeKElgeRbIehIy). ehIyeRkaymkeTotenAGaemrikxageCIg
eRbIR)as;nUvtMél 255 sMrab;RbB½n§ DS1 nigRbB½n§ CCITT Edlman 24 channel systems
(emIlÉksareyagelx 3 ).

Expression FmμtamYy RtUv)aneRbIR)as;enAkñúgkarTMnak;TMngCamYynwgKuNPaBrbs; PCM

signal mYy (vaKWCa signal-to-distortion ratio(S/D)). edIm,IeKarBtamc,ab;bBa¢Ún
eyIgRtUvtagnUvGBaØtiþ cMnYn 2 KÅ : a nig μ karkMNt;eTAtamlMdab;EdlenAelIeKrbs; signal-to-
distortion ratio KWCakareRbobeFobefrmYy (tMélrbs;vaRbEhl 26dB ) . sMrab;c,ab; A-law

kñúgkarbBa¢ÚntMél S/D = 37.5dB GacesμInwgtMél A RbEhl 87.6 . ehIysMrab;c,ab;kñúgkar

erobcMbBa¢Únrbs; μ SD eyIgGacyktMélRbEhlnwg 37db ( μ =255) (emIlÉksareyagelx 4 ).

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 \LÚvsUmebIkeTAemIlrUbPaBTI 6.5 EdlbgðajGMBIkarbBa¢Únrbs;bnÞat;ekag niglT§pl coding
énRbB½n§ E1rbs;TVIbGWr:ub)ankMNt;fa curve consists rbs; linear piecewise segment
vamanRbPBenAxagelI 7 nigxageRkam 7 . Segment EdlenAxagelI nigenAxageRkam edImkMeNIt
rbs;vaKWekIteLIgBIFatu 2 énbnÞat;. karrab;FatuénCYrrYmsrubTaMgGs;man 16 segments . Segment
nImYy²RtUv)anpþl;eGayeday codewords 16 8 bit PCM . Codeword TaMgenaHehIyEdl
sMKal;eTAelIkMritrbs; voltage kñúgmYyry³eBl . Codeword nImYy² RtÚv)an eKehAfa PCM
“word” man 8 bit .

Bit dMbUgeKR)ab;BIcMgayrbs; end receiver RbsinebI sample enaHtagedayb:UlviC¢man

rWb:UlGviC¢man . tamkarsegátRKb;Bakürbs; PCM EdlenAxagelITaMgGs; RbPBedImrbs;vacab;
epþImeT,Igeday binary 1mYy. cMEnkEpñkenAxageRkamRbPBedIm cab;epþImCamYy binary 0 . 3 bits

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enAlMdab;bnÞab;RtÚvsMKal;faCa segment . man 8 segments (rW collinear equivalents)
enABIelIEpñkedIm nig 8 segments eTotenAEpñkxageRkam ( 2 =8). cMENk 4 bit
3

cugeRkayRtÚv)anbgaðjenAkñúgrUb XXXX Edlcg¥úlbgðajBIkEnøgRtwmRtUvrbs; segment mYy

bnÞat;rbs; voltage taMgTI.
snμtfacMgayrbs; end – received tamlMdab;eKalBIr KW 11010100 enAkñúgRbB½n§ E1mYy .
Bit dMbUgcg¥úlbgðajfa voltage enaHKWviC¢man ( RbPBedImEdlenAelIeKmanenAkñúgrUbTI 6.5 ) . 3 bits

bnÞab; 101 bgðajfaKMrUtagKWsßitenAkñúg segment TI 4 (viC¢man) . 4 bit cugeRkay 0100

R)ab;BIcMgaycugeRkayeKEdlvasßitenAkñúgenaHdUc)anBnül;kñúgrUbPaB 6.6 . eyIgRtUvkMNt;cMNaMfa 16
CMha‘nEdlmanenAkñúg segment KWCaExSbnÞat;. rUbPaB 6.7 bgðajBItulüPaBénemKuNR)ab;Tis
rbs;ExSekagénRbB½n§ DS1 rbs;GaemrikxageCIg . (Éksareyag ) ehIyc,ab; μ 3

eRbIR)as;nUvemelxRbEhlCa 15 segment kñúgmYybnÞat; . karkat;pþac; segment

BIRbPBedImEdlenACYrrYmKñaRtUv)anrab;fa 1. dUecñHeyIgman segment srubKWcMnYn 16.
dMeNIrkar coding kñúg PCM eFVIkarbBa¢ÚnnUv binary code eTAmuxRtg; . ]TahrN_én code
enHRtÚv)anKUsenAkñúgrUbPaBTI 6.5 ehIy)anBRgIkenAkñúgrUbPaB 6.6 nig 6.7 .
RbB½n§ PCM (T1) DS1 enAGaemricxageCIgtamc,ab; μ ( μ =255) eRbIR)as;Gs;RbEhl 15
segment énemelx rUbRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgcMnucTI 6.7 . karkat;pþac; segment BIRbPBedImEdl sßit

enACYrrYmKñaRtUvrab;fa 1 . dUcEdl)aneXIjkñúgrUbPaBTI 6.7 ehIyvamanlkçN³RsedogeTAnwgrUbPaBTI

6.5 . Fatuén code dMbUgetIvaCaelx 0 rW 1 bnÞab;mkvanwgbgðajcMgaycugeRkay eKfaetIKMnUstagén

b:UlviC¢man rWGviC¢mansßitenAEpñkxagelI rWEpñkxageRkamExSQrénG½kSGab;sIus . Fatu 3 bnÞab;eTot

sMKal;elI segment ehIyFatu 4 cugeRkayeK KWsMrab;sMKal;eTAelIkMritCak;lak;enAkñúg segment .

3.1 Concept of Frame

dUcEdleyIg)anBnül;enAkñúgrUbPaBTI 6.2 karbBa¢ÚneTAvijeTAmkrbs; PCM RtUv)ancMlg
CamYyeTAnwgdMenIrkardMNalKñapgEdr . Sampling analog )anbBa¢ÚneTAkan;RbPBCabnþbnÞab; .
RbPBTaMgenaH CamFümmanRbEhlCa nominal 4-kHz voice channels rWRbPBBt’manepSg²
3. More popularly referred to as T1.

12
Edlman bandwidth 4kHz mandUcCa data rW freeze-frame video. lT§plcugeRkayrbs; sampling
nig subsequent rYmTaMg coding KWCaes‘rImYyénlMj½rGKÁisnI . elxsMKal;eGay bit stream
tageGay 1s nig 0s EdltMrUveGaymannUvGtþsBaØaN rWkarcg¥úlbgðajxøH²kñúgkarcab;epþIménKMrU
EdlerobtamlMdab;.

13
 GtþsBaØNenHKWmansar³sMxan;dUcenHehIyeTIb far–end receiver dWgc,as;faenAeBlNaEdl
KMrUerobtamlMdab;enaHcab;epþImbBa¢Ún . ehIyenAeBlEdl receiver TTYl)annUv “indication”
vanwgdwgCamunfa 24 eight-bit slots eFVItamva. bnÞab;mkvaeFVIsmμkalkmμCamYynwg receiver .
GtþsBaØaNenHRtÚv)anbBa¢Úneday framing bit . enAkñúgRbCMusBVbec©kviTüa PCM KWCakarerobcM
tamlMdab;mYyeBjelj rW Cycle én sample ehIyRtUv)aneKehAfa Frame.
tamkarKitrcnasm<½n§én Framing Edl)anGnuvtþenAkñúgRbB½n§ PCM man 2EpñkFM²KW DS1
enAGaemrikxageCIg nig E1 enATVIbGWr:ub . enAGaemrikxageCIgRbB½n§ DS1KWCaRbB½n§ PCM Edlman
24-channel ehIyeRbIR)as;nUv 8 level coding ¬]TahrN_ 2 = 256 CaCMh‘anEdlerobtamlMdab;rW
8

distinct PCM code words). Supervisory signaling in band KWCaGñkRtYtBinitüeTAelIsBaØaEdl

bit TI 8 én frame TI 6 EdleKehAfa “robbed”. (Éksareyag ) karbMElgén DS1 4-6

RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbTI 6.8 Edlman bit 1 RtUv)anbEnßmelI framing bit ¬vaR)ab;GMBIcMgayrbs;

end receiver enAeBlEdl frame cab;epþImdMeNIrkar¦ . vaRtUv)aneKehAfa “S” bit . DS1 frame

ekIteLIgBI³
(8 × 24) + 1 = 193 bits

kareFVI[ frame 1 eBjtamlMdab; . tamniymn½y 8000 frames RtUv)anbBa¢Únkñúg 1 vinaTI (KW 4000*2
, the Nyquist sampling rate ) dUecñH bit rate én DS1 KW³

193 × 8000 = 1,544,000 bps rWesμInåg 1.544 Mbps

4. “In-band,” an unfortunate expression harking back to the analog world.

5. In the DS1 system it should be noted that in each frame that has bit 8 “robbed,” 7-bit coding is used versus
8-bit coding employed on the other five frames.
6. Supervisory signaling is discussed in Chapter 7. All supervisory signaling does is tell us if the channel is busy
or idle.

14
 RbB½n§ PCM E1 énTVIbGuIr:ubCaRbB½n§mYyEdlman 32 channels . 32 channels enH manEt 30
channels b:ueNÑaHsMrab;bBa¢ÚnsMelg (rWTinñn½y) Edl)anTajecjBI telephone trunk ehIyenAsl; 2

channels eToteRbIsMrab;bBa¢Ún synchronization-alignment nig signaling information. Channel

nImYy²RtUv)anEbgEckCa 8-bit time slot (TS) edayeyIgerobCataragbBa¢IBI 0 rhUtdl; 31

dUcxageRkam ³
TS RbePTénBt’man
0 Sychronizing (framing)
1-15 Speech
16 Signaling
17-31 Speech

én synchronizing code rW
TS 0 word mYy RtUv)anbBa¢ÚncUleTARKb; frame TI 2

EdlmanBIelx 2 dl;elx 8 dUcxageRkam ³

00110011

enAkñúg Frames ebIKμan synchronizing word eT enaH bit TI 2 rbs; TS 0 RtUv)anbBaÄb;

enARtg; 1 dUecñH frames TaMgenH synchronizing word minGaceFVItam)aneLIy . Bit rbs; TS0
EdlenAsl;GaceRbIR)as;sMrab;karbBa¢Ún nig RKb;RKgnUvBt’manrbs;rlksBaØa . (Éksareyag ) 75

TMrg;edImrbs; E1 eFVIkarbBa¢ÚnmancMnYn 32 channels én 8 bit-time slots . dUecñH Frame E1

man 8×32=256bits ehIyminmannUv framing bit eT . karerobcMCaExSbnÞat;rbs; framing
RtUv)anbBa¢ÚnenAkñúg TS 0 . E1 bit rate erobeTAtamExSbnÞat;rbs;vaKWesμInwg ³

256 × 8000 = 2,048,000 bps rWesμIrnåg 2.048 Mbps

Framing nigeBlevlaRKwHKYrEtEjkeGaydac;BIKña . ehIy framing nwgeFVIeGayc,as;fa
PCM receiver RtUverobcMCaCYrsMrab;karcab;epþIm(nigbBa©b;)nUvkarerobtamlMdab;rbs; bit rW frame .

Timing KW sMedAcMeBaHkar synchronizationén receive clock ehIyvaKWsßitkñúgCMh‘anCamYynwgédKU

rbs; far-end transmit clock . Timing enAxag receiver GacRtwmRtUveTA)antamkarpøas;bþÚrBIelx 1

7. A transition in this context is a change of electrical state. We often use the term “mark” for a binary 1 and
“space” for a binary 0. The terms mark and space come from old-time automatic telegraphy and have been
passed on through the data world to the parlance of digital communications technology.

15
eTAelx 0 nigBIelx 0 eTAelx 1 vij. ehIyvamansar³sMxan;Nas;cMeBaHeBlevlad¾EvgmYyenAeBl
Kμankarpøas;bþÚrekIteLIg . cMNucsMxan;enHnwgRtUvBiPakSaenAeBleRkaykñúgÉksareyagrbs; line
code nig karerobbRBa©as;rbs;elx .

III. PCM System Operation

PCM channel bank dMeNIrkar)anedayBwgEp¥keTAelIExScMnYn 4 sés . karbeBa©j rW
bBa©ÚlnUv voice channel cMnYn BI PCM multiplex channel bank mYyRtUvkarnUvExS 4 sés rW
RtUvbMElgenAkñúg]bkrN_eGayeTACaExScMnYn 4 sés. CaFmμtaeQμaHrbs; channel bank EdleK
Føab;eRbIKW codec EdlvaenaHKWCakarsagsg;mYysMrab; coder decoder ebIeTaHbICa]bkrN_enaH
mantYnaTIeRcInCag coding nig decoding block diagram k¾edayk¾EbbEpnrbs; codec (PCM
Channel bank) RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbPaBTI 6.9 .

