Introduction to

Psychology
Part II
A TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XII

AUTHORS
GIRISHWAR MISRA
K.D. BROOTA AJIT K. DALAL
ANAND PRAKASH Y.S. VAGRECHA
ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA ANJUM SIBIA

EDITOR
GIRISHWAR MISRA
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS
The total organisation of the text and its contents are intended to be responsive
to major developments in the field and show sensitivity to the interests and
needs of students. The content is participatory, drawing examples from everyday
life, including topics of current interest to students, and contain new
developments in the field. The aim is to engage students, interest and their
involvement.
To help students organise and remember important ideas, each chapter
has ‘Recapitulation’ at the end of each major section. Review questions in the
form of ‘Learning Checks’ are interspersed throughout the chapters to help
students check their understanding of each section’s main ideas immediately
after finishing the section instead of waiting until the end of the chapter.
Activities are experiential in nature which would help to translate concepts in
practical and behavioural terms. Chapter Summary would help in revising the
main ideas of each chapter. Illustrations and figures are some other aids which
would help in transaction of the contents and make the text appealing to the
students.
The Glossary given at the end would help to acquaint students with
psychology’s technical language which is important in any introductory text.
Enrichment material given in Boxes have information on higher level
concepts, newer developments in the field, and the Indian view point. These
descriptions may go beyond the contents of the syllabus. Students may be
encouraged to read the matter presented in boxes, but it should not be imposed
on every student. The material presented in BOXES is NOT for evaluation.
A NOTE FOR THE STUDENTS
This textbook contains information and learning aids to help you in
understanding the contents. The content outline at the beginning of each
chapter provides an overview of the topics covered in the chapter. This would
help you know the organisation of the chapter. The learning outcomes would
enable you to know how you would gain after reading the chapter. Learning
Checks interspersed throughout the chapter are self check exercises.
Experiential exercises are given under activities which are for self growth.
Recapitulation given at the end of major sections, are interim summaries that
would permit you to check your understanding of section’s main ideas
immediately after finishing the section. Some illustrations provide examples of
complicated concepts; tables and figures will also help you understand the
material discussed in the text. The chapter Summary at the end of the chapter
provides a summary of the chapter’s main ideas to help you review the materials
read in the chapter. Key Terms are important vocabulary terms and are listed at
the end of the chapter. The Glossary given at the end of the textbook should
assist you in this learning process. Enrichment materials presented in the
BOXES throughout the chapter are to acquaint you with newer developments
in the field. These are, however supplementary reading materials which are
not for evaluation. In preparing this textbook efforts have been made to make
the presentation of the contents interesting to read, challenging to think and
easy to learn.
CONTENTS

A Note for the Teachers vii

A Note for the Students viii
Chapter 1
Intelligence 1
Chapter 2
Self and Personality 29
Chapter 3
Social Influence and Group Processes 62
Chapter 4
Attitude and Social Cognition 82
Chapter 5
Coping with Life Challenges 106
Chapter 6
Psychological Disorders 126
Chapter 7
Therapeutic Approaches 147
Chapter 8
Environment and Behaviour 165
Chapter 9
Psychology in Organisational Setting 180
Chapter 10
Psychology and Social Problems 197
Chapter 11
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist 220
Chapter 12
Statistics in Psychology 239

Practicals in Psychology 263

Glossary 267
Suggested Readings 274
 1 INTELLIGENCE
THIS CHAPTER COVERS
Ä Nature of intelligence and approaches to
its understanding
Ä Culture and conceptualisation of
intelligence
Ä Methods of assessing intelligence
Ä Range and variations in intelligence
Ä Nature and measurement of aptitude
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä describe the concept of intelligence,
Ä explain the multiple facets of
intelligence,
Ä discuss cultural differences in
conceptualising intelligence,
Ä acquaint yourself with different methods
of assessing intelligence,
Ä explain the nature of intellectual
deficiency and giftedness,
Ä understand some emerging notions of
intelligence, and
Ä describe the concept of aptitude and its
measurement procedure.
CONTENTS
Introduction
What is Intelligence?
Beginnings of Intelligence Testing (Box 1.1)
Definitions of Intelligence
Intelligence: The Interplay of Nature and Nurture
Intelligence: Some Classical Approaches (Box1.2)
Contemporary Approaches to Intelligence
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
PASS Model of Intelligence
Samples of PASS Measures (Box 1.3)
Creativity and Intelligence
Culture and Intelligence
Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions
Intelligence in the Indian Context
Assessment of Intelligence
Distribution of IQ Scores
Types of Intelligence Test
Alternatives to IQ Testing (Box 1.4)
Intelligence Testing in India
Variations in the Level of Intelligence
Giftedness: Nature and Identification
Identification of Talent in the Indian Context
(Box 1.5)
Intellectual Deficiency: Nature and Types
New Directions: Emotional, Practical, and
Spiritual Intelligences (BOX 1.6)
Special Abilities or Aptitudes: Nature and
Measurement
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
2 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

Intelligence is probably one of the most popular psychological terms used in

everyday life. And it is rightly so, because it is due to the intellectual development
that humans have been able to transcend the physical frailties and gain dominance
over the more powerful and numerous animals. Every parent wishes his/her
child to be intelligent. However, you must have noticed individual differences in
this highly valued trait. People differ from each other in their ability to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environment, to learn from experience, to
engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. We often make
judgements about the intellectual competence of people on the basis of these and
related characteristics and label them as being more intelligent or less intelligent.
You too must have encountered people showing different levels of intelligence.

The expression of intelligence is not limited to any particular activity, domain,

or context; rather, it is manifested in every human activity, may it be in school,
during social interaction, at work, and so on. You must have heard about tests
that are used to measure intelligence in different settings including school,
industry, defence organisations, bureaucratic set-ups and so on. These tests are
useful in selection, training, placement, and providing educational and vocational
guidance and counselling to the students.

For long, the study of intelligence was confined to the cognitive domain. In
recent years, however, understanding about the nature of intelligence has changed
drastically. It is now believed that intelligence is not a single entity or
unidimensional, rather has multiple dimensions or facets. The notion of intelligence
has expanded to encompass affective, and social domains also. The emphasis
on one or the other aspects of intelligence varies across cultures. In this chapter
you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural
differences in its conceptualisation, its assessment, range and variations in the
intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes.
Intelligence
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
The term ‘intelligence’ has not only been used
more popularly in daily life, it has also
received maximum attention of the
researchers in the fields of psychology,
education, and child development. A perusal
of dictionaries will reveal that the term
intelligence has been taken in a broad sense.
For example, the following terms have been
listed as the meaning of intelligence: ability
to understand, reason, and perceive;
quickness in learning; mental alertness;
ability to grasp relationships etc. The
words such as capacity, shrewdness,
acumen, discrimination, talent, aptitude,
etc. are used as synonyms of intelligence. In
the Indian context, words such as Buddhi
Pratibha, Prajna, Medha, Dhi, Chaturya,
etc., are used for intelligence.
BOX 1.1 BEGINNINGS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING
The development of the concept of intelligence
in modern psychology is closely related to the
efforts in the direction of assessing
intelligence. Historically, the work of a
Frenchman, J. Esquirol, in 1838, on
mental disorders is considered to
be the beginning of modern mental
testing. However, Sir Francis
Galton, an Englishman, is
considered to be the father of
mental tests. In 1884, Galton
attempted to measure intelligence
by administering a battery of
tests which measured such
characteristics as head size,
strength of hand grip, breathing
capacity, reaction time, visual acuity,
and memory for visual forms. Galton Alfred
believed that simple sensory, perceptual,
and motor responses were key aspects of
intelligence. J.M. Cattell is credited with
introducing the term mental test. The works of
Galton and Cattell together paved the way for
further studies on intelligence.
3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Understanding the Concept of
Intelligence
Find out the synonyms of intelligence and
analyse the similarities and differences
among them.
On the basis of the analysis of synonyms
make three or four statements about the
nature of intelligence.
Discuss your observations with your
classmates and teacher.
DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
Broadly speaking, intelligence is a capacity
to profit from experience and to go beyond
the given. Psychologists have proposed a
number of definitions of intelligence.
Binet and Simon in 1905 defined
intelligence as “the ability to judge well, to
The first systematic attempt to develop a
test of intelligence was made by Alfred
Binet, a Frenchman. At the request
of the French Ministry of
Education, in 1904, Binet
attempted to devise a method to
identify children who did not
benefit from regular classroom
teaching and needed to be
placed in special schools. Binet
with his student T. Simon
developed the first test of
intelligence in 1905. The test
consisted of 30 items ranging
from the ability to touch one’s
nose or ear when asked, to the
ability to draw designs from
Binet memory and define abstract
concepts. Unlike Galton who reduced
intelligence to sensory, perceptual, and
motor processes, Binet argued that the core of
intelligence consists of more complex mental
processes such as memory, imagery,
comprehension, and judgement.
 4 Introduction to Psychology
understand well, and to reason well”.
There were four elements that were believed
to be important for intelligence: (1) Direction
or ability to set up a goal and work towards
it, (2) Adaptability or ability to make the
necessary adjustments to solve a problem,
(3) Comprehension or ability to have a basic
understanding of exactly what the problem
is, and (4) Self evaluation or person’s idea of
whether he or she has been able to solve the
problem correctly.
The definition proposed by Wechsler in
1939 has been very popular. He defined it as
“the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment”. According to Howard Gardner
(1986), intelligence is “the ability or skill
to solve problems or to fashion products
which are valued within one or more
cultural settings”.
An analysis of the above and other
definitions indicates that intelligence consists
of three general classes of skills or abilities:
l Adapting to new situations and
changing task demands.
l Learning or profiting optimally from
experience or training.
l Thinking abstractly using symbols and
concepts.
More recently Robert Sternberg (1997),
a pioneer in the field of intelligence research,
has defined intelligence as follows:
Intelligence comprises the mental abilities
necessary for adaptation to, as well as
shaping and selection of, any
environmental context.
This definition goes beyond the adaptive
nature of intelligence. Thus, intelligence is not
just reacting (in the form of adaptation) to the
demands of the environment, but also
involves actively shaping and selecting the
environment. When a person is not able to
adapt to an environment, he/she may try to
bring changes in the environmental context
(shaping) according to his or her own likings.
For example, when you visit a relative on
holidays, first of all you try to behave
according to their expectations. Slowly, you
begin to suggest them changes according to
your taste. However, bringing out change in
the environmental context may not always be
possible due to various reasons. In that case
an intelligent person tries to find another
suitable environment (selection). For
example, when you find it difficult to adapt
or bring about changes in the relative’s house,
you may go to another relative’s house or go
back to your home. It should be noted that
intelligence does not simply mean possessing
certain abilities per se; rather the use of these
abilities in real life situations is important.
The second important point, according to
Sternberg, is that the landscape of an
environmental context changes over time.
Thus, adequate adaptation, shaping, and
selection involve a process of life-long
learning, one that starts during infancy and
continues throughout the life span.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Processes Involved in Intelligence
Find two examples each from everyday
activities that relate to shaping, selection,
and adaptation.
Discuss these examples with classmates
and teacher.
INTELLIGENCE: THE INTERPLAY OF
NATURE AND NURTURE
There is no end to the debate as to whether
intelligence is innate or acquired. The
controversy has aroused fierce passions,
become politicised, and is notable for the
dogmatic nature of the opinions. The evidence
for the innateness comes from studies on
twins. As you know monozygotic twins result
from the fertilisation of a single ovum by a
single sperm and they are genetically
identical. Therefore, it may be assumed that
their intelligence (genetic) level should be
similar and any difference would be due to
non-genetic (environmental) factors. On rare
occasions, such as death or illness of the
mother, some of these monozygotic
(identical) twins were reared apart. Studies
have shown high level of similarity between
the intelligence levels of such monozygotic
twins. It has also been reported in some
studies that identical twins separated very
early in life share considerable degree of
Intelligence
similarity in intelligence, personality, and
mannerisms when they were identified
later. The limitation of these studies is that
the samples have been generally very small.
Adoption studies lend support to the
nurture side of the debate. In these studies
children’s intelligence levels were compared
with their biological and adopting mothers.
Some studies have reported that IQ of the
adopted children tends to move toward that
of their adopting parents. Other studies have
shown greater closeness with the IQ of
biological mothers. Generally, the presence
of adoptive parents of higher IQ level raises a
disadvantaged child’s IQ. There is evidence
to show that deprived environments may
result in lowering of IQ scores. A range of
environmental factors, such as nutrition,
family background, and quality of schooling,
are found to be related to IQ scores.
The most accepted view today is that
intelligence is a product of a complex
BOX 1.2 INTELLIGENCE: SOME CLASSICAL APPROACHES
l Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a
“Two Factor theory” of intelligence.
According to him, intelligence consists of
General (‘g’) and Specific (‘s’) factors. This
theory maintained that all intellectual
activities share a single common factor,
called ‘g’. Characterised as mental energy,
‘g’ is considered responsible for
relationships between different human
activities. Positive correlations between any
two factors were attributed to ‘g’ factor. In
addition to ‘g’, this theory also postulates a
number of specific factors ‘s’, each being
strictly specific to a single activity Fig 1.1
shows this pattern.
l Louis Thurstone (1938) advanced the
“Theory of Primary Mental Abilities”
which states that intelligence consists of
seven major factors, each of which is rela-
tively independent of the others. These fac-
tors are: Verbal Comprehension, Verbal
Fluency, Inductive Reasoning, Spatial
Visualisation, Number, Memory, and
Perceptual Speed.
5
interaction of genetic factors and environmental
conditions. Probably, the maximum limit is
drawn by the genetic factors, within which the
actual development depends upon the support
from environmental conditions.
Recapitulation
The systematic attempt to define and assess
intelligence in modern period began with
the work of Binet in 1904. Since then many
definitions of intelligence have been
proposed. In all these definitions,
intelligence is defined in terms of
adaptation to new situations, learning from
past experiences, and abstract thinking.
However, contemporary view of intelligence
goes beyond adaptation skills—where
adaptation is not possible, an intelligent
person either attempts to shape and
bring changes in the environment, or
carve out another environment of
his/her liking.
l Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that
there are two ‘g’ factors, ‘gf’ (for fluid
g
SI
S2
S3
Fig. 1.1 Relationship between ‘g’ and ‘s’
conceptualised by Spearman
contd...
6 Introduction to Psychology

intelligence) and ‘gc’ (for crystallised stimulus input prior to the outcome or
intelligence). Fluid intelligence includes the response. Level II refers to a general class
ability to think creatively, to reason of abilities involving effective transformation
abstractly, to make inferences from data, or manipulation of stimuli, as evinced in
and to understand relationships. It can be higher order learning, such as reasoning
measured by analogy and classification and problem-solving.
problems. It is strongly influenced by l On the basis of more than two decades of
heredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligence factor analytic research, J. P. Guilford
includes what a person learns and retains proposed a box-like model, which is known
from experience; so, it is strongly influenced as Structure-of-Intellect Model. This
by environment. Tests of vocabulary and theory organises intellectual traits along
general information can be used to measure three dimensions: Operations—what the
crystallised intelligence. It has been found respondent does, Contents—the nature of
that fluid intelligence tends to decline at an the materials or information on which
early age than crystallised intelligence operations are performed, and Products—
though both show rapid decline starting in the form in which information is processed
the late seventies. by the respondents. Guilford’s classification
l Arthur Jensen has advanced a theory of includes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resulting
two levels of intelligence: Level I and Level into 150 cells in the model. In each cell at
II. Level I denotes associative learning (e.g. least one factor or ability is expected; some
rote learning and memory). These activities cells may contain more than one factor. The
involve minimal mental transformation of the model is shown in Fig.1.2.

Operations
Co
nv
Di er
ve ge Ev
rg nt alu
en pr
o at l Contents
tp du ion ua
ro ct Vis ory
du ion dit lic
Me ct
ion Au bo
Co m
or Sym nti
c
l
gn y ma ura
itio Se io
n h av
Be
Units

Classes

Products
Relations

Systems

Transformation

Implications

Fig. 1.2 Guilford’s Structure of Intellect

Intelligence
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. The speed with which one
accomplishes a task refers to one’s
intellectual capacity. T/F
2. Binet developed a test of intelligence
to discriminate amongst normal
students of a class. T/F
3. Learning from past experiences is a
characteristic of an intelligent
person. T/F
4. Selection strictly refers to leaving a
task, which cannot be accomplished,
and selecting a task, which is easy
to perform. T/F
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
TO INTELLIGENCE
The classical notion of intelligence, which
defined it in terms of a single index of
cognitive abilities, has undergone major
changes. It is now believed that intelligence
is not one or unitary ability, rather there
are many intelligences, which people
display while solving problems in everyday
life. In this section you will study about
three such theories.
THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner (1983) proposed this theory.
It is based on three principles. First,
intelligence is not a single
entity; rather, there exist
multiple intelligences, each
distinct from others.
Second, these intelligences
are independent of each
other. In other words, if a
person is good in one type
of intelligence, it does not give
any indication about how good
or bad the person may be on Howard Gardner
other types of intelligences.
Third, different types of intelligences interact.
That is, different intelligences work together
to provide a solution of a problem.
Gardner has so far proposed eight
intelligences. However, all the individuals do
not possess them in equal proportion. The
particular situation or the context decides the
7
prominence of one type of intelligence over the
others. The eight intelligences are as follows:
l Linguistic : This is related to reading,
writing, listening, talking, understanding,
etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than
others.
l Logical-mathematical : This type of
intelligence deals with abstract reasoning
and manipulation of symbols involved in
numerical problems. It is exhibited in
scientific work.
l Spatial : Intelligence of this kind is used
while navigating in space, forming,
transforming, and using mental images.
Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, car
drivers, sculptors, and painters have
highly developed spatial intelligence.
l Musical :Persons with musical intelligence
show sensitivity to pitch and tone required
for singing, playing an instrument,
composing and appreciating music, etc.
l Bodily-kinesthetic : It requires the skills
and dexterity for fine coordinated motor
movements, such as those required for
dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making,
and the like.
l Interpersonal : It requires understanding
motives, feelings, and behaviours of other
people. Sales people, politicians, teachers,
clinicians, and religious leaders have high
degree of interpersonal intelligence.
l Intrapersonal : It is related to understand-
ing one’s self and developing a sense of
identity.
l Naturalistic : It is related to recognising
the flora and fauna and making a
distinction in the natural world. It is more
possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists,
students of biological sciences, and the like.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Application of the View of Multiple
Intelligences
Prepare a list of about 20 vocations. Analyse
these vocations in terms of the type of
intelligence required for success in those
vocations.
Discuss the results of your analysis with
your teacher.
 8 Introduction to Psychology

different experiences in uniquely original

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Robert J. Sternberg (1985)
proposed this theory. It
attempts to understand
the cognitive processes
involved in solving prob-
lems. According to this
theory, there are three
subtheories of intelli-
gence: Componential,
Experiential, and Con-
textual as shown in
Fig. 1.3.
Robert J. Sternberg
l Componential Sub
theory: It consists of
internal mental mechanisms that are
responsible for intelligent behaviour. The
components of intelligence serve three
different functions. Metacomponents are the
executive processes that are involved in
planning strategies, monitoring progress, and
allocating internal and external resources to
problem solving. Performance components
are the processes that are used to perform a
task or solve a problem. This component
is the one that is measured best by
existing intelligence tests. Knowledge
acquisition components are the processes
used in learning.
l Experiential Subtheory : It focuses on
the relationship between the person’s
inner, mental world and the outer,
external world. This aspect is concerned
with the effect of intelligence on
one’s experiences as
well as the effect of
person’s interaction
with the environment
on intelligence. This
view adds creativity
ways. A second aspect of experiential
intelligence is the ability to automatise
or “make routine” tasks that are
encountered repeatedly. An example of
automatising is reading, which is carried
out largely without conscious thought.
Playing music is another example of this
type of activity.
l Contextual Subtheory : It deals with the
ways people effectively shape their
environments, adapt to different contexts,
and make the most of their available
resources. Contextual intelligence refers
to “street smarts” or “situationally smart”.
It is the effective management of self and
the practical management of the business
of everyday life. People high on contextual
remain practical or down-to-earth in life.
Such people remain involved in activities
such as implementing, using, applying,
and seeking relevance.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Application of Triarchic Theory
Read the following problem statements and
identify the type of intelligence that would be
required to solve those problems:
l You see a novel word embedded in a
paragraph and have to infer its meaning
from the context.
l You have to solve everyday problems
faced by an adolescent.
(For answers see Learning Checks on p.11)
Contextual
Subtheory
Specifies the Metacomponents
behaviours Control, monitor, and evaluate
considered intelligent cognitive processing

(or novelty and in a particular

originality) to the
overall conception
of intelligence. A
creat-ively intelligent
person may not
particularly perform
well on a test of
intelligence but is
able to combine
culture Performance Components
Execute strategies assembled
Experiential by metacomponents
Componential
Subtheory
Subtheory
Specifies how
Specifies the Knowledge-acquisition
experiences affect
cognitive processes Components
intelligence and how that underlie all Encode, combine, and
intelligence affects a intelligent behavior compare information
person’s experiences
Fig. 1.3 Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence 9

PASS MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE Serial Concurrent Serial Concurrent

Extending the information processing

approach, J.P. Das, Naglieri, and Kirby
KNOWLEDGE BASE
(1994) proposed this theory. The basic
statement of the model is that intelligence can First Third
be understood as a result of interdependent Functional Unit Functional Unit
functioning of three neurological systems:
AROUSAL/ PLANNING
those responsible for arousal (and attention), ATTENTION
coding (or processing), and planning. The two
coding processes are simultaneous and

KNOWLEDGE BASE

KNOWLEDGE BASE
successive. Thus the theory is known as

Conceptual

Conceptual
Perceptual

Perceptual
PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and

Memory

Memory
Successive) Theory. The three components of
PASS theory are shown in Fig. 1.4.
l Arousal and
Brain Stem Frontal
Attention: Suppose
a young lady goes to
market with her
3-year-old child. After
some time the child
Functional Unit
Occipital, Parietal and Temporal (Posterior)
becomes restless and
Second

also occasionally Memory Conceptual Perceptual

cries. This arouses

J.P. Das
the mother to attend
to the child’s needs.
Arousal is basic for initiating an activity.
It forces one to focus attention in a
particular direction. You have read earlier
that attention is selective: You do not pay
attention to each and everything that
comes on your way; rather, you attend to
a few selected objects/events/persons
which may be helpful in achieving the
desired goal or are related to the
motivational state.
l Simultaneous and Successive
Processing : The mother realises that her
child is hungry and decides to take her to
a restaurant. She looks at the shops
around her. The shops have displayed
different types of signboards. The mother
attends to those signboards to find out a
restaurant and tries to grasp their
meaning. Here she uses simultaneous and
l Planning : After the attention and
successive processes to grasp the
meaning out of the signboards.
Simultaneous processes help you in
grasping the meaning out of the pictures.
This involves the integration of different
stimuli at a time in groups and is holistic
SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE
KNOWLEDGE BASE
Fig. 1.4. The PASS Model of Ability
in nature. On the other hand, the mother
reads the letters and words one after
another written on the boards, integrating
the stimuli in series. In this case she is
using successive processing to grasp the
meaning. Learning of digits and alphabets
is another example of successive
processing. Simultaneous and successive
processes can be applied to the tasks of
various modalities (auditory, visual,
kinesthetic etc.) involving different kinds of
stimuli (verbal or non–verbal), and may take
place during direct perception, retention of
information, and at higher cognitive levels.
processing of information, you decide that
this is a restaurant where you can get
something to eat. If there are more than
one, you select one of your choice. Thus,
planning refers to generation of plans or
10
problems as well as to goal setting, strategy
selection, and performance monitoring.
Planning is responsible for activities such
as asking questions, problem solving, and
the capacity for self-monitoring.
Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was
developed. The system employs verbal and
non-verbal tests presented through visual and
auditory sensory channels. It is appropriate
for use with individuals between ages 5 to
11, and has been specially designed for use
with intervention purposes. Some measures
are given in Box 1.3. The system is considered
an appropriate and innovative tool for the
assessment of cognitive status.
BOX 1.3 SAMPLES OF PASS MEASURES
Planned Connections ( for Planning): It
requires children to develop some effective way
of connecting sequential stimuli (e.g., the
numbers 1-2-3-4-5), which appears in a diverse
manner on a page. For the first five trials a child
is required to connect the series of numbers in
their proper numerical sequence (1 to 2, 2 to 3,
etc.). On the last two trials the child is required
to alternatively connect numbers and letters in
their proper sequence (1 to A, A to 2, 2 to B, B
to 3, and so on). The test score is the time in
seconds taken by the child in each trial
separately as well as on all the trials.
Expressive Attention ( for Attention):It
consists of three pages, although only the last
page is used as a measure of attention. The first
and second pages contain the words Red, Blue,
and Green written in the respective colours
(page 1) or coloured rectangle of these colours
in varying orders (page 2) arranged in eight
rows and five columns. The task before the
child is to read all the words on page 1 or say
the names of the colours on page 2 as fast as
possible. The selective attention component of
this task is apparent on page 3 through the use
of an interference paradigm. Page 3 contains
the words red, blue, and green printed in
Introduction to Psychology
Creativity and Intelligence
Highly intelligent people may or may not be
creative but highly creative persons are
without doubt highly intelligent. Sternberg
talks about three types of intelligence:
Analytic, Creative , and Practical.
Creativity is a process that requires the
balance and application of various aspects
of intelligence. The creative intelligence is
the ability to go beyond the given data to
generate novel and interesting ideas. A
creative person is a good synthetic thinker, sees
the connections and relationships others don’t
see. In addition, creative people also have the
ability to analyse and evaluate ideas. The
practical intelligence is the third aspect of
creativity, which refers to the ability to translate
theory into practice and transfer abstract ideas
colours different than the words (e.g. word
GREEN printed in red colour). The child’s task
is to name the colour used to print the word,
rather than read the word, as fast as possible.
Time needed to complete is recorded.
Raven’s Progressive Matrices ( for
Simultaneous Processes): These matrices are
used to assess the simultaneous processes. In
this test, the task involves the completion of
figural analogies using a progressive matrix
format. The child is required to choose one of
the six options that best completes the abstract
analogy. The requirement that each component
of the matrix must be interrelated to the others
makes this task congruent with the
simultaneous paradigm. The scores for this test
are the total number of correct choices and the
time taken by the child to complete the task.
Digit Span (for Successive Processes): You
present, for example, the following series of
digits to the child
4-7-9
2-5-8-9
3-5-6-9-11
After each presentation the child is required to
recall the digits. The total number of digits
recalled (maximum) is the digit span.
Intelligence
into practical accomplishments. Thus, while an
intelligent person is high only on analytical
intelligence, a creative person is high on all the
three aspects.
Recapitulation
In this section you read about the three
important contemporary theories of
intelligence. These theories assume that
intelligence is not one or a unitary ability
rather, a composite of many intelligences.
Gardner proposed eight types of
intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,
Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic,
Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic
intelligences. Sternberg proposed
componential, experiential, and contextual
subtheories of intelligence. Componential
intelligence is concerned with the components
of mental functioning involved in cognitive tasks
that underlie vocabulary, knowledge, insight,
and analogies. Experiential and contextual
intelligences add creativity and practicality,
respectively, to the understanding of
intelligence. J.P. Das considered intelligence
in terms of planning, attention, simultaneous,
and successive processes (PASS model). An
Intelligent person is high on analytical
intelligence, a creative person is high on all
three aspects of intelligence – analytic,
creative and practical.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Gardner has proposed seven kinds of
interrelated intelligences. T/F
2. Solving logical puzzles requires bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence. T/F
3. Sailors are high on spatial intelligence.
T/F
4. Componential intelligence covers the
aspects of intelligence measured by
standard intelligence tests. T/F
5. You require componential intelligence
when you see a novel word embedded
in a paragraph and have to infer its
meaning from the context. T/F
6. Contextual intelligence is required to
solve everyday problems faced by an
adolescent. T/F
7. Street-smart persons are high on
experiential intelligence. T/F
8. In the PASS model, the most basic
aspect is coding of information. T/F
11
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
It is increasingly recognised that intellectual
processes and skills are determined by the
socio-cultural context in which people live and
grow. Since successful adaptation to one’s
own socio-cultural environment is considered
a sign of intelligence, it is reasonable to
assume that different behaviours may
represent intelligence in different cultures, as
one would observe variations in what a
particular society views as worthwhile,
meaningful and valuable. In certain places,
for example, the skills needed to be an
excellent farmer are far more important than
the skills needed to be a lawyer. Thus,
intelligence is considered a cultural genre or
product of culture. Cultural groups differ in
their notions of what constitutes intelligence.
Such an understanding depends upon
people’s experiences, which is shared by
majority of the persons in the group, is passed
on from one generation to the next in written
or oral form, and is imposed upon each of us
without our conscious intent.
The salient features of Western culture are
urbanisation, high use of technology and
schooling. It emphasises the development of
following factors in children:
l generalisation (or going beyond the
information given),
l speed (faster performance is superior),
l minimal moves (the best performance
calls for reaching the solution in fewest
steps),
l no hands (a preference for mental rather
than physical manipulations), and
l something of one’s own (a preference for
originality or creativity).
This type of culture gives rise to a kind of
intelligence, called technological intelligence,
characterised by attention, observation, speed,
and higher achievement in school. Thus,
intelligence tests developed in the West look
for these qualities among people.
Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions
In contrast to technological intelligence, many
Asian and African cultures consider a person
12 Introduction to Psychology

intelligent on the basis of social and emotional
attributes as well as his or her ability to
perform a task. Table 1.1 summarises the
salient features of intelligence emphasised in
some non-western cultures.
Intelligence in the Indian Context
The Indian thought has shown deep concern
for human potential and explored its nature
in the context of self, society, the universe,
and also beyond all these. The Indian view is
holistic and emphasises mental abilities, both
in the cognitive and non-cognitive domains,
and their integration. ‘Buddhi ’, the word often
used to translate the word intelligence, has
been used in a broader sense as compared to
the scope of intelligence in modern western
psychology. The terms that are used for
buddhi in Sanskrit, in general, refer to
the followings:
l The mental vigour or power of forming and
retaining conceptions and general notions;
l Reason, intellect, mind, discernment, and
judgment;
l Perception, comprehension, apprehen-
sion, and understanding;
l Knowledge of one’s own self, conscience,
will and desire;
l Presence of mind, ready wit, and skill.
The notion of buddhi not only includes
cognitive but also affective and motivational
aspects of life. According to J.P. Das, Buddhi
refers to waking up, noticing, recognising,
understanding, and comprehending. It
includes such things as determination,
mental effort, and even feelings and opinions
in addition to such intellectual processes
as knowledge, discrimination, and
decision-making.
According to the Indian view, an intelli-
gent person shows the following four
competencies:
l Cognitive Competence (such as
sensitivity to context, comprehension,
discrimination, problem-solving, and
effective communication),
l Social Competence (such as following
social norms, service to elders, obedience,
helping the needy, showing concern for
the environment),
l Entrepreneurial Competence (such as
hard work, commitment, vigilance, goal-
directed behaviour), and
l Emotional Competence (such as control
of emotions, honesty, politeness, realistic
self-appraisal, good conduct).
Thus, unlike the IQ notion of intelligence,
the Indian view is not limited to the cognitive
domain alone. Rather, it encompasses the
social and emotional domains, as well as task
performance. The Indian concept is more
inclusive, which emphasises on the
connectivity with the social and work

Table 1.1 Characterisation of Intelligence in Different Cultures

Africa Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such as

cooperativeness and obedience).

