Ion Channeling

A course of professor McHargue

Presented by Younes Sina
 Introduction

terization of crystalline solids. The method is based on the chann

 Introduction

with the crystalline axis of a single crystal sample, the backscatter

ounter collisions with these displacements will increase the yield.

Introduction

Technique Yield

Channeling Rutherford backscattering Light particles backscattered from

(RBS) heavy atoms

Channeling elastic recoil detection analysis Forwarded-scattered light target

(ERD) atom

Channeling-induced X-ray emission X-rays emitted by the deexcitation

spectroscopy of target atom
(PIXE)

Channeling nuclear reaction analysis Emitted gamma radiation or

(NRA) charged particles from excited
nuclei
 Theory of Channeling

of atoms in a crystal is steered by a series of gentle colli

s the maximum range in no-steering directions or in amorphous

he electronic contributions. This implies that a channeled ion tra

 Theory of Channeling

Basic assumption for ion channeling

orrelated (because ions passing close to an atom in a string must a

encounters.
by perfect strings of atoms in which the atomic spacing , d, is uni
Atomic configuration in the diamond cubic structure
he ion can be considered to move in a transverse potential, VT.

+∞
1
VT ( ρ ) =
d ∫
−∞
V [( ρ 2 + x 2 )1 / 2 ]dx

Distance traveled along the string

Distance of the ion from the string of atoms

ent atomic species, the potentials for each atom are different, and
tential V(r) is generally taken to have the Tomas-Fermi form:

Electronic charge

2
Z1 Z 2 e
V (r ) = φ (r / a)
r
Nuclear separation distance
Tomas-Fermi screening function
Atomic numbers of ions at the string
Molière approximation for
Tomas-Fermi screening function constants

3
φ (r / a ) = ∑αi exp( −βi r / a )
i =1

1/ 2 1 / 2 −2 / 3
a = 0.8853 a0 ( Z 1 +Z 2 )

−11
a0 = 5.292 ×10 m (Bohr radius)
String potential

2
2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( ρ ) = f ( ρ / a)
d
 Modified Bessel function

constants
Molière screening function
3
f M ( ρ / a) = ∑ ai K 0 (− β i ρ / a)
i =1
1/ 2
fM = FRS
Lindhard screening function

f L ( ρ / a ) = 0.5 ln[3(a / ρ ) + 1] 2
 Example 1

ion of fL and fM for 4He+ incident along a <110> channe

Z1=2
Z2=14
1/ 2 1/ 2
a = 0.8853 a0 ( Z1 +Z2 ) −2 / 3
a=0.0157 nm
a0 = 5.292 × 10 −11 m (Bohr radius)
f L ( ρ / a ) = 0.69 ρ / a =1
f L ( ρ / a ) = 0.5 ln[3(a / ρ ) + 1]
2
f L ( ρ / a ) = 0.28 ρ/a =2
f L ( ρ / a ) = 0.086 ρ/a =3
 A plot of FRS(x′) versus x′, where FRS(x′) is the square root of the Molière string poten

fM=(FRS )2

ρ /a =1 f M ( ρ / a ) = 0.66
ρ /a = 2 f M ( ρ / a ) = 0.31
ρ /a = 3 f M ( ρ / a ) = 0.12
 2
2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( ρ ) = f ( ρ / a)
d
1
d = 0.5431 × = 0.384 nm
2
 2
2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( ρ ) = f ( ρ / a)
d
1
d = 0.5431 × = 0.384 nm
2

Z1 = 2
Z 2 = 14
e 2 = 1.44 ×10 −13 MeV

VT ( ρ ) = 210 f ( ρ / a)
 2
2 Z1 Z 2 e 1 / 2
Ψi = ( )
Ed

Incident energy
ple2:
ation of for 2 MeV 4He+ along a <110> channel in Si

Z1 = 2
2
Z 2 = 14 2 Z1 Z 2 e 1 / 2
e 2 = 1.44 ×10 −13 MeV Ψi = ( )
Ed
E = 2 MeV
d = 0.384 nm