Codec mYyGacTTYlyk)annUv voice channel cMnYn 24 b¤ 30 edayBwgEp¥keTAelI

RbB½n§EdleyIg)aneRbIR)as; . karbBa¢ÚnnUvelxsMKal;rbs; bit stream eTAkan;bnÞat;énelx 1.534

Mbps rW 2.048Mbps. enAelIkTI 1 vaTTYlyknUvelxsMKal;rbs; bit stream b¤ enA modulation

mode rate epSgeTot . Bt’manEdlmanlkçN³ digital manTisedAeRcInedayvaGaceFVIkarbMElgBI

digital eTA analog rYcbBa¢ÚneTAkan; analog telecommunication network cMnYn 24 b¤ 30 nominal 4-

KHz voice channels. rUbPaBTI 6.9 CaKMnUstag[dMeNIkarén single analog voice channel

enAeBleFVIdMeNIrqøgkat; codec . Voice channel EdlbBa¢ÚneTAdMbUgeK vaqøgkat;nUv Low-pass filter

KWcMnYnRtwmEt 3.4-KHz Etb:ueNÑaH. cMeraHEdlbeBa©jmkvijCa fed rbs; sampling circuit mYy.
KMrUtagnImYy²rbs; circuit CaQutmYyrbs; n channel ¬CaTUeTA n esμIrnåg 24 b¤ 30 ¦
RtUv)anbeBa©jehIyeFVIdMeNIrRtLb;eTAkan; pulse amplitude modulation PAM highway vij.
karrbUtecjénKMnUstagKWsßitenAeRkamkarRtYtBinitürbs; channel gating pulse mYy .
EdlTajecjykmkBI transmit clock cMENkÉ PAM high way KWCakarbBa¢ÚneTAkan; coder ehIy
coder enaHTTYlyknUvRKb;KMnUstagén channel tamlMdab;lMeday rYcbegáItnUv character signal 8-

bit [RtUvKñaeTAnwgkarbgðajnUvKMnUstagnImYy² . karbeBa©jmkvijrbs; coder KWCa mUldæanRKwHrbs;

PCM signal EdlrYmpSMKñaedaytYelxEdlerobcMenAsBaØaCaExSbnÞat; framing bBa©Úl[RtUvKñaeTAnwg

time slots .

16
 PaBcaM)ac;énkarRKb;RKgelxrbs; signal KWTTYlxusRtUveday channel nImYy²
¬RtUv)anTTYlsÁal;enATVIbGuWr:ub¦ ehIyRtUv)anCMnYseday common signaling highway
mYyedaybegáIteLIgeday]bkrN_ channel énelxsMKal;nUv bit stream CaeRcIn
ehIyeTIbbBa¢ÚneTAkan;ExSbnÞat; . TMlab;énkarRKb;RKg signal enAGaemrikxageCIgRtUv)anbBa¢ÚneTA
xusEbøkKñabnþicbnþÜc eday bit robbing dUcmanenAkñúgkMnt;sMKal;xagelI bit TI 8 énRKb; frame TI 6 Ca
”rubbed” ehIyRtUv)aneRbIR)as;eday signal bit mYy . dUcenHral;karbBa¢Únrbs; voice channel

KWvamanPaBsmmUleTAnwg signaling rbs;xøÜnvapÞal; .

enAEpñkxag receive codec vaTTYlyknUvelxsMKal;rbs; PCM bit stream
rYceTIbeFVIkarbMEbknUvelxkUdEdl)anbBa©ÚlenaH. CaFmμtavaRtUv)anbegáIt rW bMEbkeday signal .
karbBa¢ÚnnUv PCM signal eTAkan;TItaMgTI 4 KWedIm,I[vaeFVIdMeNIreTAtamtYnaTIrbs;va dUcxageRkam :
1. Time recovery
2. Decoding
3. Framing alignment
4. Signaling (supervisory)

karvilRtLb;mkvijnUveBlevlaKWvaGacrkSaTuknUv receive clock kñúgkareFVIsmμkalkmμ

CamYynwg far-end transmit clock . cMENkÉ receive clock vanwgpþl;[nUvpøÚvmYyEdlcaM)ac;

17
eGayEpñkxag receive rbs; PCM codec frame alignment circuit senses sMrab;tag[nUv frame
alignment signal enAkñúgcenøaHeBld¾RtwmRtUvCak;lak;mYy . dUecñH karTTYlcugeRkayeKbg¥s;

CamYynwg frame alignment decoder KWsßitenAeRkamkarRKb;RKg rW RtYtBinitüeday receive clock .

Code character signal mYy RtUvTTYlxusRtUveday channel nImYy²rbs;va . kar output rbs;

decoder KWCakarrYmpSMeLIgvijrbs; pulse edIm,IbegáIteLIgvij[)anCa PAM highway mYy . Gate

channel )anTTYlyknUv PAM highway . karerobcMtamlMdab;én n-channel PAM highway

RtUv)anRtYtBinitüeday receive clock ehIykar output rbs; channel enaHRtUv)aneKehAfa fed .

kñúgeBlenaHRKb; channel TaMgGs;edIrtYCaGñkcMeraH . dUcenHvak¾manlT§PaBrYmpSMeLIgvijnUv analog
voice signal edIm,I[QaneTAdl; appropriate voice path gating pulse ehIyvak¾mantYnaTIdkRsg;

nUvBt’manrbs; signal BIkñúg signaling processor ehIy apply nUvBt’manTaMgenaHeTAkan;

reconstitution voice channel CamYynwg supervisory signaling interface EdltMrUv[manbBaðaenAkñúg

analog telephone system .

IV. Line Code

enAeBlEdl PCM signal bBa©ÚneTA cable plant KWvasßitenAkñúg mode bipolar
ehIyrUbRtUv)anKUrbgðajenAkñúgcMnuc 6.10 . karbBa¢ÚnenAkñúg mode enHvamanKuNsm,tiþmYycMnYn
dUcCa ³
• mintMrUv[mankarvilRtLb;mkvijnUvcrnþ DC dUcenHeRKOgEdlbBa¢ÚnbnþGaceRbIR)as;enA

elIExSbnÞab;enH)an .
• Power spectrum én transmitted signal KWenAcMkNþal frequency equivalent dl; half

bit rate. rYcvanwgeFVIkarkt;cMNaMenAkñúg bipolar transmission Edl 0 KWCa codec

minmanenAkñúg pulse nig 1 KWCa codec qøas;rbs; positive nig negative pulse .
CamYynwgkarpøas;bþÚr pulse enH RtUv)anCMnYsRKb;kEnøgénelx 1 . Mode énkarbBa¢ÚnenH
RtUv)aneKehAfa alternate mark inversion (AMI).

Drawback mYyRtUv)an AMI transmission bBa¢Úneq<aHeTARtg; edayExSEvgmYyénelx 0

¬]TahrN_ Kμankarpøas;bþÚr¦. bBaða timing mYyGacekIteLIgedaysar repeater nig decoder

18
KμanmeFüa)aykñúgkadkRsg;yknUv timing enaH . ehIyRbsinebIKμankarpøas;bþÚrenaHeT
vanwgekItmanbBaða edaykat;bnþynUv string d¾Evgénelx 0 .

Code RtUv)anbegáIteday bipolar CamYynig n 0s substitution . BYkvaRtUv)aneKehAfa

“BNZS” code . ]bmafa B6ZS code RtUv)aneRbIR)as;CMnYs[ particular signal rbs; string TI 6

énelx 0s . dUcenH B8ZS KWRtUv)aneRbIR)as;enAkñúg subscriber loop

EdlsßiteRkamkareRCotcUlbnÞab;BI string TI 8 énelx 0.
Code epSg²eTotKWCa HDB3 code (high-density binary 3) . Edl 3 indicates

CMnYseGaykarerobtamlMdab;énRbB½n§eKalBIrCamYynwgelxCab;Kña 0 eRcInCag 3 CamYynwg HDB3 .

elxTI 2 nigelxTI 3 énelx 0 RtUv)anbBa¢ÚnedayKμankarpøas;bþÚrnUv string . elx 0 TI 4
RtUv)anbBa¢ÚneTAkan; line CamYynåg polarity EdlmankMNt;cMNaMkñúgkarbBa¢ÚneTAmunCa violation
rbs; AMI concept. ehIyelx 0 enAmuxeK Gac rW minGacEkERbeTACaelx 1 edIm,IbBa¢ak;fa
violation EdlenAbnÞab;Ca polarity pÞúyKña. HDB3RtUv)aneRbIR)as;CamYynågRbB½n§ PCM E series

rbs;TVIbGWr:ub (ehIyvamanlkçN³RsedogeTAnwg B3ZS pgEdr) .

19
 V. Signal-to-Gaussian-noise ratio on PCM Repeatered line
dUcEdleyIg)anniyayBImunmk karekIneLIgénsMelgrMxanenAkñúgRbB½n§ PCM minEmnCaerOg
sMxan;enaHeT . b:uEnþeTaHbICay:agNak¾vaminEmnmann½yfa Gaussian noise minsMxan;enaHEdr.
(Éksareyag ) tamBitvanågb:HBal;dl; error performance expressed dUceTAnåg error rate
86

pgEdr . Error ekItmankan;EteRcIneLIg ehIyeFVIeGay PCM repeatered line Føak;cuH cMENkÉ error
performance nwg)at;bg; . karvaytMéleTAelI error faetI 1 rW 0 RtUv)anbegIáteLIgenARKb;TIkEnøg

enAkñúgRbB½n§ digital dUcenHvaKWminGacTTYlykmkvij)an . bnÞab;mknwgmankarsMerccitþxusmYy

EdlbegáIteLIgeday regenerative repeater edayrYmbBa©ÚlTaMg sar³sMxan;rbs; error rate enAelI
line pgEdr . karcab;yk error enAkñúg subsequent repeaters vaGaceFVIeGay line

kan;EtFøak;cuHedaysarEtkardak;bEnßmelIKña. dUcenH karTTYlykenAkñúg signal kan;EtBi)akeTA² .

kñúgRbB½n§ binary transmission GacRtwmRtUv)anRbsinebI 22dB signal-to-noise ratio
RtUv)anrkSaTuk . RbB½n§dMeNIrkarswgEt error free. (Éksareyag ) 97

dUcEdleyIg)anBiPakSaenAkñúgcMnucTI 6.4 ehIy PCM KWCakarbBa¢ÚnEdlmanlkçN³ online

CamYynwgkarerobbRBa©asKñaénsBaØa ( enAkñúg bipolar mode ) . kMNt;sMKal;mYyman 50% duty
cycle eTIbGnuBaØatieGaykarRbmUlpþMúfamBlén signal enAkñúg frequency equivalent eTACa half

transmitted bit rate. dUecñH vanwgbEnßmeday 1dB rW 2dB eTAelItMélEdl)anbgðajenAkñúgrUbPaBTI

6.1 edIm,IbMeBjeTAtamtMrUvkarrbs; error performance enAkñúgkarGnuvtþeTAelIRbB½n§mYy .

8. Gaussian noise is the same as thermal noise.

9. It is against the laws of physics to have a completely error-free systems.

20
 VI. Regenerative Repeater
dUcEdleyIg)andwg crnþénTinñn½yqøgkat;ExScMlg Digital rgnUvkarricril nigeFVIeGayxUcRTg;
RTayedaylkçN³eRbkg;énExSenaH. Regenerative repeater mYy mannaTIBRgIk nigbegáIteLIgvijnUv
karxUcxat Digital signal TaMgenaH ehIyvaeFVIkarvivtþnUv Digital signal edImdUcebHbiTenAeBl
Output. Regenerative repeater KWCaKnwøHsMxan;mYysMrab;karbBa¢Ún Digital signal EdleyIgGac

niyay)anfa sMelgRtUvQb;enARtg; Repeater.

rUbPaB 6.11 KWCa Block diagram gaymYyén Regenerative repeater mYyEdlbgðaj
BITMrg;rlksBaØaTUeTAmYy RtUvKñanwgCMh‘annimYy² énmuxgardMeNIrkarrlksBaØa. dUcEdl)anbgðaj
enAkñúgrUb CMh‘andMbUgéndMeNIrkarbBa¢ÚnsBaØa KW karBRgIkeGayFM (Amplification) nig kareFVIeGaydUc
b:unKña (Equalization) . CamYynwg Regenerative repeater CaeRcIn Equalization mandMeNIrkarEck
ecjCaBIrdMNak;kal. dMeNIrkarTI 1 ehAfa Fixed equalizer EdlmanmuxgarTUTat;eLIgvij
nUvkar)at;bg;cMeBaHkarricrileRbkg; EdlbNþalmkBIRbEvgsþg;darénExS bBa¢Únrvag Repeaters (6000
ft or 1830 m). CMh‘anTI 2 KWkareFVIkarEkERb nigbegáIteLIgvijnUvKMlatrvagRbEvg Nominal repeater

section nig RbEvgBit dUcEdl)anERbRbYleTAtamsItuNðPaB. Adjustable equalizer enHeRbIbNþaj

Automatic Line Build-Out (ALBO) EdlRtUv)ansMrbsMrYledaysV½yRbvtþiGaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³

énsBaØaEdlTTYl)an. (Éksareyag ) 108

Signal output én Repeater RtUvmaneBlevlaeTotTat;edIm,IrkSanUvRbEvgcrnþd¾Cak;lak;.

eBlevlaenH RtUv)anTajecjBI Incoming bit stream. Incoming signal RtUv)anEktMrUv

ehIynwgkat;pþac; begáItCa Square waves Edldak;eTAnwg Timig extractor EdlCaesoKVImYypþl;
sMelgeGay Timing frequency. Output énesoKVIenH RtYtBinitüelI Clock-pulse generator
EdlbegáItnUv Output éncrnþEdltUcceg¥ótEdlERbRbUlCa viC¢man nig GviC¢manRtg;tMél 0
qøgkat;rbs; Square-wave input. Narrow positive clock pulses ebIkpøÚveGay Incoming pulse én
Regenerator. dUecñHehIy bNþúMenHRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IBinitüRbEvgén Regenerated pulses.