Baoule Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speaking
well in public.

China Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking).

Japan (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take another’s point of
view, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading and
writing.

Kenya Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead.

Uganda Slow, careful and active.

Yoruba More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspective
and constructive intelligence.
Intelligence
environment. This type of intelligence is
termed as “integral intelligence”.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Understanding Laypersons’ conception
of intelligence
Interview children of different age groups as
well as some adults, across various sections
of society and find “what they think are the
characteristics of an intelligent person”? Try
to understand the concept of intelligence of
these groups.
Discuss the similarities and differences
in their definitions with other students and
the teachers.
Recapitulation
The western concept of intelligence is not valid
in all the societies. In the West, the emphasis
is on technological intelligence, which is
characterised by generalisation, speed of
work, achievement, etc. On the other hand,
in non-western societies, such as Asian and
African, a person is considered intelligent
more on the basis of social and emotional
qualities than on the cognitive attributes
alone. In these societies, an intelligent person
may not work at a high speed. He/she may
be slow but careful; poor in verbal abilities
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Different behaviours in different
cultures are characterised as
intelligent. T/F
2. A preference for mental manipulation
rather than physical manipulation is
the characteristics of intelligent
behaviour in non-Western societies.
T/F
3. Among Japanese, admitting mistakes
is not considered an intelligent
behaviour. T/F
4. Willingness to cooperate with group
members is considered intelligent in
the African societies. T/F
5. The notion of integral intelligence
emphasises interconnectivity between
cognitive, emotional, and social
worlds. T/F
13
but good at non-veral reasoning abilities;
cooperates with group members; respectful;
and willing to share responsibilities. Indian
view of intelligence encompasses social and
emotional components together with the
cognitive and activity related components.
Thus, it may not be appropriate to label people
as intelligent or not intelligent in these
cultures on the basis of intelligence tests
developed in Western countries. Culture-
specific definitions of intelligence need to be
explored and appropriate measures need to
be developed.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
You have read earlier that the first attempt
to measure intelligence was made by Binet.
He also gave the concept of Mental Age (MA),
which refers to an individual’s level of mental
development relative to the environment in which
he/she lives. Binet argued that a mentally
retarded child would perform like a normal
child of a younger age. He compared MA with
Chronological Age (CA) or the biological age or
age from birth. A bright child has an MA above
CA; a dull child has an MA below CA.
The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was
devised in 1912 by William Stern. IQ refers
to a child’s mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100:
MA
IQ = —— x 100
CA
If the mental age is the same as the
Chronological age, then the individual’s IQ is
100 (normal); if mental age is above CA, then
the IQ is more than 100; if mental age is less
than the CA, then the IQ is less than 100. For
example, a 6-year old child with a mental age
of 8 would have an IQ of 133, (8/6 x 100)
whereas a 6-year old child with a mental age
of 5 ( 5/6 x 100) would have an IQ of 83.
ACTIVITY 1.6
Computing the IQ
l Find out the mental age of a 16-year old
student who has an IQ of 125.
l Calculate the IQ of a 12-year old child
whose mental age is 9 years.
14 Introduction to Psychology

Stanford Binet Test revision appeared in 1916, which is known

The intelligence test developed by Binet in
1905 was revised in 1909 and 1911.
Table 1.2 contains some items included in
1911 Binet’s test.
Lewis Terman, a Professor at the
University of Stanford, introduced Binet’s test
in the United States of America, where the
test underwent many revisions. The first
Table 1.2 Some Items from Binet’s
Test of Intelligence (1911 Version) at
Three Different Age Levels.
as Stanford-Binet Test. This was further
revised in 1936 and 1961. The fourth and
latest revision of Stanford-Binet test was
published in 1986. In the earlier revisions,
only a general composite score was computed
to reflect one’s IQ. In the last revision, in
addition to a composite score, the individual’s
responses in four content areas, namely
verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning,
abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term
memory are also obtained.

Year 3 The Wechsler Scales

l Point to eyes, nose, and mouth
l Repeat 2 digits
l Identify objects in a picture
l Repeat a sequence of 6 syllables
Year 7
l Show right hand and left ear
l Describe a picture
l Carryout 3 commands given
simultaneously
l Count the value of 6 coins
Year 15
l Repeat 7 digits
l Find 3 rhymes for a given word in
1 minute
l Repeat a sentence of 26 syllables
l Interpret a set of given facts
Besides the Stanford-Binet Test, the other
most widely used individual intelligence
tests are the Wechsler Scales, developed by
David Wechsler. These are known as: the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS);
the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC) for use with children
between the ages of 6 and 16; and the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) for use with children
from the ages of 4 to 6 ½ years. In addition
to providing an overall IQ score, separate
scores for 11 subscales (6 of which are
verbal and 5 non-verbals) are also obtained.
Table 1.3 conta ins sample items
from WAIS.

Table 1.3 Sample items from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Verbal Scale
Information: What is steam made of?
What is pepper?
Comprehension: Why is copper often used in electric wires?
Why do some people save sales receipts?
Arithmetic: It takes 3 people 9 days to paint a house. How
many would it take to do it in 3 days?
An automobile goes 25 miles in 45 minutes.
How far would it go in 20 minutes?
Digit Repetition: Repeat the following numbers in order:
1, 3, 7, 2, 5, 4
Repeat the following digits in reverse order:
5, 8, 2, 4, 9, 6
Similarities: In what way are a circle and a triangle alike?
In what way are an egg and a seed alike?
Vocabulary: What is a hippopotamus?
What does ‘resemble’ mean?
Intelligence
Distribution of IQ Scores
The IQ scores between 90 and 110 are
labelled as “normal”, above 120 “superior ”
and below 70 as evidence of “mental
retardation” or “mentally challenged
(see Table 1.4).
Table 1.4 Descriptive Labels for IQ Scores
IQ Score Descriptive Label
Above 130 Very Superior
120-130 Superior
110-119 Bright normal
90-109 Average
80-89 Dull normal
70-79 Borderline
Below 70 Mentally Challenged
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST
Intelligence tests are available in different
forms. You can select an appropriate type of
test depending upon the purpose of its use.
Some of the types of tests available are
described below.
Individual or Group Tests : These tests
may be classified into different types
depending upon their mode of administration
and content. They may either be administered
to one person at a time (Individual Test) or
to a number of persons simultaneously
(Group Test). The individual tests are
administered to one person at a time. A
trained psychologist generally administers
such tests to one student or one client at a
time. Individual tests allow people to answer
orally or in written form and performance
tasks require manipulation of objects or
forms. Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales
are individually administered tests. The
collection of data using individual tests from
a larger sample is time consuming. However,
individual tests allow the test administrators
to establish proper rapport and give personal
attention to testees, and also maintain their
interest by providing necessary help when
needed.
Group tests generally employ a multiple-
choice format: A question that is followed by
four alternatives and a person has to answer
15
the correct alternative. Separate answer
sheets are provided to write the answers. As
regards administration, examiner plays a
minimal role that is restricted to reading the
instructions of the test and getting the test
completed within the stipulated time limit.
Percent of Population
2.2
6.7
16.1
50.0
16.1
6.7
2.2
There is only a negligible opportunity for one-
to-one interaction between the tester and the
testee. It may, however be noted that, a group
test can also be administered to a single
individual. A group test is not defined by the
number of examinees but by the mode of
administration. There is further difference
between an individual and a group test. The
former helps in the diagnosis and remediation
of individual learning difficulties, and the
latter is more commonly used for mass
screening. Finally, the group tests are
standardised on ultra large samples, while
the individual tests are standardised on
relatively small samples. Though group tests
are easy to administer, putting testees at ease
and maintaining their interest is generally
found to be difficult.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, and Performance Tests:
A Verbal test demands understanding of
written words. Therefore, such tests can
only be administered to literates. Also, it is
difficult to express spatial relationships
between objects through written
communication. Non-Verbal tests use
pictures or illustrations as items. For
example, Raven’s Progressive Matrices
(RPM) is one such test. In RPM, one
incomplete pattern is given. Testees have
to find, one out of six available alternative
figures, which will complete the pattern (see
Fig. 1.5 for an example).
16
1 2 3 fair tests because people of any culture could
4 5 6 Intelligence Testing in India
Fig. 1.5 An item from Raven’s Progressive
Matrices (RPM)
Performance tests are made up of certain
concrete tasks. For instance in Koh’s Block
Design Test, small boxes containing a
number of wooden blocks of different sizes
and shapes are given. The testees task is to
arrange these blocks, in accordance with the
pattern card, in an order within a given time
period. C. M. Bhatia developed a performance
test of intelligence, which is popularly known
as Bhatia Battery. It is called battery because
it is not just one test; rather it consists of a
series of five performance tests.
Culture-biased vs. Culture-fair Tests : Many
intelligence tests show a bias towards the
culture in which they are developed. They
sample items from the experience of a
particular culture. Majority of early tests
favoured urban, middle class, white European
and American people. The items were written
Table 1.5 Some Tests Developed in India
Verbal
1. Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag
Mehta
2. Group Test of Mental Ability by S.
Jalota
3. Indian Adaptation of Binet-Simon
Scale by S.K. Kulshrestha
4. Test of General Mental Ability by
M.C. Joshi
5. The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M.
Mohsin
Introduction to Psychology
with these cultures in view and the intent or
activities in many of these items do not find
place in other cultures, particularly Asian and
African cultures. The norms for these tests were
almost entirely based upon these cultural
groups. To overcome these problems, Non-
Verbal and performance tests have been
developed. These tests are considered culture-
take them. However, it has been noticed that
these tests too show cultural bias.
The development of intelligence tests in India
has for long remained one of the popular
academic pursuits. The first systematic
attempt to standardise a test of intelligence
(Binet’s test) was made by Dr. Rice in Urdu
and Punjabi in 1930s. At about the same time,
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise
Binet’s test of intelligence in Bengali. Up to
1950, the work on Binet’s test was done at
Chennai, Dacca, Jabalpur, and Lahore. Work
was also done on the development of Indian
norms for some other foreign tests like the
WAIS, RPM, Minnesota Paper Forms Board,
Alexander’s Passalong, Cube Construction,
Kohs’ Block Design Test, and others. It was
only since 1950s that published evidence
points towards the development of Indian
tests. The first doctorate on Test Construction
was awarded to K.G. Desai in 1954, for the
development of a group test of intelligence in
Gujarati. Subsequently a number of
intelligence tests were either developed
originally or were adaptations of tests
developed in the West.
Some tests developed in India are given
in Table 1.5.
Performance
1. Adaptation of Wechsler Adult
Performance Intelligence Scale by R.
Ramalingaswamy
2. Draw-A-Man Test by Pramila Phatak
3. Performance Test of Intelligence by
C.M. Bhatia
4. CIE Non-Verbal Test
Intelligence
Recapitulation
Intelligence is measured in terms of IQ, which
refers to a child’s mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100. Binet
developed the first test of intelligence, which
has undergone several modifications and has
been used extensively. Wechsler scales (WAIS,
WISC, & WPPSI) are the other widely used
scales. Since then, many intelligence tests have
been developed, some of which can be
administered to a group while others can be
administered individually. Intelligence tests
come in three categories: Verbal, Non-Verbal,
and Performance. Test contents that show bias
toward a particular culture are called Culturally
Biased Tests. Some tests have been developed
on the assumption that they can be
administered in any culture and, thus, called
Culture-Fair Tests. IQ tests, providing a single
index of intelligence, have in recent years been
BOX 1.4 ALTERNATIVES TO IQ TESTING
In recent years some alternative ways of
assessing intelligence have emerged. Some of
these are:
Biological Measures of Intelligence:
Among the biological measures, Reaction Time
(RT) is considered a more valid measure of
intelligence. Reaction time refers to the time gap
(in seconds) between presentation of a stimulus
and the beginning of a response by the
individual. For example, when traffic light is
red, you stop and wait for the green light. After
the light turns green, you take some time to
start moving. The time gap between onset of the
green light and your movement is a measure of
RT. It could be in visual or auditory mode. The
speed and consistency with which people
perform on reaction time tasks discriminate
between groups of individuals expected to differ
in their intellective functions. It is based on the
assumption that being intelligent involves being
able to process information quickly. For
example, individuals with mental retardation
have slower and less consistent reaction times
than normal people. Similarly, gifted individuals
have faster and more consistent reaction time
than average persons.
Inspection time is another measure of
intelligence. It reflects the minimum amount
of time a particular stimulus must be exposed
17
loosing their popularity for several reasons
and alternative measures such as reaction
time, dynamic testing, etc, are gaining
popularity. In India, after 1950, a number of
tests for assessment of intelligence have
been developed.
VARIATIONS IN THE LEVEL OF INTELLIGENCE
You have observed in Table 1.4 that about
2 per cent of the population possess IQ
scores above 130 and a similar percentage
possess IQ scores below 70. The first group
is termed as the intellectually gifted and
the later as mentally retarded or
challenged. These individuals are different
from the average population for the reason
that their performance is at variance from
what is expected from people of their age
and circumstances.
to an individual to make a judgement about it
that meets some pre-established criteria of
accuracy. The shorter the inspection time, the
faster will be, presumably, the person’s
cognitive (mental) operations.
Dynamic Testing : As you have read, the
available intelligence tests measure developed
abilities of the individuals. You have learnt (in
chapter 12, class XI) about Vygotsky’s notion of
Zone of Potential Development (ZPD). ZPD
refers to the difference between the actual
development and the developmental level which a
child can attain after proper guidance. The
dynamic testing is based upon the principle of
ZPD. It is done in two phases. In the first phase,
(also called interaction phase), an adult
(usually a teacher or a parent) familiarises the
child with the tasks, gives them hints about how
they could be solved, motivates them, and also
makes some modifications in the tasks (such as
changing the order of presentation, frequency of
presentation, etc.) depending upon the child’s
developmental level. In the second phase, the
actual testing takes place, in which the child is
given the tasks or the test to solve them.
Piagetian Tasks: Recall Piaget’s theory of
development (Chapter 12, class XI). There you
have read about seriation, conservation,
pendulum tasks, etc. These tasks are also used
for the assessment of intelligence.
18
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Mental age is obtained on the basis of
the individual’s performance on a test
of intelligence. T/F
2. Maximum number of individuals
possess an average IQ, ranging
between 90 to 110. T/F
3. Professor Stanford adapted Binet’s
tests. Therefore, these tests are called
Stanford-Binet tests. T/F
4. Wechsler scales of intelligence have
both verbal and performance sub-
tests. T/F
5. Culture-fair tests can only be
administered to the persons of a
particular culture. T/F
6. You can also know one’s intelligence
on the basis of his/her reaction time.
T/F
GIFTEDNESS : NATURE AND INDENTIFICATION
The term ‘gifted’ is an adjective, which refers
to a person ‘endowed with one gift or many
gifts; exceptionally talented or intelligent’. The
study of such gifted persons began with the
work of Lewis Terman, in 1925, who
developed intelligence tests for screening
populations to identify individuals of superior
cognitive ability. Thus, giftedness was defined
as high general intelligence as measured by
high score on a test of intelligence. In recent
years, however, giftedness is defined as a
superior ability in any worthwhile line of
human endeavour including moral,
physical, emotional, social, intellectual,
or aesthetic life of the humanity.
Outstanding talents are present in children
and youth from all cultural groups, across
all economic strata, and in all areas of human
endeavours. It is evident from the above
definition that:
l Gifted individuals exhibit high levels of
performance in comparison to their peers
living in the same socio-cultural
background.
l Giftedness is not restricted to performance
on a test of intelligence. Rather, it is a
Introduction to Psychology
combination of general ability, specific
talents, self-concept, and motivation that
predisposes the gifted person to learn, to
achieve, and to strive for excellence.
l It is not limited to school related activities
alone but also involves areas, such as
sports and leadership.
l Mere possession of cognitive abilities is
not regarded as giftedness. Rather, it is
the nature and organisation of abilities
(i.e., processes) that constitute giftedness.
The nature, direction, and speed of this
process depends partly upon cognitive
factors, but is strongly influenced by
personality and motivation, and has
strong social elements including an
ethical dimension, and an important
communication aspect.
Joseph Renzulli proposes that giftedness
depends on the interaction of three factors :
high intelligence, high creativity, and high
motivation as shown Fig. 1.6.
Giftedness
High High
Intelligence Creativity
High
Motivation
Fig. 1.6 Aspects of Giftedness
Characteristics of Gifted Children : Gifted
children show early signs of being exceptional.
During infancy such children show large
attention span, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, over-reactivity to
sensations, and early onset of language.
Table 1.6 contains some of the salient
characteristics of such children.
Identifying the Gifted
The tests of intelligence and achievement have
been most frequently employed for the
identification of the gifted children. Many
Intelligence 19

Table 1.6 Characteristics of Gifted Children

l A Higher order in thinking process, problem solving and decision-making.

l Transferring skills to new problems and solving problems insightfully.
l Independent thinking and non-conformism.
l High on self-efficacy and internal locus of control.
l Preference for being solitary and introverted.
l High incidence of social and emotional problems.
l Intrinsically motivated to achieve mastery, derive pleasure from work, and having a high
self-esteem about their intellectual capacities.
l Possibility of showing giftedness in one area and poor learning in another.

BOX 1.5 IDENTIFICATION OF TALENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

The National Talent Search Scheme is run by
the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) in which 1000
scholarships are awarded each year to the
students studying in Grade 10. The scholarship
is awarded on the basis of examination
conducted in two phases: State and National
Level examinations. The state level examination
is conducted by the State Governments. The
students recommended by the States appear in
the national level written examination, which
consists of Mental Ability and Scholastic
Aptitude Tests. The candidates selected at the
national level are called for interview. Awards
are declared on the basis of the national level
written tests and interviews. The scholarship is
available for studies up to the doctorate level in
the basic and social sciences and up to second-
degree level in engineering and medicine.
The Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas,
another prominent scheme of the Government
of India caters to the gifted children in rural
areas and in the weaker sections of the society.
The admission to these vidyalayas are made
through an objective type test, which consists
of Mental Ability, Language Proficiency and
Arithmetic Ability.
For promoting cultural talent, the Cultural
Talent Search Programme is run by the
Centre for Cultural Resources and Training.
Under this scheme, facilities are provided to
outstanding young children in the age group
of 10-14 years studying either in recognised
schools or belonging to the families of
practicing traditional performing or other arts
for developing their talent in various cultural
fields such as traditional form of music,
dance, drama as well as painting, sculpture
and crafts, laying emphasis on rare
forms, which are in the process of becoming
extinct.

special programmes for gifted children have l Parent interviews

rather used rigid cut off points such as IQ’s
of 130, 135, 150, or 160, or achievement at
about the 95th percentile. In recent times,
however, attention is given to the following
types of data as indicator of giftedness:
l Performance on group intelligence test
l Teacher judgment
l School record, including achievement test
scores and teacher grades
l Performance on individual intelligence test
l Appraisal of social and emotional maturity
and adjustment
l Pupil ambition and drive
In addition, peer and self-nominations
also do help in identification of the gifted child
in certain cases.
Giftedness is a multi-dimensional term.
Though, differences in gifted and talented
students may be observed at all levels, it is
more pronounced at the secondary school
level. Some gifted youngsters are just slightly
above average, while others are very unusual
to the extent of being extremely rare. Some
are gifted in just one area, while others show
20 Introduction to Psychology

it in many areas. Also, gifted children differ
in terms of motivation or interest.
INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY:
NATURE AND TYPES
There are defined diagnostic schemes, as
given by the American Association on Mental
Retardation (1992), and American Psychiatric
Association (1994), for judging the presence
and degree of mental retardation. According
to these criteria, mental retardation (or
mentally challenged) is currently defined
as intelligence test performance two or
more standard deviations below the mean,
accompanied by limitations in adaptive
functioning such as failure to cope with
the common tasks of daily living
appropriate to one’s age and situation.
According to this definition, persons having
IQ below 70, coupled with the inability to
manage their everyday activities like a normal
person, are classified as intellectually deficient
or mentally challenged. Table 1.7 contains the
characteristics of different types of mentally
challenged persons. It may be noted that the
IQ ranges, as shown in Table 1.6, are not viewed
rigidly. Rather, a person’s ability to function in
everyday life is important. The decision about
the level of mental retardation is based upon
the skills to perform in daily life.
Two points here are worth noting. First,
low performance on a test may also be due to
defects in vision, hearing, and health, which

Table 1.7 Characteristics of the Mentally Challenged

Level of Mental Retardation

Area of Mild Moderate Severe

Functioning (IQ range = 50-70) (IQ range = 35-49) (IQ range = 20-34)
and Profound
(IQ = below 20)
Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses Has difficulties and No skills to partial
self and cares for requires training but skills, but some can
own toilet needs can learn adequate care for personal needs
self-help skills on limited basis
Speech and Receptive and Receptive and Receptive language
Communication expressive, language expressive, language is limited to good;
is adequate; is adequate; expressive, language
understands has speech problems is limited to poor
communication
Academics Optimal learning Very few academic No academic skills
environment, third skills; first or second
to sixth grade grade is maximal
Social Skills Has friends; can Capable of making Not capable of having
learn to adjust friends but has real friends;
quickly difficulty in many No social interactions
social situations
Vocational Can hold a job; Sheltered work Generally no
Adjustment competitive to semi- environment; usually employment; usually
competitive; primarily needs consistent needs constant care
unskilled work supervision
Adult Living Usually marries, Usually does not No marriage or
has children; needs marry or have children; always
help during stress children; dependent dependent on others
Intelligence
BOX 1.6 NEW DIRECTIONS: EMOTIONAL, PRACTICAL,
AND SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCES
Emotional Intelligence (EI): Salovey
and Mayer first formally defined the concept
of EI in 1990, which emphasises blending
cognition with emotions. It gained popularity by
the publication of the best selling popular book
‘Emotional Intelligence’ by Goleman in 1995.
EI is generally defined as a form of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor
one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them, and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and
actions. Briefly, it consists of the following
four dimensions.
l Perception, appraisal, and expression
of emotion
l Emotional facilitation of cognitive
activities
l Understanding and analysing
emotional information and employing
l Regulation of emotion
Practical Intelligence: It refers to the
kind of thinking people do in solving their day-
to-day problems, whether at home, in social
settings, or at work. It may be viewed as “mind
in action” or the thinking that is embedded in
the larger scale purposive activities of life. It
serves to achieve the goals of everyday
activities of daily life. In occupational settings, it
is the ability to learn and then apply information
that is never explicitly taught to workers nor is
rarely verbalised, but is essential for success.
Also called Tacit Knowledge or Procedural
Knowledge, it enables the workers to meet the
often unwritten or unspoken demands of their
job. There are three characteristic features of
tacit knowledge.
l Tacit knowledge is procedural in nature and
intimately linked to action. It takes the form
of “knowing how” to do something rather
than “knowing that” subject.
l It helps in attaining one’s goals.
l It is acquired without direct help from others
– on one’s own. It is the knowledge that is
unspoken, under-emphasised, or poorly
conveyed relative to its importance for
practical success.
Thus, practical intelligence seems to be of
more use in concrete situations than academic
21
intelligence, as measured by the tests
of intelligence.
Spiritual Intelligence (SQ): It is the
intelligence with which humans address and
solve problems of meaning and value, the
intelligence with which we can place our
actions and our lives in a wider, richer,
meaning-given context, the intelligence with
which we can assess that one course of
action or one life-path is more meaningful
than the other. It is considered to be the
Ultimate Intelligence. We have a longing to
see our lives in some larger meaning-giving
context, be it family, the community, the
work, religious framework or the universe
itself. It takes us beyond the present moment
and ourselves. Spiritual intelligence allows
human beings to be creative, to change the
rules and to alter situations by extending the
boundaries. SQ operates out of the brain’s
centre and integrates all our intelligences. SQ
makes us the fully intellectual, emotional and
spiritual creatures that we are. SQ has no
necessary connection with religion.
Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall in their
book “Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate
Intelligence” (2000) have reported the indicators
of a highly developed SQ. These include:
l The capacity to be flexible (actively and
spontaneously adaptive).
l A high degree of self-awareness.
l A capacity to use and face suffering.
l A capacity to face and transcend pain.
l The quality of being inspired by value and
vision.
l A capacity to inspire others.
l A reluctance to cause unnecessary harm.
l A tendency to see the connections between
diverse things (being ‘holistic’).
l A marked tendency to ask ‘why?’ or ‘what
if?’ questions and to seek ‘fundamental’
answers.
l Being what psychologists call ‘field-
independent’—possessing a facility for
working against convention.
22
may erroneously lead to categorising a person
as mentally challenged. You need to be certain
that vision, hearing, and general health
conditions of the person likely to be
categorised as mentally challenged are
functioning normally. Second, the person’s
linguistic and cultural backgrounds must also
be taken into consideration. You can’t expect
someone to perform a task appropriately if
he/she has not performed similar tasks in
past or is not a part of his/her everyday
activities. Children should be classified as
retarded only if they exhibit both a low IQ
and deficiencies in everyday skills, and only
if linguistic or cultural barriers, physical
handicaps, emotional disturbances, or ill
health cannot explain those problems.
Causes of Mental Retardation
Many organic conditions can cause mental
retardation. For example, Down Syndrome is
associated with mild to severe retardation.
Persons suffering with this syndrome show
distinctive physical characteristics, such as
slanted eyes, stubby limbs, and thin hair.
Down syndrome is caused by the possession
of an extra chromosome. Phenylketonuria
is a metabolic disorder (due to an inherited
enzyme deficiency) that can lead to
retardation if it is not caught and treated in
infancy. Hydrocephaly or excessive
accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the
skull destroys brain tissues and causes
retardation. Scientists have been able to
unravel more of the genetic bases for various
kinds of mental disorders.
A variety of unfavourable environmental
factors also cause mental retardation. A vast
majority of mildly retarded children come
from the lower socioeconomic classes, where
a host of factors – such as greater marital
instability, parental neglect, inadequate
nutrition and medical care, and lower quality
schooling – many of these factors contribute
to children’s poor intellectual development.
Recapitulation
There are two major types of extreme
variations in intellectual ability–the
giftedness and the mental retardation (or
mentally challenged). Giftedness refers to
Introduction to Psychology
the high levels of accomplishments in
comparison to one’s age, experience, and
environment and also with respect to the
norms. Gifted children show long attention
spans, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, over reactivity to
sensations, and early onset of language.
Multiple methods such as test, teacher
judgement, school record, social and
emotional maturity, etc, are used to identify
these children. On the other hand, mentally
retarded children score two or more
standard deviations below the mean on a
test of intelligence. Also, they show poor
performance in comparison to the normal
children in areas like self-help, speech and
communication, social skills, academics,
vocational adjustments, and adult living.
Many organic conditions can cause mental
retardation. For example, Down Syndrome
is associated with mild to severe
retardation. Similarly, Phenylketonuria, a
metabolic disorder, can lead to retardation.
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. One can be gifted in the moral and
aesthetic aspects of life as well. T/F
2. The performance of gifted people is
superior to the performance of all other
individuals irrespective of their age and
background. T/F
3. High incidence of social and emotional
problems is observed in the gifted
people. T/F
4. The verbal expression of a severely
retarded person is similar to that of a
normal person. T/F
5. Moderately retarded persons can learn
‘self-help skills’ by appropriate training.
T/F
SPECIAL ABILITIES OR APTITUDES:
NAURE AND MEASUREMENT
An aptitude is a combination of
characteristics that indicates an
individual’s capacity to acquire some
specific knowledge, or skill, after
training. It simply states that you need to
Intelligence
possess various qualities in different
proportions to learn or become something,
such as to acquire ability to speak a language,
to become a musician, to do some mechanical
work, and so on. These qualities can be
harnessed by appropriate training. In other
words, if a person does not have the special
abilities required to become a musician, such
as discrimination between pitch, tone,
rhythm, and other aspects of musical
sensitivity, he/she would not be a musician,
even after sufficient training.
There are salient differences between
intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence refers to the ability of a person
to do certain thing at a given time. Aptitude
refers to the potential ability of the individual
to perform a task, which generally consists
of a combination of abilities. Achievement
involves performance at any given point
of time in a particular subject (e.g.
mathematics) with which you have been
made familiar.
Aptitude tests, because they are
concerned with the potential of doing
something, are used for prediction. Many
aptitude tests, such as clerical aptitude,
mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude,
typing aptitude, etc. have been developed
to predict success in specific professions.
Each of these tests usually contains a
number of sub-tests. Several multiple
aptitude test batteries have been developed.
In a Multiple Aptitude Test Battery the
examinee is tested in several separate,
homogenous aptitude areas. Prominent
aptitude test batteries are: The Differential
Aptitude Test (DAT), the General Aptitude
Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed
Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB), etc. Salient characteristics of one
of the batteries most often used in
educational settings are described here.
The DAT was first developed to provide a
basis for the educational and vocational
guidance of students for grades 8 through 12.
Subsequently, it has been found useful for
vocational counselling of young adults out of
school and in the selection of employees. It
consists of eight independent sub-tests:
l Verbal Reasoning (VR)
l Numerical Ability (NA)
23
l Abstract Reasoning (AR)
l Clerical Speed and Accuracy (CSA)
l Mechanical Reasoning (MR)
l Space Relations (SR)
l Spelling (S)
l Language Use (LU)
J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian
adaptation of the DAT. In addition, a number
of aptitude tests have been developed in India
for measuring scientific, teaching, clerical,
engineering, scholastic, medical, literary and
other aptitudes.
Let us understand the nature of some of
the tests, which are used for aptitude testing.
Mechanical Reasoning : This test attempts
to predict success in fields involving repair of
autos, refrigerators, air-conditioners
equipments, and the like. A typical test item
is shown below in Fig. 1.7. It has two gears.
If gear x is moving in the direction of the
arrow, will gear y move : (a) clockwise or (b)
counter clockwise?
Y X
Fig. 1.7 An Item of Mechanical Aptitude Test
Verbal Skills : This test measures a person’s
interest in and knowledge about words. It is
assumed that a person who scores poorly in
this area will not do well in occupations
requiring a great deal of reading and writing.
Clerical Speed and Accuracy : It attempts
to measure some of the skills necessary in
clerical and office jobs. This is a timed, speed
test because such a job require speed with
which one works.
Generally, the tests measuring different
aptitudes are grouped together in the form of
a Test battery. The battery of tests is
administered to the client for counselling.
24 Introduction to Psychology

ACTIVITY 1.7

Test Your Mechanical Engineering Aptitude

This is a test of applied science and b) One in which it doesn’t get submerged.
mechanics. Twenty items are given below, c) Both are equal.
read each item carefully and mark (ü) one
answer (a,b or c) that you think is correct. In 6. If a car turns towards the right, man sitting
this manner complete the test without inside will move towards:
spending too much time. a) Right.
1. A heavy weight is kept on a wooden plank b) Left.
in such a way that the weight is closer to c) Won’t move at all.
side A and away from side B. If the plank
is lifted by two persons then: 7. If a moving train turns towards the right
a) Person on side A will have the heavier direction, which side of the rails will be
load. higher:
b) Person on side B will have the heavier a) The outer rail.
load. b) The inner rail.
c) The load will be equal on both sides. c) Both would be equal.