Ψi = 0.0102 rad = 0.584 

t atoms, Z2 is an arithmetic average of the atomic numbers of the

interatomic spacing d and interplanar spacing dp for GaP(zinc b

Z 2 = (ZGa + Z p )/2 = (15 + 31)/2 = 23

Z 2 = (Z Ga + Z p )/2 = (15 + 31)/2 = 23
d 0 = 0.545 nm (Table A17.4, Appendix 17)
 3 3 3
( + )
< 111 > axis : d = d0 4 4
2
= 0.472 nm (Table A17.2, Appendix 17)
1
{110} plane : d p = d0 × = 0.193 nm
2 2
laced from atomic rows, the string potential is disturbed, and ions
yield are significantly enhanced, and the close-encounter probabi
tion was achieved by dividing the aligned yields by the r
 Notation for normalized yield at channeling

ed yield)/(random yield)
host atoms
olute atoms
zed yields from host and solute atoms, respectively for alignment
d yields for host and solute atoms, respectively, for alignment alo
r alignment along an axial channel<uvw>, according to t

1/ 2
+ Z 2 ) −2 / 3
1/ 2
Screening length: a = 0.8853a0 ( Z1

< uvw>
χh = Ndπ (u2 + a )
2 2

Atomic density

u 2 : Two − dimentional viberation amplitude

u 2 = 1.414u1
u1 : one − dimentiona l viberation amplitude
e divergence of the ion beam exceeds 0.1 or if oxides o
which the normalized yield from host atoms χh, reaches a
 ψ1/ 2 = Cψψ1
ψ1/ 2 = 0.83 FRS (ξ)ψ1
ξ = 0.85u 2 / a Given in Fig.A17.2

u 2 : Two − dimentiona l viberatio n amplitude

Unchanneled ion

Channeled ion

ψ1=ψc
 Reason for difference of calculated and
experimental data above ψ1/2 :
ightly larger than ψ ½ ,have a higher –than- average probability o

Calculated data --------

Experimental data
 Flux distribution and trajectories of channeled ions
Because of the steering action of channeling, ions are directed
toward the center of a channel, resulting in an enhanced ion flux
there. In order to calculate ion trajectories and, thus, the spatial
distributions of channeled ions within a given channel, it is
usually assumed that the transverse component E┴, of the ion
energy is conserved (energy loss are neglected).

Ion transverse energy Initial incident angle when the ions strike the crystal

Distance between the atomic row and the initial striking posit
E⊥ = Eψ + VT ( ρin )
2
t is assumed that ions are uniformly distributed within an accessible area sp

E⊥ = Eψ + VT ( ρ in )
2
E⊥ = VT ( ρ A )
The ions are excluded from an area πρA2 close to the string.
Cross-sectional area of the channel
A0
dA A0
Fj =∫ =ln
A
A Aj ψ=0
Normalized flux at the jth potential contour

Accessible area at the potential lower than that of the jth potential con
ntial contours (eV) for He+ ions in Al for one-quarter of a <110>

Cell of string

14 string of atoms

First cell

second cell
 Example 4:
Calculation of Fj
A0
dA A0
Fj = ∫ =ln Aj
A
A Aj
A0 1
F j = ln = ln = 0. 7
Aj 0. 6

he areas outside the strings enclosed by the 20 eV potential conto

Accessible area at the potential lower than that of the jth potential co
Aj
 ours for 1 MeV He+ ions in Al at 30K for one-quarter of
lculation
simulation ---------
occurs because of the rather regular movement of channeled ions

 is the wavelength of the

channel ion’s path
Unchanneled ion

/4 Channeled ion

ψc
wavelength of the channel ion’s path

Lindhard characteristic angle

Constant taken as 31/2

λ = 4π chρ2 /(3n) Caψ 1 1/ 2

Number of atomic strings bordering the channel

Distance from a string to the center of the channel

Unchanneled ion

Channeled ion
e calculated mid-channel flux of 1 MeV He+ ions in a <100> ax

No multiple scattering included

multiple scattering, energy losses, thermal vibration(T=273K), and b

multiple scattering, energy losses, thermal vibration(T=273K), and b

The depth oscillations are less regular for
axial channels than for planar channels,
because axially channeled ions can move to
neighboring channels more easily than planar
channeled ions can.