Regenerative repeater KWCaRbPBsMxan;én Timing jitter enAkñúgRbB½n§bBa¢Ún Digital signal mYy.

Jitter KWCaeKalkarN_fycuHmYyenAkñúgbNþaj Digital pþl;nUvkarekIneLIgdl;crnþEdlxUcxat nig

lubnUvsBaØaEdlqøgrMxan. Jitter niwgRtUvsikSarlMGitenAkñúgEpñk 6.9.2.

10. Linebuild-out is the adding of capacitance and/or resistance to a transmission line to look “electrically” longer
or shorter than it actually is physically.

21
 Regenerative repeaters PaKeRcInEtgEtbBa¢ÚnrlksBaØa Bipolar(AMI) mYy ¬rUbPaB
6.10¦. sBaØaTaMgenaH GacmanmYykñúgcMeNamlkçN³bIenAkñúgxN³NamYyéneBlKW viC¢man sUnü rW

GviC¢man¬tg;süúg¦ ehIyEtgEtRtUv)ansMKal;eday +, 0, -. cMnuccab;epþIménesoKVI KWebIksMrab;

eGaycUlnUv Signal enARtg;cMnucBak;kNþalén Pulse interval . ]TahrN_ RbsinebI Signal
mansBaØaviC¢man ehIyelIsBIcMnuccab;epþImviC¢man vaRtUv)ansMKal;faCa Positive pulse.
RbsinebIvamansBaØaGviC¢manvij ehIyelIsBIcMnuccab;epþImGviC¢man enaHvaCa Negative pulse.
mü:agvijeTot ebIvamantMéltg;süúgsßitenAcenøaH Positive nig Negative voltage thresholds
enaHeKsMKal;fa vaKμancrnþ 0 ( no pulse).
enAeBlEdlcMnuccab;epþImelIskMNt; Regenerator vaeqøIytbPøam² edIm,IbegáItnUvcrnþmYyEdl
man Duration, Polarity nig Amplitude RtwmRtUv. enAkñúglkçN³enH Input signal EdlxUcxat
RtUv)anerobcMeLIgvijCa Output signal fμImYysMrab;karbBa¢Ún Repeater bnÞab;eTot rWk¾ Terminal
facility.

VII. PCM System Enhancements

1. Enhancements to DS1
PCM frame rate KW 8000 frames kñúg 1s. CamYy DS1 man frame nimYy²man framing bit
mYy. dUecñHehIy 8000 framing bits RtUv)anbBa¢Únkñúgry³eBl 1s. CamYynwgbec©kviTüaTMenIbrbs;
Processor ral; 8000 framing bits mincaM)ac;rkSaTuknUvRbB½n§ framing-aligned eLIy. RtwmEt 1 PaK

22
4 én 8000 framing bits kñúgeBl 1s b:ueNÑaHEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;sMrab; framing nigcMnYnEdlenAsl;
6000 bits kñúg 1s GaceRbIsMrab;bBaðepSg²eTot dUcCa on-line gross error detection nigsMrab;rkSakar

link rbs; data. edIm,IeGaykareRbIR)as;cMnYn bits enAsl;xagelIeGay)anl¥ DS1 frames RtUvyk

12 rW 14 kñúgmYyxN³eBl. karerobCaRkumEbbenH RtUv)anehAfa superframe nig extended

superframe erog²xøÜn. Extended superframe CaFmμtapþl;nUvPaBgayRsYlsMrab;karbgðaj on-line

error nig troubleshooting.

2. Enhancements to E1
eyIgKYrcMnaMfa Time slot 0 enAkñúgTMrg; E1 KWCa synchronization channel Edlman channel bit
rate 64 kbps. Bak;kNþalb:ueNÑaHéncMnYn bits enH RtUv)aneRbIsMrab; synchronization.

EpñkEdlenAsl; 32 kbps eTot KWeRbIsMrab;bgðajnUv on-line error sMrab; data channel én remote
alarms. Remote alarm TaMgenH R)ab;eTA system operator GMBImuxgarrbs; distant PCM terminal.

VIII. Higher-order PCM Multiplex Systems

1. Introduction
Higher-order PCM multiplex RtUv)anvivtþmkBIRbPBedImCaeRcIn. Primary multiplex
CaTUeTAKWCa DS1 enA North America nig E1 enA Europe. RbeTsmYycMnYn)aneFVImaRtdæansþg;darelI
E1 dUcCaPaKeRcInén Hispanic America. minRtwmEt E1 nig DS1 EdlminRtUvKña sUm,IEt higher-

order multiplex k¾minRtUvKñaEdr. CabzmeyIgbgðajBI Stuffing BN’naGMBI North America higher-

level multiplex nigsikSaBI European multiplex GaRs½yelIRbB½n§ E1.

2. Stuffing and Justification

Stuffing(justification)KWFmμtacMeBaHRKb; higher-level multiplex EdleyIgBN’naxag
eRkam. sikSaelI DS2 higher-level multiplex. va)anmkBI M12 multiplexer TTYlyk input BIbYn
24-channel channel banks. Clocks enAkñúg channel banks enH dMeNIrkaredayesrI. el,ÓnbBa¢Ún

output én channel banks nimYy² KWCaFmμta 1,544,000 bps. eTaHbICay:agenaHkþI vamankMritFn;én

±50 ppm (±77 bps). ]bmafa RKb; DS1 input TaMgbYn kMBugRbtibtiþkarenAelI high side én

tolerance rW 1,544,077 bps. kar input TaMgenaHeTA M12 multiplex KWCa buffer mYy.

23
vamansmtßPaBCak;lak;. luHRtaEt bits RtUv)an read ecjBI buffer elOnCagkarbBa¢Úl enAeBlxøH
buffer nwgRtUv overflow. enHKWCaGVIEdleyIgmincg;)anTal;EtesaH. dUecñHehIyeTIbeyIgman bit

stuffing.

Stuffing enAkñúg output én bit stream rYmmYy mann½yfakarbEnßmcMnYn bits.

vaeFVIeGayeyIgGa read ecjBI buffer mYyelOnCagkar write cUl. IEEE )ankMNt; stuffing bits Ca
{ bits )anbBa¢ÚneTAkñúg frame edIm,Isgdl; timing differences enAkñúg lower rate signals EdlsMxan;
{ . CCITT eRbIBakü Justification. rUbPaB 6.12 bgðajBI Stuffing concept.

3. North America Higher-Level Multiplex

rcnasMB½n§énRbB½n§ digital rbs; North America RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.13. Higher-level
multiplexer Ca Type-coded dUcEdleyIgdwgBI DS levels (]TahrN_ DS1, DS1C, DS2, DS3,

DS4) EdlRtUv)anpÁMúcUlKña. ]TahrN_ M34 multiplexer yk 4 DS3 bit streams enARtg; input

rbs;va edIm,IbegáIt DS4 bit stream enARtg; output. eyIgBN’naBIRbtibtiþkarN_rbs; M12

multiplexer BIeRBaHvaeFVIEbbEpnénes‘rI.

TMrg;én second-level North American multiplex DS2 )anmkBI four DS1 inputs
RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.14. manbYn inputs sMrab; M12 multiplexer dMeNIrkarnimYy²kñúgkMritFmμta
1.544 Mbps. Output bit rate Kw 6.312 Mbps. eyIgKuN 1.544 Mbps nwg 4 ehIyTTYl)an 6.176

Mbps. eyIgGacniyay)anfa output rbs; M12 multiplexer kMBugdMeNIrkar 136 kbps

elOnCagbnSMén 4 inputs. cMnYn bit bEnßmenHCa Overhead bits nigsMNl; KWCa Stuff bits. rUbPaB
6.15 bgðajBIkarbegáItén DS2 frame.

M12 multiplexer frame man 1176 bits. Frame RtUv)anEbgEckCabYn 294-bit subframes

dUcbgðajkñúgrUb 6.15. vaman Control bit word EdlRtUv)anEbgEcktamry³ frame

ehIyvacab;epþImCamYynwg M bit mYy. dUecñHehIy subframe nimYy² cab;epþImCamYynwg M bit mYy.
manbYn M bits begáItes‘rI 011X kEnøg bit(X) TIbYn EdlGacCa 1 rW 0 ehIyeRbICa alarm indicator
bit. enAeBlbBa¢ÚnCa 1 edayKμanlkçxNÐ alarm ekItmaneLIg. lMdab; 011 sMrab; first three M bits

RtUv)aneRbIkñúgkarTTYlesoKVI edIm,IsMKal; frame.

vaRtUv)ansMKal;enAkñúgrUb 6.15 fa subframe nimYy²)anbegáIteLIgeday 49-bits blocks cMnYn
6. Block nimYy²cab;epþImeday control bit mYy EdlbnÞab;eTotCa 48-bit block énTinñn½y. cMeBaH

24
48 bits enH 12 bits RtUv)anykBI four input DS1 signals nimYy². vamankardak;cenøaHCa
lMdab;enAkñúg 48-bit block. Bit TI1 enAkñúg block TI1 nigTI6 RtUv)anbegáItBI F bit mYy. F bit Ca a
0101…. edIm,IkMNt;BITItaMgrbs; control bit sequence nigcMnuccab;epþImén block of information

bits.

25
 4. European E1 Digital Hierarchy
rcnasMB½n§rbs; E1 RtUv)ansMKal;tamry³lkçN³dUcKñanwg DS1 Edr. E1(30 voice

channels) KWCa Multiplex dMbUgmYy ehIy E2 KWCakMritTI2 bnÞab;EdlTajecjBI four E1s.

dUecñHehIy W2 man 120 equivalent digital voice channels. E3 KWCakMritTI3

ehIyvaekItecjBI four E2 inputs nigman 480 equivalent voice channels. cMENkÉ E4 ekItecjBI
TMrg;én four E3 ehIyman 1920 equivalent voice channels. rcnasMB½n§RbB½n§ Digital GnþrCati
RtUv)aneRbobeFobenAkñúgrUb 6.2. tarag 6.3 pþl;nUv basic parameter sMrab;TMrg;EbbEpnénkMrit E2
enAkñúgrcnasMB½n§ Digital rbs; Europe. CCITT Rec. G.745 ra:b;rgBI cyclic bit interleaving
enAkñúg tributary (E1 inputs) numbering order nig positive/zero/negative justification CamYynwg

26
two-command control( Éksareyag ). Justification control signal RtUv)anEckcay nig Cjin
119

bits ( n=1, 2, 3; emIltarag 6.3) RtUv)aneRbIsMrab; justification control bits. Positive justification

RtUv)anbgðajedaysBaØa 111 bBa¢ÚnenAral; two consecutive frames. Negative justification

RtUv)anbgðajedaysBaØ 000 ehIybBa¢ÚnenAral; two consecutive frames pgEdr. No-justification
RtUv)anbgðajtamry³sBaØa 111 enAkñúg frame mYy nig 000 enAkñúg frame bnÞab;. Bits 5, 6, 7 nig 8
enAkñúgsMnMu IV(tarag 6.3) RtUv)aneRbIsMrab; negative justification rbs; tributaries 1, 2, 3 nig 4
erogKña ehIy bits 9 dl; 12 sMrab; positive justification rbs; tributaries dUcKña.

11 Positive/zero/negative justification. This refers to stuffing to compensate for input channel bit rates that are
either too slow, none necessary, or too fast.

27
eRkABIenH enAeBlTinñn½yBI tributsaries 1, 2, 3 nig 4 minRtUv)anbBa¢Ún naMeGay bit 5, 6, 7 nig 8
enAkñúgsMnMu IV KWTMenrsMrab;karbBa¢ÚnTinñn½yTak;TgnwgRbePTén justification (positive rW negative)
enAkñúg frame Edlman commands rbs; positive justification nig intermediate amount én jitter
enAkñúg frame Edlman commands rbs; negative justification . (Éksareyag ) tMélGtibrma
1210

én justification rate kñúg tributary )anbgðajkñúgtarag 6.3.

IX. Long-Distance PCM Transmission

1. Transmission Limitations
rlksBaØa Digital GacbBa¢Úntamry³ Wire pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable nig
wideband radio media. TMrg; PCM multiplex eRbI AMI signal mYy )aneRbICamYy Wire-pair

cable(emIlEpñk 5.5). kareRbIrbs;vaelIExS Coaxial RtUv)anpøas;bþÚredaykarniym fiber-optic

cable. RbePTExScMlgnimYy² manEdnkMNt;edayKuNPaBrbs;va. EdnkMNt;TaMgenaH KWsMedAdl;

kMritRbEvgénkarbBa¢ÚnTinñn½y nig el,ÓnbBa¢Únrbs;va ( bit rate). eyIg)anniyayrYcmkehIy

GMBIkar)at;nUvrlksBaØa Ca]TahrN_xagelI. enAeBlEdlkar)at;bg;ekIneLIg (enAcenøaH
regenerative repeater) naMeGayman signal-noise xUcxatEdlbNþaleGayman bit error.

karbBa¢ÚnfycuHcMeBaH PCM rYmman Jitter, distortion, noise nig crosstalk.