2. If a heavy weight is to be lifted with the 8. If hot liquid is poured into a glass tumbler
help of a rope, which person will have to which is likely to break:
pull it harder. a) The tumbler with thick walls.
a) The person who pulls the rope through
b) The tumbler with thin walls.
a single pulley.
c) Both are equally likely to break.
b) The person who pulls the rope through
a double pulley.
9. In a moving wheel, which point moves faster
c) The effort will be the same in both the
a) The point on the inner side of the
cases.
wheel.

3. If a bicycle has two unequal wheels, which b) The point on the outer side of the
wheel will turn faster. wheel.
a) The smaller wheel. c) Both will move at an equal pace.
b) The larger wheel.
c) Both will be equal. 10. Which stool will be steadier:
a) Stool with three legs.
4. If one table fan has three blades and the b) Stool with four legs.
other five, which fan needs a more powerful c) Stool with five legs.
motor:
a) The fan with 3 blades. 11. In a moving car the left hand break of the
b) The fan with 5 blades. front wheel somehow gets locked, resulting
c) Both will need equally powerful motors. in stopping the wheel. Which side will the
car turn :
5. Which liquid is heavier: a) Towards the right.
a) One in which a piece of wood gets b) Towards the left.
totally sub-merged. c) It will just stop.
contd...
Intelligence 25

12. Three different weights fall from a certain 17. There are two pendulums, one has short
height under a vacuum condition. They will length and the other long. Which pendulum
reach the earth: will oscillate faster:
a) At the same time. a) Pendulum with shorter length.
b) Time will be proportional to the weight. b) Pendulum with longer length.
c) None of the above. c) Both will oscillate with equal
movement.
13. The car engine idling or in low speed
operation requires: 18. If the water in the building is coming from
a) A rich mixture. an overhead roof-top-tank, which floor will
b) A lean mixture. get the greatest pressure in the taps:
c) Theoretically correct mixture. a) Second floor.
14. In a head-on collision the driver is thrown: b) First floor.
a) Forward. c) Ground floor.
b) Backwards.
c) Restrained by the safety belt. 19. If the flying plane is to be turned in the left
direction, in which direction must the rudder
15. The apparent weight of a man in a moving be turned:
lift is less than his real weight when it is a) Left.
moving down with: b) Right.
a) An acceleration. c) No need to turn the rudder.
b) Uniform speed.
c) Retardation. 20. If we keep a silver spoon in one glass
tumbler and a wooden spoon in the other,
16. Fins over engine cylinder in scooter are which tumbler is more likely to break, when
provided for: boiling water is poured into it:
a) Strengthening the cylinder. a) The tumbler with the silver spoon.
b) Better cooling. b) The tumbler with the wooden spoon.
c) Good appearance. c) Both are equally likely.

© K.D.BROOTA
Note: These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation and diagnosis.

KEY
Give a Score of 1 if you have marked the following answers and finally, add all the scores.
17. a, 18. c, 19. a, 20. b
1. a, 2.b, 3.a, 4. b, 5. b, 6. b, 7. a, 8. a, 9. b, 10.a, 11. b, 12. a, 13.a, 14. a, 15. a, 16. b,

INTERPRETATION
Scores Level of Aptitude
15-20 High,
10-14 Medium
Scores below 10 Poor
26 Introduction to Psychology

ACTIVITY 1.8

Test Your Abstract Reasoning

Out of the four figures (a), (b), (c) & (d) given in each problem, three are similar in some way,
choose and mark the figure that is different from the other three.

(A) (B)

I. ODD MAN OUT II. COMPLETING THE SQUARE

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

© K.D. Broota
Attention : These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation or diagnosis
KEY
Right Answers : 1a, 2b, 3d, 4c, 5b INTERPRETATION
COMPLETING THE SQUARE Scores and Abstract Reasoning
II.
Right Answers : 1b, 2d, 3b,4d, 5d. 8-10 High,
ODDMAN OUT 5-7 Medium and
I.
Scores below 5: Poor.
Assign a score of 1 for correct answers.
Add all the scores in I and II
Intelligence 27

Key Terms

Adaptation, Aptitude, Aptitude Test, Logical-mathematical Intelligence, Mental Age,

Culture-fair-test, Emotional Intelligence, Mental Retardation, Multiple Intelligences,
Group Tests, Individual Test, Integral Non-verbal Tests, PASS Theory, Performance
Intelligence, Intelligence, Intelligence Quotient, Tests, Practical Intelligence, Shaping,
Intelligence Tests, Linguistic Intelligence, Technological Intelligence.

SUMMARY

l Intelligence is one of the highly popular psychological concepts. Traditionally,

intelligence was defined in terms of ability to do abstract reasoning, ability to learn,
and ability to adapt in novel situations. The recent views of intelligence recognise
active role of an intelligent person in terms of shaping and selecting an environment
according to his/her choice.
l The more recent approach to understand intelligence does not see it as a unitary
ability; rather it assumes that there are many type of intelligences. Gardner
proposed eight different types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,
Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
Sternberg’s theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligence–a componential
aspect, an experiential aspect, and a contextual aspect. The PASS model of J.P.
Das conceptualised intelligence in terms of Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and
Successive Processing.
l Studies about the nature of intelligence in different cultures have shown that it is
culturally variable. In the West it is more conceptualised in terms of cognitive
abilities and the speed with which cognitive functions are performed. In contrast,
non-Western cultures view intelligence in terms of social and emotional competence
such as obedience, cooperation, fulfilling role-related obligations, and giving
weightage to group goals than individual goals. In India, the conceptualisation is
more integral as it includes cognitive, social, emotional, and task performance.
l Intelligence is assessed with the help of a specially designed test which gives an
indication about the mental age of a person. The score on an intelligence test may
be converted into IQ, which is obtained by dividing mental age (MA) by
chronological age (CA), and multiplying by 100. IQ between 90-110 is considered
average in intelligence. The first attempt to assess intelligence was made by Alfred
Binet in 1905, which has undergone several revisions. Intelligence tests can be
administered in groups as well as individually; can be verbal or performance types;
and may be culturally biased or culturally fair.
l A small proportion of the population is found to possess very high level of
intelligence. They are called “gifted”. These persons show higher order thinking,
easily transfer skills to new problems and solve problems insightfully, are non-
conforming, high on self efficacy, prefer to remain solitary, intrinsically motivated,
and also show high incidence of social and emotional problems. The gifted children
can also be identified on the basis of teachers’ judgement, school record, social
and emotional maturity, and parental opinion. Mentally retarded children, on the
other hand, score two or more standard deviations below the mean on a test of
intelligence. Mental retardation can be of four types: mild, moderate, severe, and
profound. Such mentally challenged people have difficulty in feeding, dressing,
and communicating, lack social skills, and are vocationally maladjusted.
l An aptitude refers to the potential of an individual to performa a task. It is used for
prediction purposes. A number of aptitude tests are available for use in different
areas. Generally, a battery of tests is administered to identify the potential areas.
28 Introduction to Psychology

Review Questions

1. How can you relate intelligence to adaptation, shaping, and selection?

2. What are the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner?
3. How is Sternberg’s theory different from that of Gardner?
4. What is experiential intelligence?
5. What are the components of PASS model of intelligence?
6. What is IQ? How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
7. What is giftedness? How can gifted children be identified?
8. What is mental retardation? What are the salient characteristics of a mentally retarded person?
9. What is aptitude? How is it measured?
10. Is concept of intelligence similar across cultures?
11. What are the different types of intelligence test?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F
II : 1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T,
6. T, 7.F, 8.F
III : 1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T
IV : 1. T, 2. T, 3. F., 4. T, 5. F,
6. T
V : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T
 2 SELF AND PERSONALITY
THIS CHAPTER COVERS
Ä Concepts of self and personality
Ä The Indian notion of self
Ä Different approaches to the study of
personality
Ä Assessment of personality
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä describe the concept of self,
Ä understand meaning and some of the
methods of regulating self,
Ä explain the Indian notion of self,
Ä describe the concept of personality,
Ä differentiate between various
psychological approaches to the study
of personality, and
Ä describe some important tools for
personality assessment.
CONTENTS
Introduction
Concepts of Self and Personality
What is Self?
Self as Subject and Object
Self in the Indian Tradition
Facets of Self (Box 2.1)
Culture and Self : Some Indigenous Ideas
about Self-Thought (Box 2.2)
Self-Regulation
What is Personality?
Distinguishing Personality Related Terms
(Box 2.3)
Approaches to the Study of Personality
Types and Traits : Development of
Taxonomy
Formation of Indian Identity (Box 2.4)
Colonialism and Self: The Indian
Experience (Box 2.5)
Consistency of Traits (Box 2.6)
New Advances: Five-Factor Model (Box 2.7)
Psychodynamic Approach
Behaviourist Approach
Humanistic Approach
Who is a Healthy Person (Box 2.8)
Type A, Type B, and Type C Personalities
(Box 2.9)
Concept of Gunas
Assessment of Personality
Observer Reports
Projective Techniques
Self-Report Measures
Personality Assessment in India (Box 2.10)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
30 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

If you stop for a moment and reflect on what is that which draws maximum
attention from all of us then you will find nothing but the people – others and
yourself. You must have noticed that a considerable portion of our time during
waking hours is spent in talking about our own self and others. These occupy
a central place in our lives. The interest in knowing others and self appears to
be a part of common human inquisitiveness. All of us are engaged in knowing,
evaluating and predicting the behaviours of others, i.e., we try to make sense
of a person’s behaviour. Also, we look within ourselves and try to analyse
our own qualities. Sometimes, we direct ourselves to undertake various
activities. These activities almost always involve the notions of self and
personality.

While focusing on self and personality we step into a very interesting area
of psychology that deals with the totality of a person’s existence. It helps us
to understand the uniqueness and commonality found within and across
individuals. You will find in this chapter that the psychologists who specialise
in this area try to measure personality, describe individual differences in
personality, and assess the extent of these differences. On the basis of the
study of personality they also try to predict the behaviour of people.

Understanding the notions of self and personality has been the concern of
thinkers for a long time. This has led to the development of different
theoretical perspectives. This Chapter is intended to help you understand the
concepts of self and personality. It will introduce the Indian concept of self
and the concept of Gunas. The major theoretical approaches to personality
and the various methods of its assessment shall also be briefly described. It
is hoped that learning all this will help you understand yourself and others in
a better way.

Know the Atman as the Lord and the Master of the chariot, which is the
body. The intellect you should know as the charioteer. The mind should be
known as (merely) the reins. The one whose mind is not harnessed
properly, who is devoid of proper knowledge and wisdom, his sense organs
go beyond the control of the intellect (the charioteer) as vicious horses go
beyond the control of charioteer.
– Kathopanishad
Self and Personality
CONCEPTS OF SELF AND PERSONALITY
The concepts of self and personality refer to
the characteristics of our existence as
experienced by us and the way they are
externally manifested. We may consider self
as an organised cognitive structure based
on the experience of our being. The term
“personality” is an attempt to grasp and make
sense of the totality of the expressed part of
our existence. It is a common observation that
people differ in the patterns of behaviour,
which people express in different situations.
These differences are supposed to be quite
stable for that person. The characteristic
patterns of behaviour constitute
‘personality’ for a given person. Different
persons may have different personalities. The
personalities are accessible to others as they
are manifested in behaviours shown by a
person. Each one of us has a unique
personality which can be assessed by others.
WHAT IS SELF?
Self is one of those central concepts that
are frequently used in everyday life. You
will agree that we spend a lot of time
pondering over our own selves. We are
preoccupied with the feelings, perceptions,
and real or imagined ideas about ourselves.
It is indeed the centre of all human
activities. You too must have nurtured some
ideas about your own self. In order to know
these ideas you may like to complete the
Activity 2.1.
How did you like the activity? You must
have realised that it was not very simple.
While completing this activity you were
referring to yourself. You were aware of
yourself in the same way as you are aware of
certain objects (e.g., a book, a pen, a person
standing before you) in your waking life.
Interestingly enough, we are not born with
the notion of our own ‘self’ as distinct from
others’ ‘self’. It has been observed that
children start showing some idea of ‘self’
around two years of age. In the beginning they
learn about own self from parents, friends,
and teachers, etc. The social interaction with
them provides the basis of the experience of
31
ACTIVITY 2.1
Understanding The Self
Please complete the following sentences
beginning with “I am”.
You have to describe yourself.
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
I am ...............................................................
self. The structure of self, therefore, is open
to modification in the light of our experience
in the world.
If you give the Activity 2.1 (commonly
known as Who Am I Test) to a large number
of people and analyse the responses obtained,
you will end up with a long list of qualities,
characteristics, interests, activities, beliefs,
social identity, etc. Thus self involves the
mental representations of personal
experiences and includes a physical body,
thought processes, and a conscious
experience that one has separate existence.
Taking these into consideration, it may be said
that self refers to the totality of an individual’s
thoughts and feelings having reference to
himself or herself as an object. It must be
noted that self-concept is not a mirror like
reflection. Instead, it is based on the
integration of the information from several
sources. Once formed, the self-schema
influences a person’s behaviour in
important ways.
Self as Subject and Object
While talking about self we often use two
expressions, i.e., I and Me. If you analyse
carefully the way you responded in Activity
2.1 you will realise that while undertaking
the activity you approached your own self as
an object. You can say, “I was thinking about
me or myself ”. Thus, ‘I’ is approaching ‘Me’.
32
Self appears to have been taken in two ways
namely as a subject and as an object.
The ‘I’, who knows is representing the self
as knower or subject. This I is an active
observer. It actively processes our
experiences. The self as an object is said to
be represented by ‘Me’ which is observed and
known. In everyday life self is usually
understood in terms of the meanings attached
to self as an object. This is also called as
empirical self. In addition, there are many
other aspects of self (see Box 2.1).
We always think about self and try to
mentally represent what we might become or
should become. In other words, we hold ideas
about a possible self. Similarly, we hold ideas
about some kind of ideal self, which we aspire
to achieve. If the real self shows high degree
of discrepancy from the ideal self, then the
person may experience adjustment problems.
Self in the Indian Traditions
The notion of self develops in a cultural
context. The Indian cultural context has
elements of continuity and change. It is
BOX 2.1 FACETS OF SELF
The study of self has attracted the attention of a
number of psychologists. In the course of studies
many aspects of self have been uncovered. For
instance, we not only hold a self-concept but also
value ourselves. Our judgment about our own
worth is called self-esteem. It has been found
that people with high self-esteem are active,
successful, and optimistic. They are endowed
with self-confidence. Those who have low self-
esteem are often found depressed and feel
discouraged. The impressions and evaluations of
others about us play important role in determining
our self-esteem. The sense of identity is the
perception of one’s self as distinct from other
people and other things as related to one’s self
or alien to one’s self.
A related aspect of self-concept is that of self-
efficacy. It refers to people’s perceptions about
their capabilities to produce the desired effects
by their own actions. It represents what a person
believes he or she can do with the skills under
certain circumstances. Thus, if a person believes
that he or she can successfully execute the
behaviour required by a particular situation, then
Introduction to Psychology
marked both by tradition and modernity. The
Vedic hymns, rituals and characters from
epics still reverberate in the consciousness
of the people. The contacts between various
groups such as Arya, the Dravida, the Shaka,
the Huna, the Muslim, and the Western
people have contributed to blending of diverse
cultural traditions. In the contemporary
period the impact of science, technology and
western education has also influenced the
Indian mind. (see Box 2.4 and 2.5).
From the very beginning we come across
Atman and Ahamkara like concepts. The
Atman represents the independent, non-
material realisation of a real self and the
Ahamkar refers to the inflated sense of personal
worth which is a consequence of ignorance
(avidya) of one’s true being. The duality of jiva
(experiential self) and Brahman (the absolute)
is there but it is also emphasised that the
individual soul or Atman is a part of the
absolute or Brahman. The Indian notion of self
encompasses the physical, social, mental, as
well as spiritual aspects of human existence
(see Box 2.2 to acquaint with indigenous ideas).
the person is considered to have self-efficacy.
Another aspect of self-concept is that of self-
consciousness. While behaving we are not always
self-conscious. When we are conscious of self, we
pay attention to self. We are self-focused. On other
occasions we are engaged in focusing on others.
There is also a notion of self-monitoring. It
refers to our ability to monitor our self. It has been
found that some people take cues from the
external environment and change their behaviour
accordingly. They are known as high self-
monitoring people. In contrast, the low self-
monitoring people are guided by internal cues and
awareness. Self-disclosure is another aspect
of self-functioning. Some people talk freely about
themselves without any problem or inhibition,
while others have difficulty in talking about
themselves. The former are high on self-disclosure
and the latter have low self-disclosure. People also
learn techniques for positive self-presentation so
that they may relate to others, perform various
activities and gain favours from others. Thus, we
develop a whole conceptualisation or a theory of
self. We construct a set of concepts about the self.
Self and Personality
The notion of selfhood in Indian context
can be appreciated in terms of the model of
human being. In an interesting analysis R.
C. Tripathi has drawn attention to the
following features: 1. The self is viewed as a
witness and non-participant. It is not the ego.
2. Self is not separate. It participates in a unity
with all things. 3. Self operates within the
context of greater degree of dependence.
4. The universe is viewed as possessing the
same properties of life as human beings
including consciousness. 5. The change and
development are not linear.
The most important distinction between
the Indian and the western views on self is
the way the boundary is drawn between self
and environment. In the western mind, the
boundaries appear to be relatively fixed. The
Indian self, however, is governed by
boundaries, which are constantly shifting.
Thus, in the case of Indians, the self
sometimes expands to fuse with the cosmos
BOX 2.2 CULTURE AND SELF : SOME INDIGENOUS IDEAS ABOUT SELF–THOUGHT
Self as a Multilayered Hierarchy: The
description of self shall remain incomplete unless
we refer to the hierarchy of selves. Given in
Taittiriyopanishad it states that the Jiva is a
multilayered entity. There are five layers of Jiva
consisting of five kosas or sheaths. Nested in
one another as shown in Figure 2.1.
It is like the concentric sheaths of an onion.
The gross physical body is said to be the product
of food (Annamaya kosa). Within it is the self
that consists of the life (Pranmaya kosa). It
involves breathing and other metabolic processes
that activate the organs and keep them
functioning. The third layer is called the mental
sheath (Manomaya kosa), which involves the
sense organs. It may be noted that it is through
sensing that one seeks the objects of desire. This
sheath is supposed to be the seat of ego striving
and manifests itself in the form of personal
involvements. The next layer is that of cognitive
sheath (Vigyanamaya kosa). It involves ideas,
constructs etc. that are employed in knowing the
world. The innermost layer is called joyous
sheath (Anandamaya kosa) as it reflects the
bliss which is the basic characteristic of the true
self.
As can be seen the conceptualisation of
kosas maintains a hierarchy of factors beginning
33
but at the next moment it completely
withdraws itself from it. In contrast, the
western view considers the dichotomies
between self and other, man and nature,
subjective and objective, as complete. This
is not true for the Indians who do not endorse
such clear dichotomies. Fig. 2.2 illustrates
the way relationships between self and own
group are formed. In the West, the self and
own group are taken as two different entities,
each with its own fixed boundaries. The self
then gets related to the own group by forming
links with the group. In the case of the Indians,
the self and own group are seen as having
variable boundaries. The self does not relate
to the own group but is included in it. However,
the fact that the self is included within
the group does not imply that the Indian
mind differs from the western mind in
terms of individualistic versus collective
orientations. Indians show coexistence of
both the tendencies.
with the gross (sthool) and progressing to subtle
(sukshma). Also there is essential continuity
between the self and non-self. This implies that
the line demarcating self and non-self is not a
fixed one. The self may be more or less inclusive
on different occasions.
Annamaya
Pranamaya
Manomaya
Vigyanmaya
Anandamaya
Atman
Jo
th
y ou
s shea
Co
gniti sheath
ve
Ment
al sheath
Life
Food
Figure 2.1 Panchkosas : The Multilayered
Hierarchy of Selves.
contd...
34
The Sufi View : Sufism is the mystical or
inward aspect of Islam. The term Sufi is like yogi
and refers to some one who has reached the
goal. Sufism teaches people to live simple,
harmonious lives. It teaches that egoism and the
inevitably ensuing strife are folly and that the
essence of this universe is spiritual. It views
human beings as religio-psychological beings who
began life in the unconscious union with nature.
In the process of evolutions humans separated
from nature, experienced pain, time and space;
Self-Regulation
Meeting the diverse needs and challenges of
life often demands that we are able to resist
situational pressures and show control over
ourselves. The role of human will or volition
is very crucial in this regard. We can
intentionally control or interrupt our
behaviour. We can choose to delay or defer
the gratification of our needs. Learning to
defer gratification is self-control. We do
it in view of attaining the long-term
distant goals.
In Indian context vrata, upvas , Roza, and
austerity have been emphasised. The notions
of jitendriya (a person who has control over
his receptors and effectors) and aparigrah
(keeping limited things that can satisfy the
minimum needs) also draw attention to it. The
control of internal states is possible with the
help of biofeedback, zen, yoga, meditation,
auto–suggestion etc. Some of the techniques
used in promoting self-regulation are
given below.
Western Perspective
Individual Group
I : Individual
G : Group
Figure 2.2 Self and Group Boundaries in Indian and Western Cultural Perspectives
Introduction to Psychology
or as some say we were cast from paradise.
Since then we have been seeking a new union.
Sufism is a process of regaining one’s
naturalness. It is loyalty to life and cosmic
laws, and harmonisation with true nature. It
is an inner experience that leads to
identification with one’s object of desire, the
so-called beloved, the ideal ego. It emphasises
the purity of heart and intention. It is held that
when I becomes Thou, the duality turns into
unity.
Some Techniques for Self-Regulation :
Self-control can be enhanced using the
following psychological techniques.
1. Observation of own behaviour : One can
organise understanding of self by
systematically noting down the details about
own behaviour. These details may furnish the
necessary information to change, modify or
strengthen certain aspects of self.
2. Stimulus control : This involves attempt
to learn to do a set of activities under the
presence of certain stimuli and not to perform
certain activities in the presence of other
stimuli.
3. Self-reinforcement : People often find
certain behaviours pleasant or unpleasant.
They often reward the pleasant ones and
increase their probability. This leads to
change in the self-concept.
4. Self-instruction : We often talk to
ourselves. This has been systematically used
in changing one’s ideas about self and
behaviour pattern. By giving instructions to
Indian Perspective
Individual
Group
Self and Personality
oneself one asserts and moves to behave in
that direction.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Self refers to the totality of beliefs and
feelings about oneself. T/F
2. Self as the knower refers to Me and self
as the known refers to I. T/F
3. Delay of gratification is an example of
self-control. T/F
4. Stimulus control is not related to
self-regulation. T/F
5. The Indian self includes the ideas of
familial self and spiritual self. T/F
6. In western cultures people often hold an
interdependent notion of self. T/F
7. The Indian notion of self is context-
sensitive. T/F
Recapitulation
The study of self and personality tries to
understand human beings in totality. In
everyday life we devote a lot of time to
understand self and other persons. The
notion of self is learned in the course of social
interaction with significant others. The notion
of self changes in the course of one’s life. The
Self is often viewed as a structure consisting
of an organised collection, a schema, of beliefs
and feelings about oneself. As a process, the
self is a dialogue between the self as an object
(Me) and the self as a subject (I). We try to
regulate our self through various mechanisms
like vrata, upwas, yam, niyam, or using the
biofeedback, zen, yoga. The psychological
techniques include: systematic observation
of behaviour, stimulus control, self-
reinforcement, and self-instruction.
BOX 2.3 DISTINGUISHING PERSONALITY RELATED TERMS
Temperament: Biologically based characteristic
way of reacting.
Trait: Constant, persistent and specific way of
behaving.
Type: Distinct category to which people with a
pattern of traits are assigned.
35
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
In everyday life we use the term “personality”
to refer to physical or outward appearance of
a person encountered in some situation.
Thus, when we see someone and find him or
her “attractive” we say that the person has
charming or impressive personality. This kind
of common sense view of personality is
impressionistic and often found erroneous.
Interestingly enough the literal meaning of
the term personality is derived from the term
persona- the mask used in make-up by actors
in the Roman theatre. In that setting the mask
led the audience to expect a consistent
pattern of behaviour from the person enacting
a particular role.
In psychology personality refers to a
person’s unique and relatively stable
qualities that characterise behaviour
patterns across different situations and
over a period of time. People often show
consistency in behaviour, thought, and
emotion across situations and across time
periods. For instance, an honest person
remains honest for a longer period of time
and in different situations. Understanding
uniqueness and commonality within and
across individuals is a great challenge for
psychologists. It is a common observation
that different people respond to the same
situation in different ways. Also, underlying
the behaviour of each individual, there
seems to be some coherence, order and
consistency. “Personality” is used to
characterise these aspects of an individual.
We need to distinguish personality from
other related terms which are often
used interchangeably or synonymously
(see Box 2.3].
Disposition: Tendency in the person to react
to a given situation in a characteristic way.
Character: Total pattern of regularly occurring
behaviour.
Habit: Learned mode of behaving.
Values: Goals that are considered worthwhile.
36
ACTIVITY 2.2
Introduce Yourself
Write a letter about yourself to a total
stranger. You do not know that person but
there is a possibility that you are going to
meet and work with him or her in future. He
or she wants to know about you.
APPROACHES TO
THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY
The psychologists studying personality try to
answer certain questions about the nature and
origins of individual differences in personality.
Stated simply, they join you in dealing with
common curiosities such as : When some
people encounter the same situation, why do
they react differently? Why some people like to
enjoy dangerous activities, while others like to
spend time reading, watching television or
playing cards? Are these differences stable
throughout one’s life? The study of personality
is an effort to understand, explain and predict
the similarities and differences in the totality
of a person’s behaviour.
The behavioural differences between the
individuals and the consistency within each
individual is the main concern of personality
theories. However, as you will notice these
theories subscribe to different models of
human being. Each of them throws light on
some aspects of personality but not all
aspects. Since personality theories are so
many we will examine only the major
approaches and theories.
TYPES AND TRAITS: DEVELOPMENT
OF TAXONOMY
Using labels and classifying personality
characteristics help us to organise the
diversity noticed in human behaviour. If you
are asked to describe your closest friend, it
is almost certain that you will say that he or
she is good natured, dependable, loyal, calm,
sociable etc. You are using traits to describe
your friend. In psychological literature we
come across many trait and type theories of
personality. These theories categorise human
personality by systematised observed
Introduction to Psychology
behaviour in terms of a pattern. They refer to
certain basic types in which people are
classified. The types are categories. They are
exclusive and do not overlap. They are
discontinuous dimensions Thus, people are
grouped according to their personality types.
In this approach people are put in categories
on the basis of certain similarities. In contrast,
the term trait refers to, specific dimension
along which individuals differ in consistent
and stable ways.
Personality Types
The personality types are used to
communicate certain expected behaviours
based on similarities. Such efforts have been
made since ancient times. Charak Samhita
of Ayurveda or the Indian science of medicine,
the original treatise classifies people on the
basis of three elements called doshas i.e.,
vata, pitta and kapha. Vata is produced by
an interaction of akasha (ether) and vayu
(air), pitta emerges out of an interaction of
Vayu and agni (fire), while kapha is produced
by the joint action of jala ( water ) and prithvi
(earth). They are biophysical components,
which are charged with some intrinsic forces.
In terms of properties the vata is dry, cold,
light, subtle, clear and rough. The pitta is
slightly unctuous, hot, acute, fluid, acid,
mobile, and poignant. The kapha is heavy,
cold, soft, unctuous, sweet, stable and viscid.
Each of these refers to a type of temperament
referred to as prakriti (nature) of the person.
The Greek physician Hippocrates also
proposed a typology based on fluid or
humour. Thus, the dominance of blood leads
to sanguine temperament. Such a person is
cheerful and active. Those with the
dominance of phlegm are called phlegmatic.
Those with black bile are called melancholic.
Those with yellow bile are called choleric.
They are irritable and excitable.
Within psychology the works of Sheldon
and Krestschmer are famous. Using body
build as the main basis Sheldon proposed
the Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and
Ectomorphic categories. The endomorphs
are fat, soft and round. They are relaxed and
sociable by temperament. The mesomorphs
have strong musculature, are rectangular
and strong in body build. They are energetic
Self and Personality
and courageous. The ectomorphs are thin,
long, and fragile in body build. They are
brainy, artistic, and introverts.
These typologies were simple but could
not help in predicting behaviour of
individuals. They are more like stereotypes
about people and it is very difficult to
categorise people clearly in different
categories. As a result they are not used in
contemporary personality research.
Jung grouped all people into introverts
or extroverts. According to this typology, the
introverts withdraw into themselves,
particularly when encountering emotional
conflicts, prefer to be alone, tend to avoid
others, and are shy. The extroverts, on the
other hand, react to stress by trying to lose
themselves among people and social activity.
They are drawn to occupations that allow
dealing directly with many people and
are apt to be conventional, sociable, and
outgoing.
Typologies are simple and appealing.
However, human behaviour is complex and
quite variable. It is, therefore, very difficult to
assign people to a particular type. People
usually defy such simple categorisations.
Trait Theories
These theories are concerned with the basic
components of personality. They try to answer
the question: what are the building blocks of
personality? It is held that while human
beings display a very wide range of variation
in personality, yet it is possible to see them
BOX 2.4 FORMATION OF INDIAN IDENTITY
The primary themes of Indian identity,
Kakar argues, emerge from the infant’s
ambivalent relationship with his mother.
This relationship is shaped and coloured
by the Hindu world image. In Hindu
cosmology, mother-goddesses are con-
sidered as the reservoir of both construc-
tive and destructive energy. The very
word for energy is “Shakti”, the name
fo r the supreme mother goddess.
Second, there is a continuous attempt
to handle deep ambivalence towards the Sudhir Kakar
various symbols of motherhood and
femininity in the culture. The moral anxiety and
fears of retribution generated by the aggressive
elements in his ambivalence are countered by
37
as a combination of a smaller number of
personality traits. Trait approach is quite
similar to what you experience in everyday
life. For instance when you know that a
particular person is dependable you tend to
assume that he/she will be cooperative,
friendly, and engage in a predictable pattern
of behaviour. This kind of thinking has made
identifying primary characteristics of people
as the major goal of trait theories. A trait is
considered as a relatively enduring way in
which one individual differs from another.
Traits are attributes that function as
generalised action tendencies. They suggest
ranges of possible behaviours that are
activated within a range according to the
demands of situation. The traits are: (a)
relatively stable over time, (b) consistent over
situations, and (c) variation in the strength
and combination of traits leading to individual
differences in personality.
The use of traits for the description and
analysis of personality has been very popular
and a number of theories have been proposed.
Let us learn about some of the major trait
theories of personality.
Allport : Characterising the Attributes
Gordon Allport is considered as the
champion of trait approach. He proposed that
traits exist within the person and constitute
the ultimate reality of psychological
organisation. They are more generalised than
habits. They are dynamic and determine the
behaviour causing that person to approach
condemning aggression and idealising
non-violence. Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee’s Anandmath that
contributed to the growth of Indian
nationalism during its early phases
centres around the ideas of sons
failing, defying or fighting for the
triad of mother, cosmic mother and
motherland. As for the mother-
daughter relationship, Kakar
observers that despite having cultural
and social preference for sons over
daughters, there is special maternal
affection reserved for daughters. Perhaps, in
her daughter, the mother can re-experience
herself as a cared-for girl.
38
different situations with similar goals or plans.
The traits integrate what would otherwise
appear as dissimilar stimuli and responses.
Allport thought that the words people use to
describe themselves and others provide a
window on the human personality. He analysed
the words in English language and found that
when people are asked to describe a person
these words fall into certain general categories
(e.g., honest, gregarious, independent).
Allport distinguished between cardinal,
central and secondary traits. All these traits
form a hierarchy. The cardinal traits are
highly generalised dispositions. For instance,
if a person’s whole life seems to be organised
around the goal of achievement, it becomes a
BOX 2.5 COLONIALISM AND SELF : THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE
Analysing self under the colonial period in
India, Ashis Nandy remarks that colonialism,
apart from being many other things, is also a
psychological state rooted in earlier forms of
social consciousness in both the colonisers and
the colonised. This implies that colonialism is a
shared culture which may not always begin
with the establishment of the alien rule in a
society and end with the departure of the alien
from the colony. It includes codes which both
the rulers and the ruled can share. The main
function of these codes is to alter the
original cultural priorities on both
sides. As a consequence of this, the
previously recessive or subordinate
sub-cultures are brought to the centre
of the two confronting cultures. In a
way, colonialism as a state of mind is
an indigenous process released by the
external forces. The second feature of
colonialism is that it perpetuates itself Ashis Nandy
by creating a culture in which the ruled are
constantly tempted to fight against their rulers
within the psychological limits set by the latter.
Both the features of colonialism influence the
self definition of the colonised.
Colonialism tried to consolidate its position
by glorifying certain cultural beliefs. These were
superiority of masculinity, adulthood, sense of
historicity, rationality over femininity, childhood,
mythic consciousness, and non–rationality. In
response to this many Indian social reformers
such as Madhusudan Dutt, Raja Rammohan
Roy, Bankim Chandra Chaterjee, Dayanand
Saraswati, Swami Vivekanand etc. tried to ‘list’
the differences between the West and India and
Introduction to Psychology
cardinal trait of his or
her personality.
Mahatma Gandhi’s non-
violence, Mother
Teressa’s humanitari-
anism and Hitler’s ha-
tred are examples of car-
dinal traits. Less perva-
sive in effect but still
quite generalised dispo-
Gordon Allport
sitions are central traits.
Finally, more specific and narrow traits are
called secondary traits. While Allport
acknowledged that situations do influence
the behaviour, he also posited that the way
a person reacts in situations depends
attributed the former’s superiority to these
differences. Throughout their lives they kept on
exhorting Hindus to emulate the westerners.
Nandy considers it as the defeat of Indian
selfhood in the hands of the West and the
result of this defeat is the loss of ‘Indian’ self.
Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand, tried
to organise people as Indians not as Hindus.
He also granted Hinduism the right to maintain
its character as an unorganised, anarchic, open-
ended faith. Interestingly, he unhesitatingly
declared that the Britishers were worse
victims of its colonial policy than the
Indians. In this sense Gandhi wanted to
liberate the British as much as he
wanted to liberate the Indians. He
rejected the ideas spread by colonialism
that masculine power is superior to
femininity. He emphasised that naritva
(the essence of femininity) is superior to
purusatva (the essence of masculinity).
Further, he rejected history and affirmed the
primacy of myths over historical chronicles.
Gandhi ji believed that uniqueness of Indian
culture lies not so much in having faith in
unique ideology but in the society’s
traditional ability to live cultural ambiguities
and to use them to build defence against
cultural invasion. Probably, the culture itself
demands that a certain permeability of
boundaries be maintained in one’s self image
and self should not be defined too tightly or
separated mechanically from the non-self.
Nandy thinks that under the leadership of
Gandhi ji Indians could recover their selves
which had been lost under colonial culture.
Self and Personality 39