planar
axial
Random
Picture of different types of lattice defects

a) Interstitial impurity atom,

b) Edge dislocation
c) Self interstitial atom,
d) Vacancy
e) Precipitate of impurity atoms
f) Vacancy type dislocation loop,
g) Interstitial type dislocation loop
h) Substitutional impurity atom
 Damage to a crystal involves displaced lattice atoms:
ØStrain
ØPoint defects
ØDislocations
ØStacking faults
ØTwins
ØDefect clusters
ØSmall precipitates
ØAmorphous regions

ge produced by ion beam :

kel pairs(a vacant lattice site+ the self-interstitial atom rejected from th
ters of vacancies and self-interstitials
s or dislocation loops
rphous regions
ed atoms can effect channeling in two qualitative ways:
channeling (gradual deflection of the channeled ions out of chan
rect backscattering of channeled ions
---------------------------------------------------------
ice, a combination of these two process usually occurs.

Limiting cases:
vDistortion-type defects
vObstruction-type (amorphous region)
ases:
n-type defects
hey involve small displacements of host atoms into the channels
brations can be considered to be another example of distortion-typ
ion-type (amorphous region)
ey occupy central positions in the channels
 most simply by considering that the ion beam consists of a chann

oms in the same way as randomly directed.

he channel) by multiple collisions with electrons and with displac

the dechanneled fraction of the beam plus the yield arising from

Χh : +
 Normalized ion flux for site i

)∑ Chi g i
< uvw> < uvw> < uvw> < uvw> < uvw>
χh = χ hD + (1 − χ hD Fi
Geometric factor for site i

Dechanneled fraction of ions Displaced atom for site i

Channeled fraction of ions

n of displacements, it is usually assumed that, for single, random

<uvw > <uvw >

gi Fi =1

Defect density at the depth of x

Calculated by χhD
Therefore

nD ( x )
χ h ( x) = χ hD ( x) + [1 − χhD ( x)]
n
Total atomic density
 Dechanneling by point defects
se of multiple collisions with electrons and displaced atoms. This
ate deeper in to the material.
collisions with thermally vibrating atoms and with lattice defects,
 Defect density

d (1 − χ hD )
= −(1 − χ hD )(nd σ d + Pth )
dx
Effective defect cross section for dechanneling

Effect of thermal vibration

d (1 − χ hD )
= −(1 − χ hD )(nd σ d + Pth )
dx
∫ d (1 − χhD ) = −∫[(1 − χhD )( nd σ d + Pth )]dx

  x 
χhD ( x) = 1 −[1 − χv ( x)] exp  − ∫ nd σ d dx 
  0 
Value for undamaged crystal
to be dechanneling when its transverse energy exceeds a

∞
χ hD ( x) − χ hD (0) = ∫
E⊥
g ( E ⊥ , x )dE ⊥

Distribution of transverse ion energy as a function of d

 Cross section for dechanneling by point defects

π
dσ
σD (ψ1 ) = ∫ dΩ
ψ1 dΩ

ross section for dechanneling by point defects

Critical angle
Dechanneling by dislocation loops
Under the condition that direct scattering is negligible:

χ h = χ hD
1 d 1 − χ v ( x)
nD ( x ) = [ln ]
σ d dx 1 − χ D ( x)
Defect density

Cross section for dischanneling

 Magnitude of the Burgers vector of the dislocat
Dechanneling by dislocation loops

 Eb 

λP =  
2 
 cZ 1Z 2 e N p 
Atomic density in the plane

A constant dependent on the dislocation orientation and ty

Planar dechanneling cross section per unit dislocation length
 Cross section for dischanneling

1 d 1 − χ v ( x)
Defect density nD ( x ) = [ln ]
σ d dx 1 − χ D ( x)
 Eb 
λlength
Planar dechanneling cross section per unit dislocation
P =
 
2 
 cZ 1Z 2 e N p 
If σd=λp

n D:
d length of dislocation lines per unit volume a
Dechanneling by dislocation loops
Analysis of phosphorous-diffused by Si

A misfit dislocation network is observed at a depth of 450 nm

Backscattering spectra for 2.5 MeV He+ along {110}planar a

1 d 1 − χv ( x )
nD ( x ) = [ln ]
σd dx 1 − χD ( x )
Energy dependence of planar dechanneling
dE/dx=nσ
TEM
 Energy dependence of dechanneling

n be used to identify the type of defects, because it has an energy dependenc

Expected energy dependence:

E0 for stacking faults

E1/2 for dislocations
E-1 to E-2 for point defects and defect clusters
 Dechanneling by heavily damaged regions
ly used to measure the epitaxial regrowth of materials that are amorphized b

der to amorphize the surface layer without introducing foreign atoms.