2. Jitter an Wander
kñúgGtßn½yénkarbBa¢ÚnsBaØa Digital Jitter RtUv)ankMNt;Ca short-term variation én
sampling instant BITItaMgbMrugrbs;vaenAkñúg time nig phase. Long-term variation én sampling

instant ehAfa Wander. Jitter GacbNþaleGaymankarFøak;cuHénkarbBa¢ÚndUcCa³

™ karpøas;kEnøgrbs; ideal sampling instant. vaGacbNþaleGayxUcxatenAkñúgdMeNIrkarrbs;

system.

™ kar error bnþicbnþÜcenAkñúg timing recovery circuits, bgðajBIdMeNIrkarminRbRktI.

™ karxUcxatrbs; Analog signal bnÞab;BI decoding enAeBlEdlTTYlBIesoKVIcugeRkay.

12 Jitter, see Section 6.9.2.

28
 KitGMBI Jittser CalkçN³ minute random motion of a timing gate. Timing gates
)anbgðajenAkñúg Lower-right-hand corner énrUb 6.11. Analogy KWCaGñkEdleRbI Screwdriver
edIm,ImYlsaer:(adjust) ex©A(screw).
Random phase modulation rW phase jitter bgðajenARtg; regenerative repeater

ekIneLIgenAkñúgExSén repeater ehIyGacbNþaleGaymankarqøgsMelg nig karxUcxatenAeBlEdl

begáIt Analog signal eLIgvij. enAkñúgRbB½n§ Digital switching, jitter enAelI incoming lines
KWCaRbPBGanuPaBmYyén Slips. (Éksareyag ) karekIneLIgén Jitter KWCamuxgarmYyéncMnYn
1311

regenerative repeaters enAkñúg Tandem. cgcaMTukfa Switches , fiber optic receivers nig digital

radios k¾GacCa regenerative repeaters.

CakarBitNas; karbnßycMnYnén regenerative repeaters enAkñúg Tandem eyIgbnßyeday

GaRs½yeTAnwg Jitter. RbB½n§ Wire-pair bBa¢Ún PCM cMeBaH DS1 rate man repeaters erogral; 6000
ft(1830 m). ebIeyIgeFVIkarbnßy Jitter enaH Wire-pair eRbIminl¥CamYy long circuits eLIy.

mü:agvijeTot RbB½n§ fiber optic GaRs½yedaykar Design nig bit rate Gacman repeaters erogral;
40 miles eTA 200 miles (64 km eTA 320 km). enHKWCaehtuplmYyEdlRbB½n§ fiber optic

eBjniymsMrab; long-haul application. Line-of-sight microwave radio EdlerobcMy:agsuRkwt

edIm,IbMeBjeKalbMNg Gacman repeaters erogral; 30 miles (48 Km). dUecñH vak¾GacCaRbePT
EdleKeRCIserIssMrab; long-haul system pgEdr. RbB½n§ Satellite radio manRbsiT§iPaBcMeBaH
cMnYnticbMputén repeater kñúgRbEvg 1 unit.

3. Distortion
elIkarbBa¢ÚntKñatamry³elah³Fatu dUcCa coaxial cable nig wire-pair cable
lkçN³ExSGaceFVIeGayxUc nigfycuHnUv Digital signal enAeBlvaqøgkat;ExScMlg. manlkçN³ExS 3
y:agEdlbegáItkaxUcRTg;RTayenH³
1. Loss
2. Amplitude distortion(amplitude-frequency response)
3. Delay distortion

13 Slips are a major impairment in digital networks. Slips and slip rate are discussed in Section 12.7.

29
GaRs½yehtuenHehIy regenerative repeater RtUvEtpþl; amplification nig equalization rbs;
incoming digital signal muneBlvabegáIteLIgsaCafμI. vak¾mankardUrecjrvag Loss nig Distortion

ehIymü:ageTotrvaglkçN³ repeater nig repeater section length.

4. Thermal Noise
cMeBaHRbB½n§TMnak;TMngEpñkeGLicRtUnicEtgEtmankMedAénsMelg (Thermal noise) snÞúHén
kMedA (Impulse noise) nigsMelgqøg (crosstalk) rYcva)aneFVIeGayb:HBal;dl; System Design.
edaysarRbB½n§eKalBIrrbs;bec©kviC¢a Digital manPaBGn;fydUecñHeyIgRtUvBinitü eTAelIeKal Per-
repeater-section BIeRBaHsMelgminGacekIteLIgkñúgdMeNIrkarbegáItsarCafμIenARtg; Repeaters nig

Nodes eLIy. Bit error BitCaGacekIteLIg ehIyPaBcuHexSayénsMelgenHCamUlehtu

mYyEdlbNþaleGaymanPaB errors ekIteLIg. viFImYyEdlkMnt;BIkMrit error EdlekItmaneLIg

KWRtUvkMnt;eTAelItMrUvkarén bit error rate (BER) sMrab; Repeater nimYy². ry³eBlb:unμanqñaMmun
Epñkén Repeaters RtUv)aneKkMnt;y:agCak;lak;CamYynwg BER 1× 10 . sm½ybc©úb,nñ tMél BER
-9

KWsßitenAcenøaHBI 1× 10 eTA 1× 10 ehIyvaRtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAenAkñúg North American

-10 -12

Network .

vaKYreGaykt;sMKal;Edrfa PCM )anpþl;nUvdMeNIrkarsMelgEdlGacsþab;)ancMeBaHkMrit error

EdlTabrhUtdl; 1(1× 10 ). EteTaHbICay:agNak¾eday BER EdlTabbMputKWGacekIteLIgEt 1
-2

kñúg 1000 Etb:ueNÑaHenARtg;cMnucbBa©b;énRbB½n§. tMélenH tMrUveGaymandMeNIrkarRtwmRtUvén

supervisory signaling . cMeBaHGñkGanTaMgGs;KYryl;fakarfycuHnUvtMél BER vaminRtwmRtUvl¥kñúg

karbBa¢Ún Tinñn½yelIbNþaj Digital eT.

5. Crosstalk
karqøgsMelg KWCakarcuHexSayd¾cMbgenAkñúgbNþaj PCM wire-pair enAeBlEdl “go” nig
“return” channels RtUv)andMeNIrkarenAkñúgExScMlgEtmYy. dMeNIrkarPaKeRcInén Single cable

KWsßitenACitkarqøgsMelgcugeRkay (Next) . enAeBlEdlkarbBa¢ÚnTinñn½ytamry³TisedABIr

KWvadMeNIrkarelIExSdac;edayELkBIKña rWExSKUCab;KñaFmμta(shielded pairs). dUecñHvanaMeGaykarqøg
nUvsMelgq¶ay(FEXT) RtUv)anRtYtBinitüeLIg. lkçN³mYy)anrkeXIjfa contributor Ca]bkrN_
d¾sMxan;mYysMrab;bM)at;nUveRKOgtEdlqøgsMelg. enHKWCasmtßPaBminesμIKñarvag wire pairs.

30
karRtYtBinitüy:agm:t;ct;eTAelIKuNPaB kñúgkMLúgeBlplit cable KWCakarvas;mYyedIm,IeGayc,as;fa
tMélesμIKñaticbMputRtUvCYbKña .

X. Digital Loop Carrier

Digital subscriber loop carrier KWCaviFIsa®sþmYyénkaBRgIk metallic subscriber plant
edayeRbI DS1 configuration mYy rWeRcIn. dUc]TahrN_ SLC-96 eRbI 4 DS1 configurations edIm,I
Tajyk equivalent rbs; 96 voice channels mYy.
PaBgayRsYlénkarbBa¢ÚnsBaØ Digital EdleRbIR)as;edayRbB½n§ DLC GacCa repeatered
wire-pair cable, optical fibers rWTaMgBIry:agrYmbBa¢ÚlKñaCa mYynwg Digital multiplexer

rWk¾ExScMlgNaepSgeTot . enAkñúg Bellcore (now Telcodia) terminoglogy, the central office

termination(COT) KWCa digital terminal EdlsßitenATItaMgrYmKñaCamYynwg local serving switch.

GkSr RT KWmkBIBakü Remote terminal. RT RtUvEtpþl;eGaynUvPaBsMxan; dl; subscriber loop

Edl local serving switch EtgEteFVIdUcsBVdg vamandUcCa supervision, ringing, address
signaling, both dial pulse and touch tone .l.

1. New Version of DSL

ADSL mkBIBakü Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line dUcEdl)anBN’naeday Bellcore
(Telcordia) edImI,pþl;nUvel,Ónesva 1.544 Mbps { downstream { vamann½ycab;BI local serving

switch eTAkan; subscriber EdlmancMgayrhUtdl; 18,000 ft(5500m). cMeBaH upstream direction

vijRtUvkMNt;el,OncMnYn 16-kbps service . dUecñH esvaenHcab;epþImmanrUbragfμIedIm,IkMNt;nUvel,Ón

bit rate kan;EtekIneLIgsMrab;GtifiCnEdleRbIR)as; Internet. man ANSI version mYyrbs; ADSL

GackMNt;el,On)ancMnYn 6-Mbps downstream service edayeRbI complex digital waveform nig

]bkrN_EdleKehAfa automatic equalizer edIm,IbegáInlkçN³rbs; bandwidth, particular
amplitude nig phase distortion. Upstream bit rate Gacx<s;rhUtdl; 640 kbps. m©as;]sSahkmμ

mYycMnYnGHGagfaGacmanlT§PaBBRgIkbEnßmesvaenHrhUtdl;cMgay 12,000 kft (3700m).

31
 XI. Digital Switching
1. Advantages and Issues of Digital Switching
vamanplRbeyaCn_TaMgEpñk economic nig technical cMeBaH digital switching. kñúgn½yenH
KWeyIgsMedAelI PCM switching.
sar³sMxan;Epñk economic rbs; time-division PCM switching rYmman³
ƒ man equivalent cross-points cMeBaHcMnYn line nig trunk Edlpþl;eGay ticCagenAkñúg space

division switch mYy.

ƒ PCM switch KWmanTMhMtUc

ƒ vamanExSePøIgrYm (common modules)

ƒ vagayRsYlkñúgkarbMeBjnUv full availability CamYynwg economic constrainsts.

xageRkamenHCaplRbeyaCn_E;pñkbec©keTs³
ƒ vamanlkçN³ regenerative (]TahrN_ switch min)aneFVIeGayxUcnUv signal eT ehIykarBit

output signal val¥Cag input eTAeTot.)

ƒ vaFn;nwgkMedA

ƒ vaCa]bkrN_GaRs½ynwg computer ehIydMeNIrkarcUlKñaRKb;plRbeyaCn_rbs; SPC

ƒ TMrg;sarCa binary vaRtUvKñaCamYynwg digital computer. vak¾RtUvKñaCamYynwg signaling pgEdr.

ƒ karpøas;bþÚr digital mYymankar)at;bg;tic. vaKμankarbBa©ÚlnUvkar)at;bg;dUcCalT§plén switch

mYy)anbBa©ÚleTAkñúg Network.
ƒ vaTajyktMéleRcaHén digital logic nig memory; LSI, VLSI nig VHSIC insertion.

(Éksareyag 1412
)

manbBaða technical BIrEdlGaccat;fñak;CaKuNvibtþi³

1. Digital switch mYy eFVIeGayxUcnUvRbB½n§rbs;RbtibtiþkarminRbRktI. Switch

mYyEdlbegáIt)anl¥KWva GaceFVIeGayb:HBal;dl;bNþajdMeNIrkarminRbRktItictYcb:ueNÑaH
k¾b:uEnþvaenAEtekItman.
2. Switch nig network synchronization RBmTaMgkarfycuHén wander nig jitter

GacCabBaða gating enAkñúg system design.

14 VHSIC stands for very high speed integrated circuit.

32
 2 Approaches to PCM Switching
2.1 General
Digital switchRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaysarFatuBIr KW T (Timing-division switching) nig S
(Space-division switching) ehIyvaGacekIteLIgedaylMdab;rbs; T nig S. ]TahrN_ AT&T

No.4 ESS KWCa TSSSST switch mYy No. 3 EAX KWCa SSTSS mYy ehIy Classic Northern

Telecom DMS-100 KW TSTS-folded. PaKeRcInén Switches TaMgenH (]TahrN_ DMS-100)

enAmaneRbIenAeLIy. GVIEdl Switch TaMgenHmandUcKña KWvaman multiple space(S) stages.