on his or her traits. However, people feelings. At one extreme of this

sharing the same trait may express it in dimension we find people who are
different ways. highly neurotic. They are anxious,
Allport proposed that one’s pattern of moody, touchy, restless, and quickly
traits determines one’s behaviour. The traits loose control. People who are calm,
were like intervening variables. In this way even-tempered, reliable, and remain
they mediated between the stimulus situation under control occupy the other extreme.
and response of the person. If trait varies the (2) Extraversion VS. introversion : It
response of the person to the situation also refers to the extent to which people are
varies. The traits operate in unique ways in socially outgoing or socially withdrawn.
each person. This view is reflected in Allport’s At one extreme are those who are
famous definition of personality as a “dynamic active, gregarious, impulsive, and
organisation within the individual of those thrill-seeking, and at the other extreme
psychophysical systems that determine his are people who are passive, quiet,
characteristic behaviour and thought”. cautious, and reserved.
In his subsequent work Eysenck has
Cattell : Factorial Analysis of Personality proposed a third dimension, namely,
Raymond B. Cattell believed that there is a Psychotism, which he believes interacts with
common structure across personalities, which the above mentioned two dimensions. A
must be determined empirically. In order to person who scores high on psychotism
identify the basic or primary traits that dimension tend to be hostile, egocentric, and
underlie the huge array of descriptive anti-social. Others often treat him or her
adjectives found in language, Cattell applied as peculiar.
factor analysis (a statistical technique) to Eysenck is also considered a type
subjective peer ratings. theorist. He has argued that while people
Cattell, on the basis of do show a large number of traits, their traits
factor analysis, concluded are clustered into two main personality
that personality consists of 16 types i.e., extravert and introvert. The
primary or source traits. The extroverts are outgoing, active, sociable and
source traits are building impulsive. They are tough-minded people.
blocks of personality. There
are also a number of surface Unstable
traits that are caused by the Raymond Cattell Moody Touchy
Anxious Restless
interaction of source traits. They are obvious
Rigid Aggressive
aspects of personality. The source traits are
Sober Excitable
stable. Cattell described the source traits in
Pessimistic Changeable
terms of opposing tendencies. He could
Reserved Impulsive
identify 16 source traits and developed the
Unsociable Optimistic
Sixteen-Personality Factor Questionnaire
Quiet Active
(16PF) for the assessment of personality. Melancholic Choleric
Introvert Extravert
Passive Phlegmatic Sanguine Sociable
Eysenck : The Dimensions of Personality
Careful Outgoing
H. J. Eysenck proposed that personality Thoughtful Talkative
could be reduced to two dimensions. These Peaceful Responsive
dimensions are presumed to be biologically and Controlled Easy-going
genetically based. These dimensions subsume Reliable Lively
numerous specific traits (See Fig. 2.3). These Even-tempered Carefree
dimensions are briefly described below: Calm Leadership
(1) Neuroticism VS. emotional Stable
stability : It refers to the degree to
which people have control over their Fig. 2.3 Eysenck’s Structure of Persnality
40
The introverts are withdrawn, cautious,
reflective and passive. They are tender-
minded. The extroverts are found to be
more alert and have more attention-seeking
tendency. They learn better when aroused.
They have higher level of brain chemical
dopamine. They are more suggestible. The
introvert students prefer to study in quiet
places, with few interruptions, and are
cautious. They do better in schools. They
learn faster under low arousal. They have
low threshold for pain.
The trait approach is very popular and
many interesting questions have been raised.
Many advances are taking place, which are
beyond the scope of your present studies.
Some glimpses of these developments are
given in the boxes that follow. The consistency
of traits (Box 2.6) have been investigated and
a new formulation has been advanced
that provides a new way to organise the
traits (Box 2.7).
Recapitulation
The typological approach to personality
provides description of personality in terms
BOX 2.6 CONSISTENCY OF TRAITS
Walter Mischel has drawn attention to the fact
that consistency in trait-related behaviours varies
across situations. Thus, people are not equally
honest, or domineering in all the situations. All
of us want to predict behaviour on the basis of
traits but one cannot tell what a particular person
will do in a particular situation. At best they may
indicate only an average tendency to behave in
certain ways over several situations. Thus, the
traits of a person do not tell the whole story.
Situational characteristics also play an important
role in determining our behaviour. Thus, people
are dependent or independent not because of
their internal personality trait but because of
external rewards or threats in the situation. The
cross-situational consistency with respect to traits
is found to be quite low. The power of situations
can be seen by looking at the behaviour of people
in market, courtroom and a place of worship.
The view known as situationism asserts that
human behaviour is largely determined by the
characteristics of situation itself rather than the
Introduction to Psychology
of types and traits and relating them to
behaviours. Early attempts in India, and in
the western world provide examples of
typology that were used in the context of
medicine. Sheldon used body build as the
basis of personality types and tried to link
these types with temperament and behaviour.
These approaches are simplistic and have lost
their appeal.
The trait approaches put forward by
Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck use traits of
various kinds as attributes or dispositions
which function as generalised action
tendencies. The traits are supposed to be
responsible for individual differences and
uniqueness observed in the behaviour of
the people. They function as building blocks
of personality. Following empirical
approach Cattell and Eysenck have
developed measures for the assessment of
personality. The relationship between trait
scores and behaviours are found low and
cross-situational consistency is not very
high. Behaviour appears to be specific to
the demands of specific situation.
characteristics of the person. Thus, what we do
or what role we play depends not on who we
are, but the situation in which we find ourselves.
However, there are observations that support the
influence of traits on behaviour. It is mentioned
that even if there is little personal consistency
across situations, there is impressive consistency
in the behaviour of people over time.
Many psychologists think that explaining
behaviour on the basis of either traits or
situations is inadequate. Rather, it is the
interaction of the two that is of importance.
The interactional approach to personality
assumes that it is the inseparable complex
interplay of situation and person factors, which
determines the behaviour. The actual
behaviour is a function of a continuous multi-
directional interaction between the individual
and the situation. The individual is an
intentional and active agent in the interaction
process. Also, the psychological meaning of the
situation is more important.
Self and Personality
BOX 2.7 NEW ADVANCES : FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY
In recent years the controversy regarding the
number of basic personality traits has taken an
interesting turn. The new picture that emerges
consists of five-factors. Paul Costa and Robert
MacCrae have done extensive research on all
the possible personality traits. They found that
all the findings indicate a set of five-factors. They
are often called Big Five. These factors are
described below.
1. Openness to experience: Those who score
high on this factor are imaginative, curious, open
to new ideas and interested in cultural pursuits.
In contrast, the low scoring people are rigid.
2. Extroversion: It characterises people who are
socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, and
fun loving. It is opposite of shy.
3. Agreeableness: This factor represents the
traits of people who are helpful, cooperative,
friendly, caring, and nurturing. It is the opposite
of hostile and being self-centered.
4. Neuroticism: People scoring high on this
factor are emotionally unstable, anxious, worried,
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Endomorphic people are relaxed and
sociable. T/F
2. Allport proposed that traits are
generalised behavioural tendencies.T/F
3. Cardinal traits are those dispositions
around which life is organised. T/F
4. Introverts are more suggestible. T/F
5. Extroverts learn better when more
aroused. T/F
6. The definition of personality is related
to the theory of personality. T/F
7. Surface traits are caused by the
interaction of behaviours. T/F
8. Personality refers to enduring
dispositions that ensure consistency in
behaviour. T/F
9. Personality traits are discrete and
personality types are continuous. T/F
10. Trait theorists are interested in knowing
how people differ and to what extent
they differ. T/F
41
fearful, distressed, irritable, hypertensive. Its
opposite is well adjusted.
5. Conscientiousness: Those who display high
degree of this factor are achievement-oriented,
dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking,
self-controlled. Its opposite is impulsive.
This model has been considered as an important
theoretical development. It is also found useful
in understanding the personality profile of people
in many cultures. Also, it is consistent with the
analysis of personality traits found in different
languages and supported by the studies of
personality through different methods. It is now
considered to be the most promising empirical
approach to the study of personality.
The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R)
was developed by Costa and McCrae. It provides
scores on the five factors of personality. It has
been developed on the basis of extensive
research that uses lexical data describing
personality in various languages in different parts
of the world.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
This is one of the most popular approaches
to personality. It focuses on change,
development and conflicts in people’s lives.
As you have learned earlier, this view owes
largely to the contributions of Sigmund
Freud. It is undoubtedly one of the most
popular theories that have influenced equally
the minds of common men as well as scholars
from other disciplines.
Freud was a physician and he developed
the theory in the course of his clinical practice.
Freud is famous for his innovative use of free
association (a method in which a person is
asked to openly share all the thoughts, feeling
and ideas that come to his/her mind), dream
analysis and analysis of errors to decipher
the internal functioning of mind. The theory
visualises human mind in terms of different
levels of consciousness. Thus, we are aware
of the current thoughts, which are in the
consciousness. Beyond the conscious is the
preconscious, which is immediately not
accessible but can be accessed. Beyond the
preconscious lies the unconscious, of which
we are not aware. It contains the repressed
desires and impulses.
42
Freud believed that the unconscious was
a reservoir of instinctive drives. Also, it stores
all the ideas and wishes that are concealed
from conscious awareness, perhaps, because
they cause psychological conflicts. We are
constantly engaged in the struggle to either
find some socially acceptable way to express
unconscious impulses or in effort to keep
those impulses from being expressed. Thus,
forgetfulness, mispronunciations, making
jokes, dreams, etc., provide a way to
approach the unconscious. The goal of
psychoanalytic therapy is to bring repressed
unconscious material to consciousness and
to thereby aid us in living our lives in a more
self aware and integrated manner. (Refer to
Chapter VII on Therapeutic Approaches).
Personality Structure: The personality
consists of three structures i.e. Id, Ego, and
Superego. They however, should not be
treated like three distinct entities. They are
used as strong psychological forces and not
physical locations in the brain. Freud was
able to infer these forces from the ways people
behave (see Fig. 2.4). Let us understand these
terms in some detail.
Id: Desire : It is that part of personality that
deals with immediate gratification of primitive
needs, sexual desires, and aggressive
impulses. It is totally unconscious. It follows
the pleasure principle. Thus, the Id seeks
one thing only and that is the discharge of
tension arising out of biological drives. Need
gratification in any manner is its main
concern. Reflexes and primary processes are
its mechanisms of functioning.
Ego: Reason : It develops out of Id. It works
on reality principle. It tries to maximise
pleasure and minimise the pain. It follows
the secondary processes.
Super Ego: Conscience : It deals with the
ideals. It represents the societal demands and
ideals. It also creates the feelings of guilt and
punishes the person if he or she falls short
of the societal norms and ideals.
Stages of Personality Development : Freud
gave emphasis on the childhood traumas as
key to neurotic disorder during adulthood.
He believed that people normally progress
through five stages of psychosexual
development. During the first five years of
life pleasure is successively focused on three
Introduction to Psychology
zones of the body as the oral, anal and phallic
stages unfold. Then comes a quiet period of
latency. This occurs about five or six years of
age. Finally there is a genital stage that occurs
after puberty. Problems encountered at any
stage may retard or arrest–development and
have long term effect on the life of a person. A
brief description of these stages is given below.
Oral stage : It is observed during the first
year of life. The newborn baby is completely
dependent on others for the satisfaction of all
needs. During this stage body pleasure is
centered on the mouth. The baby gets
satisfaction from sucking, eating, and biting
in the course of feeding.
Conscious External Reality
External Reality
Superego Ego
Preconscious
Unconscious Id
Fig. 2.4 Structure of Personality in
Freudian Theory
Anal stage : It is found in the second year of
life. It is characterised by a shift in body
pleasure to the anus. It is reflected by a
concern with the retention and expulsion of
faeces. This is why Freud felt that it is during
toilet training a child has the first experience
with externally imposed control. The pattern
of toilet training, therefore, may influence later
personal qualities and conflicts experienced
by the person. Thus, if a person is subjected
to very harsh, repressive kind of training
during this period, it may make the person
in his adult life preoccupied with cleanliness.
Phallic stage : In this stage the child observes
the difference between male and female and
experiences what Freud called the Oedipus
Self and Personality
Complex. This occurs at about five years of
age. Freud proposed that children develop a
desire for the opposite sex parent and a wish
to displace the same sex parent. This kind of
attraction leads to serious conflict, which he
termed as Oedipus and Electra Complexes
in boys and girls, respectively. These
complexes were named after two Greek
characters. King Oedipus unknowingly killed
his father and then married his mother and
Electra induced her brother to kill their
mother. The fear of punishment brings about
resolution of the complexes and identification
with the same sex parent. In other words,
boys give up sexual feelings for their mothers
and begin to see their father’s as models
rather than as rivals; girls give up their sexual
desires for their father and identify with their
mother.
Latency stage : This stage follows the phallic
stage, there is very little explicit or overt
concern with sexuality. The child represses
his or her memories of infantile sexuality and
forbidden sexual activity. Since the time of
Freud, many feminist psychoanalysts have
argued that Freud’s ideas on the development
of girls reflect a male-oriented perspective.
Instead, some of them have framed theories
that chart the emotional growth of young girls
across a model of continuity as opposed to
rivalry with the mother.
Genital stage : During this stage the person
attains maturity in psychosexual
development. The person becomes capable of
genuine love for other people and can achieve
adult sexual satisfaction. He or she may relate
to others in a heterosexual fashion. However,
if journey towards this stage is marked by
excessive stress or overindulgence, it may
cause fixation to an earlier stage of
development. Table 2.1 summarises the main
features of the five stages of psychosexual
development.
Fixation and Regression : These concepts
are important in understanding psychosexual
development. Fixation refers to a situation
when a sexual impulse is arrested at an early
stage. Regression occurs when someone goes
back or reverts to an earlier stage. It has been
found that fixation occurs when conflict at
any stage of psychosexual development is very
high. Also, deprivation or overindulgence at
43
a given stage or inconsistent alterations
between indulgence and deprivation may lead
to fixation. When a person’s resolution of
problems at any stage of psychosexual
development is less than adequate,
subsequent stress may lead to regression to
that earlier stage. When such regression takes
place people display a behaviour which it
typical of that less mature stage of
development.
When Id’s impulses are very strong
unpleasant feelings of nervousness, tension
and worry take place. Ego may use defence
mechanisms to manage them. There are three
types of anxiety: Neurotic anxiety which is due
to the Id – ego conflict, moral anxiety which is
due to the conflict of id and super ego, and
objective anxiety, which is due to real external
threat.
Defence Mechanisms : Freud thought that
there is some kind of psychic energy, which
is transformed in different ways. This energy
called libido is attached (cathected) to aspects
of external and internal environment. Using
a hydraulic model it was thought that Id is a
kind of dynamo, and the total mind (or
psyche) was a closed system directed towards
maintaining equilibrium. Any forces that were
building up required discharge. The discharge
may be indirect also. Thus, the instinctive
impulses could be displaced from one
another. The defences transform the wishes
of Id into an acceptable form. When defences
fail neurotic anxiety takes place.
The psychodynamic theories emphasise
that if an external danger leads to anxiety then
people try to cope with it realistically and
when realistic methods fail or are not available
unrealistic defence mechanisms may be tried
unconsciously. These defences serve as
disguises through which people hide their
motives and conflicts from themselves as well
as from others. People take recourse to a
variety of defences. They use denial when the
person can neither escape nor attack the
threat. If the panic is very high, the only
possible alternative may be to deny it. A young
child often does that but a mature person
cannot deny objective facts. For him denial
becomes less plausible. This is often replaced
by repression. Repression is forgetting or
rejection from consciousness, of memories of
threat. In other words it involves inhibition
44 Introduction to Psychology

Table 2.1 Stages of Sexual Development according to Freud

Stage Approximate Age Erogenous Zone Developmental Task
in Years)
Oral 0 to 1 Mouth Weaning
Anal 1 to 3 Anus Toilet Training
Phallic 3to 6 Genitals Overcoming Oedipal or Electra
Complex
Latency 6to 12 None Expanding interests
Genital 12 to adult Genitals Establishing intimate relationships