-250 keV
=460 nm
Epitaxial growth is linear with time

Regrowth rate is lower and nonlinear

 Energy loss of channeled and random ions
nergy loss of channeled ions and random ions can be significantly different

close encounter with atom rows and, consequently, have reduced interactio

Unchanneled ion

ψc
 Energy loss of channeled and random ions

nt ion energy for <100>,<111>, and<110> channeling directions

dE E 1/ 2 ln( 2.71828 + βE )
=
dx α0 +α1 E 1/ 4 +α2 E 1/ 2 +α3 E +α4 E 3 / 2
 Energy loss of channeled and random ions
α and β are fitting parameters
E is the ion energy

dE E ln(2.71828+ β E )
1/ 2
=
dx α 0 + α 1 E + α 2 E + α 3 E + α 4 E
1/ 4 1/ 2 3/ 2

ion depth. For shallow penetration depth (a few hundred nanometers),

ificant dechanneling.
Data Analysis
Silicon(n-type)
Typical detector used in RBS analysis
Channel-energy conversion

An evaporated thin layer of gold

The number of
electron- hole pairs
created in the
depletion region is
proportional to the
particle energy loss A diode whose depletion region increases
in this region.
 Data Analysis

Channel number

∆E
d electrons and holes cause a pulse of charge. The height of the pulse can be converted to

E =c+ n
∆n
E

Energy of the particle

E2

of the equation using a calibration sample that contains at least 2 different e

E1
n
n1 n2

E1=k1E 1
0
Kinematic factor for the calibration elements
E2=k2E 2
0
Data Analysis Energy-depth conversion

t
Incident particle
E0

Et φ1
φ2 Assumption :
dE
E1 = constant
dx

final energy

 t  dE   t  dE 
E (t ) = k  E0 −   −  
 cos ϕ1  dx  E0  cosϕ 2  dX  E1
 Data Analysis

Separation of dechanneling fraction

rom displaced atoms needs to be separated from the backscatterin

 Data Analysis

Separation of dechanneling fraction

1.Line approximation

ay to separate the dechanneling component. The line connects 2 points corre

yield after the surface damage peak
yield after the damage peak
 Data Analysis

Separation of dechanneling fraction 2. Iterative procedure

divided into multiple layers. The analysis starts from the surface layer by a

nD ( x ) Density of displaced atoms

χ h ( x) = χ hD ( x) + [1 − χhD ( x)]
n Total atomic density

g in the next layer is calculated by the following equation and then used in t

  x 
χhD ( x ) =1 −[1 −χv ( x )] exp 

−
 0
∫ nd σd dx 


 
Aligned yield at depth x for a virgin crystal
 2. Iterative procedure

nD

ed Si obtained after different times of iterative processes. The profile from

 Data Analysis 2. Iterative procedure

Separation of dechanneling fraction

quires that the dechanneling cross section, σD, must first be known.

π
dσ
σD (ψ1 ) = ∫ dΩ
ψ1 dΩ

ce distortions around defects. The strain relaxation around defects can enha
 3. Double-iteration procedure

proach requires selecting a point at depth x1 giving nD(x1)=0. x1 can be any

x1
χ h ( x) − χ hD ( x)
χ h ( x1 ) = χ v ( x1 ) + [1 − χ v ( x1 )]× {1 − exp[− ∫ σ D n]}
0
χ hD ( x)
 For any point x<x1

x1
χ h ( x) − χ hD ( x)
m

χ h D ( x) = χ v ( x) + [1 − χ v ( x)]× {1 − exp[− ∫ σ D
m +1
n]}
0
χ hD ( x)
m

Where m represents the number of cycles of the iterative calculation.