Edlbc©úb,nñvamankarERbRbYlehIy. PaKeRcInén Switches sm½yfμI rWes‘rI switch CMnan;eRkay²
EdleTIbEtniyay mansmtßPaBx<s;(]TahrN_ 100,000 lines) ehIyCa Switches Fmμta TST rW
STS. eyIgnwgeFVI karBN’naGMBI time switch nig space switch FmμtamYy RBmTaMgviFIsMrab;begáIt

Switch mYyedaypÁúMKña rvag T nig S. eyIgk¾nwgbgðajpgEdrBIkarbegáIt Switch CamYynwg

smtßPaBx<s;én line nig trunk EdlTamTarnUvdMNak;kalCaeRcIn. bnÞab;mkeTot eyIgnwgsikSa

{new look{ enAdMNak;kal time stage.
2.2 Time Switch
tamKMnitmUldæan rUb 6.16 bgðajBI time-switch rW time-slot interchanger (TSI). Time slot
mYyKWCa 8-bit PCM word. caMfa vabBa¢ak;BItMéltg;süúgén sample mYyEdl)anykenAxN³
eBlNamYy. CakarBitNas; time slot mYyman 8-bits. Time slot mYYy tMNageGay voice
channel ehIy time slot RtUv)andMeNIrkardEdl²cMnYn 8000 dgkñúgry³eBl 1s

(CamYytMélxusKñaénelx binary). DS1 man 24 time slots enAkñúgmYy frame ehIy channel

nimYy²man time slot mYy. cMeBaH E1 man 32 time slots.

33
 ry³én 8-bit time slot kñúgmYykrNI² KW (125 μsec)/24 = 5.2083 μsec sMrab;krNI DS1
cMEnkÉkrNI E1 vijKW (125 μsec)/32 = 3.906 μsec. Time-slot interchanging Tak;TgeTAnwg
karrMkilTinñn½yEdlmanenAkñúg time-slot nimYy²BI incoming bit stream eTAkan; outgoing bit
stream b:uEnþCamYynwgkarerobcM time-slot xus²KñaenAkñúg outgoing stream kñúgkarGnuBaØatiCamYynwg

eKaledArbs; time slot nimYy². GVIEdl)andMeNIrkar CakarBitNas;KWedIm,IbegáItnUv frame

fμImYyeTotsMrab;karbBa¢ÚnenARtg; switch outlet.
Cak;EsþgNas; edIm,IRbtibtþidMeNIrkarenH y:agticNas;RtUvmanmYy time slot sMrab;pÞúkTukenA
kñúg memory(write) nigbnÞab;mkehAecjBI memory manmuxgarxusKña(read). dMeNIrkarenHRtUvEt
RtYtBinitüeTAelIlkçN³mYycMnYn ehIyskmμPaBénkarRtYtBinitüenHRtUvEtrkSaTukenAkñúg memory
CamYyKñanwgkarerobcM software dUcCa skmμPaB. muxgarRtYtBinitüCaTUeTA KW time slot { idle { rW {
busy{. eyIgGacsMKal;BImUldæanén muxgar block TaMg 3 rbs; time switch mYy :

1. Memory for speech

2. Memory for control and
3. Time-slot counter or processor

Block TaMg 3 enH)anbgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.17. manCMerIsBIrkñúgkareRbI time switch mYyKW³

(1) sequential write, random read, dUcEdl)anbgðajkñúgrUb 6.17a

(2) the reverse, namely, random write, sequential read dUcEdl)anbgðajkñúgrUb 6.17b

kñúgkrNITI1 sequential write, time slot RtUv)an write eTAkñúg speech memory dUcEdlva
elceLIgenAkñúg incoming bit stream. vaRtUv)an read ecjBI memory tamlMdab;lMedaysMrab;
outgoing bit stream.

sMrab;krNITI2 random write(rUbPaB 6.17b), incoming time slot RtUv)an write cUleTAkñúg
memory tamlMdab;EdlvaelcecjenAkñúg outgoing bit stream. vamann½yfa incoming time slot

RtUv)an write eTAkñúg memory tamlMdab; output EdleyIgcg;)an. kar write rbs; incoming time
slots eTAkñúg speech memory GacRtUv)anRtYtBinitüeday simple time-slot counter mYy nigGacCa

sequential(]TahrN_ kñúglMdab;EdlvaelcecjenAkñúg incoming bit stream dUcrUbPaB 6.17a). kar

read ecjBI speech memory KWRtUv)anRtYtBinitüeday control memory. kñúgkrNIenH kar read

ecj KWCalkçN³ random kEnøgEdl time slot RtUv)an read ecjenAkñúglMdab; output

34
EdleyIgcg;)an. Memory enHmancMnYn Cell CaeRcIndUccMnYn time slots Edr. cMeBaH]TahrN_ DS1
man 24 cells. Time switch Edl)anbgðaj vadMeNIrkarl¥sMrab; single inlet-outlet switch mYy.
CamYy 24 cells vaGaceRbI 23 stations eRkABI calling subscriber minEmnCaelxCa auspicious
number.

etIeyIgGacbegáInsmtßPaBrbs; switch )anedayviFINa? dak; space switch(S) rUbPaB 6.18

pþl;nUvkarBnül;bgðajGMBIKMnitenH. ]TahrN_ time slot B enAelI B trunk RtUv)anrMkileTAkan; Z
1

trunk eTAkñúg time slot Z ehIy time slot C RtUv)anbþÚreTAkan; trunk W eTAkñúg time slot W .
1 n n

eTaHCay:agNak¾eday GñkGanKYrEtkt;sMKal;fa vaminmankarERbRbYlenAkñúgmuxgar time-slot eLIy.

2.3 Space Switch

Time-division space switche(s) FmμtamYybgðajkñúgrUb 6.19. vaman cross-point matrix
EdlbegáIteLIgeday logic gates EdlGaceGay switch rbs; time slot enAkñúg spatial domain
mYy. PCM time slot bit streams RtUv)anerobcMeday switch eTAkñúgKMrUmYykMnt;edaytMrUvkar
rbs;bNþajTak;TgKña. Matrix enHmancMnYn input horizontals nig output verticals CamYynwg logic
gate enARtg;cMnuc cross point nimYy². Array enHbgðajkñúgrUb man M horizontals nig N verticals

ehIyeyIgehAvafa M × N array.

35
 RbsinebI M = N enaH switch KWCa non-blocking. ebI M > N enaH Switch KWCa
concentrates ehIyebI M < N enaH switch KWCa expands.

RtLb;eTArUbPaB 6.19. Array enHmancMnYnén M input horizontals nig N output

verticals. cMeBaH time slot Edlpþl;eGay logic gate EdlRtwmRtUv KWGacdMeNIrkar)an ehIy time

slot qøgkat;BI input horizontal eTAkan; output vertical EdleyIgcg;)an. Horizontals epSg²eTot

mYy²man serial stream rbs; time slot xus²Kña Gacman time slot dUcKña (]TahrN_ time slot
mYymanRbPBBI time slot elx 1-24, 1-30 rW 1-n Edlman time slot 7 enAkñúg streasm nimYy²)
bþÚreTA verticals epSgeTot edIm,IdMeNIrkar gates rbs;va. enATItaMg time slot bnÞab; (time slot 8)

36
karsMrbsMrYlEpñkd¾éTeTotGacekItman ehIyCafμImþgeTotvaGaceGay time slot BI horizontals
RtUv)anbþÚredIm,IeRCIserIs verticals. kareRCIserIsenH CakarBitNas; KWCamuxgarmYyéndMeNIrbBa¢Ún
enAeBlEdlkar call kMBugdMeNIrkar rWkMBugerobcM.
Space array (cross-point matrix) minpøas;bþÚr switch time slot dUcCabþÚr time switch(time-

slot interchanger) eLIy. enHBIeRBaHmkBIkarekIteLIgén time slots dUcKñaebHbiTenAelI horizontal

nig vertical . vapøas;bþÚrenAkñú space domain minEmnenAkñúg time domain eT. Control memory
enAkñúgrUb 6.19 GaceFVIeGay gate TTYlyknUvkarpÞúkTinñn½yrbs;va. RbsinebI array mYyman M
input nig N output enaH M nig N GacesμIKña rWminesμIKñaGaRs½yeTAnwgmuxgarrbs; switch enAelIEpñk

én switch enaH. cMeBaH tandem rW transit switch mYy eyIgcg;)an M = N. sMrab; local switch
TamTareGaymannUv concentration nig expansion Edl M nig N KYrEtminesμIKña.
enAkñúg rUb 6.19 RbsinebIeyIgcg;bBa¢ÚnsBaØamYyBI input 1 (horizontal) eTAkan; output 2
(vertical) naMeGay gate enARtg;cMnucRbsBVdMeNIrkaredaydak;sBaØamYyenAelI S12 kMLúgeBlén

time slot EdleyIgcg;)an. bnÞab;mk 8-bits rbs; time slot nwgqøgkat;tamry³ logic gate eTAkñúg

vertical. enAkñúg time slot dUcKñaEtmYy sBaØaEdlGacdMeNIrkar)anenA SM1 elI M horizontal

th

nwgeGay time slot NamYyqøg kat;eTAkan; vertical 1. tamry³dMeNIrkarenH eyIgGacyl;fa

smtßPaBGtibrmarbs; array kMLúgeBlcenøaH time slot Edl)anKitenAkñúg call connection t²Kña
KWCatMéltUcCagrbs; M rW N. ]TahrN_ Rbsin array mYymanvimaRt 20×20 ehIy time slot
interchanger RtUv)anCMnYsenAelI input(horizontal) line nimYy² RBmTaMg interchanger pþl; 30 time

slots naMeGay arry enHGacbeRmI )andl; 20×30=600 time slots xus²Kña.

GñkGanKYrkt;sMKal;BIrerob TSI KuNCamYynwg call-handling capability rbs; array enAeBlvaeRbob
eFobCamYynwg analog counterpart rbs;va.

2.4 Time-Space-Time Switch

)anpSMeday time nig space switches tamlMdab;. (Éksareyag )
Digital switches 1513

eyIgeRbIGkSr T edIm,IsMKal;BI time-switching stage mYy nigGkSr S sMrab;sMKal;BI space-

switching stage mYy. ]TahrN_ switch mYyEdlmanlMdab;én time-switching stage, space-

15 The order is a switch designer’s decision.

37
switching stage mYy ehIy time-switching stage mYyehAfa TST switch. Switching mYyman
space-switching stage, time-switching stage mYy ehIy space-switching stage

mYyRtUv)ansMKal;faCa STS switch. mankarpSM KñaepSgeTotrerog T nig S. dUcEdleyIg)an

niyayBIxagedIm AT&T No. 4 ESS switch KWCa]TahrN_mYyy:agl¥. vaKWCa TSSSST switch
mYy.
rUbPaB 6.20 bgðajBIeKalkarN_rbs; time-space-time (TST). CMh‘andMbUgén switch KWCa
TSI rW time stage Edlpøas;bþÚr time slot(kñúg time domain) eTAvijeTAmkrvag external incoming

digital channels nig subsequent space stage. Space stage enHpþl;nUvkartP¢ab;Kñarvag time stage

enARtg; input nig output. vaKWCatYKuN én call-handling capacity. tYKuN GacCatMélsMrab; M

rWsMrab; N enAeBlmYyNatUcCag. eyIgk¾)anyl;rYcmkehIyBIxagelIEdl space-stage time slot
mincaM)ac;manTMnak;TMngCamYy external incoming rW outgoing time slots EdlTak;Tgnwg number,
numbering rW position eLIy. ]TahrN_ incoming time slot 4 GactP¢ab;eTAkan; outgoing time

slot 19 tamry³ space network time slot 8.

RbsinebI space stage rbs; TST switch Ca non-blocking naMeGay blocking enAkñúg switch
TaMgmUlekIteLIgebIKμan internal space-stage time slot kMLúgeBlEdl link BI inlet time stage nig
link eTA outlet time stage TaMgBImindMeNIrkar. kMritén blocking GaceFVIeGayticbMput

RbsinebIcMnYnén space-stage time slots mantMélFM. TST switch mYyCa non-blocking kalNa³
ι = 2c − 1

Edl ι KWCacMnYnén space-stage time slots nig c KWCacMnYnén external TDM time slots.

38
 2.5 Space-Time-Space Switch
Space-time-space switch mYy KWCakarRtLb;b®Ba¢asBITMrg; TST switch. STS switch man
space cross-point matrix mYyenARtg; input edaymanlMdab;én time-slot interchanger

ehIyenAral; port nimYy²rbs;vapþl;eGayeTA cross-point matrix epSg²eTotenARtg;cMnuc output.

Switch RbePTenH )anbgðajdUcrUb 6.21. viPaKelIdMeNIrkarCamYynwg STS mYy. ]bmafa time slot

5 enAelI port No 1 RtUvEttP¢ab;eTAkan; output incoming slot 12 Rtg; outgoing port No 4.

vaRtUv)anbMeBjeday time-slot interchanger No. 1 EdlbþÚrvaeTA time slot 12 vij. bnÞab;mk

outgoing space stage CMnYsvaeTAelI outgoing trunk No. 4. mü:agvijeTot time slot 5 GacRtUv)an

CMnYsenARtg; input én TSI No.4 eday incoming space switch CakEnøgEdlRtUvbþÚreTA time slot 12
ehIybnÞab;mk out port No. 4.