of a threatening impulse or event by rendering techniques have low reliability and validity,
it unconscious. This defence mechanism has and the efficacy of psychoanalytic therapy is
been central to the theory propounded questionable.
by Freud.
Another important defence mechanism is LEARNING CHECKS III
Projection. The person’s own unacceptable
impulses are inhibited and the source of 1. The sexual attachment of a boy to his
the anxiety is attributed to another mother and his desire to replace his
person. Projection is helpful because it father is termed as
reduces anxiety.
2. The sexual attachment of a girl to his
In reaction formation, the anxiety
father and her desire to replace her
provoking impulse is replaced in
mother is .
consciousness by its opposite. In
Rationalisation people make excuses. People 3. The blocking of unacceptable impulses
often create false reasons to manage an to keep them from awareness is .
interpersonal interaction in trouble.
4. The part of personality that incorporates
This reduces disappointment and saves parental and societal standards for
the person. Sublimation is used to displace morality is .
or redirect the impulses from an object
that is sexual, to one that is social 5. The conscious ego operates according to
in character. principle.
Dream : Dreams are considered as the royal 6. The thoughts, motives, impulses, desire
road to unconscious. They have manifest that lie beyond a person’s normal
content–the dream that we remember– and awareness constitute the
latent content – the hidden meaning that part of personality.
can be deciphered from the manifest
content. Dreams serve three purposes. 7. The dream represents a
They work as wish fulfilment device, release wish fulfillment and is a censored
version of the dream that
of unconscious tension, and work as
lies underneath.
guardians of sleep. According to Freud
symbols in dreams represent different 8. In the person interprets some
things, wishes, desires, etc. For instance of his own feelings or actions in more
viewing a house has reference to one’s acceptable terms.
body, clothes means nakedness, bath
9. When repressed urges tend to find
means birth, and beginning a journey new and often disguised outlets, it is
means death. called .
The traditional psychoanalytic approach
is criticised on many grounds. It is said that 10. Various forbidden acts become
its concepts are vaguely defined; logical associated with as
distinctions are not made, the case studies the child is scolded or disciplined for
are biased, the theory is not testable, the performing them.
Self and Personality
POST FREUDIAN DEVELOPMENT
Subsequent theorists called Neo-Freudians
have given attention to social determinants,
and conscious reality. In fact, psychoanalytic
thought has grown in many directions.
Diverse emphasis have appeared and it is not
possible to present all the perspectives. So, a
general perspective is presented. These
theories present a definite shift in focus. They
are characterised by less prominent roles to
sexual and aggressive tendencies of Id, and
expansion of the concept of ego. The trend is
towards an ego-psychology. The human
qualities of creativity, competence and
problem-solving abilities are emphasised.
With a view to develop familiarity with
post-Freudian developments in psychody-
namic perspective some of the major theo-
ries are briefly described here:
Carl Jung : Understanding the Collective
Unconscious
Jung was an early admirer of Freud but later
developed his own theory known as
analytical psychology. He claimed that there
is collective unconscious also. Its contents
are archetypes or primordial images. They
are not individually acquired. They are due
to heredity. Some examples of archetypes
include God, the Earth Mother, and the young
potent hero. They are found in myths, dreams
and art of all mankind. Jung proposed that
the human psyche includes conscious as well
as a covert or shadow aspect, that is
unconscious. An individual’s personal growth
involves an unfolding of this shadow and its
gradual integration with the rest of the
personality into a meaningful coherent life
pattern. The unconscious of every female
includes a masculine, assertive element (the
animus). The unconscious of every male
includes a feminine, passive element (the
anima). To be constructively masculine or
feminine, individuals of each sex must
recognise and integrate these opposite sex
elements within themselves.
Jung describes four ways of contact or
experience of the world. They include
sensing, intuition, feeling, and thinking.
45
Jung is also famous
for his distinction
of extraversion-
introversion. Jung held
that self strives for unity
and oneness. It is an
archetype that is
expressed in many
Carl Jung ways. One of the
expressions of the
striving for wholeness includes the mandala.
He devoted much of the time to the study of
such expressions in various traditions.
According to him achieving unity and
wholeness a person must become increasingly
aware of the wisdom available in one’s
personal and collective unconscious and must
learn to live in harmony with it. He also visited
India in 1930s.
Erich Fromm: The Human Concerns
Fromm viewed human
beings as basically social
beings. They can be
understood in terms of
their relationship with
others. Fromm argued
that psychological
qualities of the people
such as growth, and
realising potentials are
Erich Fromm
outcomes of a desire for
freedom and a striving for justice and truth.
In contrast to Freud’s biological orientation,
Fromm had a social orientation. For him
character traits develop from experiences with
other individuals. Thus, culture is moulded by
the mode of existence of a given society. In turn,
the dominant character traits of the people in
a society become forces shaping the social
process and the culture itself. The ideals of
truth, justice, freedom, etc. can be genuine
strivings and not merely rationalisations. His
work recognises the value of positive qualities
such as tenderness and love.
Alfred Adler : Life style and Social Interest
In his theory known as individual
psychology Adler believed that behaviour is
purposeful and goal directed. He thought that
everyone of us has the capacity to choose and
46
create. Our goals are the sources of
motivation. The goals that provide security
and help to overcome inferiority are very
important. He thought that everyone suffers
from an inferiority complex or feelings of
inadequacy that arise from childhood.
Karen Horney : Social Foundations of
Personality
She argued that the differences between
females and males were largely the results of
social factors, not because of any innate
inferiority among the females. According to
her each sex has attributes admired by the
other and neither should be viewed as
superior or inferior. The psychological
disorders were not caused by the fixation of
psychic energy but from disturbed
interpersonal relationship during childhood.
When parents’ behaviour toward a child is
indifferent, disparaging, and erratic, the child
feels insecure–a feeling termed by Horney as
basic anxiety. Deep resentment toward
parents or basic hostility occurs due to basic
anxiety. The parents generate feelings of
isolation and helplessness in their children
that interfere with healthy development by
being too dominant, by showing indifference),
or by providing too much approval and
admiration or too little. These styles are
described as moving toward people (affection
and acceptance from others), moving against
people (others are hostile), and moving away
from people (striving for independence).
These patterns lead to unhappiness. Only by
overcoming them through appropriate
therapy the person can recover. The
theoretical developments in psychoanalysis
are still taking place.
Erik Erikson: In Search of Identity
Erikson developed a theory of personality
development with a focus on social
adaptation. His theory was discussed in your
textbook for Class XI. Here it may be
mentioned that he considered each stage
involving a crisis. He calls attention to the
problems of social adaptation. With advancing
age we face a wider range of human
relationships. The solution of problems faced
during the eight psycho-social stages
Introduction to Psychology
determines adult development. His emphasis
on social and cultural forces is crucial as it
distinguishes him from Freud. He also viewed
development as a life-long process. In this
process ego identity is central. His concept of
identity crisis of adolescent has drawn
considerable attention. Erikson believed that
“human personality in principle develops
according to steps pre-determined in the
growing person’s readiness to be driven
toward, to be aware of, and to interact with,
a widening social radius”. On the other hand,
the society “in principle, tends to be so
constituted as to meet and invite this
succession of potentialities for interaction and
attempts to safeguard and to encourage the
proper rate and the proper sequence of their
enfolding.” Thus young people must generate
for themselves some central perspective and
direction that gives them a meaningful sense
of unity and purpose. Erikson is also famous
for his psycho-history of Gandhi ji, which was
published as Gandhi’s Truth.
Psychodynamic theories face strong
criticism from many quarters. The theories
are largely based on case studies and no
rigorous scientific basis is available. The
accounts prepared by the therapists are
subject to various kinds of distortions. The
use of small and atypical individuals as
samples for generalisation is another
limitation of this approach. The concepts are
not defined properly and it is difficult to
submit them to scientific testing. Freud is also
accused of gender discrimination. He has
used males as the prototype of all human
personality development. He overlooked
female experiences and perspectives and
implied that females should strive to be like
males. Freud, however, has profound impact
on literature and social success. The
originality and comprehensiveness of his
theory is remarkable. Subsequent theoretical
developments have expanded the scope of
psychodynamic theory by incorporating
aspects of ego functioning and reality.
Recapitulation
The psychodynamic perspective is rooted in
Freud’s psychoanalysis. He distinguished
three systems of personality i.e., Id, ego, and
Self and Personality
superego. Id strives towards biological
satisfaction following pleasure principle. The
ego makes effort to reconcile–Id with the
actualities of world. It follows the reality
principle. The superego is the representation
of the internalised rules of the society and
punishes the deviations by feelings of guilt.
People experience internal conflicts due
to anxiety that becomes associated with
forbidden thoughts and wishes. The person
represses these and sends them to the
unconscious. However, repressed materials
generally surface again. To cope with them
people take recourse to various defence
mechanisms such as displacement, reaction
formation, rationalisation, and projection etc.
Freud believed that unconscious conflicts
are located in the psychosexual development.
He proposed that children pass through the
stages of oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital stages. These stages have different
erogenous zones through which gratification
is obtained. During the phallic stage the male
child develops Oedipus complex. Freud
considered dreams as wish fulfilment.
The Neo-Freudians disputed many of the
views of Freud. They shifted the focus towards
interpersonal, social, and cultural forces and
the contemporary circumstances of the
person. Theorists like Carl Jung, Fromm,
Adler, Horney and Erikson, paid less attention
to Id and more to the ego. The ego is the seat
of creativity, planning, and the formation of
self-fulfilling goals. This approach is criticised
for its limited database and the ambiguity
of concepts.
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. According to psychodynamic view the
events that we no longer consciously
remember may still influence our
behaviour. T/F
2. Unconscious is the main motivating force
behind human behaviour. T/F
3. Id, ego, and superego can be located in
human brain. T/F
4. The superego is roughly equivalent to
conscience. T/F
contd...
47
5. A defence mechanism is a mental
strategy that blocks the harmful Id
impulse while reducing anxiety. T/F
6. Ego operates according to pleasure
principle. T/F
7. Reaction formation is the attribution of
one’s own objectionable impulses to
others. T/F
8. The Id is like a child who is demanding,
impulsive, and selfish. T/F
9. According to Jung unconscious holds
only the individual’s repressed urges or
desires and not the collective memories
of the entire human race. T/F
10. Psychodynamic theories are based on
scientific evidences. T/F
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
The behaviourists did not give importance to
the internal causes of behaviour. For them
the only thing that matters is the external
conditions that determine the pattern of
reinforcement. The behaviour is considered
to be a product of complex stimulus–response
combinations. They advocate that the
complex learning, which is stored in human
brain in the form of S-R connections, should
be the chief concern.
Learning is based on certain observable
manipulations of stimuli and responses. The
classical conditioning of Pavlov emphasised
learning as a product of the pairing of responses
with stimuli. As you know a neutral stimulus
and a potent stimulus (UCS), if paired together
change the situation in such a manner that
the previously neutral event (now CS) alone
evokes the same response that was produced
by the potent stimulus. This approach has been
extended to explain and treat many abnormal
behaviours including irrational fears.
Skinner emphasised on the operant
conditioning, which focuses on responses and
reinforcements. Operant conditioning is a
process of learning in which behaviour that
leads to satisfying consequences or rewards
is likely to be repeated. Skinner refused to
accept internal motivational forces or traits.
Analysis of stimulus conditions controlling
48
behaviour is crucial for explaining behavioural
phenomena.
People also learn by observing others.
Much of our social learning is based on
observation without any direct reward or
reinforcement administered to the learner.
This kind of learning is also called modeling
or observational learning. You may recall the
pioneering studies by Bandura, which show
that observational learning can account for
the learning of many novel responses. The
incentives and reinforcers are important in
determining what a person does in a
particular situation. Social learning approach
of Bandura does not propose traits or
dispositions. It uses the conditions of learning
and the cues in the situation for determining
the pattern of behaviour. The causes of
behaviour are located in the current
conditions that control present behaviour.
The emphasis is on what people are doing
in the current situation rather than
motives, drives or conflicts in one’s personal
history.
Recapitulation
The behaviourist view is opposed to any
internal or subjective entity as a determinant
of behaviour. Using the process of learning
and environmental factors such as reward,
punishment and environmental cues, this
view provides an analysis of behaviour. In this
way the approach does not find a need to have
a strong concept of personality. It is simplistic
and neglects the subjective and
psychodynamic processes that are important
in human life.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
This approach puts forward a Congruence
positive and optimistic view
of human nature. It is held that
human beings are largely
responsible for what happens to Self-concept
them. The theories following this
approach recognise the role of
personal responsibility and
growth and emphasise on the Well-adjusted individual
present rather than the past.
Fig. 2.5 Pattern of Adjustment and Self-Concept
Out of many such theories we
Introduction to Psychology
shall discuss the theories of Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow.
Rogers Self Theory
The most important idea
proposed by Rogers is
that of fully functioning
person. People want to
become such persons and
move in this direction.
Such persons are sensitive
to the needs and rights of
Carl Rogers
others, but do not allow
society’s standards to shape their feelings or
actions to an excessive degree. Their actions
become increasingly constructive. They
always remain in touch with their own values
and feelings and experience life more deeply.
It is clear, however, that everybody does not
get success. When life experiences are
inconsistent with our ideas about us we
experience anxiety. A gap between self-
concept and reality is the main cause of
maladjustment. Rogers believed that one’s
mental health is related to the degree of
congruence or match between our self-
concept and life experiences. If our self-
concept is consistent with actual life
experiences, we ourselves will be congruent
and we will be well adjusted. The opposite is
true when there is little or no overlap between
the two (See Fig. 2.5). Thus, we learn that
significant others will approve of us only when
we behave in certain ways and express certain
feelings. This situation needs creation of an
atmosphere of unconditional positive
regard. Thus a person is accepted irrespective
of what they say or do. Such a condition is
created in client-centered therapy.
Incongruence
Experience Self-concept Experience
Poorly adjusted individual
Self and Personality
Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualisation
You have already read about the need
hierarchy of Maslow in the chapter on
motivation in your textbook of XI grade.
Maslow has given a detailed account of
psychologically healthy people who have
attained self-actualisation – a state in which
people have reached their own fullest
potential. Maslow had an optimistic and
positive view of man who has the potentials
for love, joy, and creative work. Human beings
are considered free to shape their lives and
to self-actualise. Thus, personality is a
person’s perceptual orientation and the level
of needs on which he or she focuses attention
and energy. On the hierarchy of needs a
preoccupation with meeting lower order needs
may lead to a deficiency orientation. Such
persons are bothered about meeting the
needs for the material things they do not have.
They are likely to behave in disordered ways.
Maslow used the term Meta needs for higher
order needs (e.g. justice, goodness, beauty,
order, unity). The frustration of meta needs
results in alienation, apathy, and cynicism.
Maslow studied a number of self
actualised people and found that they were
more open to experiences, were in tune with
their inner world, were spontaneous,
autonomous, independent, devoted to goals,
had fresh appreciation of people and events,
resisted conformity, dedicated to some cause
outside themselves. They see the world more
accurately because objects are seen in
relation to themselves, not as a means of
fulfilling a deficiency. The satisfaction of needs
is also influenced by cultural factors. In the
BOX 2.8 WHO IS A HEALTHY PERSON?
The humanistic theorists have indicated that
healthy personality lies in not merely
adjustment to society. It involves a quest to
know oneself deeply and to be true to one’s
own feelings without disguise, to be oneself
in the here and now. According to them
the healthy people share the following
characteristics.
1. They become aware of themselves, their
feelings, and their limits; accept themselves,
and what they make of their lives as their
49
western societies people are trained to focus
on material satisfaction of needs. The lower
order needs are considered more important
than higher order needs.
While fully self-actualised persons are rare,
people do experience moments of self-
actualisation (peak experiences) when a
feeling of richness and bliss is found. The
humanistic approach emphasises the
significance of positive aspects of life
(see Box 2.8).
Recapitulation
The Humanistic approach is rooted in two
assumptions i.e., the focus on subjective
experience and the importance of individual
choice. Among the humanistic theorists Carl
Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the
most significant.
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. Positive behaviour shown to a person
with no contingencies attached is .
2. is the inborn drive to
develop one’s talents and capacities.
3. From the humanistic perspective people
are .
4. Self actualisation is like a
than a .
5. According to Rogers parents must create
a setting in which children are .
6. Healthy humans want to feel free to
and their own lives.
7. Peak experiences are and
moments in a person’s life.
own responsibility; have “the courage to be”.
2. They experience the “here-and-now”; are not
trapped
3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the
future through anxious expectations and
distorted defences.
4. They realise their potentialities; have
autonomy and are not trapped by their own
self-concepts or the expectations of others
and the society.
How do you think about yourself?
50
BOX 2.9 TYPE A, TYPE B AND TYPE C PERSONALITIES
In an interesting research two cardiologists,
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman noticed
that many of their patients possessed similar
personality traits. They were found to be high-
powered, ambitious, competitive workaholics who
seemed unable to slow down and relax. This
kind of personality was termed Type A
personality. It refers to an action-emotion
complex. It is found in people who are
aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant
struggle to achieve more and more in less and
less time. Based on a survey these researchers
identified people who were type A and those who
were type B. Type B personality is defined as
absence of Type A traits. These persons were
followed up for eight and a half years. It was
found that Type A people were twice as likely to
as Type B to develop some form of coronary heart
disease (CHD). It has been found that the risks
of Type A personality were equal to or greater
than the risks of high blood pressure, high
cholesterol levels, or smoking. More recent
research has shown that the critical factor that
predisposes Type A personality to health risks
is hostility or a tendency to become angry,
irritable, and resentful in response to everyday
frustrations, and/or a tendency to be
antagonistic, rude, surly, and uncooperative in
everyday interactions.
Rogers developed a theoretical model
which emphasised on the relationship
between what we feel we are (the real self)
and what we feel we should be (the ideal self).
When these two are similar the situation is
congruent and a person is fully functioning.
Being congruent, which happens to be the goal
of development, depends on the availability of
people who provide the conditions for growth
i.e., empathy, openness and unconditional
positive regard. Rogers was very optimistic
about human nature. His ideas have been
influential in counselling and therapy. He is
the founder of client-centered therapy.
Abraham Maslow approached human
behaviour in terms of needs that motivate
people. The needs encompass a wide
Introduction to Psychology
Studies have suggested a type of personality
which is prone to cancer. Morris has termed it
as Type C ( Cancer prone) personality. Such
an individual is cooperative, unassertive and
patient. This type of person suppresses his or
her negative emotion (e.g. anger, hostility). The
person complies with those in authority. The
blocking of emotions releases certain
neuropeptides in the brain. This disrupts the
homeostatic mechanism and weaken the body’s
capacity to defend itself from cancer cells. Some
researchers have tried to correlate this
personality type with the severity of the disease.
People with Type C personality are more likely
to suffer cancer, particularly lung cancer. It may
be noted that personality characteristics can
influence the person directly by altering the
immune system or indirectly by affecting the
healthy-related behaviours. The results of
researchers are not conclusive.
Friedman has now identified a self-
healing personality. It can be described in
terms of enthusiasm. The self healing
emotionally–balanced people are alert,
responsive, and energetic, although they may
be calm and conscientious. They are
spontaneous, and creative, are good problem
solvers, have close relationships with other
people, and have a playful sense of humour.
They develop a sense of humour that is
philosophical than hostile.
spectrum–from basic needs to self-
actualisation. Self-actualisation is the need to
grow. Maslow believed that self-actualisation
is experienced in peak experiences that are
deep, intense, and momentary.
The humanistic approach is unique in its
scope to attend to the role of meaning and
spirituality in human life. In scientific terms
the humanistic theories need further
development and analysis. However, they tell
us what personality should be rather than
what it is.
CONCEPT OF GUNAS
In prevalent Indian thought the notion of personality
as an entity or totality of dispositions is not
Self and Personality
popular. The person is considered as made
of dynamic and context sensitive qualities.
According to one of the major perspectives of
Indian thought namely Samkhya Yoga all
material elements are infused with the modes
of nature or three Gunas namely Sattva,
Rajas, and Tamas. Bhagvadgita states that
Sattva guna includes the following attributes:
cleanliness, truthfulness, gravity, dutifulness,
detachment, discipline, mental equilibrium,
respect for superiors, sharp intelligence, sense
control, and staunch determination. The
Attributes of Rajas include intensive activity,
desire for sense gratification, and little interest
in spiritual elevation, dissatisfaction with one’s
position, envy for others, and a materialistic
mentality. Tamas guna characterises mental
imbalance, anger, arrogance, depression,
laziness, procrastination, and a feeling of
helplessness. It may be noted that all the three
gunas are present in each and every person in
different degrees. The dominance of one or
the other guna may lead to a particular type
of behaviour. Perhaps the balance of the
gunas is the right state of being.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Are you a Type A person?
Answer the following questions yes or no.
l Do you give yourself harder than most
of the people you know?
l Do you tend to complete sentences for
people who speak too slowly?
l Do you eat, speak, and walk rapidly?
l Do you overemphasise some of your
words and add dramatic gestures while
speaking?
l Do you become very annoyed when you
have to wait in line?
l Do you constantly schedule more
activities than time allows?
l Do you feel a sense of guilt if you try to
relax?
l Do you try to move the topic of
conversation to your own interests?
l Do you believe that your success is due
to the fast pace that you maintain?
(Note: The more items answered yes, the
higher your degree of Type A behaviour.)
51
ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY
Getting to know and understand people and
describe them is a task in which everybody is
involved. You will agree that in order to
meaningfully interact with people we need to
understand them and to predict what they
will do. In our personal life we use
expectations based on past experience,
observation, conversation, information from
other persons etc. They, however, are
influenced by hearsay, stereotypes, mood,
needs, personal biases, etc. The formal efforts
to analyse and measure personalities are
termed as personality assessment.
Assessment refers to the procedures to
evaluate or differentiate people on the
basis of certain characteristics. The goal of
assessment is to predict behaviour with
minimum error and maximum accuracy. It
tries to study the typical responses or what
the person most often does in a situation. It
is used for a variety of purposes. It is used in
the study of diversity in the people, finding
relationships among variables, studying
developmental changes, diagnosis,
placement, counselling etc. There are various
ways in which personality has been assessed
by psychologists. These are: Observer
Report, Projective Techniques, and Self
Report Measures.
It must be noted that these assessment
approaches throw light on different aspects
of personality as they have access to different
aspects of personality. Also, they are rooted
in different theoretical orientations. Let us try
to learn about these assessment approaches.
OBSERVER REPORTS
Observation of behaviour is helpful in
appraising personality of a person in a variety
of settings. Interview, observation, rating,
and nomination are some frequently used
techniques that utilise observational data for
personality assessment. Let us examine them
in some detail.
Interview : Interviewing and observing are
frequently used to know the personality of
individuals. All of us frequently talk to others
and watch their behaviours. As you have read
52
in class XI textbook, interviews may be
structured or unstructured. You must have
seen people going for interview for job,
admission to schools or while solving
problems. Most of the interviews are usually
unstructured. In the unstructured mode of
interviewing interviewers get impressions and
use their hunches or let the person expand
on the information that has potential to
unravel the personality of the interviewee. The
structured interviews have specific questions
and follow a set procedure. This is done to
obtain objective comparison of the persons
being interviewed. Rating scales are also used
to standardise the evaluations.
Observation : Behavioural observation is also
used to assess personality. Everybody
watches people and form impressions about
personality. However, using observation for
personality assessment is more than just
observation and is a sophisticated procedure.
A very detailed guideline is prepared to see
examples of specific behaviours for identifying
personality traits under consideration. For
instance, a clinical psychologist may like to
observe his client’s interactions with family
members and visitors to his or her home.
Using carefully designed observation the
clinical psychologist may understand
and gain insight into the personality of the
client.
It is obvious that while the use of interview
and observation is useful they do have several
limitations. The kind of professional training
required for obtaining useful data through
these methods is quite demanding and time
consuming. It requires certain degree of
maturity on the part of a psychologist to be
able to obtain valid data through these
techniques. The biggest problem is that the
presence of observer may vitiate the results
since mere presence of a stranger may
influence the observation process and the
behaviour of the person being observed.
Despite these limitations interviews are
frequently used as personality test for
employment purposes.
Ratings : Ratings are frequently used in
educational and industrial settings. In order
to use ratings effectively the traits should be
clearly defined in specific terms. It has been
Introduction to Psychology
found that rather than using numbers or
general descriptive adjectives that may convey
different meanings to different raters a trait may
be more clearly identified in terms of
carefully stated behavioural anchors.
The ratings suffer from several kinds of
errors. For instance, raters are found to be
unduly influenced by a single favourable or
unfavourable trait, which colours their
judgment of other traits. Psychologists call
this halo effect. Also, raters have a tendency
ACTIVITY 2.4
Using Ratings While Observing
Children
Discuss in small groups of classmates and
identify a set of adjectives describing certain
attributes prevalent in children. Use this set
of rating scales in observing children of a
primary school in playground.
Discuss your observations with classmates
and your teacher.
to place persons in the middle of the scale
and avoid extreme positions. The rating
procedure can be improved by training the
raters.
Nomination : It is frequently used in
obtaining peer assessment. It is used with a
group of persons who know each other very
well through long-term interaction. In using
nomination each group member is asked to
choose one or more group members with
whom he or she would like to work, study,
play or undertake any other significant
activity. The nominations received by a person
can be analysed in many ways to understand
personality and behavioural qualities of the
person. A nomination technique has been
found to be one of the most dependable
techniques but it can also be affected by
personal biases.
Situational Tests : A variety of situational
tests have been devised to provide assessment
of personality. A commonly used test of this
kind is situational stress test. It provides
sample of the behaviour of a person under
stressful situations. For instance the person
may be asked to perform some task with the
help of two persons who are obstructive or
Self and Personality
non-cooperative. Role-playing may be used.
The person is clearly and explicitly instructed
to play a part, either reporting verbally or
overtly what he or she is asked to do. The
situation may be presented realistically or
through videotape etc.
Recapitulation
Personality assessment refers to the
procedures to evaluate or differentiate
people on the basis of certain
characteristics. The goal of assessment is
to predict behaviour with minimum error
and maximum accuracy. Psychologists have
developed a number of approaches and
procedures. In the present section three
main approaches are described. They are:
observer reports, projective techniques, and
self-report measures. Observer reports
include techniques such as interview,
obse rvation, rating, nomination, and
situational tests.
LEARNING CHECKS VI
1. —————————— is the name of the
formal procedure used to analyse and
measure personalities.
2. The goal of assessment is to predict
behaviour with ———— and ————.
3. In unstructured interviewing
interviewers get —————— and use
their ——————.
4. In interview the person or candidate has
chance to explain his or her qualities in
his or her ———————.
5. In observation the presence of
may vitiate the results.
6. Personal interviews may be —————
—————— toward certain applicants.
7. —————— effect refers to undue
influence of a single favourable or
unfavourable trait, which colours the
judgment of other traits.
8. During ———— each group member is
asked to choose one group member with
whom he or she would like to undertake
any significant activity.
9. Role-playing is an example of a ———.
53
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
You have learned while studying
psychoanalytic theory that behaviour is also
determined by unconscious forces. Also,
because of motivational involvement and
social desirability reasons people do not like
to share about themselves in direct ways.
Therefore, indirect methods of assessment are
required. The projective techniques were
developed to assess unconscious motives and
feelings. These techniques are based on the
assumption that weakening the stimulus
structure will allow the individual to project
his/her feelings, desires, and need which can
be interpreted by experts.
Researchers have developed a variety of
projective techniques using various kinds of
stimulus materials and responses for
assessing personality. Some of them require
the examinee to make associations to stimuli
such as words or inkblots (e.g. Rorschach ink
blot test). Some involve the writing of stories
around pictures e.g. TAT, (situations which
are open to different interpretations). Other
techniques require the person to complete
sentences (e.g. sentence completion test). In
other kinds of techniques one may be required
to express himself or herself through
drawings (e.g. Draw-A-Man-test). In some
other techniques the person may be asked to
choose among a variety of stimuli indicating
those they like best and least. While stimulus
material and nature of responses elicited vary,
all of them share the following features.
1. The stimulus material is relatively or fully
unstructured and poorly defined.
2. The person being assessed is usually not
told the purpose and the method of
scoring and interpretation.
3. The person is informed that there are no
right or wrong responses.
4. Each response is considered to reveal a
true and significant aspect of personality.
5. The scoring and interpretation in
projective assessment are lengthy and
subjective.
The projective techniques are different
from the psychometric tests in many ways.
They cannot be scored in any objective
manner. Instead they are based on
54
assumptions of the dynamic theories. They
are generally qualitative in nature and require
rigorous training in interpreting the different
kinds of responses. Let us try to understand
the nature and use of some of the well-known
projective techniques.
The Rorschach Inkblots : A Swiss psychiatrist
named Hermann Rorschach developed this
technique. The Rorschach Inkblots test
consists of 10 symmetrical inkblots (see
Fig. 2.6). Five of them are black and white
and five have same color. The blots are printed
and centered on pieces of white cardboard of
about 7”x10” size. The blots were originally
made by dropping ink on a piece of paper
and then folding the paper in half. The cards
are usually administered to a person
individually. There are two phases of
administration: performance proper and
inquiry. In the first phase the person is
instructed as follows: “I am going to show you
a number of inkblots, and want you to tell
me what you see in each of them”. The person
being tested gives the responses, which are
recorded. Once the responding to all the 10
Fig. 2. 6. An example of the Rorschach
type Inkblots
cards is over the inquiry phase begins.
Starting with the first card the person is
reminded about the response and is required
to tell where and how the response was seen
by him or her. The use and interpretation of
this technique requires training.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) :
This test was developed by Morgan and
Murray in 1935. It consists of a series of 30
pictures and one blank card. Some cards are
used for adult males (M), adult females (F),
Introduction to Psychology
boys (B), girls (G), or some combination (e.g.
BM). Twenty cards are appropriate for every
subject. However, lesser number of cards
(even five) have been successfully used. The
cards are presented one at a time. If you take
this test you will be instructed as follows: “Tell
what has led up to the event shown in the
picture, describe what is happening at the
moment, what the characters are feeling and
thinking, and then give the outcome”. The
person is encouraged to imagine and say
whatever comes to mind. It is expected that
people will interpret an ambiguous stimulus
according to their individual readiness to
perceive in a certain way. The themes that
recur in these imaginative productions are
thought to have significance. Researchers
have developed special scoring keys for use
with the TAT. In India many adaptations of
this test have been done. An example of a
TAT card is given in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 An illustration showing the drawing of a
card of TAT
Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study (The
P-F Study) : This test was developed by
Rosenzweig. Using frustration and aggression
as the main focus it presents a series of
cartoons in which one person frustrates
another or calls attention to a frustrating
condition. The analysis of responses is based
on type and direction of aggression. They are
obstacle dominance (emphasis on the
frustrating object), ego defence (emphasis on
Self and Personality
protection of the frustrated person), and need
persistence (emphasis on the constructive
solution of the problem). The direction of
aggression may be towards the environment
(extragressive) or toward oneself
(intraggressive) or inaggressive or tuned off
in an attempt to gloss over or evade the
situation. Uday Pareek and Rosenzweig
have adapted this test for Indian population.
Sentence Completion Test: In this test a
number of stems consisting of a few words
are presented. The task is to provide an
ending. It is held that the type of ending used
reflects the motivation, conflicts, and
attitudes of the person. Thus the examinee
has many opportunities to reveal underlying
motivations about each topic. A sample of
items used in sentence completion test is
given below.
1. My father——————————————--.
2. My greatest fear is ——————————.
3. The best thing about my mother was ——
————————————————.
4. I am proud of —————————————
——————————————————.
The Draw-A-Person Test: It is a simple test
in which the examinee is presented with a
blank sheet of paper and a pencil and an
eraser. He or she is asked to draw a person.
When the drawing is complete the examinee
is normally asked to draw the figure of
another person of the opposite sex. Finally,
the examinee is required to make up a story
about the person as if he or she were a
character in a novel or play. Machover has
used it for personality assessment. She used
the psychodynamic approach to analyse the
drawings. Some of the interpretations
included the following: omission of facial
features means that person is evasive about
highly conflictual interpersonal relationship,
graphic emphasis of the neck means
disturbance about the lack of control over
ACTIVITY 2.5
Using A Sentence Completion Test
With the help of your teacher prepare a set
of sentence blanks. Use it on five persons.
Try to find out the similarities and differences
in the obtained responses. Discuss your
findings with your teacher.
55
impulses, disproportionably large head means
organic brain disease, and pre-occupation
with headaches.
The analysis of personality with the help
of projective techniques is rooted in one or
the other kind of psychodynamic theory. They
are very interesting and provide a variety of
materials. The interpretation of the responses
or products is a skilled job for which
specialised training is required. In their use
the interscorer agreement (scorer reliability)
is considered more important. Their reliability
and validity in traditional sense is low. These
techniques present a paradox. While validity
of the findings using these techniques is
considerably low the practitioners are very
fond of using it. Perhaps we cling to certain
stereotypes even when the findings or
observations are contradictory. People often
tend to note the confirming instances and
ignore the contradictory data. This kind of
illusory validation partly explains the
popularity of projective techniques.
Recapitulation
Projective techniques appraise personality in
an indirect manner. They are based on the
assumption that when a person is forced to
impose meaning on relatively structured,
unclear, or incomplete stimulus, the responses
will be projections or reflections of his or her
feelings, desires and needs, etc. These tests
may demand association, construction,
completion, arrangement, selection, and
expression with drawings. Some of the
frequently used projective tests are Rorschach
Inkblot Test consists of 10 inkblot cards: five
of them are black and white and five have the
same color. The examinee has to respond to
the question “what this might be?” The part of
the blot is clarified. Each response is scored
for location, form, movement, content etc. The
scores help to understand personality
functioning. The Holtzman Inkblots Test has
ACTIVITY 2.6
Using Draw-A-Person Test
Ask a boy and a girl of 10 years to draw two
human figures – a male and a female. Try to
figure out the differences. Discuss the results
with your teacher.
56
45 cards and one response is required for each.
This test has been found to be more reliable
and overcome the limitations of Rorschach test.
The TAT has 30 pictures and one blank
card. The examinee is asked to write a story
for each card referring to the past, present
and the future of the main characters. The
theme of the story thus produced is analysed.
Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study has 24
cartoon drawings depicting two persons in
frustrating situations. The examinee has to
provide a verbal response to that situation.
The mode of reaction is analysed.
In the sentence completion test a number
of stems consisting of a few words are given.
The examinee has to complete the sentence.
The type of ending used by the examinee
reflects his or her motivation. The Draw-A-
Person test has also been used for the
assessment of personality. The examinee is
required to draw male and female figures. The
details of various features are analysed and
interpreted in the light of certain assumptions
of the psychodynamic theory. On the whole,
the projective tests try to understand
the dynamic and unconscious aspects
of personality.
LEARNING CHECKS VII
1. Projective assessment is based on the
assumption that personal ——————
of ——————— stimuli reflect the
unconscious contents.
2. Projective tests assume that ambiguous
stimulus is viewed by an examinee
according to his or her ————————
———— in a certain way.
3. Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study
presents a series of cartoons in which
one person ———————— another.
4. In a sentence completion test an
examinee has many opportunities to
reveal ——————————— about
each topic.
5. The Rorschach scoring criteria include
location, determinant, —————— and
——————————.
6. In TAT stories produced by the examinee
the hero is —————————————.
Introduction to Psychology
SELF–REPORT MEASURES
These are structured measures in which the
examinee is required to give verbal responses
on some kind of rating scale. They are called
self–report because the examinee has to
respond objectively to the items of the
measure and his or her reports are accepted
as they are. They are not treated as
projections to be interpreted by the
investigator. The scores on these measures
are quantitative. They are interpreted on the
basis of norms developed by the author of
the test.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI):Hathaway and McKinley,
as an aid in the process of psychiatric
diagnosis, conceived this test in 1940. In
subsequent research this test has been found
very effective in detecting psycho-pathology.
It has been used in many diverse types of
populations. The revised test known as MMPI–
2 was published in 1989. It has 567 items in
the form of affirmative statements to which
the test taker gives the responses: true or
false. The MMPI-2 provides scores for 10
subscales: Hypochondriasis, Depression,
Hysteria, Psychopathic Deviate,
Masculinity-femininity, Paranoia,
Psychesthenia, Schizophrenia, Mania, and
Social Intervention.
In India an effort has been made by Mallick
and Joshi as they developed a test similar to
MMPI the test is known as Jodhpur Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (JMPI).
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) :
This test was developed by Eysenck to assess
two basic dimensions of personality namely
introverted-extroverted and emotionally
stable–emotionally unstable. These
dimensions subsume 32 personality traits.
In subsequent work he also identified a third
dimension named psychotism. It refers to
psychopathology and represents a lack of
feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting
with people, and a tendency to defy the social
conventions. A person scoring high on this
dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and
antisocial.
Sixteen Factors Personality Inventory
(16 PF) : This test was developed by Cattell
Self and Personality 57

on the basis of a large set of empirical data
about personality descriptions. He used the
technique of factor analysis to identify the
basic personality structure. Factor analyses
is a statistical technique in which correlations
among the items are used to find out the
clusters of items that are correlated or go
together. The test has declarative statements
and the examinee has to respond to a specific
situation by choosing from among given
alternatives.
The test is currently available in 5
separate forms and in one form of the test
there are 105 items. It is used for high school
students to adults. In addition to 16 basic
scales there are 4 second order indices of
personality. This test is frequently used in
career guidance, vocational exploration, and
occupational testing.
Apart from the above-mentioned measures
there is a huge number of measures that assess
specific personality dimensions and needs.

