Process Modeling

N. L. Sarda
I.I.T. Bombay

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Outline

• Process decomposition diagrams

• Data flow diagram (DFD)

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Process Model
• A process is a business activity which when
executed produces certain outputs from given
inputs
• The function(s) performed by a process may be
complex, with multiple inputs, outputs and users
• The entire application itself is a process
• We use successive decomposition into sub
processes to reveal greater details of the
processing

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Function Decomposition
• Decomposition splits wok of a task into subtasks;
subtasks together make-up the parent task; not
like ‘calling’ a module
• Balanced decomposition: sub-tasks are roughly
equal in complexity

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Function Decomposition …
• Top-down decomposition gives hierarchical
structure
• Decompose into 2 or more; not more than 5
• A high cohesion (high independence) and
minimum coupling (minimum interdependence)
are fundamental criteria
• Continue decomposition until elementary
processes are identified

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Function Decomposition
• Elementary process is a smallest unit of activity
meaningful to end user (it sees and leaves data in
consistent state)
• Process decomposition diagram
– A tree structure
– Elementary processes are leaf nodes
– Data are not shown

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FD Diagrams: Examples

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FD Diagrams: Examples

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• Exercise: prepare FDDs for
– Railway reservation system
– Hospital patient management
– Employee payroll

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Function Decomposition …
• Use proper naming of processes
• Business functions named as nouns (marketing,
Inventory control, …)
• Process name consists of an active verb and an
object (accept order, calculate interest, …)

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Naming …
• Avoid long names (sentences containing and, if,
then, etc. indicate non-cohesive complex tasks)
• Real world is a good reference for selecting
proper names; organizational units are organized
functionally and each unit has a well-defined task

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Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
• Very popular tool for describing functions of a
system in terms of processes and data used by them
– FDD may be done before DFD or we may prepare DFDs
directly
– Have more contents than FDDs
– Flow of data is shown, not flow of control
• DFDs are simple pictorial representations; easily
understood by users and management.

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Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) …
• DFDs are unambiguous and concise
• They can describe processing at physical as well
as logical levels
• DFDs facilitate top-down development
• They permit outlining of preferences and scope

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DFD Notation
• Data Flow : labeled arrow

• Sources and sinks of information/data (also called

external entity)
or
• Process
n n
or

(n : number for referencing

• Available data (data store)
or n
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Example: Air line reservation

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Context Diagram
• Shows the entire application as a single process
• Identifies its external interfaces
• This is the starting point; also called Fundamental
System Model, Level 0 DFD

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Context Diagram …

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Process Refinement
• Decompose a process into sub processes
– May reveal more data stores, external interfaces
– Use decimal numbering system: process 1 is
decomposed into 1.1, 1.2, etc.
• At each level, understand all data flows and
processing; label processes, data stores and data
flows (arrows) meaningfully.
• Continue decomposition and stop when control
flow (conditional branches, loops) surfaces. Refine
until processes are well understood.

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Refinement …
• DFDs do not show control flow
• DFDs do not show initializations (such as initial
file creation), but show processes running in a
steady state
• DFDs only show exceptions/errors having specific
business rules to deal with them; handling of
routine errors generally not shown

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Refinement …
• Processes must be independent of each other
(cohesion, coupling principles apply); work of a
process depends only on its inputs and not on
state of another process
• Only needed data should be input, and outputs
should be based on data entering the process

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Refinement …
• Ensure consistency among levels: inputs and outputs at
previous level should be present at next level

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Physical DFD
• Shows implementation details
– Names and locations of places/people
– Ways of storing data (like card indexes)
– Tasks as performed today: e.g., 2 persons handling
UG, PG students separately.
• Useful for describing existing system to validate it
with users
• Needs to be converted into logical DFD after
validation from users

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Showing Boundaries

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DFD Example 1: Payroll

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DFD Example 2: Old Car Mart
• Buys and sells old cars; has large number in
stock: different models, make, year,colors,…
• Does some repairs for adding value; records kept;
has own garage
• Advertise in news papers
• Salesmen hired on commission basis to handle
customers, negotiate, etc.
• Needs to take stocks; prepare summary of sales,
profits, etc; pay salesmen
Prepare DFD and ER diagrams
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Car Mart …

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Car Mart …
• Define data stores and flow clearly to understand
the DFD
• We can further refine some of the processes
• For process 5: Making a sale
– Take buyer requirements and his/her other details
– List cars that match requirements
– Show repair history, car history
– Register sale and negotiated price
– Compute commission

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E-R Diagram
Add important
attributes, give
cardinalities

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Example 3: Book Supplier
• Supplies books to customers; no stocks
maintained; books sourced directly from
publishers
• Prepare context diagrams

(all inputs/output not shown, such as invoices,…..

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Book-Supplier : Refinement 1

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Book Supplier: Exploding Process 2

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Book Supplier : homework
• Refinement 1 needs to be extended for handling
payments
• Extend for : Payments from customers
– Create ‘a/c receivable’ for books sent
– Update receivable when payments received
– Credit rating will need to be adjusted periodically
• Extend for : Payments to publishers
– Create ‘a/c payable’ when invoices received
– Check invoices with books actually received
– Make payments periodically as per payment terms
(within fixed days; incentives for early payment, etc.)

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Summary
• Process modeling by process decomposition
• DFD shows data flows, stores and processes, but
not control flows
• Proper naming of stores, processes and indicating
data flowing among them very important for
DFDs to be independently readable

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