2.6 TST Compared with STS

TaMg TST nig STS switch GacRtUv)anerobcMCamYynwg identical call-carrying capacities
nig blocking probabilities. vaGacbgðajfa one-to-one mapping pÞal;mYyekIneLIgenAcenøaH time
division nig space division network.

TMrg; TST switch manPaBsμúKsμajCag STS switch CamYynwgbNúþM space. TST switch
mYy manRbsiTi§PaBx<s; BIeRBaH time expansion GacdMeNIrkar)anRsYledaycMNayticCag space
expansion. karBRgIkenH RtUv)antMrUveGaydUcKñaeTAnwgkarekIneLIgén link utilization
BIeRBaHbNþMúticGacTTYlyk)andUcCa utilization increase pgEdr.

39
 TST switch dMeNIrkarRbesIrCag STS switch enAeBlEdldMeNIrkarén Data d¾eRcInRtUvkMnt;
eTAdl;eKaledA. Bellamy bgðajfa STS switch tUcmYyRtUv)anlMeGogkñúgeBldMeNIrkard¾sμúKsμaj
RtUv)ankat;bnßy. kareRCIserIsRbePT switch GacGaRs½yeTAnwgktþaCaeRcIndUcCa Modularity, test
ability nig expandability.

karviPaKCaTUeTAelIdMeNIrkar STS switch mYy KWmanTMnak;TngCamYytMrUvkar simpler

control . eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday cMeBaH switches EdlFM²mandMeNIrkar data eRcIn enaHdMeNIrkarén

TST switch nigkarTajykrbs;va KWmanlkçN³dac;edayELkBIKña. Switch FMmYy CaFmμtaKW ATT

No. 4 ESS Edlman TSSSST mYy nig capacity rbs; terminating 107,520 trunks CamYynwgkMrit

block 0.5% nig channel occupancy esμInwg 0.7.

3. Review of Some Digital Switching Concepts

3.1 Early Notions and New Ideas
enAkñúgEpñk 6.11.2 eyIgRbEhlCayl;fa dMNak;kaldMbUgén time-switching RbePT TSI
man 24 rW 30 time-slot capacity edIm,IeGayRtUvCamYynwg North American DS1 rate én European
E1 rate . vamann½yfa karplitRtUvEtEkécñ nigplitnUv switch BIrRbePTKW RbePTTI1

RtUvtMrUvtamTIpSarrbs; North America nigTI 2 sMrab;TIpSar Europe. Gñkplit switch PaKeRcIn

begáIt switch EtmYyEdlman internal switch network CaTUeTAmYyEdlman time nig space arrays
EdleyIgeTIbEtsikSa. cMeBaHbBaðamYy eyIgGac map elI DS1 cMnYn 5 Rkum eGayeTACa E1 RtwmEt
4 Rkum edaymanPaKEbgTUeTAKW 120 DS0/E0(64-kbps channels). Peripheral modules

lubnUvlkçN³xusEbøkKñaEdlenAsl; dUcCa signaling. elx 120 KWCaelxEdleRbIenAkñúg AT&T’s

4ESS. va map 120 eight bit time slot eTACa 128 time slots. 8 time slots EdlenAsl;RtUv)aneRbI

R)as;sMrab;viPaK nig rkSanUveKalbMNgrbs;va.

KMnitBImunepSgeTot KWCa common internal bit rate mYy EdlGacdMeNIrkarenAelI
{highways{ eyIg)anniyay rWenAelI Junctor. (Éksareyag ) Rtg;cMnuc interface Edl switch
1614

Tak;TgCamYy nwgBiPBxageRkA vaRtUvEtman 8-bits time slots enAkñúg DS1( rW high-level multiplex)
rW E1( rW higher: E2, E3) frame nimYy² 125 μsec. enAkñúg switch manbBaðaepSgmYyeTot.
16 Junctor is a path connecting switching networks internal to a switch.

40
]TahrN_ cMeBaH Nortel’s DMS-100 incoming 8-bit time slot RtUv)an map eTACa 10-bit time slot
mYy dUcEdl)an bgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.22. (Éksareyag ) ]TahrN_EdlBnül;bgðaj Kw DS1.
1715

sMKal;enAkñúgrUb 6.22 fa bit mYy KWCa bit esμIKñamYy(bit 0) nig bit bEnßm(bit 1)
sMrab;pÞúksBaØaTinñn½y R)ab;eTA switch faetI time slot vaxUc rWCab;rvl;. (Éksareyag ) Bits 2 1816

dl; 9 KWCa bit rbs; 8-bit time slot edIm. edayehtufa Nortel enAkñúg DMS-100 eKcg;)an switch
mYyEdlFmμtabMElgmkBI E1 eTA DS1 eK)an built up nUv internal bit rate eTACa 2.560 Mbps: 10
bits kñúg 1 time slot, 32 time slots × 8000 (frame rate) rW 2.560 Mbps. (Éksareyag ) 1917

\LÚvenHGacpSM E1 nUvral; 32 channels. dUcEdl)anniyayBI 5 DS1s gayRsYlnwg map eTACa 4

E1s nigBI 4 E1s eTACa 5 DS1s vij.

17 Nortel was previously called Northern Telecom.

18 Parity bit is used for error detection. It is a redundant bit appended to an array of bits to make the sum of
all the 1 bits (marks) (in the array) always odd or always even.

19 The 8000 frames per second or frame rate is common on all conventional PCM systems. As the reader will
recall from Section 6.2.1, this is the Nyquist sampling rate for the 4-kHz analog voice channel on converting
it to a PCM equivalent.

41
Switch EdleBjniymmYyRbePTeTot KW AT&T’s 5ESS Edl map 8-bit time slot nimYy²
eGayeTACa 16-bit internal PCM word. vabEnßmnUvcMnYn 8-bit eToteTAnwg 8-bit PCM word
dUcEdlbgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.23.

3.2 Higher-Level Multiplex Structures Internal to a Digital Switch

eyIg)anKUsrUb time-slot interchanger switch FmμtamYyCamYynwg 24 eight-bit time slots
edIm,IbMeBjtMrUvkarrbs; DS1. vanwgCYbnUvcMnYncaM)ac;én 24 subscribers edayKμan blocking.
vaKμanehtuplNaEdleyIgbegáIt TSI mYyCamYynwg DS3 rate eLIy. mUldæanRKwHén TSI
GacdMeNIrkar)andl; 672 subscribers (]TahrN_ 672 time slots). RbsinebIeyIgbEnßmnUv
concentrator ahead rbs;vamYysMrab; 4:1 concentration enaH time switch enHnwgGacdMeNIrkar)an

dl; handle 4 × 672, or 2688 subscribers.

]TahrN_mYyénKMnitfμIenH KW AT&T 5ESS EdlCa TST switch mYy. vamansmtßPaBdl;
100,000 line rWk¾eRcInCagenH. eKmanlT§PaBbMeBjnUvKMeragenH edayeRbI time-slot
interchanger(TSIs) EdlmansmtßPaBx<s;² ehIyeyageTAtam bit rate x<s;enA kñúg space stage. 5

ESS TSI mYyGaceRbI)an 512 time slots. (Éksareyag ) eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday Port

2018

nimYy²rbs; TSI man incoming/outgoing time slot rate 256 time slots. Ports cMnYnBIrRtUvkar( in
one direction) sMrab;eRbI 512 time slots: Port TI1 sMrab; channels Edlmanelxess nig Port

mYyeTotsMrab; channel EdlmanelxKUr. dUecñHehIy bit rate enARtg; TSI port mYy KW 256 × 16 ×
8000 = 32.768 Mbps . cMeBaHkarerobcM odd-channel, even-channel bBa¢Únbnþtamry³ switching

fabric TaMgmUlCamYynwg port nimYy²eRbI 256 time slots rW 32.768 Mbps.

]TahrN_mYyeTot BIdMeNIrkard¾TUlMTUlayrbs; digital switch TMenIb KW Northern Telecom

DMS-100 CamYynwg suprnode/ENET. eKeFVIkarEkERbelI switch cas; DMS100 Edlman TSTS-

folded architecture mYy. dUcKñanwg 5ESS eK)anrMkileTAkan; 2048-time-slot domain enAkñúg

ENET(extended network). k¾b:uEnþ time slot rbs;eK KW 10 bits ehIy ENET eRbITMrg; 10-bit

parallel. dUecñH enARKb; line( ]TahrN_ man 10 lines) TaMgGs;man 2048 × 8000 or 16.384

Mbps.

20 Remember that a 5ESS time slot has 16 bits (see Figure 6.23).

42
XII. Digital Network
1. Introduction
The North American public switched telecommunications network (PSTN) KW 100% Ca
digital. Interexchange carrier (IXC) portion manlkçN³Ca digital CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy. bNþaj

network rbs;BiPBelakRtUv)anrMBwgTukfanwgEbrmkCa digital TaMgGs;enAedImTsvtSr_TI

1énstvtSr_TI 21. bNþaj network enHenAEtmankarpøas;bþÚrrcnasm<½n§ nigzananuRkmyWty:av.

manktþaBIry:agEdlGacpøas;bþÚrrcnasm<½n§énbNþaj network enH³

1. Political
2. Technological

enA United States kardkhUtén Bell system/AT&T )anb:HBal;dl;bNþaj network CamYy

nwgBt’manrbs; LECs (Local Exchange Carriers) nig IXCs. eRkABI North America clnaeq<aHeTA
rkkarRKb;RKgRbB½n§ Telecommunication ÉkCnpþac;muxenAkñúgviFImYy rWepSgeTot nwgeFVIeGayb:HBal;
dl;rcnasm<½n§rbs;bNþaj network.
bec©kviC¢a nigplRbeyaCn_rbs;va GacesμI rWk¾mansar³RbeyaCn_CagmUlehtuneya)ay.
eyIgeCOCak;fa Satellite communication naMeGaymanbMlas;bþÚr eday CCITT q¶ayBIRbePTbNþaj
network GnþrCatiNa²TaMgGs;. eyIgminKYremIlrMlgfa karpøas;bþÚr digital man computer
EdlmanGanuPaBx<s; GaceGaymankarsMerccitþbBa¢ÚnRtwmEt millisecond Etbu:eNÑaHral;kar call.
meFüa)ayenH RtUv)anCMnYyedaydMeNIrkarén CCITT signaling system No. 7. PsþútagmYyeTot
KWlkçN³ fiber-optic cable sMrab; trunk routes PaKeRcIn. va)anCMrujeGayman PaBRbesIreLIgnUv
survivability nig availability cMeBaHkarbBa¢Únxus²KñaeTAtamkareRbIénTItaMgPUmisa®sþ. GVIEdlCapl

b:HBal;én asynchronous transfer mode(ATM) cMeBaHdMeNIrkarpøas;bþÚrenAkñúgrcnasm<½n§ network

(albeit slowly)? Internet kMBugCMrujkarpøas;bþÚrsmtßPaBkñúgkarbBa¢Ún data eTAkan; subscriber.

KMeragÉkCn RtUv)anGnuvtþenAkñúgRbeTsCaeRcInCMuvijBiPBelak nwgmanplb:HBal;y:agF¶n;F¶r

dUcCarcnasm<½n§énbNþaj network Edr.
enAEpñkxageRkam eyIgnwgsikSaBIbNþaj digital tamRTwsþIrbs; PSTN TaMgRsug.
R)akdNas;Edl information GacnwgeRbIkar)ansMrab;bNþajÉkCn RbsinCabNþajÉkCn enaHRtUv
)an back up eday local PSTN.

43
 2. Technical Requirements of the Digital Network
2.1 Network Synchronization Rationale and Essentials
enAeBlEdl PCM bit stream mYy RtUv)anbBa¢Únqøgkat; telecommunication link mYy
vaRtUvEtman synchronization enARtg;kMrit 3 xusKña³ (1) bit, (2) time slot, (3) frame. Bit
synchronization sMedAelItMrUvkarsMrab; transmitter(coder) nig receiver(decoder) sMrab;dMeNIrelI

bit rate kñúgeBlEtmYy. vak¾sMedAelItMrUvkarEdlcMnuc reveiver decision sßitenARtg; midposition

én coming bit. Bit synchronization FanamineGay receiver GannUv bits xus.

Cak;EsþgNas; digital receiver mYy RtUvEtdwgkEnøgEdl time slot mYycab;epþIm nigbBa©b;.
RbsinebIeyIgGac synchronize frame mYy enaH time slot synchronization GacRtUv)anrab;rg.
Frame synchronization snμtfa bit synchronization )anbMeBjdMeNIrkar. eyIgdwgBIkEnøg frame

cab;epþIm (nigbBa©b;) edayRbePTén]bkrN_sMrab;sMKal;. CamYynwg DS1 vaKWCa framing bit.

enAkñúg frame mYycMnYn vaelcecjdUcCa a1 nigepSgeTotdUcCa a0. RbsinebI 12-frame super-frame
RtUv)aneRCIs erIs enaHvaman 12 framing bits ehIymanmYyenARKb; 12 frames. vapþl;nUvKMrU frame
000111. enAkñúgkrNI 24-frame BRgIkCa superframe enaHlMnaMén repeating KW 001011 ehIy

framing bit vijmanEtkñúg 4 frames mþg.