ACTIVITY 2.7

Where do you stand on the dimension of Introversion-Extraversion?

Ten statements are given below, each followed by 3 alternative responses (a, b & c). Read each
statement carefully and mark the alternative (encircle the corresponding letter a, b, or c ) that is close
to your experience/thinking/or way of life.
(a) (b) (c)
agree undecided disagree
1. You like more of those people who are sociable
and mixing type. — — —
2. On holidays, you like to be to yourself, listening
music and reading. — — —
3. If given opportunity, you would like to have a large
circle of friends. That makes you feel more secure. — — —
4. In parties, you would like to have a cup of tea
and sit in some secluded corner enjoying the tea alone. — — —
5. You do not like to share your experiences with others,
you like a very personal life. — — —
6. You think, meeting people and attending parties is
a waste of time. — — —
7. You do not get bored when alone, you are capable
of keeping yourself occupied. — — —
8. On holidays, you do not like to stay at home.
You like to meet friends and relatives. — — —
9. You are a thinking type, like seclusion, and
enjoy the company of nature. — — —
10. You hesitate to talk to strangers, even on phone. — — —

Key
score on the test.
order, i.e., 3 for ‘a’, 2 for ‘b’ and 1 for ‘c’. Add all the scores across 10 statements and that is your
and 3 each to ‘c’ except statements 1, 3, and 8. For these three statements, the scoring is in reversed
After marking all the 10 statements give a score of 1 each to all statements marked ‘a’ 2 each to ‘b’

Interpretation
Scores between 10-14: Introvert
Scores between 15-25: Ambivert
Scores between 26-30: Extravert
© K.D. Broota, Attention: These are sample items and should not be used for clinical evaluation or for
diagnosis.
58
BOX 2.10 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT IN INDIA
The Indian psychologists have taken interest in
the adptatation of foreign tests as the well as
development of new tests to assess various traits
and dimensions of personality. This work has
been undertaken in different Indian languages
as well as in English. Many of these tests are
published in journals and some of them are
commercially available. A brief description of the
sample Indian personality tests is given below:
Tripathi Personal Preference Schedule
(TPPS) : Developed by R. R. Tripathi, this
schedule is a multi–trait scale of 15 personality
variables with a control of social desirability.
There are 225 items. Each item has pair of
statements and the student has to choose one
alternative. Percentile norms and scores for male
and female college students are provided. The
personality variables include Achievement,
Difference, Order, Exhibition, Autonomy,
Affiliation, Interception, Succoraver, Dominance,
Abasement, Nurturance, Change, Endurance,
Heterosexuality and Aggression. It takes about
They are used for assessing specific attributes,
like authoritarianism, locus of control,
optimism, approval motive, affiliation motive,
competence, hope, nishkama karma and
so on.
The self-report measures suffer from
response sets. Examples of these sets are
social desirability. It is a tendency on the part
of the respondent to endorse socially
desirable. Another is yessaying or
acquiescence. This is the tendency to agree
with items/questions regardless of their
contents. The response sets make it difficult
for true assessment of personality.
Recapitulation
Self-report measures of personality involve
verbal items of different types. The
responses are considered, as they are to
provide a quantitative index of the trait
being measured. They are also called
structured measures because they are
standardised according to psychometric
criteria. Some of the frequently used
measures are as follows.
Introduction to Psychology
50 minutes to complete the testing. The
responses are given on a response sheet.
Multivariable Personality Inventory
(MPI): Developed by B.C. Muthayya, this test
measures personality variables, i.e., dominance,
dogmatism, self-confidence, empathy, need
achievement, introversion, neuroticism, ego-ideal
and pessimism. There are 50 items and Yes
or No are the response categories. It is
for adults.
Dependence Proneness Scale (DPS) :
Developed by J.B.P. Sinha, this test measures
dependency as a response disposition. A
dependence prone person is anxious, fatalist,
unpractical, traditional and resists change. The test
has 50 items. The responses are given on a 5 point
scale ranging from ‘quite true’ (5) to ‘not at all true’
(1) with undecided (3) in the middle. It involves
four components, i.e., affection – affiliation, lack of
internal control, evading responsibility, and
conformity. The scores could range between 20 to
100, the larger the score, the greater is the degree
of dependence proneness.
Q Sort is a measure to study a person’s
traits through rating scales. It can be used
for a variety of purposes. In particular it is
used to provide self description and
description of relationships. The examinee is
asked to sort hundred or so statements into
nine piles, putting a prescribed number of
cards into each. The cards most descriptive
of the person are put at one end and the least
descriptive at the opposite end, and
undecided around the middle.
Hathaway and McKinley developed the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) for the purpose of
psychiatric diagnosis. In subsequent
research this test has been found very
effective in detecting psychopathology. Now
it is also used in other settings for
counselling and employment purposes. It
has been used in many diverse types of
populations. Its revised version, MMPI 2
has 10 sub scales.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
assesses two basic dimensions of
personality: introverted-extroverted and
Self and Personality 59

emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. tool. It is a forced choice test in which the

These dimensions subsume 32 personality
traits. In subsequent work Eysenck also
identified a third dimension named
Psychotism. It refers to psychopathology. It
involves a lack of feeling for others, a tough
manner of interacting with people, and a
tendency to defy the social conventions.
Cattell’s 16 Factors Personality
Inventory (16 PF) is another very popular
examinee has to respond to a specific
situation by choosing from among given
alternatives. It is used from high school
students to adults. In addition to 16 basic
scales that measure source traits of
personality there are four second order
indices. The test is frequently used in career
guidance, vocational exploration, and
occupational testing.

LEARNING CHECKS VIII

1. Self-report measures provide —————— and —————————— assessment of

personality.
2. The responses of examinee on self-report measures are ————————— to be interpreted.
3. Q Sort procedures involve ——————————of ———————statements in different piles.
4. MMPI was initially developed for ————————————————————.
5. Lie score in MMPI provides ———————————————————————.
6. The three dimensions of EPQ are introverted-extroverted—————————etc., and ———
—————.
7. CPI is used on —————————————————————————————.
8. Warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, positive emotions
constitute ———————————.
9. The personality test 16 PF is an ————————— based on factor analysis.

Key Terms

Anal Stage, Archetypes, Biofeedback, Extroversion, Latency Period, Libido,

Cardinal Traits, Central Traits, Neuroticism, Personal Constructs, Phallic
Client centered Therapy, Collective Stage, Phlegmatic, Psychodynamic
Unconscious, Defence Mechanisms, Approach, Projection, Rationalisation,
Displacement, Ego Psychology, Ego Regression, Repression, Sanguine,
Identity, Id, Identification, Impulses, Sublimation, Surface Traits, Typology,
Intellectualisation, Introversion Unconscious.

SUMMARY

l The study of the self and the personality is an effort to appraise the totality of a
persons existence. Human beings acquire the notion of the self during social
interaction with significant others. As a structure the self represents an organised
collection or a schema of beliefs and the feelings about oneself. As a process, the
self represents a dialogue between an object (Me) and a subject (I).
l We try to regulate the self by using a variety of strategies such as vrata, upwas
(fasting), following the rules of conduct ( yam and niyam), biofeedback, Zen, Yoga
etc. The psychological techniques include systematic observation of behaviour,
stimulus control, self-reinforcement, and self-instruction.
l The Self and culture are mutually related. The studies show that while the people in
western cultural settings emphasise on the uniqueness and the separateness of the
self, the people in many non-western cultures including India, conceptualise the self
in a relational manner with shifting boundaries between the self and the non-self.
Contemporary empirical studies of Indian self tend to suggest that it is context
60 Introduction to Psychology

sensitive, collectivist, and interdependent. It however, maintains individuality and

autonomy – a situation that depicts coexistence of opposites.
l Personality refers to characteristics of a person that are stable across situations and
over time and make him or her unique. Personality has been studied through many
approaches in which typological, psychodynamic, humanistic, and cognitive are
prominent.
l The typological approach aims at describing personality in terms of types and traits
and relating them to behaviours. Early attempts illustrate the use of typology in the
context of medicine. Thus dhatus and humours present in the body are linked to
temperament and behaviour. Sheldon used body build as the basis of personality
types and related them to temperament and behaviour. These approaches are very
simplistic and have lost their appeal. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck have developed
trait theories that offer unified view of person. The traits as generalised behavioural
tendencies are assumed to be responsible for individual differences and uniqueness
observed in behaviour of the people. The relationship between trait scores and
behaviours, however, is low and cross-situational consistency is not very high.
l The psychodynamic perspective originated from Freud’s psychoanalysis. He identified
three systems of personality i.e., Id, ego, and superego. Id strives towards biological
satisfaction following pleasure principle. The ego makes effort to reconcile the needs
of Id with the actualities of world following reality principle. The superego is the
representation of internalised rules of the society. It punishes the deviations by
creating the feelings of guilt.
l People experience internal conflicts due to the anxiety that becomes associated with
forbidden thoughts and wishes. The person represses them and sends to the
unconscious. However, the repressed materials generally surface again. To cope
with them people take recourse to various defence mechanisms such as displacement,
reaction formation, rationalisation, and projection etc.
l Freud believed that unconscious conflicts are located in the process of psychosexual
development. He proposed that children pass through the stages of oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital stages. The erogenous zones through which gratification is
obtained characterise these stages. During the phallic stage the male child develops
the Oedipus complex and the female child experiences Electra complex. Freud
considered dreams as wish fulfillment and utilise symbolism. The Freudian concepts
are criticised for lack of scientific support.
l The Post-Freudians disputed many of the views of Freud. They shifted the focus
towards interpersonal forces and the contemporary circumstances of life of the person.
Theorists like Carl Jung, Fromm, Adler, Horney and Erikson paid less attention to
Id and more to the ego and social forces. The ego is viewed as the seat of creativity,
planning, and the formation of self-fulfilling goals.
l The Humanistic approach is rooted in two assumptions i.e., focus on subjective
experience and importance of individual’s choice. Among the humanistic theorists
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the most significant. Rogers emphasised on
the relationship between what we feel we are (the real self), and what we feel we
should be (the ideal self). When these two are similar, the situation is congruent and
a person is fully functioning. The state of being congruent, which happens to be the
goal of development, depends on availability of people who provide empathy,
openness and unconditional positive regard.
l Abraham Maslow approached human behaviour in terms of needs that motivate
people. The needs encompass a wide spectrum–from the basic needs to self-
actualisation.
l Personality assessment refers to the procedures to evaluate people on the basis of
certain characteristics. The goal of assessment is to predict behaviour with minimum
error and maximum accuracy. It provides dependable information about other individuals
needed for a variety of purposes including research, counselling, selection, training,
and placement. Three main approaches to personality assessment are: observer reports,
projective techniques, and self-report measures. Observer reports include techniques
such as interview, observation, rating, nomination, and situational tests.
Self and Personality 61

l Projective techniques are based on the assumption that when a person is forced to
impose meaning on an ambiguous stimulus, the responses will be the projections or
reflections of his or her feelings, desires, needs etc. The projections are located in
the association, construction, completion, arrangement, selection, and expression made
by the examinee. The frequently used projective test include Rorschach Inkblots,
Thematic Apperception Test, Sentence Completion Test, Roenzwieg’s Picture
Frustration test, and Draw-a-Person Test.
l The structured measures of personality include a number of self-report measures
that are developed psychometrically. They provide objective and quantitative
assessment of personality. They are of various types and use different format of
verbal items. Most of them are based on specific theories of personality.
l Hathaway and McKinley developed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) for the purpose of psychiatric diagnosis in 1030s. In subsequent research
this test has proved useful in detecting psychopathology. Its recent revision MMPI–
2 has 10 sub-scales.
l Cattell’s Sixteen Factors Personality Inventory (16 PF) is a forced choice test in which
the examinee has to respond to a specific situation by choosing from among given
alternatives. It is popular in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational
testing. It has versions suitable for samples from high school students to adults. In
addition to the 16 basic scales that measure the source traits of personality, there
are four second order indices.

Review Questions

1. What is self? What is the Indian notion of self?

2. What is delay of gratification? Why the ability to cope with it is important for adult
development?
3. What is personality? What are the main approaches for its study?
4. What is the trait approach to personality?
5. What is Freud’s threefold conception of personality? What functions do they serve?
6. How do the Post-Freudians differ from Freud?
7. What is the humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
8. What are the main observational ways to assess personality?
9. What are the structured personality tests? What are the two most widely used tests?
10. What are the two projective tests that are famous? How are they administered and interpreted?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. T, 2. F , 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F, 7. T.
II : 1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T, 7. F, 8. T, 9. F, 10. T.
III : 1. Oedipus complex, 2. Electra complex, 3. repression, 4. super-ego, 5. reality,
6. unconscious, 7. manifest, latent, 8. rationalisation, 9. displacement, 10. anxiety.
IV : 1.T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5.T, 6. F, 7. T, 8.T, 9. F, 10. F.
V : 1. positive self regard, 2. Self-actualisation, 3. basically good, 4. journey, goal
5. accepted, 6. choose, determine, 7. profound, deeply felt
VI : 1. Personality assessment, 2. minimum error and maximum accuracy,
3. impressions, hunches, 4. own words, 5. observer, 6. unfairly biased,
7. halo effect, 8. nomination, 9. situational test
VII : 1. interpretation, ambiguous, 2. readiness to perceive, 3. frustrates, 4. underlying
motivations, 5. content, popular vs. original, 6. the protagonist.
VIII: 1. objective, quantitative, 2. not the projections, 3. sorting, self related,
4. clinical diagnosis, 5. validity check , 6. emotionally stable, emotionally unstable,
Psychotism., 7. normal people, 8. extraversion, 9. empirically developed test
62 Introduction to Psychology

3 SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä Nature, types, and formation of groups
Ä Influence of groups on individual’s
behaviours
Ä Processes of conformity, compliance, and
obedience
Ä Nature, functions, and styles of leadership
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä appreciate the nature and importance of
groups,
Ä understand the functions, and formation
of groups,
Ä differentiate between various types of
groups,
Ä know how individual behaviours are
shaped by group influences, and
Ä define leadership and explain its styles
and functions.
Introduction
Nature and Formation of Groups
What is a Group?
Functions of a Group
Factors Facilitating Group Formation
Understanding Group Structure through
Sociometry (Box 3.1)
Groupthink : Adverse Effects of Cohesiveness
(Box 3.2)
Types of Group
Primary-Secondary Groups, Formal-Informal
Groups, In group-Out group
Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour
Social Facilitation, Social Loafing, and Risk
Taking
Conformity, Compliance and Obedience
Experimental Demonstration of Conformity
(Box 3.3)
Minority Influence (Box 3.4)
Obedience: Milgram’s Experiment (Box 3.5)
Cooperation and Competition
Leadership: Nature and Functions
What makes a Leader?
The Functions of Leaders.
Leadership Styles: How Leaders Operate

Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Social Influence and Group Processes 63

INTRODUCTION

Imagine yourself present in three situations: in the company of your friends in

the market, with your parents, and in your classroom. If you closely analyse
these situations, you will find wide differences in your own behaviours in these
settings. You will notice that your thoughts and behaviours are to a large extent
shaped by the interaction and contacts with other persons. Such interactions,
also called social interaction, provide us support by shaping and strengthening
our ideas and views, and also by serving as a source of information. The group
serves as a framework against which one can compare one’s own behaviour
and thought. Interaction with the group members can be of different kinds, such
as: two friends talking to each other, a shopkeeper talking to a customer, a teacher
talking to a class of students, a political leader addressing a gathering of people,
or a group of people attending a lecture. In all these group situations, our
behaviour will be affected to a great extent by the nature of the group. It is,
therefore, important to know how people deal with others, influence one-another,
and behave in groups. Also, groups are necessary for survival and development
of human beings. A newborn baby needs the care and warmth of its mother
and in its subsequent development too, the support from the family and other
groups continue to play an important role. To a large extent we, therefore, are
shaped by the various kinds of groups with whom we interact.

To understand human behaviour with respect to the social surroundings, it

is important to understand the nature of groups: what they are and how they
influence the individual behaviour. In this chapter you will read about the nature
of group, how our performance is influenced by working with others or by the
mere presence of others, how group can affect decision-making, why certain
individuals become leaders, and how leaders influence the behaviours of group
members.