 Data Analysis 3. Double-iteration procedure

f dechanneling in the next layer . The procedure is continued until the defec
in comparison with the calculated dechanneling component after different ti
 Analytical versus Monte Carlo analysis

roximation for the ion flux

h multistring Moliere-type potentials to calculate equipotential contours and ion fluxes

A0
dA A0
Fj =∫ =ln
A
A Aj
 Numerical method to calculate angular scans

pendence of backscattering yields can be calculated numerically by using continuum

e potential as a function of location across the channel
y distribution of the transverse energy of the ions
cross the channel
bution of the backscattering yields

2
2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( ρ ) = f ( ρ / a)
d
A0
dA A0
Fj = ∫ =ln
A
A Aj
 Transverse potential

square is calculated by adding potential contributions from multi-atom row

nit cell is appropriate for the calculations associated with displacements close to the channel center.

roup of 9-atom rows with a circular unit cell is appropriate for the problems associated with the sma
a ΔA is calculated and listed in a table in order from the smallest to largest.

1 ……. i ……. h …… L
u1 ……. ui ……. uh ……. uL
E┴,1 …….. E┴,i …….. E┴,h ……..
m1ΔA ……… …….. E┴,L
mhΔA ……
miΔA mLΔA

ui potential energy
E┴,I transverse energy
mi number of areas ΔA that have the same
potential energy
 Probability distribution of transverse energy

f ui, the transverse energy is given by E┴,i =Eψ2+ui. Therefore, the possibilit

mi ∆A mi
g ( E⊥,i ) = =
A0 N
A0 =N∆A
 Ion flux distribution

hanneled ions with transverse energy E┴,i , is the area having a potential equa

Accessible area A( E⊥,i ) = (m1 + m2 + .... + mh )

E⊥,i = u h

Aj
stributed over the accessible area, the ion density at rh(the position correspo

1
f E⊥ ,i (rh ) =
m1 + m2 + ..... + mh
Ion flux at rh is contributed by only those ions with E┴≥uh
Under the condition that:

E┴,i =Eψ2+ui=uh

Ion flux is given by:

L
mj
∑
1
F (rh ) = χ
∫ f ⊥ (r ) g ( E⊥ )dE⊥ =
E⊥ >u h j =h
(m1 + m2 + .... + m j ) N
 Angular distribution

s are incident with an angle of ψ, the yield of close encounters is

∫
χ (ψ ) = F (r )dP (r )
Displacement probability

Selecting ψ=0°,0.1°,…., the angular distribution is obtained by

repeating the above calculation procedure. The angular
distribution can be normalized by the yield with ψ ≈ 5ψ1.
 Surface studies

Basic consideration

erved because the ion beam is scattered from the exposed surface atoms wit

Shadow cone
 Surface studies

Radius cone

Rc = 2( Z1Z 2 e d / E ) 2

ne radius for a Au layer on Ag:

e beam on Au, Z1=2, Z2=79, d<110> =0.288 nm, e2=1.44×10-13 cm, E=1 MeV
62 nm, which can be compared with u2=0.012 nm.

u 2 : Two − dimentional viberation amplitude

u 2 = 1.414u1
u1 : one − dimentiona l viberation amplitude
 Lattice sites of solute atoms

sed applications of channeling has been to determine lattice sites of impurit

n” by the ion beam, causing an increased backscattering yield from the solu
Lattice sites of solute atoms

Χs<100> >1

Χs<110> ≈1

Χs<111> =Χh<111>
Lattice sites of solute atoms

Angular scans of backscattering yields

 Unchanneled ion

The numbers on the curves are the displacement value in angstroms.

Channeled ion

ψc

1 MeV He+ in a <110>

channel of Al at 30 K at the
depth of 100 nm (beam
divergence=0.048°)

l channel for atoms displaced along the <100> direction as a function of the incident angle ψ, norma
 Solute atoms associated with point defects

00 s at 220 K before each of the angular scans. The yields measured at 35 K for a depth interval of 5

<100> angular scans for irradiated Al-0.02 at.% In

Surface studies

Channeling can be used to measure lateral reconstruction, surface

relaxation, vibration amplitudes, and premelting of atoms in the
surface and near surface planes.