E1man framing nig synchronization channel, namely, channel 0 dac;edayELkBIKña.

kñúgkrNIenH reveiver emIlkñúg channel 0 sMrab;lMdab; framing kñúg bits 2 dl; 8 (bit 1 RtUvbMrugTuk)
rbs; frame d¾éTeTot. lMdab; framing enH KW 0011011. enAeBlEdl framing RtUv)anTTYl
naMeGay receiver dwgc,as;las;BIkEnøg frame boundaries. vak¾Ca time-slot aligned pgEdr.
RKb; digital switches TaMgGs;man master clock mYy. Outgoing bit streams ecjBI
switch mYy RtUv)aneRbIsMrab; switch’s master clock. Incoming bit streams EdlTajykecjBI

timing BI bit transitions én incoming bit stream enaH. vamincaM)ac;dwgfa RKb; switch nimYy²

enAkñúgbNþaj digital network begáIt outgoing bit streams Edl bit rate rbs;vaCitKñaeTAnwg
nominal bit rate. edIm,IdMeNIrkarenH network synchronization vamansar³sMxan;Nas;. Network

synchronization GacRtUv)andMeNIrkareday synchronizing RKb; switch(node) master clock

dUecñHehIy karbBa¢ÚnBI nodes enHman line bit rate CamFümdUcKña. Buffer storage device
RtUv)andak;eGayRtwmRtUvenARtg; transmission interface epSg²Kña edIm,IRCabPaBxusKñarvag actual
line bit rate nig average rate. edayKμan network-side synchronization enaH slips nwgekItman.

44
Slips KWCaPaBGn;fyy:agFMmYyenAkñúgbNþaj digital. dMeNIrkar slip )ansikSaenAEpñk 12.3.5.
Synchornized network mYy nwgminman slip(assuming negligible phase wander and jitter)

eLIy. enAkñúgkfaxNÐbnÞab;eyIgnwgBnül;BIbuBVehtuEdleFVIeGayekItman slips.

dUcEdl)anniyay timing én outgoing bit stream mYy RtUv)anRKb;RKgeday switch
clock. ]bmafa switch mYykMBug EtTTYlnUv bit stream mYyBIRbPBq¶aymYy ehIyrMBwgfa bit

stream man transmission rate F(0) in Mbps. CakarBitNas; switch enHman buffer én storage

capacity EdlpÞúk incoming bit. eGay incoming bit stream enHmkdl;Rtg; rate

mYyEdlFMCagbnþicbnþÜcCag F(0) b:uEnþ switch kMBugEtseRmaH buffer enA F(0). Cak;EsþgNas;

eBlNamYyminyUrminqab; buffer enHnwgRtUv overflow. Overflow enH KWCa Slip.
eBlenHviPaKelIlkçN³pÞúyKñavij incoming bit stream man bit rate ticCag F(0) bnþic.
\LÚgeyIgnwgmanlkçxNÐ underflow mYy. Buffer enHRtUv)aneFVIeGay TeT nigbnÞab;mkeTot
minman bit ecjeLIy. vanwgRtUv)anTUTat;edaybBa¢Úl bit Edlmin)ankar false bits rW frame.
eTaHCay:agNak¾eday vamanPaBTUeTAsMrab; repeat frame BImun. enHk¾Ca slip Edr.
eyIgRbEhlCacgcaMBIkarsikSaén stuffing kñúgEpñk 6.8.1 kñúgkarBN’naGMBI higher-order
multiplexers. Stuffing GnuBaØateGay variance mYycMnYnén incoming bit rates edayminbNþal

eGay man slips.

enAeBlEdl slip mYyekIteLIgenARtg; switch port buffer mYy vaGacRtUv)anRtYtBinitü
edIm,IeGayekIteLIgenA frame boundaries. enHCaGVIEdleyIgcg;)aneRcInCaCagkarminmankarRtYt
Binitü slip EdlGacekItmanRKb;TIkEnøg. Slips ekIteLIgedaysarmUlehtuBIry:ag³
1. xVHnUv frequency synchronization kñúgcMeNam clocks enARtg; network nodes

2. Phase wander nig Jitter enAelI digital bit streams

dUecñH eTaHbICaRKb; network nodes TaMgGs;kMBugdMeNIrkarenAkñúg synchronous mode nig

synchronize eTAkan; network master clock k¾eday k¾ slip enAEtGacekIteLIgkMLúgeBlkarbBa¢Ún

cuHexSay. ]TahrN_énkarb:HBal;CMuvijbrisßanEdlGacbegáIt phase wander rbs; bit streams

KWsItuNðPaB enACMuvijb:HBal;dl;ExSeGLicRtUnicbBa¢ÚnsBaØa digital.
sikSaelI]TahrN_enH ExS coaxial RbEvg 1000-km mYybBa¢Ún 300 Mbps (3×10 bps) 8

nwgmanCag 1 lan bits qøgkat;tameBlEdlpþl; eGay Edl bit nimYy²ykRbEhlCaRbEvg

45
mYyEm:RténRbEvgExS. A 0.01% ekIneLIgenAkñúgel,Ón énkarpSay dUcEdl)anbegáItedaykarfy
cuHnUvsItuNðPaB 1° F ehIynwgecjlT§plenA 100 bits énExS. Bits TaMgenHRtUvEtykeTA switch’s
incoming elastic pÞúk buffer enHnwgGacbBa©b;EdlbNþal eGayekItmanbBaða underflow mYy.

BIeRBaHva underflow , slip nwgRtUvbeBa©jeday frame repeat mYy. CaFmμta frame cugeRkaybnÞab;BI
slip nwgekIteLIgmþgehIymþgeTot.

sMelgenAkñúgTUrs½BÞ slip mYyGacbNþaleGaymansUrRkwk²enAeBlTTYlsMelg.

cMeBaHTinñn½yrbs; user kan;EtmanbBaðaF¶n;F¶r. y:agehacNas;k¾Tinñn½ymYy frame rW packet
nwgRtUvxUc (corrupt).
Slip kñúgkMLúgeBl wander nig jitter GacRtUv)ankarBareday buffering RKb;RKan;. dUecñH

TMhM buffer RKb;RKan;enARtg; digital line interface nig synchronization rbs; network node clock
KWCamUldæansMxan; edayvabMeBj nUvkmμvtßúén network slip rate.

2.2 Methods of Network Synchronization

manviFIsa®sþmYycMnYnEdlGaceRbIedIm,I synchronize bNþaj digital mYy. viFI 6 y:ag
)anbgðajCaRkabenAkñúgrUb 6.24.
rUbPaB 6.24a bgðajBIdMeNIrkar plesiochronous. enAkñúgkrNIenH switch clock nimYy² KW
free-running(]TahrN_ vamin)an synchronized eTA network master clock eT). RKb;bNþaj

nodal switch mYymanlkçN³sMKal; high-stability clocks operating enA nominal rate dUcKña.

enAeBlEdleyIgniyayBIPaBmanlMnwgx<s(; hig-stability) enaHeyIgsMedAeTA elI clock stability

mYyEdlsßitenAcenøaH 1 × 10 eTA 5 × 10 kñúgry³eBlmYyEx. PaBmanlMnwgenHGacdMeNIrkar
11 −13

)anCamYyEt atomic clock, rubidium rW cesium Etb:ueNÑaH. PaBeTogTat; nig PaBmanlMnwgén

clock nimYy² vamankarekIteLIgRBmKñaenAkñúg time-keeping. ehIy phase drift kñúgcMeNam clocks

CaeRcInKWRtUv)anbeBa¢ós rWk¾ slip rate mankMritTabEdlGacTTYlyk)an. vaRtUvkarnUv switching

nodes TaMgGs; minfavatUcb:uNÑa eGayEtman clock RtwmRtUv. sMrab;BaNiC¢kmμbNþaj

telecommunication KWvamantMélx<s;.

KMeragén synchronization epSgeTot KWCa mutual synchronization EdlRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúg

rUb 6.24e nig 6.24f. TaMgenHCa nodes TaMgGs;enAkñúgbNþajpøas;bþÚr frequency references
edayehtufakarbegáItnUvbNþaj clock frequency TUeTAmYy. Node nimYy²rkmFümén incoming
46
 nigeRbIlT§pledIm,IEk local transmitted clock rbs;va. bnÞab;BIeBl initialization mYy
references

bNþaj network RbmUlpþMúcUlKñanUv clock sMedAeTAkan; single stable frequency EtmYydUcKña.

vamansar³sMxan;Nas;EdlRtUvyl;BIrerobEdleyIgGacpøas;bþÚr frequency references.

viFImYyKW KYrEtman synchronization channel dac;edayELkmYyP¢ab;eTARKb; nodes TaMgGs;enAkñúg
network. vaKWCasMNl;rbs; facility assets. eyIgGaceFVI)any:agl¥edayeFVI synchronizing elI

switch clock BI incoming bit streams EdlpÞúkdMeNIrkar dUcCa DS1 rW E1 bit stream.

eTaHbICay:agenHkþIk¾ incoming bit stream TaMgenaHRtUvTajmkBIRbPBmYy ( switch mYy )

EdlmankMrit clock esμI rWx<s;Cag. viFImYyepÞrkMrit clock GaRs½ynwg clock stability
RtUv)anBN’nabnÞab;enAkñúgEpñkenH. Tinñn½yEdl)aneFVI synchronize RtUvpÞúkenAkñúg transition rbs;
bit stream én interest. Phase-lock loop mYyeFVIkarCa local clock sMrab; transitions enH. cMNaMfa

transition enHmYyCakarERbRbYlenA kñúg bit stream EdleFVIkarpøas;bþÚrBI binary 1 eTAkan; binary 0

nigb®Ba¢as;mkvij.
RbB½n§eyaFamYycMnYn mankarekIneLIgdUcRbB½n§sIuvilEdr (]TahrN_ dUcCa Bell South in the
United States; TelCel in Venezuela) eRbI external synchronization dUcEdlbgðajkñúgrUb 6.24d.

Switch clock eRbI disciplined oscillators edIm,IbMerIdl;RbPB external radio mYy. GPS (Global

Positioning System) manRbCaRbiyPaBCageKkñúgeBlbc©úb,nñ vamankarpSayecjnUveBlevla

CasklesμIKña ehAfa UTC CaBakükat;mkBIPasa)araMg. GPS KWCaRbB½n§ multi-satellite

mYyEdlEtgEtman 3 rW 4 satellites kñúgkaremIlkEnøgNamYyenAelIépÞEpndIkñúgeBlEtmYy.
47
smtßPaBén time-transfer rbs;va KWsßitenAcenøaH 10- eTA 100-nsec CalMdab;Edl)anBI UTC.
Synchronization parlance én North American vapþl;nUv timing enARtg;kMrit stratum-1. kMrit

Stratum RtUv)anBN’naenAcMnuc 2.2.1. eyIgcg;)an digital network eGaykan;EteRcIn edIm,IerIsyk

GPS external synchronization scheme. vabEnßmCaBiesseTAkan; network’s survivability.

viFI time-dissemination epSgeToteday radio k¾enAmaneRbIR)as;enAeLIy dUcCa satellite-

based Transit nig GOES rW terrestrially based Omega nig Loran C EdlmancMnucRKbdNþb;Bas

eBjBiPBelak. karbBa¢Ún HF radio time RtUv)anniyay.

2.2.1 North American Synchronization Plan Stratum Levels.

bNþaj network rbs; North America eRbIRbB½n§ hierarchical timing distribution mYy
dUc)anbgðajenArUb 6.24c. vaGaRs½yeTAnwg four-level hierarchy mYy ehIy level TaMgenHehAfa
strata(stratum in th singular). RbB½n§ Hierarchical distribution )anbgðajenAkñúgrUb 6.25.

tMrUvkarrbs; timing énkMrit strata nimYy² RtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgtarag 6.4. Parameters Edlpþl;

eGayenAkñúgtaragRtUv)ankMNt;dUcxageRkam³
1) Free-Run Accuracy
vaCaGtibrmaén fractional frequency offset Edl clock mYymanenAeBlEdlvaman
reference rWk¾man holdover sMrab;eBlevlabEnßmeRcInCag 2 eTA 3 éf¶ rWs)þah_ .

2) Holdover Stability
enHCacMnYnén frequency offset Edl clock mYymanbnÞab;BIva)an)at;bg; synchronization
reference rbs;va. Holdover RtUveFVIeGayc,as;las;cMeBaH stratum 2. Stratum-3

48
 holdover BRgIkbnÞab;BImYyéf¶ nigvaEbgEcktMrUvkareTAkan;smasFatumYycMnYnsMrab;pþl;tMél
offset, drift nigsItuNðPaB.