Leaders don’t create followers,

they create more leaders.
– Tom Peters
64
NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS
What is a Group?
Do people standing in a queue waiting to
catch a bus or watching a cricket match in
the stadium constitute a group? These people
may share certain common characteristics,
but can only be called a physical assembly of
people or a mere collection of people. In such
situations people are together but do not have
defined status, role, and expectation towards
each other. Thus, physical proximity alone
does not make a group.
A group is an organised system of two
or more persons who are interrelated to
perform a function, has a structured set
of role relationships among its members,
and has a set of norms that regulate their
behaviours. Thus, how many individuals are
required for the emergence of a group? Even
two individuals may develop an organised
mode of relationship, as in the case of
husband and wife. A two-person group is
called a dyad. According to the definition, the
main characteristics of a group are as follows:
l Individuals must interact with each other,
either directly or indirectly.
l Individuals must be interdependent – what
one is doing must have some consequence
for the other.
l The members of a group have common
motives and goals. Group functions as a
unitary system, either working towards a
given goal or away from certain threats.
All members work towards the same goal.
l Interactions among the individuals in a
group must be structured in some manner.
This means that the functions performed
by each member are same every time the
group meets. The roles to be carried out
by each member of the group are specified
in advance.
l Individuals adhere to the group norms.
These norms tell how individuals should
behave in relation to others in the group
and in other matters of importance. The
expected modes of behaviour guide the
functions of a group and its members.
Thus, a group consists of two or more
interacting persons who share common goals,
are interdependent, and perceive that they are
Introduction to Psychology
part of a group. While all these conditions are
necessary for describing a group, it is important
to know that groups vary depending on the
time spent together by the member.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Understanding The Nature of a Group
Identify the groups of which you are a
member. How do the above–mentioned
conditions apply to your group? What are the
salient features of these groups? How are
they different from other groups? Discuss
your observations with classmates.
Functions of a Group
You must have realised that every person
belongs to a number of groups at any given
time. Thus, a young boy or a girl may be a
member of student associations, cricket or
football team, clubs (theatre, art, music),
religious groups, and informal groups
consisting of neighbours or others. This
brings us to the question: why do we join
groups? As mentioned earlier, being a part
or member of a group may help an individual
in the following ways:
l Groups satisfy important psychological
or social needs of individuals such as
attaining a sense of belongingness, and
giving and receiving attention and affection.
l Groups help in achieving such goals
which cannot be attained individually.
We are often able to do certain jobs with
the help of others, which we cannot
do alone.
l Group membership provides us
knowledge and information and
broadens our view.
l Groups fulfil our need for security and
safety. Being with people gives a sense of
protection from real or imagined enemy,
or from other potential hazards.
l Group membership helps to establish a
positive social identity and self-concept.
Being a member of prestigious groups
enhances the individual’s self-concept.
Factors Facilitating Group Formation
There are a number of factors, which
influence the formation of groups. All of these
Social Influence and Group Processes
assume that interaction is basic to group
formation. Let us analyse the conditions,
which influence the formation of groups.
1. Proximity : Individuals with similar
background, living in the same complex and
going to the same school may form groups
on the basis of proximity. For instance,
repeated encounters with the same set of
individuals give a chance to discover similarity
in their interest, values and opinions. These
are important determiners of liking for other
persons. Usually, when people are put in new
situations or conditions, there is a feeling of
strangeness and they may initially react
indifferently or negatively. Gradually, as they
become familiar with the new situation, they
become more positively disposed toward each
other. Being exposed to someone or
something several times may lead towards the
development of greater liking for that person
which increases the likelihood of spending
more time together or the need to be together.
2. Similarity : It has been observed that more
the similarity in the attitudes of two persons,
there is greater likelihood that they would
form a group. One possible explanation is that
BOX 3.1 UNDERSTANDING GROUP STRUCTURE THROUGH SOCIOMETRY
Sociometry (social measurement) was
introduced by J.L. Moreno in early 1930s. It is
used to understand the liking of group members
for each other. For example, each member of a
group may be asked to tell about “A person with
whom he or she would like to work”. All the
group members nominate some group member
in response to it. The responses thus obtained
are used to prepare a sociogram. A sociogram
representing the sociometric choices of the people
in a group is shown in Fig.3.1
G C
B
D H
A I
Fig. 3.1 A Sociogram based on the choices made by hypothetical group of ten persons
65
people prefer consistency and like the
relationships that are consistent and
balanced. Therefore, if we are very similar to
another person, it seems sensible to like that
person. Another reason why we like similar
persons is that they reinforce and validate
our opinions and values. It is always
reassuring and rewarding to know that people
agree with you or have similar values. Your
best friend or the persons you like to sit with
in the class would have quite similar ideas,
likes, dislikes, ways of behaving etc. This
similarity leads to the formation of groups.
Such similarities are highlighted at times, by
wearing similar clothes (school uniform),
accessories or symbols (flags) to show a
group’s distinctiveness from others.
3. Common Goals : When a number of people
have common objectives or goals, they tend
to get together and form a group, which may
facilitate goal attainment. For example,
commuters in trains may form a group, which
can work towards facilitating their travel in
the trains. Such goals may be externally set
leading to the creation or formation of groups
with specified people. For instance, teams,
You can see that person G is a star. He has
received maximum number of choices. He has
the highest popularity status followed by C and
F. Three members i.e., D, A and I are isolates.
We also find mutual choices (B-C, F-J, F-H).
There is a cleavage in a group resulting in two
subgroups; (1) A, B, C, D, E and G and (2) I, J,
F, H. There are no choice lines connecting these
two sets of individuals. Thus, group structure
can be studied with the help of a
sociogram. There are many ways to analyse
sociometric data.
F J
66
task forces, committees and work groups are
sometimes formed to meet specific objectives.
4. Group Cohesiveness : Cohesiveness
characterises the degree of “we” feeling
present in a group. Cohesiveness tells the
‘affect structure’ of a group. There can be a
strong bondage among the members or weak
relationship. In a group, some people are
much liked while some are disliked. The study
of group structure is usually done with the
help of sociometry (see for details Box 3.1). It
works as a source of motivation and morale
of the group. The factors influencing
cohesiveness are as follows:
l Attractiveness : It includes dimensions
of individual attraction to a group, such as
(a) attraction of the members to each other,
(b) attraction of the individual members
towards the activities and functions of the
group, or (c) the extent to which the individual
is attracted to the group as a means of
satisfying his/her own needs.
l Amount of Effort : It is seen that the
amount of effort required to gain entry into
the group influences group cohesiveness.
More the effort made for joining the group;
higher would be attraction of members
towards the group. This reduces the chances
of leaving the group and increases
cohesiveness. For example, if you make efforts
to become a member of a school team, the
chances are that you would continue to
remain in the team rather than leave it.
l External Threats and Severe
Competition: It has been observed that group
cohesiveness increases in face of threats from
outside the group such as loss of privileges,
violence, etc. Natural calamities such as
earthquake, war, floods, etc., also bring
people together. At times, political leaders do
use the threat of war to generate national
cohesiveness. Even competition with others
such as in sports, quizzes, in which one
group is compared to another creates
a ‘we’ feeling among the team
members and develops high level of
cohesiveness.
l Group Belongingness : It implies the
emotional attachment among the group
members. The interpersonal ties between
group members lead to cohesiveness. It is
observed that greater the cohesiveness of a
Introduction to Psychology
group, clearer is its boundaries and sharper
the distinction between members and non-
members. Cohesive groups are difficult to
enter and leave than non-cohesive groups.
Usually group cohesiveness increases by
the attractions that a group provides and
decreases by the costs a group imposes.
However, the costs of being in a group may
enhance cohesiveness if a member is
committed to the group. Group cohesiveness
leads to uniformity in the attitude of group
members. At times, this leads to inadequate
decisions. Such a situation is found in the
phenomenon of group think described in Box
3.2. In brief, a group becomes more cohesive
when its members like each other. Being part
of the group enhances prestige of the person
and provides rewards. The costs involved
in group membership are small, particularly
when people find that no alternative
sources for rewards are present. Finally, if
the group members have incurred high
costs and now find that they cannot get out
of it, they prefer to remain associated with
the group.
Recapitulation
Social interaction helps us understand others
and ourselves. To understand human
behaviour, it is important to know how
individuals participate in groups. The term
‘group’ refers to an organised system of two
or more individuals. Groups have common
goals of its members, a structure defining the
role and status, and certain norms and
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Students taking the Board Examinations
in Delhi would be referred to as a group.
T/F
2. Members of a group have common
motives and goals. T/F
3. Norms guide the behaviour of group
members. T/F
4. Proximity is a necessary condition for
group formation. T/F
5. People sharing same opinions and
values are likely to form groups. T/F
6. Cohesive groups have rigid structures.
T/F
Social Influence and Group Processes
BOX 3.2 GROUPTHINK : ADVERSE EFFECTS OF COHESIVENESS
Generally, teamwork in groups leads to beneficial
results. However, Irving Janis suggests that
cohesion can interfere with effective leadership
and can lead to disastrous decisions. Janis
discovered a process named groupthink, in
which a cohesive group allows its concerns for
unanimity “override the motivation to
realistically appraise alternative courses of
action”. It is the tendency of decision-makers to
make irrational and uncritical decisions.
Groupthink is characterised by the appearance
of consensus or unanimous agreement within a
group. Each member believes that all members
agree upon a particular decision or policy. No one
expresses dissenting opinions because each
person believes it would undermine the cohesion
of the group and would be unpopular.
Consequently, the number of alternatives
considered by the group goes down. Studies have
values, which guide the activities of its
members. Some of the factors facilitating
group formation are: proximity, similarity,
and common goals. Group cohesiveness
ensures continued functioning and
effectiveness of the groups. Cohesiveness
depends on attractiveness, amount of effort,
external threats, and belongingness.
TYPES OF GROUP
As we have seen, an individual may belong to
different kinds of groups. The affiliation to
different types of groups may be transitory
or permanent. The groups we belong to
changes or may take various forms during
the course of their existence. A group, such
as a family, may further be subdivided into
other groups for various purposes and its
members may be part of other groups as well.
For example, husband-wife, husband and his
co-workers, wife and her colleagues, daughter
and her basket-ball team, son and his cricket
team, and so on. In other words, a group may
emerge whenever two or more persons are
involved in a common activity and there is
interaction among the individuals. You have
read earlier that individuals may enter into
groups for different purposes.
67
shown that such a group has an exaggerated
sense of its own power to control events, and tends
to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that
suggest danger to its plan. In order to preserve
the group’s internal harmony and collective well-
being, it becomes increasingly out of touch with
reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially
homogenous, cohesive groups that are isolated
from outsiders, that have no tradition of
considering alternatives, and that face a
decision with high costs or failure. Some ways
to counteract or prevent group think are:
encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and
even disagreement among group members,
group should be encouraged to present
alternative courses of action, inviting outside
experts to evaluate the group’s decision and
encouraging members to seek feedback from
trusted others.
Groups may differ in terms of the
functions performed or the manner in which
they are organised. Social groups can be
characterised in many ways based on
different dimensions such as: (i) size (group
of two persons (dyad) to millions of citizens of
a country); (ii) permanence (lasting for few
minutes to a relatively longer duration); (iii)
geographical distribution (plains, hills, tribal,
coastal, etc.) and (iv) determinants (blood
relationships, cultural interests, etc.).
Broadly, the groups are categorised in the
following types: 1. Primary and Secondary
Groups, 2. Formal and Informal Groups,
3.In-group and Out-group. A brief
description of these groups is given below:
Primary and Secondary Groups
Primary groups are pre-existing formations,
which are usually given to the individual,
whereas secondary groups are the ones,
which an individual joins by choice. Thus,
family is a primary group whereas a political
party is a secondary group. Primary groups
are characterised by intimate, face-to-face
interaction. Its members have close physical
proximity and share warm emotional bonds.
Family, playmates, and neighbours are
examples of primary groups. Primary groups
are more central to individual’s functioning
68
and, usually, they are instrumental in forming
the social nature, values and ideals of the
individuals during early stages of
development. In contrast, secondary groups
are those where relations among members
are more impersonal, indirect, less frequent,
or removed in space or time (e.g., a hobby
group, political party or one’s nation). The
members usually come together for a common
goal and work according to the agreed rules.
It is observed that large groups by nature are
ordinarily secondary groups, while only
small groups tend to have the properties of
primary groups.
Formal and Informal Groups
These groups differ in the degree to which
the functions of the group are stated explicitly
and formally. With changes in size and type
of relationship, groups need to have rigidly
defined roles and status difference. The
functions of a formal group are explicitly
stated, as in an office organisation, or social
work club. The roles to be performed by group
members are stated in explicit and formal
manner (as in a job or in military service).
Formal groups are generally secondary
groups. They have rigidly stated functions and
the roles of the members are well defined or
imposed. Formal groups have a chain of
command for decision-making, although in
many formal groups (such as military or
bureaucracy) informal decision making
processes may exist as parallel mechanisms.
Primary groups like family are informal
groups. Members of primary groups usually
feel more comfortable to take decisions
in informal settings (like tea time,
lunch) than through the formal channels
of communications.
In-group and Out-group
People generally think of the social world in
terms of categories such as – they and we.
They view other persons as belonging either
to their own group (usually called the
ingroup) or to another group (the outgroup).
Such distinctions are based on race, religion,
age, occupation, and many other features.
Dividing people into “us” and “them” creates
contrasting feelings and beliefs for members
Introduction to Psychology
of one’s ingroup and members of other
outgroups. Persons in the ingroup are
generally viewed favourably, having desirable
behaviour, and admirable traits. The
members of the outgroups are often perceived
negatively compared to the ingroup members.
As individuals identify with a specific group,
feelings of loyalty and commitment to one’s
own group makes them perceive their group
as superior to other groups. Such perceptions
contribute to the self-esteem of the person
and may lead to biases, and prejudices
against Out-group members. The students
belonging to a particular school (In-group)
perceive students of other schools (Out-group)
differently. Each one feels somewhat superior
to the other. However, what may be In-group
in one culture or subculture, may be an Out-
group in another. For example, an artist will
consider a group of artists to be In-group,
and a group of scientists to be Out-group,
whereas for a scientist, artists would
constitute an Out-group and scientists an In-
group. Perception of In-groups and Out-
groups affects social life, and the personality
of individuals. However, changes in the
society have resulted in wider acceptance of
diversity including ethnic and cultural
variations and have blurred the In-group and
Out-group demarcations in many areas of our
social functioning.
Recapitulation
Groups have been classified in many ways
like: primary and secondary groups, formal
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Groups differ with regard to their
function and organisation. T/F
2. Social organisations have distinctive
symbols, dress or signs. T/F
3. Primary groups have close intimate
interaction. T/F
4. Formal and Informal groups differ in
terms of the relationship among the
members. T/F
5. Perceptions of in-group and out-group
affect our feelings and behaviours.
T/F
Social Influence and Group Processes
and informal groups, and In-groups and Out-
groups. Various types of groups influence
behaviour and shape the pattern of
interaction of individuals and society. Our
behaviours are affected by the nature of
groups and by our perception of such groups.
INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
You must have noticed that people perform a
large number of tasks with the co-operation
of others or at least in their presence. What
impact does the presence of others has on
our performance? We will discuss in this
section the manner in which working with
others affects our performance.
Social Facilitation
Think of the situations when you are running
alone trying to compete with your own
standard, or when you are running a race
competing with others. In which situation will
you run faster? Probably you will run faster
when you are competing with others. We all
are affected in different ways by other people.
Do you know that even the mere presence of
the other person affects our behaviour? It is
a common observation that we tend to eat
more when in a group than when we are
alone. Individual behaviour is ‘facilitated’ in
several ways while performing in the presence
of others. Floyd H. Allport conducted a series
of studies in which the performance of
individuals was compared on a variety of
tasks when they performed alone, and when
they were doing the same in the presence of
others. In one study, the participants were
asked to write down on paper as many
associations for the given words as they could
think of. The participants were allowed to
work alone and in the presence of two other
persons. The results showed that participants
produced more associations when working in
the presence of other people than when
working alone. This positive effect on
performance due to the presence of others is
known as Social-Facilitation. In general, it
is observed that performance is facilitated in
the presence of others. However, this is not
true in all cases neither for all individuals.
69
Sometimes, people’s performance is adversely
affected by others’ presence. People
sometimes tend to make greater number of
errors in the presence of others. Such adverse
effects on performance due to others’
presence are called “Social Inhibition”.
Stutterers, for example, stutter more when
reading a passage aloud in front of an
audience than when they do the same alone.
Facilitation effect is found in case of simple,
automatic, over learned behaviours, such as
running, copying text, etc., and is not
observed for complex tasks.
Why does the presence of others
sometimes enhances and sometimes impairs
performance? There are different reasons for
this type of behaviour. (i) The presence of
others seems to energise people or generate
feelings of increased arousal, which enhances
performance. (ii) The second reason for social
facilitation is apprehension of evaluation or
concern of being judged by others, which is
often arousing. The fear of negative evaluation
can arouse people to do well, especially on
simple tasks. On complex tasks, when a
performer makes mistakes and assumes a
negative reaction, she/he gets flustered, and
then makes more mistakes. (iii) Another
reason contributing to social facilitation is the
concern over self-presentation–looking or
performing well in front of others. Try to recall
how you had felt when you were on stage in
front of the school assembly or audience.
Were you more tense or excited? In general,
the social facilitation stems from evaluation
apprehension–concerns over being judged by
others (which is often arousing), or from
concerns over self-presentation–looking good
in front of others, and not only due to the
mere presence of others.
Social Loafing
Suppose you and your class-fellows were
asked to shift a heavy table to the next room.
All of you try to push the table. Do you think
all the people will be putting equal effort? May
be or may not be. A few persons will be putting
in all their efforts, while some others would
only appear to be helping, or pretending to
do more than they really are. This pattern is
commonly observed when a group is required
70
to make efforts together for completing a task.
On such tasks, some persons work hard while
the others pretend to be working, doing less
than their share, and less than what they
might do if they were working alone. Such
effects are referred to as social loafing –
reductions in motivation and effort when
individuals work collectively in a group
compared to when they work individually. In
an interesting experiment, Latane and his
associates asked groups of male students to
clap or cheer as loudly as possible at specific
times, either alone or in groups of two, four
or six. It was observed that the magnitude of
the sound made by each person decreased
sharply as the group size increased. In other
words, each participant put less effort as the
group size increased.
Social loafing is a quite common
phenomenon. Studies have revealed that
social loafing may occur due to several
reasons: (i) group members may feel less
responsible for the task being performed and
exert less effort, (ii) motivation of members
may decrease because they realise that their
contributions cannot be evaluated on
individual basis – so why work hard, and (iii)
when they find the task monotonous
particularly in such situations where they
work with people whom they do not know well
or do not respect.
Social loafing can be reduced by:
(i) making the effort of each person
identifiable, (ii) by increasing group members’
commitment to successful task performance
(pressures towards working hard),
(iii) increasing the apparent importance or
value of a task, (iv) making people feel that
their contribution to the task is unique,
and (v) by strengthening group
cohesiveness which increases the concern for
group outcomes.
Risk Taking
Groups perform a variety of tasks including
decision-making. As you know, decision-
making involves combining and integrating
the available information in order to choose
one course of action out of the several
available ones. Today most of the decisions
are taken by groups. Decisions like choosing
Introduction to Psychology
sports team, enforcing laws, government
policies, political actions, and making
educational and career choices are some
examples. It is generally believed that groups,
by pooling the knowledge and expertise of
their members, provide opportunities for
sharing different viewpoints. In case of
complicated problems, the chance is greater,
that someone in the group would have the
skills to solve the problem and thereby reach
better decisions than the individuals. Is this
true? Do groups actually approach and solve
problems more effectively and accurately than
individuals making decisions alone? Contrary
to the popular belief, research has shown that
groups are actually more likely to adopt
extreme positions than individuals making
decisions alone. The groups lead to
polarisation of the position taken in decision-
making.
How many times you alone have gathered
courage to ask the teacher for a free period?
Maybe never. However, as a class you might
have done it several times. Similarly, students
in a group may take the risk of bunking
classes, which normally as individuals they
may not. A number of studies have
demonstrated that groups have a tendency
to take greater risks than individuals do. The
standard method for studying this effect
consists of two steps. A group of participants
is first asked to make individual decisions on
a series of problems in which it is possible to
take greater or lesser risk. They are then
placed in a group situation, and are required
to discuss and make group decisions on the
same problems. In an experiment,
participants were asked to read a series of
problems and make choices among the
recommendations that differed in the
degree of the risk of failure they carried.
Initially the participants made decisions on
their own. Later these were discussed in a
group after which the group gave its decision.
It has been observed that after discussing the
alternatives with other group members, the
group decisions were more polarised than the
decision of the individual group members
before the discussion. This shows that groups
make decisions that are more risky (or non
risky) than the individuals do.
Social Influence and Group Processes
CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE AND OBEDIENCE
You have read earlier about social facilitation
(and inhibition) which is the simplest form of
social influence. Throughout the day you may
encounter a number of incidents when others
have tried to influence you in different ways,
i.e., to make you think, feel and act in ways
they want. The radio and television
commercials, advertisements in newspapers,
magazines, requests from parents, teachers,
and friends, frequently create one or the other
kind of social influence. Others may try to
influence you by flattery or by threats also.
Such processes of influence go on throughout
our social life. Attempts at social influence
are efforts made by others to change our
attitudes, beliefs, perceptions or behaviours.
Try to think of the ways in which different
people try to influence you from morning till
night. In fact, you will realise that social
influence is a part of our life. In some forms
of social influence what others do matter a
lot and we do things of being influenced by
others, which otherwise we might not have
done. On other occasions, we defy their
influence and may even influence them to
adopt our viewpoints. You have read earlier
that social influence plays a key role in group
decision making. This section describes three
important group processes such as
conformity, compliance, and obedience.
Conformity
Going to the school in uniform, following a
time schedule, adhering to the rules of the
game in playground, or making attempts
towards going along with society’s
expectations about how one should behave
in various situations are all examples of
conformity. People conform in several ways:
adhering to traffic conventions while driving,
performing a ritualistic act on entering a place
of worship, or following school norms, are all
ways of conforming. Thus, conformity is a
type of social influence in which
individuals change their behaviour or belief
to correspond more closely to the
behaviour of others in the group.
Conformity essentially involves yielding to
group pressures. The pressures from the
71
group may be explicit or implicit. In reality,
the conformity response under group
pressure may take the form of overt
behaviour. Thus, a student may join his/her
classmates to watch a cricket match. The
pressure for conformity may also lead to
prevention of action. Thus, a person may
refuse to help another person because the
group members have declared him or her as
an undesirable person. An experimental
study demonstrating conformity is given
in Box 3.3.
Conformity takes place because of
informational influence (influence that
results from accepting evidence rather than
reality). This kind of rational conformity can
be thought of as learning about the world from
the actions of others. We learn by observing
people, who are the best source of information
about many social conventions. New group
members learn about its customs by
observing the actions of other group
members. People provide information about
the world, and the information dependence
leads to conformity. Conformity may also
occur because of normative influence
(influence based on a person’s desire to be
accepted or admired by others). In such cases,
people conform because deviation from the
group may lead to rejection or at least, non-
acceptance of some form of punishment.
It is generally observed that the group
majority determines the final decision, but in
certain conditions, a minority may be more
influential. This occurs when the minority
takes a firm and uncompromising stand,
thereby creating a doubt on the correctness
of the majority’s viewpoint. This creates a
conflict within the group (see Box 3.4).
A number of explanations have been given
for conformity behaviour. One is that people
conform when they are not sure of themselves
and because they feel that, the information
provided by others is the “right and most
important information”. Second, in
ambiguous situations where we do not know
what is “right”, we look for the opinions and
behaviours of people who are similar to us
before deciding what to do. For example, when
attending a wedding (of a different community)
where rituals are unfamiliar, we look around
at other people to see what to do and follow
72
BOX 3.3 EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF CONFORMITY
A number of experiments in laboratory setting
have demonstrated that individuals can be
influenced by the group members to conform. A
classic experiment by Solomon Asch has shown
that group pressure can induce conformity of
judgement in an individual.
A B C D
Fig.3.2 Task Utilised in Conformity Study
Asch asked the participants to respond to a series
of simple perceptual problems such as the one
shown in Fig 3.2. It consisted of one standard
them. Third, people who do not conform at
times become the target of social disapproval.
To avoid the possibility of social ridicule, people
do not deviate from consensus and, therefore,
conform. Also, by “going along” with people or
by behaving like others, people meet their
needs to be liked and accepted by others.
Compliance
Have you ever thought how people make you
do certain things they want to be done by
you? Alternatively how do you make people
do things for you? Each one of us must be
using different techniques for gaining
compliance – for inducing others to say ‘yes’
to your requests. You have also read that
people tend to conform to the judgements of
others even though there is no external
pressure to do so. This shows that unspoken
pressure has powerful influence on the
behaviour of people. Compliance is a form
of social influence involving direct
requests from one person to another. There
are many techniques, which are used for
gaining compliance. Some of these are briefly
described below.
l Friendship/liking : We willingly comply
to requests from friends or from people
Introduction to Psychology
line ‘A’ and three other lines of different length,
only one of which was of the same length as the
standard line. The participants had to indicate
which of the three comparison lines matched the
standard line in length. Several other persons
(usually six to eight) were also present during the
session, but unknown to the real participant, all
were accomplices of the experimenter. On certain
occasions, known as the critical trials (twelve out
of the eighteen problems), the accomplices gave
wrong answers, i.e., they all chose the wrong line
as a match for the standard line. In addition, they
stated their answers before the participant
responded. Thus, the target person was in a
situation on critical trials where the correct answer
would be the opposite of that given by the majority.
It was observed that most of the participants in
Asch’s study conformed to the wrong judgements
given by the majority. The Control group while
judging alone made no errors. This demonstrates
the influence of group behaviour on the behaviour
of an individual.
we like than those we do not like or those
who are strangers. It has been found that
increasing others’ liking for us by
improving one’s appearance, using
positive non-verbal cues (e.g. smiling, eye
contact, etc.), agreeing with significant
people, showing interest in them, doing
favours, giving gifts, etc., results in
greater compliance.
l Commitment/Consistency : Once we
commit to an action or take a stand we
tend to comply with requests for
behaviours that are consistent with that
stand. For example, door salesmen often
use this strategy making people comply
by answering a small non-committal
question (like naming the brand used by
them) and then making them accept a
greater demand (such as buying a new
brand or accepting special offer on a
particular brand).
l Scarcity : Things that are viewed as
scarce, rare or difficult are generally
viewed as more valuable than those,
which are readily available. This also
serves as a basis for gaining compliance.
This tactic is often used by employers –
Social Influence and Group Processes
BOX 3.4 MINORITY INFLUENCE
We often come across people who dissent from
the views held by the group to which they belong.
They remain in minority and protest the decisions
taken by the group to which they belong. The
majority may disregard their views. However, this
is not always the case. There are examples of
people who were in minority but have influenced
the majority. Influence of the minority occur when
people in the minority 1. are consistent in
opposing the majority opinions 2. do not appear
as rigid and dogmatic. 3. are consistent with the
by not readily agreeing (hard to get) to give
the job and thereby increasing their worth
to the potential employee. This is an
effective way of gaining compliance.
l Reciprocity : We generally comply more
with a request from someone who has
previously provided a favour than from
someone who has not. Obligation to return
others’ favour makes us comply. You
might have helped your classmates
keeping in mind that they too had helped
you in the time of need.
l Authority : People usually comply with
requests from someone who is an
authority figure – or looks like one. In
school, you often agree to the requests
from head boy or head girl, teachers
and principal.
Obedience
The tendency to agree to requests from
persons who have authority; also underlies
the most direct and explicit social influence
called obedience. Obedience occurs when
people obey commands or orders from
others to do something. Obedience is
obtained through power that an authority
figure possesses. If a person has the power
over another, obedience can be demanded;
such a person usually has the means to
enforce his/her orders (e.g. negative
sanctions, fines, demotions,). Therefore,
obedience to the commands of the person who
has authority can be expected but often
persons lacking in such power can also
induce submissiveness in others. Social
psychological experiments provide evidence
73
current social context. A number of social
movements began with small numbers of people
who challenged the existing assumptions of the
majority. Serge Mosocovici, a French social
psychologist has shown that under certain
circumstances the minority exerts greater
influences. He experimentally demonstrated that
when the minority is consistent it causes the
participants to change their overt responses as
well as the way they look at the stimulus
situation.
for occurrence of such effects. (See Box 3.5
for an interesting experiment by Stanley
Milgram).
Milgram’s studies seem to suggest that the
ordinary people are willing, may be with some
reluctance, to harm an innocent person if
ordered by someone in authority. The
obedience phenomenon demonstrated by
Milgram can be viewed as an instance of the
more general human tendency to conform to
the group norms when under social pressure.
This also shows how in real life the group
influence can lead to acts of violence against
innocent people (for example, the willingness
of The Chinese troops to fire on the unarmed
civilians during Tiananmen Square in 1989).
It is important to know why do such cases
of destructive obedience occur. What
makes people yield to this powerful form of
social influence?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Understanding Obedience to Authority
Think of one situation when obedience to an
authority figure had made you follow harsh
directions. How do you feel now about your
act? Discuss in class with the teacher.
It has been found that obedience to
authority relieves the individual of
responsibility for his/her action. Authority
usually is enforced with symbols of status
(e.g. uniforms, titles) which people find
difficult to resist. Further, authority
commands for destructive obedience are
gradually increased from lesser to greater
levels of violence and initial obedience binds
74
BOX 3.5 OBEDIENCE : MILGRAM’S EXPERIMENT
Milgram conducted an experiment on obedience
in which participants from varied socio-economic
and educational levels participated. They were
grouped into pairs and one was the “teacher” and
the other the “learner”. The learner had to learn a
list of associations and the teacher was to present
the stimuli, record answers and administer shocks
of increasing intensity to the learner for every
incorrect response. The teachers believed that they
were administering shock to the ‘learners’. In
reality, no shock was given to the learners. In
reality, the learners were experimental
confederates. During the experiment, the learner
was in a cubicle and the communication between
the learner and the teacher was over the intercom.
Every time the shock was given to the learner, he
or she shouted to stop giving him/her the shocks.
The teacher would turn to the experimenter for
instruction and if the experimenter said, “Please
continue” the teacher would continue giving the
shocks. (In reality, no shock was administered
since all learners were confederates, acting their
role). About 65% of Milgram’s participants
continued to obey the experimenter. In order to
reduce the likelihood that the participants would
deliver the shock. Milgram brought the teachers
physically closer to the learners receiving the
the followers to commitment. For example,
police may first be ordered to arrest,
threaten the demonstrators and gradually
they maybe asked to beat, torture or even
shoot at the unarmed people. Finally,
sometimes events involving destructive
obedience move so quickly, that the
people obeying orders have little time
for reflection.
COOPERATION AND COMPETITION
Tie five small corks to five long strings and
lower each of the corks down the neck of a
bottle. Ask your five friends to hold each of
the strings. If you ask them to compete, so as
to be the first one to pull the cork out, you
will find that they will all try to pull the five
corks simultaneously and get all of them
jammed at the neck of the bottle. However, if
you ask them to demonstrate how quickly the
corks can be pulled out of the bottle, they
will probably organise themselves and pull
Introduction to Psychology
shocks. However, even when the teacher was
asked to forcibly push the learner’s hand on the
shock device – 35 per cent did so.
Later these participants were paired with two
other pairs who did not obey the experimenter
and had discontinued to deliver the shocks. It was
found that 90 percent of the teachers joined this
group and refused to obey the experimenter. In
another instance, when the experimenter left the
place of experiment and another participant
ordered the subjects to continue giving the shocks,
it was observed, that they generally refused. If
this person himself/herself tried to administer the
shock, the other teacher tried to stop him.
The findings of Milgram’s experiment reveal that–
l The Presence of authority alone is not as
critical as the presence of expert authority.
l Saying, “Please continue”, implies I am the
expert and I know that the learner will not be
harmed so the shocks can be administered.
Such implied assurance was an important
determinant of the subject’s attempts to
continue giving the shocks.
l When there is a convincing rationale for giving
shock on another person, the subjects
continued to participate in spite of the other
person being in pain.
the corks one by one in quick succession. This
shows the role of cooperation and competition
within a group.
While shared goals are usually adopted
by the members of a group, not all members
many commit to the same extent. The way
shared goals are defined is important for the
structure of the group. The goals may be
cooperative or competitive. Technically the
behaviour that yields maximal joint profit for
all the parties involved is called cooperation.
In contrast, the behaviour that yielded
maximal relative gain is labelled competition.
Thus cooperative goal are those, which are
defined in such a way that each individual
can attain his goal if other members also
attain their goals. There is interdependence
in goal attainment. Usually situations where
team effort is needed, characterise cooperative
goals (e.g., relay race). The competitive goals
involve situations where all members of the
group aspire, but the goals are defined in such
a manner that each member can attain his or
Social Influence and Group Processes
her goal only if others do not attain the goal.
There is only one winner and the others will
have to remain unsatisfied.
Studies have shown that cooperative goals
increase interpersonal relations among the
members of a group, since each contributes
to the other’s progress toward the goal. It
allows substituting activities for each other,
since the activity of each member is seen as
contributing towards fulfilling the group goals.
In a cooperative situation, individuals are
more willing to accept each other’s views and
ideas since each individual is considered
as helping the other. Cooperative goals,
therefore, contribute directly to the emergence
of mutually interrelated roles. Although
competition among individual members
within a group, tends to produce disharmony
of conflict that threatens the organisation of
the group, competition between two or more
groups tends to increase cohesiveness within
a group. It may be noted that organised
groups, which adopt super ordinate
cooperative goals may tolerate certain degree
of competition without destroying the overall
organisation of the group.
Recapitulation
We have seen that the mere presence of
people affects our behaviour. Social
facilitation makes people perform better in
the presence of other people than when alone.
Social loafing refers to the reduction in
motivation and effort when individuals work
collectively in a group compared to a situation
when they work individually. Groups have
shown to influence the decisions of individual
members. It has been observed that groups
make decisions that are polarised. They may
become more (or less) risky than as
individuals. Conformity occurs when people
change their attitudes and behaviour to
comply with expectations about how they
should behave in various social situations.
We tend to conform because of two basic
social motives: need to be liked by others
whose approval we desire (normative social
influence) and the need to be right in our
judgements or action (informational social
influence). Compliance involves efforts to
change the behaviour of others. The basic
75
principles underlying compliance are:
friendship/liking, commitment/consistency,
scarcity, reciprocity, and authority. Obedience
is the most direct form of social behaviour. It
involves yielding to orders from another person
usually with power and authority. Power
accrues to persons from various sources so that
they can make other people behave or do
things, which they may not otherwise do.
Finally, we have seen how cooperation and
competition affect group members.
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Social facilitation effect refers to
improvement in performance occurring
due to the ____________ of people.
2. ____________ is change in behaviour or
belief to correspond more closely to the
behaviour of others in the group.
3. Normative influence is based on the
desire to be ____________ by others.
4. Influence that results from accepting
group behaviour as correct behaviour is
________________________________.
5. Conformity that results from external
rewards or punishments is
______________________.
LEADERSHIP: NATURE AND FUNCTIONS
What Makes a Leader?
If you study the life history of great leaders
such as Alexander the Great, Abraham
Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Subhash Chandra Bose and many others, you
will notice that leaders differ from ordinary
people in various aspects. Such observations
lead to formulation of a view of leadership
known as the Great Man Theory. It assumes
that leaders are unique or have unique
background that makes them different from
followers. The second approach, called Trait
Theory, assumes that leadership is a general
attitude that gives an individual the ability to
lead in all situations. Leaders have certain
traits, which are associated with the tendency
to lead, such as: drive, self-confidence,
creativity, flexibility, self-confidence, honesty
76
and integrity. However, the trait theory does
not fully explain the relationship between
traits and leadership.
Since leaders operate in a social context,
leadership can be best understood in terms
of complex interactions between social
situations and individual characteristics.
Different tasks and problems require different
types of leaders and leadership. In fact
depending on the situation you maybe a
leader or a follower. No one is always a leader
or a follower.
Leadership is a social process: it depends
on fulfilling a certain role in a pattern of
relationships in a group of people. This role
will vary in different groups, and in different
situations, and thus the quality of relationships
in the group varies. In this section, you would
read about the nature and functions of
leadership and the styles of leadership.
You may have observed that whenever two
or more people gather together to form a
group, some people take a more active role
than others do. They are also more preferred
by others, command more respect and
dominate others. The first type of person is
known as leader and others as followers.
Leadership is a process through which one
member of a group (the leader) influences
other group members toward the
attainment of specific group goals. In other
words, leadership is concerned with influence
– who is able to influence whom in different
groups. Leadership defines a particular type
of relationship between people. It is reciprocal
in nature. Leaders are influenced by, as well
as exert influence over their followers.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Understanding Leadership
Think of your teachers in school. Think of
one teacher who exercised most influence on
you. List down the characteristics in him/her
because of which she/he was able to
influence you. Which appealed to you the
most?
Defining and Identifying the Leader
The criterion important in identifying leaders
is influence, which an individual exerts on
his/her fellow beings. We therefore may
Introduction to Psychology
define leaders as those members of the
group who influence the activities of the
group. According to this definition:
l All members of a group (at least to some
degree) are leaders, since every member,
to some degree, influences the activities
of other members. However, the amount
of leadership vested in different persons
varies. The members who influence the
group largely may be termed as ‘leaders’.
l Like all forms of interaction, leadership
works in two ways: the leader influences
the follower and the follower, in turn,
influences the leader.
l There is a need to differentiate between
the leader as an individual who has
significant influence and the official head
of a group who may have very little
influence. In other words, not all formal,
official leaders are actual leaders.
Leaders by virtue of their central position
in the group, play important roles in shaping
and directing the group goals, ideology,
organisation and activities of the group
members. In general, the influence in a group
tends to become lodged in one or relatively
few persons, rather than being spread evenly
among all members of the group. Leadership
emerges as a function of the organisation,
situation, and tasks of the group. Some of
the factors influencing the emergence of
leadership are briefly described in the
following section.
1. Group Complexity : As the group
becomes larger, or when it acquires more
functions, a hierarchy of leadership
emerges. At the top of the hierarchy are
Primary leaders, then Secondary and
Tertiary leaders, and so on. At the bottom
of the hierarchy are followers. Development
of such a hierarchy involves spreading or
delegation of leadership. You may have
observed this in school activities such as
Annual Day Celebrations, Sports Day etc.,
when some students assign work to others
or those who volunteer for some work and
others who do as they are asked to.
2. Crisis : In certain situations a group may
suffer a set back towards achieving its goal
or there may be some threat to its security.
To handle such situations, an individual
in the group is perceived by its members
Social Influence and Group Processes
as someone who because of his/her
personal characteristics (e.g., knowledge,
skill, expertise, self-confidence) is
potentially more capable in handling the
problem. This person is likely to emerge
as a leader. History has shown that
dictatorship arises in crises, which require
sudden changes in the government.
3. Group Instability : When group members
hold divergent views about the goals or
activities of the group or the ways for
achieving them, such situations give rise
to the emergence of informal leaders. This
may not be the case in groups where
members agree upon the group goals and
means to achieve them. External or
internal threat, both offer opportunities
for the emergence of leadership.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Observing Leadership Behaviour
Think of a situation when in crisis, some
student had taken the lead role to solve the
problem in your class.
4. Inadequate Leadership : When the formal
leader of a group or official head is unable
to perform the role and functions of
leadership, new leaders are likely to
emerge. You may recollect instances when
Governments are thrown out of power
because of weak or non-performing
leaders.
5. Personal Needs : Leaders besides
seeking fulfilment of group goals also
desire power, prestige etc. Therefore, a
leader will emerge only if a group has
members who have such needs in
sufficient degree. In case the group has
ACTIVITY 3.4
Identifying The Leader of a Group
Write down separately the names of those
students of your class who help in taking
decisions, are liked by you and by
the teacher, volunteer to undertake
responsibilities, and are chosen by the
teachers for assigning work. Collate the
information of the class discuss the pattern
of preferences and its implications with
your teacher.
77
more of such members leadership role
may be shared by two or more
individuals. If there are no such
members, no leader will emerge and the
group may disintegrate.
THE FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS
Leaders perform several functions. Let us
examine briefly the main functions performed
by the leader.
1. Executive : A leader in his/her executive
capacity does not carry out work or
activities but assigns it to other group
members. Sometimes the leader is not
able to delegate responsibility and
authority and feels necessity to be
personally involved in each group activity.
Such situation may prevent members
from taking or sharing responsibility,
affecting their involvement in the work of
the group.
2. Planner : A leader decides the ways and
means by which the group shall achieve
its goals. She/he plans for the entire work,
the immediate steps to be taken and the
long range planning for future steps. The
members are apprised of the different
aspects of the plan-often not the
entire plan.
3. Expert : Leaders are generally viewed as
sources of readily available information
and skills or expertise. In many informal
groups, often the person demonstrating
greatest technical knowledge and skills
becomes the leader. For example during
camping or trekking, the guide may play
the role of the group leader because of
his/her familiarity and knowledge about
the area.
4. Group Representative : In case of large
groups it is not possible for all members
to directly deal with other groups. The
leader assumes the role of representative
of the group in its external relations. He
becomes the official representative for the
group. All communications–outgoing and
incoming–are channelled through
the leader.
5. Purveyor of Rewards and Punishments:
Group members perceive the leader as
having power to apply rewards and
78
punishments. This enables the leader to
exercise control over group members.
Rewards and punishments may relate to
being promoted to a higher position, giving
special honours, or taking away the
responsibility assigned or lowering of the
status.
6. Exemplar : In certain groups the leader
may serve as a role model to the group
members. The Commanding Officer in
the Armed Forces who leads his troops
into a battle serves as an Exemplar;
likewise, a religious leader should
exemplify all the moral virtues he would
expect the disciples to imbibe.
Sometimes the leader provides the
ideology of the group. He serves as the
source of the beliefs, values, and norms
of the individual members.
7. Father Figure : The leader may also play
the emotional role of father figure for the
individual members of the group. The
leader is the ideal object for identification,
for transferring feelings, and providing a
focus for positive feelings. This role may
form the basis of power of a leader in
certain circumstances.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Identifying Leaders
Write the names of leaders whom you
admire. Identify the qualities, which made
them different from others.
Discuss the observations with your
teacher.
LEADERSHIP STYLES:
HOW LEADERS OPERATE?
Leaders do not function in the same way. They
differ in terms of personal style or approach
to leadership. You too must have observed
that there are people in school who take all
the decisions, give orders, or simply assign
work without any consideration for personal
likes and dislikes. On the other hand, there
would also be people who allow the class to
arrive at a decision, and participate in
activities, and have a democratic way of
handling situation. It is obvious that these
Introduction to Psychology
two types of leaders have contrasting styles
of functioning. Some of the major dimensions
along which leaders differ in terms of their
style are as follows.
l Task orientation. It refers to the extent to
which the leader focuses on getting the
work done and gives primacy to task
achievement.
l Relational dimension. It refers to the
leader’s interest in creating friendly
relations and satisfying group members.
Nurturant leaders value nurturing the
members through a personal relationship.
Leaders can be high or low on any of these
dimensions. The distinction between different
‘styles’ of leadership is largely in terms of the
kind of relationship that exists between the
leader and the group members and the degree
of emphasis on task accomplishment.
However, no single style is the best; it depends
on the specific circumstances. Let us have a
look at some of the major styles of leadership.
1. Authoritarian/Autocratic Leadership:
An authoritarian leader tends to yield
absolute power. Such a leader alone takes
decisions for the group, makes major
plans, dictates activities of group
members and determines the pattern of
relationship among them. The
authoritarian leader deliberately develops
these absolute functions and resists
changes in them. Individual members are
often discouraged to set personal goals.
The goals are imposed on them. The
autocratic leader guarantees that his
guidance is indispensable for proper
functioning of the group. Such a leader
tries to establish a structure where
intercommunication among the members
is minimum, is through the leader or is
under his supervision.
2. Democratic Leadership : A democratic
leader may have the same amount of power
as an autocratic leader, but differs greatly
in the way power is used. The democratic
leader encourages greater involvement and
participation of group members in the
activities and in setting up of group goals.
The leader seeks the distribution of
responsibility, encourages and reinforces
interpersonal relations among the group
Social Influence and Group Processes
members, reduces intergroup conflict and
tension, and prevents development of a
hierarchical group structure.
The major difference in the two styles of
leadership is that the authoritarian leader
tends to be the group “dictator”, while the
democratic leader acts as the “facilitator”
of group activities. An authoritarian leader
is the keystone of the group, without
whom the group may collapse whereas;
the success of a democratic leader lies in
how well the group can function without
him.
3. Nurturant Task Leadership : The
authoritarian style is self-centred
and is oriented towards status
maintenance, rigidity, and
domineering posture whereas the
democratic or participative style is
people oriented and directed
towards sharing, trusting, etc.
Leaders, as we have seen, vary in
the extent of their emphasis on
task achievement and their Jai B.P. Sinha
relationship with members. In
western cultures, task achievement
assumes more significance in group
functioning, whereas in many non-
western cultures a nurturant relationship
of the leader with group members is
considered important. In between the two
styles, is the nurturant task style. It is
task oriented, having structured
expectations from the subordinates,
draws on the cultural values such as
affection, dependency, and the need for
personalised relationships. It has been
proposed by Jai B.P. Sinha.
Nurturant task leadership has two main
components: concern for task and
nurturant orientation. Such a leader
defines his and his subordinates’ role
clearly so that communications
are explicit, structured and task-relevant.
He initiates, guides and directs
his subordinates to work hard.
Responsibilities are pinpointed and areas
of decision-making are synchronised with
them. He thus creates a climate of
purposiveness and goal orientation. His
task orientation, however, has the mix of
79
nurturance. He cares for his subordinates,
shows affection, takes a personal interest
in their well-being and above all, is
committed to their growth.
A leader, in order to be effective, has to
be nurturant and task oriented to the
subordinates who prefer to maintain
dependency and personalised relationship
with him and accept his authority. The
same leader gradually adopts participative
style as the subordinates gain expertise
and experience, and thereby want
freedom and autonomy to work. The work
is performed diligently as a part of a sneh-
shardha (affection-deference)
relationship between a dependent/
subordinate and his nurturant
superior. In Indian organisations,
nurturant task leadership is found to
be effective.
4. Laissez-faire : As the name
suggests (“laissez-faire” in French
mean “let the people do what they
chose”) such a leader does not
actively guide the group and may not
participate in group activities. He also
does not intervene in any way in the group
functioning. His role is of a passive
observer or provider of information if
required by some group member.
5. Charismatic Leader : Personalities like
John F. Kennedy, Franklin D. Roosevelt,
Mahatma Gandhi, Churchill, Indira
Gandhi, and many such leaders have
shaped the course of world events.
There is something special about these
leaders. They are often termed
charismatic leaders (charisma means
gift in Greek). What personal
characteristics make certain leaders
charismatic? According to the “great
man theory” certain traits, personal
strengths and motives of individuals
make some people charismatic leaders.
Besides possessing certain traits,
charismatic leadership involves a
special type of relationship between the
leaders and their followers. In other
words, there seem to be certain types
of personalities who become charismatic
leaders. The situation must also be
80
appropriate, so that the followers readily
accept the leadership of a person who
possesses those particular traits.
(1) Charismatic leaders are capable of
evoking high levels of devotion, loyalty and
reverence towards the leader;
(2) willingness to sacrifice their personal
interests for the group goals; and
(3) performance beyond the expected level.
Charismatic leaders prefer to maintain
direct personal contact with the group
members. They are able to communicate
emotion and get emotional responses from
their followers. They are leaders of mass
movements. Charismatic leadership
involves a special kind of leader-follower
relationship in which the leader inspires
the followers to make personal sacrifices
in their devotion to causes.
6. Transformational Leadership: These
leaders exert considerable influence over
the followers by proposing an inspiring
vision. They describe in clear, emotion-
provoking manner, an image of what the
group can become. Also, they provide a
route for attaining the vision. They have a
high level of confidence, high degree of
concern for the followers, excellent
communication skills. Also, they are very
capable in impression management that
enhances their appeal to others.
In sum, there is no single leadership style,
which is effective in all situations. There
are individual differences in leadership
styles. The contexts of group functioning
also vary. A rigid leadership style is not
always the best. The effectiveness of any
style of leadership is contingent on the
demands of the situation. Some of
history’s most successful leaders had
varied their leadership style to fit the
circumstances. The optimal leadership
style is the one that suits the situation.
Recapitulation
The leaders of a group are those members who
exert relatively greater influence on the group.
The emergence of leaders is facilitated by:
(a) an increase in the size and complexity of
the group; (b) blockage to the achievement of
group goals; (c) external and internal threats
Introduction to Psychology
faced by the group, and (d) failure of the
official head and availability of ‘potential’
leaders in the group. Leaders serve
several functions. They work as executives,
planners, policy makers, experts, external
group representatives etc. to varying
degrees. Authoritarian, Democratic,
Charismatic, Laissez-faire, Transformational
and Nurturant-task leadership are some typical
styles of leadership.
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Leadership involves exercising influence
by one group member over the other
members. T/F
2. Traits of leaders are different from those
of the followers. T/F
3. Transformational leader motivates the
followers to accomplish more than they
originally expect. T/F
4. Democratic leaders do not yield as much
power as do the autocratic leaders.
T/F
5. Authoritarian leader encourages
hierarchy among the group members.
T/F
6. Laissez-faire leadership promotes
healthy inter-personal relationship
among the group members. T/F
7. Leadership always emerges at a result
of situational factors. T/F
8. A goal leader has a fixed style which
does not change over time. T/F
Key Terms
Conformity, Primary Group, Compliance,
Obedience, Proximity, Leadership,
Cohesiveness, In-group, Out-group, Social-
Facilitation effect, Evaluation Apprehension,
Groupthink, Minority influence, Normative
Influence, Risk Taking, Social Loafing,
Informational influence.
Social Influence and Group Processes 81