Schematic illustration of measurements of channeling surface peaks to study displacements of surface atoms
Surface studies

Channeling can also be used to measure:

Surface relaxation
Surface impurities
Interface structures
 Surface relaxation

illustration of the method to study surface relaxation experimentally, based on channeling and block

plane. A displacement of the first layer results in different angula

scattered ions detected at an angle θ by means of an electrostatic
and bulk atoms. The displacement caused by the relaxation effec
and surface Ni atoms for a clean(110) surface and for an oxygen coverage o
 Interface structures

ng thickness. The straight line corresponds to stoichiometric SiO2 plus 8.6×1015 atoms cm-2 of excess
 Epitaxial layer and strain

such layer or in multilayers can be determined by channeling measurement

e almost the same. For a small lattice-parameter mismatch, perfect epitaxy c

The channeling directions [100] and [110] are shown. The displacements, xn, of the Ge ato

of the structure of a strained epitaxial film of Ge capped with the substrate material, Si.
 Channeling angular scan of Ge/Si structure, using 1.8 MeV He+

on in the (100) plane for an epitaxial structure consisting of Si(100)/Ge[6 monolayer]Si(20 nm)
ction in the (100) plane for an epitaxial structure consisting of Si(100)/Ge[6 monolayer]Si(20 nm)
 Channeling angular scan of Ge/Si structure, using 1.8 MeV He+

neling direction in the (100) plane for an epitaxial structure consisting of Si(100)/Ge[6 monolayer]Si(
rection in a sample of Si(100)/Si0.99 Ge0.01 (100 monolayer) /Si(13.6nm) Si(100)/Ge[6 monolayer]Si(2
 Experimental methods

Channeling equipment

A beam divergence of 0.1° or less

Two-axis goniometer
Rotation about the crystal normal

180°-150°=30°

φ
0.3-2.5 MeV light ion
from electrostatic accelerator
Ultrahigh-vacuum
Rotation about the vertical axis
 Comparison of RBS, PIXE, and NRA methods

ttention must be paid to the cross section for a particular reaction and the depth information of the el

For Best choice Example

Channeling studies of crystal perfection RBS
Surface studies involving some Combination of RBS Surface coverage of O
for and NRA
elements
Lattice that areofdifficult
location impurities RBS using the
Lattice position of
RBS
(the
Lightimpurity mass>host atom mass)
impurity element in a NRA and characteristic 16
As
H O(d,p)
inSSi,
to in17 Oreaction
Ag in Zr
a heavier
X-ray
heavy-element
Intermediate –mass host lattice
impurities Characteristic X-ray lattice
in heavy host lattice
 choice of ion species and energy

at 1-2 MeV) is suitable because of the moderate mass resolution,

ms are suitable for probing the distribution of deep damage, such

 choice of ion species and energy

olution and the sensitivity for detection of small quantities of hea

etectors are used because of the decrease in detector resolution. In

 choice of ion species and energy

The cross section for backscattering generally decreases with incr

e of non-Rutherford behavior. In addition, several resonances in (
 Ion damage

Damage from the analyzing beam can interfere with the results of

Methods for minimizing damage:

§Increasing the detector solid angle

§Analyzing only near channeling direction
§Moving the analyzing spot frequently
§Using high-energy and low-mass ions
 Ion damage

crease detector solid angle are to use larger detectors and to move the detect

hods:

hat loss:

ors or specially constructed detectors

niques (suitable only for low-mass elements and uniform thin foil target)

energies of the scattered ion and the recoiled target atom are measured in c
 Obtaining channeling spectra

Stereographic projection

{100} poles of a cubic crystal

provides an accurate representation of the angles between the planes and axes of a crystal.
Obtaining channeling spectra

Stereographic projection
 A beam divergence of 0.1° or less
Two-axis goniometer
Rotation about the crystal normal

180°-150°=30°

φ
0.3-2.5 MeV light ion
from electrostatic accelerator
Ultrahigh-vacuum
Rotation about the vertical axis
 random

Scattering yield (counts)

aligned

Alignment of a Si (110) crystal for channeling

RBS spectra for a randomly oriented crystal

and aligned crystal
 Yield (counts)×103
φ

Alignment of a Si (110) crystal for channeling

RBS yield as a function of azimuthal angle φ

for a tilt angle of 6°
Yield (counts)×103

Polar plot of the planar minima from panel of yield- a

Precise determination of the value of θ for
<110> alignment, with φ set at 60°
Theta scan of my sample in AAMURI
 Thank you

Tomb of Diako (the king of Madia) about 1000 B.C