3) Pull-in/Hold-in
enHCa clock’s ability mYysMrab;bMeBj rWrkSanUv synchronization CamYynwg reference
mYyEdlGacCa off-frequency. Clock mYyRtUv)anTamTary:agehacNas;eGaymanlkçN³
TUlMTUlaydUceTAnwg free-run accuracy edIm,IeGayman pull-in/hold-in mYy. enHvaeFVIeGay
R)akdfa clock mYyénkMrit stratum Edlpþl;eGay GacbMeBj nigrkSanUv synchronization
CamYynwg clock énkMrit stratum esμI rWx<s;Cag.
2.2.2 North American Holdover and Slip Performance
enAeBlEdl network clock mYy )at;bg; references rbs;va enaHvacUl Holdover nig drifts
off frequency. TMhMén frequency drift kMNt;BIkMritmFümén slip rate Edlvas;eday

]bkrN_enaHehIy GaRs½yeTAelIRbPBén clock timing. tarag 6.5 bgðajBIcMnYnén slip

EdlrMBwgTukbnÞab;BImYyéf¶ nigmYys)þah_én holdover EdlmanEdnkMnt;sItuNðPaBERbRbYlenAcenøaH
±1°F enAkñúg switching center. taragenHbgðajBIPaBxusKñarvagkMrit stratum cMeBaHdMeNIrkar

kñúgkMLúgeBl holdover. RbsinebIkargartMEhTaMrbs;vaTan;eBlevla cMeBlEdl holdover

49
manPaBminRbRktIekIteLIg enaHKWeyIgRtUvBwgEp¥keTAelI network mYyenAkñúg stratum-2 rW -3E
clocks, virtually slip-free network mYyGacRtUvkar.

2.3 CCITT Synchronization Plans

CCITT Rec.G.811 Cab;Tak;TgCamYynwg synchronization rbs; international .
links

dMeNIrkar plesiochronous RtUv)aneRCIserIs. karpþl;Gnusasn_ bgðajBIbBaðaenAedImdMbUg³

International digital linksnwgRtUvkaredIm,IP¢ab;KñaeTAvijeTAmknUvbNþajCati nigGnþrCatiepSg²Kña.

Network TaMgenHmanTMrg;dUcxageRkam³

(a) Synchronized network eBjmYyEdlman timing RtUv)anRtYtBinitüeday single

reference clock mYy.

(b) sMnMuén synchronized subnetworks mYyEdlman timing RtUvRtYtBinitüeday reference

clock mYy k¾b:uEnþCamYynwgdMeNIrkar plesiochronous rvag subnetworks pgEdr.

(c) Plesiochronous network eBjmYy (]TahrN_ network kEnøgEdl timing rbs; node

nimYy² RtUv)anRtYtBinitüeday reference clock dac;edayELkBIKña )

dMeNIrkarrbs; Plesiochronous KWCaRbePTEtmYyKt;rbs; synchronization EdlGacRtUvKña
CamYynwgRbePTTaMgbI. dMeNIrkarenHTamTareGayman high-stability clocks. dUecñH Rec. G.811
bgðajfa clocks TaMgGs;enARtg; network nodes EdlbBa©b; international links nwgman long-term
frequency departure mYyEdlminFMCag 1 × 10 . vanwgRtUvBN’nateTAeTotenAbnÞab;BIenH.
−11

RTwsþIén long-term cg¥úlR)ab;BI rate énkarekIteLIgrbs; controlled frame rW octet(time

slot) slip enAeRkamlkçxNÐl¥\tex©aHenAkñúg 64-kbps channel NamYy KWlMdab;rbs;vaminFMCag 1

enAkñúg 70 éf¶ kñúgmYy international digital link eLIy.

Phase discontinuity NamYykMLúgeBl network clock rWCamYy nwg network node

KYrecjlT§plEtkñúg lengthening rW shortening rbs; time signal interval nigminKYrbNþaleGay

50
phase discontinuity mYyenAkñúgkarbEnßmén 1/8 rbs; unit interval enA outgoing digital signal BI
network node .
Rec. G.811bgðajfa enAeBldMeNIrkar plesiochronous nig synchronous
kñúgeBlCamYyKñaenAkñúg international network enaH node nwgRtUvkaredIm,Ipþl;nUvRbePTdMeNIr
karTaMgBIr. dUecñH vamansar³sMxan;Edl synchronization controls minbNþaleGayman short-term
frequency departure rbs; clock EdlvaminGacTTYlsMrab;dMeNIrkar plesiochronous.

3. Digital Network Performance Requirements

3.1 Blocking Probability
Blocking probability rbs; B = 0.01 KWCaKuNPaBénesva (QoS). CamYynwgkareRbIeday
m:t;ct;én alternative routing edIm,IeFVIeGay blocking probability én 0.005 GacnwgsgÇwmTuk)an.

3.2 Error Performance from a Telcordia Perspective

BER KWCa ratioéncMnYn bit enAkñúgkar error eFobeTAnwgcMnYn bits srubkñúgkarbBa¢Ún
kñúgkMLúgeBlmYyEdleK)anvas;.
• Errored seconds (ES) mYy KWCa error EdlkñúgcenøaHeBl 1s many:agehacNas; error
ekIteLIgmYy.
• Burst Errord Seconds (BES) KWCa errored second NaEdlman error y:agtic 100

kñúgcenøaHeBl 1s.

1). BER enARtg;cMnuc interface levels DSX-1, DSX-1C DSX-2 nig DSX-3 RtUvticCag 2 ×
10 −10
rYmTaMg burst errored seconds TaMgGs;kñúgrgVas;eBlmYy. (Éksareyag ) 2119

enAkñúgkMLúgeBl burst errored second mYy minfacMnYn bit errors rWk¾cMnYnén bit
minRtUv)anrab;eLIy. tMrUvkarenH RtUvnwgdMeNIrkarCaFmμta ehIyvanwgCYbCamYynwg channel
TaMgGs;enAkñúgEpñk protection switching nimYy².
2). Frequency rbs; burst errored seconds (eRkABIenaHbNþalmkBI protection switching

dwknaMeday hard equipment failures) nwgrkmFümPaKmineRcInCag 4 kñúgmYyéf¶enAerogral;

21 DSX means digital system cross-connect.

51
 interface levels DSX-1, DSX-1C, nig DSX-3. (Éksareyag )
DSX-2 2220

tMrUvkarenHRtUvnwgdMeNIrkarCaFmμta nig RtUvCYbCamYynwg channel TaMgGs;enAkñúg protection

switching system.

3). sMrab; systems interfacing enARtg; DS1 level enaHPaKryén errored seconds

kñúgry³eBlyUr (vas;enARtg; DS1 rate) nwgminelIsBI 0.04% eLIy. vaesμIeTAnwg 99.96% error-
free seconds (EFS). tMrUvkarenH RtUvnwgdMeNIrkarFmμta ehIyk¾CalkçN³vinicä½yEdlTTYlyk

)an. vaminelIsBI 10 errored seconds kñúgkMLúgeBl 7-hr EdlvaCa one-way(loopback) test .

4). sMrab; system interfacing enARtg; DS3 level manPaKry errored seconds ry³eBlyUr

(vas;enARtg; DS3 rate) minelIsBI 0.4%. vaesμIeTAnwg 99.96% error-free second(EFS).

tMrUvkarenH RtUvdMeNIrkarCaFmμta ehIyvak¾CalkçN³vinicä½yEdlTTYlyk )an. vamineRcInCag 29

erroed seconds kñúgkMLúgeBl 2-hr mYyEdlCa one-way(loopback) test eLIy.

3.3 Error Performance from a CCITT Perspective

CCITT cornerstone sMrab;dMeNIrkar error KW
. eKalkarN_éndMeNIrkar error
Rec. G.821

enHKWGaRs½yeTAelI 64-kbps circuit-switched connection mYyRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; voice traffic rW Ca

bearer circuit mYy sMrab; data traffic.

Parameters éndMeNIrkar error rbs; CCITT RtUv)ankMnt;dUcxageRkam(CCITT Rec.

G.821): {PaKryCamFümrbs;cenøaHeBl T(0) kMLúgeBlEdl bit error rate (BER)

elIsBItMélcab;epþIm. PaKryRtUv)ansÞg;EvgCagcenøaHeBl T(L) eRcIn . cMeBaHcenøaHeBlEdlKYreFVI

T(L) KWry³eBl mYyEx. vaKYrEtsMKal;faeBlevlasrubKw T(L) RtUv)anEbgEckCa 2 Epñk³

1. Time EdlGaceRbIR)as;)ankñúgkartP¢ab;

2. Time EdlminGaceRbIR)as;)ankñúgkartP¢ab;

BERs nig interval xageRkamRtUv)aneRbIenAkñúg CCITT Rec. G.821:

- BER mYyticCag 1 × 10 for T (0) = 1 min
−6

- BER mYyticCag 1 × 10 for T (0) = 1 sec

−3

22 This is a long-term average over many days. Due to day-to-day variation, the number of burst errored seconds
occurring on a particular day may be greater than the average.

52
 - Zero errors sMrab; T(0) = 1 sec
tarag 6.6 pþl;nUveKalkarN_ CCITT error performance.
3.4 Jitter
RtUv)ansikSaenAkñúgEpñk 6.9.2 kEnøgEdlniyayfavaKWCakarfycuHd¾FMmYyénkabBa¢Ún
Jitter

sBaØa digital. eyIgk¾)anniyayfa TMhM jitter KWCamuxgaréncMnYn regenerative repeaters

EdlmanenAkñúg tandem. karbgðajGMBIkmμvtßúrbs; jitter GacrkeXIjenAkñúg Ref. 15.
3.5 Slips
3.5.1 From a Bellcore Perspective
CakarGn;fyrbs;bNþaj digital) RtUv)anBnül;enAkñúgEpñk 12.2.1. enAeBlEdl
Slips (

lkçxNÐ stratum-3 slip KμanbBaða enaH nominal clock slip rate KWesμIsUnü. (Éksareyag ) 2321

RbsinebI manbBaðaCamYynwg primary reference enaHGtibrmaén slip mYyenAelI trunk NamYy

nwgecjlT§plBI switch reference mYy rWkarerobcMeLIgvijepSg²eTot. RbsinebImankar)at;bg;nUv
references TaMgGs;enaHGtibrmaén slip rate KW 255 slips sMrab;éf¶dMbUgcMeBaH trunk NamYy.

karekIteLIgenHenAeBlEdl stratum-3 clocks rMkildl;cMnucGtibrmaén 0.37 parts kñúgmYylan BI

references frequency rbs;va.

3.5.2 From a CCITT Perspective

CamYynwgdMeNIkar plesiochronous cMnYn slip enAelI international links nwgRtUv)anRKb;RKg
edayTMhMpÞúkrbs; buffer nig manPaBeTotTat; RBmTaMgPaBmanlMnwgénkartP¢ab;KñaeTAvijeTAmkrbs;
national clocks. dMeNIrkar End-to-end slip KYrEtbMeBjtMrUvcitþxagtMrUvkaresvaTUrs½BÞ nigesvamin

EmnTUrs½BÞ enAelI 64-kbps digital connection enAkñúg ISDN mYy.

23 CCITT is looking at the problem from an international switching center gateway. It will connect via digital
trunks to many national networks, each with their own primary reference source (PRS).

53
 eKalkarN_ slip rate sMrab;TMnak; TMng end-to-end GnþrCatimYy RtUv)aneFVIeGaymanlkçN³
TUeTACamYynwg reference eTACa Standard hypothetical reference connection(HRX) Edlman
RbEvg 27,500 Km.
Theoretical slip rate KWCa slip mYykñúg 70 éf¶ kñúgmYy plesiochronous interexchange link

assuming clocks CamYynwgPaBeTogTat;c,as;las; (emIlkñúgEpñk 12.2.2) nigpþl;nUvdMeNIrkarén

tMrUvkar transmission nig switching EdlsßitkñúgkarkMnt;rbs;va.

kñúgkrNIEdlkarTMnak;TMngGnþrCatirYmbBa©ÚlTaMg nodes cMnYn 13 sMKal;enAkñúg HRX ehIy
nodes TaMgenaHKWkMBugdMeNIrkarCamYyKñaenAkñúg plesiochronous mode mYy ( dMeNIrkar nominal slip

énTMnak;TMngGacCa 1 kñúg 70/12 éf¶ eRBaHman 12 links enAkñúg tandem rW 1enAkñúg 5.8 éf¶).
kñúgkarGnuvtþ eTaHCay:agNak¾eday node mYycMnYnenAkñúgTMnak;TMngenHKYrEtCaEpñkénbNþaj
synchronization dUcKña. dUecñH dMeNIrkarEdll¥rbs; nominal slip GacrMBwgTuk)an (]TahrN_

kEnøgEdl national network enARtg;cMnucbBa©b;RtUv)an synchronized). dMeNIrkar nominal slip

énTMnak;TMngKYrEt 1 enAkñúg 70/4 rW 1 enAkñúg 17.5 éf¶. sMKal;fakarKNnaenH snñidæantMélGtibrma
mYyrbs; international link cMnYn 4.
eKalkarN_éndMeNIrkarsMrab; rate én octet slips enAelIbNþajTMnak;TMngGnþrCatimYy
elIry³cMgay 27,500 km én bearer channel RtUvKñamYy RtUv)anpþl;eGaykñúgtarag 6.7.
CCITT(Ref. 14) edIm,IeGaykarsikSaeCOnelOneTAmux KWRtUvtMrUveGaymankarGHGagfatMél

TaMgenaH KWRtUvKñaCamYynwgeKalbMNgdUceTAnwgdMeNIrkar error Edldak;eGayenAkñúgcMnuc 12.3.3 .

54