SUMMARY

l Group refers to two or more persons who interact with each other, have common
goals, share a stable relationship, perform expected behaviours and recognise that
they belong to a group.
l Individuals join groups to satisfy their social needs: to enjoy recognition and affection,
to acquire information, to feel secure and safe and to bolster their self-esteem.
l Group formation is facilitated by factors such as: proximity, similarity, cohesiveness,
belongingness, etc. Groups differ in terms of their function and organisation. A number
of dimensions are used to characterise various types of groups: primary and secondary
groups, formal and informal groups, in-group and out-groups.
l Social influence or efforts by one or more persons to change the attitudes, behaviours,
or perceptions of others is a very common form of social behaviour. Conformity,
compliance and obedience are important examples of social influence.
l Leadership involves exercising of influence by one group member over the other
members. Factors such as group complexity, crises, group instability, inadequate
leadership, personal qualities etc. influence the emergence of leadership.
l Leaders perform different functions, as: executives, planners, experts, group
representatives, purveyors of rewards and punishments, exemplars and father figures.
l Leaders appear to differ from their followers in terms of several traits, but not all
leaders are alike. They adopt very different ‘styles’, which are distinct in terms of the
kind of relationship that exists between the leader and the group members.
l Some of the leadership styles are: Authoritarian/Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire,
Transformational, Charismatic and Nurturant-task Leadership. There is no single
leadership style which is most effective in all situations. The optimum leadership style
is the one that suits the situation.

Review Questions

1. What is a group? State its functions?

2. Which factors facilitate the formation of a group?
3. Describe the different types of groups with examples?
4. What is social facilitation effect? Explain with the help of examples?
5. What is conformity? Why do people conform?
6. How do people obtain obedience?
7. Who are leaders? What factors lead to the emergence of leadership?
8. What are the different styles of leadership?
9. What is compliance? How does it differ from social loafing?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : (1) F, (2) T, (3) T, (4) F, (5) T, (6) F
II : (1) T, (2) T, (3) T, (4) T, (5) T
III : (1) presence, (2) conformity,
(3) accepted, (4) informational
influence, (5) compliance,
IV : (1) T, (2) F, (3) T, (4) F, (5) T, (6) F,
(7) F, (8) F.
82 Introduction to Psychology

4 ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä The concept and measurement of attitude Introduction
Ä The formation, maintenance and change Nature and Components of Attitudes
of attitudes What is an Attitude?
Ä The factors influencing intergroup Components of Attitude
relations Measurement of Attitudes
Ä The nature and function of beliefs
Methods of Attitude Scaling (Box 4.1)
Ä The nature of pro-social behaviour and
its determinants Formation, Maintenance and Change of
Attitudes
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD A Two-step Concept of Attitude Change
BE ABLE TO (Box 4.2)
Attitude and Behaviour
Ä understand what is attitude and how it
Attitude-Behaviour Consistency: A Classic
can be measured,
Study (Box 4.3)
Ä learn what are the determinants of
maintenance, formation, and change in Prejudice and Discrimination
attitudes, Sources of Prejudice
Ä understand the difference between Intergroup Conflicts
prejudice and discrimination and to Strategies to Overcome Prejudices
acquaint with some measures to overcome Beliefs and their Functions
them, Social Cognition
Ä learn about the nature of beliefs and their Causal Attributions
functions including causal beliefs, and
Pro-social Behaviour : Nature and
Ä understand the concept of pro-social
Determinants
behaviour and what factors promote it
Bystander Behaviour, Altruism and Empathy
(Box 4.4)
Aggression and Violence: Its Causes and
Remedies (Box 4.5)

Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Attitude and Social Cognition 83

INTRODUCTION

Attitudes refer to the way one thinks, feels and acts toward others in any social
situation. One has attitudes about friends, parents, political leaders, and
organisations. One has attitudes even about the strangers one meets casually,
or about the places visited, or about the objects seen. Think about your attitude
towards your close friend. You would think that your friend is trustworthy, helpful
and intelligent; would feel positively about him or her, and would be ready to
spend time together. You would also realise that you think, feel and act differently
toward a bully in your class. Your attitude about a bully is probably negative,
whereas it is likely to be positive in the case of a close friend. Did you realise
that these attitudes largely determine the way you deal with these people in
everyday life? Attitudes influence your daily behaviour in a much more significant
manner than you generally realise. Did you know that you have attitudes about
almost everything that matters to you?

As human beings, we cognise and try to make sense of the different aspects
of our social world. The study of these efforts is social cognition. We try to find
the causes of various events. We also relate to other persons present in our
environment in different ways. We not only help others and cooperate with, but
also try to harm others, when we are angry. Expressions of anger and conflict
are also found at group level. The relations between groups may be cordial, but
at times we notice intergroup conflicts that may result in social disturbances,
terrorism or even war. The roots of all these are found in our attitudes and
cognitions.

This chapter will help you to understand the meaning and components of
attitudes. You will learn about many other questions such as: How can the
attitudes be measured? How attitudes are formed and maintained? What leads
to the changes in attitudes? What is the relationship of attitude with behaviour?
Also, you will learn about attitudes toward groups, prejudices and the strategies
to reduce them. You will also learn about the ways we cognise the social world
and how attributions and beliefs work and shape our behaviour. Finally, you
will learn about the nature and factors underlying a pro-social behaviour.

Confidence comes not from always being right but from

not fearing to be wrong.
MULTIPLE
IDENTITIES
– Peter T. Mc Intyre
OF A
CHILD
84
NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
What is an Attitude?
In social psychology the term attitude is
defined as a predisposition involving beliefs,
feelings, and dispositions to act towards some
object. The object may be anything – a person,
a group, an idea or an object. In recent years
psychologists are moving toward a conception
of attitude as evaluation. Evaluations are
related in complex ways to beliefs, feelings,
and actions. Thus attitudes are simply
evaluations of (attitude) objects. The attitudes
have two main characteristics. They are stable
and dispositional.
1. Attitudes are relatively stable.
Temporary mood states and one-time
actions cannot be considered as an
attitude. Your mother may get angry
with you for coming home late but it is
not indicative of her attitude. Attitudes
refer to the set of thoughts, feelings and
actions that people hold on relatively
long-term basis. Once formed, attitudes
have a tendency to persist over time and
across situations. It, however, does not
mean that attitudes do not change. They
do change in the light of new experiences
and informations.
2. Attitudes are dispositional. By
dispositional we mean that the attitudes
are the characteristics of an individual and
people differ in their strength from one
another depending on their socialisation
and social interaction.
Functions of Attitudes
Attitudes serve four important functions as
given below:
1. Attitudes provide basis for defining
social groups : Members of a group often
share similar attitudes and this binds
them together. The shared attitude
towards environmental protection, for
example, is all that holds a pro-
environmental organisation together.
Similarly, it is the shared attitude towards
secularism and social tolerance that binds
the Indian people. In this way attitudes
are central in maintaining a group.
Introduction to Psychology
2. Attitudes help to establish our identities :
Attitudes provide self-definition. Just as a
crucial element of some social groups is a
set of attitudes, so too are attitudes central
elements in people’s notion of themselves.
Who were Vivekananda and Mahatma
Gandhi without their attitudes toward India?
Who is Sunderlal Bahuguna without his
attitudes toward environment and ecology?
What we think about ourselves is shaped
by our attitudes.
3. Attitudes guide thinking and
behaviour : Attitudes are important
elements of people’s cognition. They guide
the way people think, feel, and act. The
influences of attitudes are found on many
aspects of social behaviour. The positive
attitudes toward others may bring you
closer to them and you may be favourably
disposed to comply with their requests.
You may imitate or model such people.
On the other hand, negative attitudes
create interpersonal distance, and lead to
less friendly interaction with others. In
extreme cases, we may even harm or
damage the interests of those who are
categorised as ‘others’. The choices of
friends, school, doctor, occupation, etc.
are often guided by the kind of attitudes
we have about them.
4. Attitudes play an important role at the
societal level : Think of a situation when
all your friends have the same attitude
about your school, and compare it with a
situation when some of your friends have
positive and others have a negative
attitude towards the same. The second
situation creates tension and conflict. In
the same way, if people have negative
attitudes about those who belong to
another religion, we have more communal
conflicts in the society. On the contrary,
if the attitudes about other religious
groups are positive, there is peace and
harmony in the society.
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
As indicated earlier an attitude comprises of
three components namely, cognitive
(thinking), affective (feeling) and behavioural
Attitude and Social Cognition
(action). The cognitive component represents
the belief that one has about an attitude
object, implying thereby how we evaluate the
characteristics of a person, object or place.
This evaluation could be positive or negative.
For example, one may think that the ideology
of a particular political party is good (or not
good) for the country. The second component
is that of affect. It deals with the way one
feels about the attitudinal object. When one
thinks about, interacts or communicates with
any person, for example, one may have a
pleasant or an unpleasant feeling. Our liking
or disliking for some person refers to the
affective component of an attitude. The third
component of attitude refers to the actual
behaviour. If one has a positive attitude about
someone his or her actual behaviour would
be favourable. One approves the behaviour,
defends it before others, and helps and
supports them. The three components are
interlinked. This may be understood when we
analyse attitude towards something.
Let us take an example. Suppose you love
swimming, and jumping into the pool brings
a smile to your face. For you, there is no
greater fun than swimming. You also know
that swimming is an excellent exercise and a
great way to stay in shape. You have a positive
attitude about swimming.
The above description of swimming
illustrates the three components of an
attitude: affect, cognition and behaviour. You
love swimming. It is a great fun. These feelings
highlight the affective component. The
knowledge about the activity constitutes the
cognitive component of an attitude. You
understand the health benefits that swimming
can bring. Finally, attitudes have a behavioural
component. Our attitudes prompt us to do or
say something. You change into a costume and
jump into the swimming pool.
The Relationship among the
Components of Attitude
You may be ready to dispute by now that why
do you have to think, feel and behave
positively when you have a positive attitude
about a person. It is possible that you may
85
evaluate someone positively (for example, very
intelligent) but, at the same time, may not
like him or her as a person and would like
to keep a distance because of his or her
antics. On the other hand, you may not like
someone but may want to help him anyway.
You are not wrong. Normally it is seen that
if you have a very strong attitude, all the
three components of attitude are closely
related, i.e., they are in the same direction.
However, in a large number of cases it may
not hold true.
Then what is the point in talking about
these three components of attitude? Those who
propose that an attitude is a consistent system
of beliefs, emotions and actions, argue that
inconsistency among the three components
may cause tension and anxiety and the person
would try to bring changes in these components
in such a manner that consistency or balance
is restored. In fact, it is possible to change those
attitudes, where the three components are
inconsistent than in the cases where they are
consistent. When all components of attitude
are in the same direction the attitude will be
more resistant to change.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Understanding the Nature of Attitudes
l Describe your best friend and a person
whom you don’t like in terms of the three
components of attitude.
l Compare these two attitudes.
l Share your observations with your
teacher and classmates.
Recapitulation
Attitudes refer to the way one thinks, feels,
and acts toward objects in any social
situation. It is a product of interaction and
experience. It is defined as a relatively
stable disposition of human beings to think,
feel and act in a particular manner. Attitude
is not a single entity. It comprises of three
components namely cognitive, affective,
and behavioural. People try to maintain
consistency across these three components.
86
LEARNING CHECKS I
Read the following statements and indicate
whether they refer to an attitude or not.
1. Feeling depressed about failing in the
examination. Yes/No
2. Did not like the classmate for his her
insincerity. Yes/No
3. Never skips the psychology classes.
Yes/No
4. Thinks very highly about Sachin
Tendulkar. Yes/No
5. Takes bath before going to school every
morning. Yes/No
6. Likes to be praised by others. Yes/No
7. Uses only Colgate toothpaste. Yes/No
MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
Understanding people’s attitude towards a
particular issue, such as reservation, or
capital punishment or women’s rights is
important for many purposes. The attitudes
are private; we can’t directly know what a
person’s attitudes are just by looking at her
or him. For this reason, social psychologists
use certain techniques to measure people’s
attitudes. Some of these techniques use direct
responses, whereas others are indirect. A brief
description of these techniques is given below.
The Attitude Survey : This is the most
commonly used technique for measuring
attitudes. In an attitude survey, the
investigators provide a questionnaire or ask
a series of questions on the telephone. A
respondent shows his or her attitude by
answering a series of questions. These
questions may be open or close ended. Open-
ended questions allow the respondent to
provide an answer in his/her own words. For
example, a respondent might be asked: “What
qualifications do you think are necessary for
the Prime Minister of India? Although this
type of question yields in-depth information,
the answers can be difficult to analyse.
Consequently, most of the questions on an
attitude surveys in vogue are close ended. For
instance, one may ask: Are women qualified
Introduction to Psychology
to be the Chief Minister of a State? The answer
may be given by using one of the four
categories, i.e., Yes, No, Maybe, Do not know.
This type of question, however, forces the
respondents into making limited number
of choices.
Rating Scales : In these scales respondents
indicate the extent to which they agree or
disagree with a statement. One of the
frequently used scales is Likert Scale. The
items in this kind of scale ask the person to
agree or disagree with attitude statements on
a 5-point scale as shown below :
I believe children should not be punished.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 2 3 4 5
Likert’s technique is called a summated
rating scale, because individuals are given
an attitude score based on the sum of their
responses on all the items of the scale.
Activity 4.2 shows only one kind of
attitude measure and there are many other
types of measures. But on examining this
measure many other features of attitude
measures would become clear. First, all items
are based on self-reports of the respondent.
The presumption is that people know their
preferences and they can show them by
following the instructions and choosing a
response alternative. Second, attitude is not
measured directly, or by asking a single
question. There is always more than one
statement, usually sufficiently large in
number and an aggregate score is than
obtained. It is the aggregate score from
which the favourability of one’s attitude is
assessed. Third, all these measures use
standard instructions, which are given to
each person on whom the attitude measure
is administered.
The statements selected for an attitude
measure are carefully chosen to meet certain
criteria. These criteria ensure that the
statements do in fact assess the favourable
or unfavourable views held by the person in
relation to the attitude object. There are several
Attitude and Social Cognition 87

ACTIVITY 4.2

Attitude about Coaching Institutes

Please read each statement carefully and answer by choosing one of the three alternatives: Agree,
somewhat agree and disagree. Circle the appropriate number given before each statement to
indicate your views.

Strongly Neither Agree Strongly

Agree Nor Disagree Disagree
1. Coaching institutes prepare you for competition. — — —
2. Coaching is a must in present times. — — —
3. Coaching institutes are only for money making. — — —
4. Coaching institutes should be banned. — — —
5. Coaching institutes make false promises. — — —
6. Coaching is of no good for bright students. — — —
7. Coaching institutes provide better education. — — —
8. Services provided by coaching institutes
should be appreciated. — — —

ways of preparing and arranging appropriate envelope addressed to someone whose

statements. These are known as the Attitude
Scaling Methods. Some of the popular scaling
methods are described in Box 4.1.
Behavioural Measures: The self-report
measures rely on respondents’ verbal reports
of their attitudes. Often there is no way to
verify the correctness of such reports. Keeping
this limitation in mind, observation of overt
behaviour becomes the basis of measuring
someone’s attitude. For example, with whom
people interact in public places is a good index
of their attitude toward other ethnic groups.
Unobtrusive Measures: These measures
assess attitudes by indirect means. The
people whose attitudes are being measured
are not aware of it. The lost-letter technique
is a good example of this technique. If a
researcher wants to measure a community’s
attitude towards, say, foreigners, she might
not get honest answers on a questionnaire.
But, if she has some stamps and envelopes,
she can try the lost-letter technique. This is
what the researcher does: She addresses an
envelope to someone with a foreign-sounding
name at a local address. She puts a stamp
on the envelope and then drops it on a
crowded street near the post office so that it
can be easily found and mailed. As her
baseline control, she drops a stamped
name does not sound foreign. The
procedure is repeated to collect a sample.
The envelopes that turn up are counted and
compared with names sounding foreign with
those names that don’t. This reflects the
attitude towards foreigners.
Recapitulation
Attitude survey is one of the most common
ways to assess attitudes. It involves asking
questions. Rating scales require the person
to respond to certain statements in a standard
format and an aggregate score is obtained by
calculating the person’s responses. Apart from
the Self-report method, there are behavioural
and unobtrusive measures that are used to
assess attitudes.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Attitudes are closed ended
questionnaires. T/F
2. Rating scales measure the extent to
which the respondent agrees or
disagrees with the statement. T/F
3. Likert’s technique is called summated
rating scale. T/F
4. Unobstrusive measures assess
attitudes of people without making them
aware of it. T/F
88
BOX 4.1 METHODS OF ATTITUDE SCALING
Likert Method : This was developed by Rensis
Likert in 1932. To develop a Likert Scale, the
researcher first prepares a large number of
statements that are relevant to the attitude object.
These statements or items should be as diverse
as possible covering all aspects of the attitude
object. For example, if one wants to measure the
attitude towards coaching institutes, the
statements should cover all aspects – from
teaching techniques to learning environment to
monetary matters. These items are prepared in
such a manner that the person given this
measure would be able to use the following five
categories: strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, and strongly disagree. These categories
are assigned scores from 5 to 1, in that order,
i.e., strongly agree (5) and strongly disagree (1).
These numbers are assigned in this manner so
that a high score indicates a favourable attitude
and a low score indicates an unfavourable
attitude. The person whose attitude we want to
measure responds to each statement by choosing
one of the five categories. The aggregate score
is obtained by adding the numerical values of
the categories checked by a respondent.
Thurstone Method : This method was named
after Louis Thurstone who developed it in 1928.
Thurstone, indeed, was the first one to suggest
that attitudes can be measured by finding the
view that a person holds about attitude objects.
Thurstone viewed attitudes as varying along an
evaluative continuum ranging from favourable to
unfavourable.
To prepare a Thurstone scale, a researcher
first collects a large number of opinion statements
expressing favourable or unfavourable attitudes
about the attitude object. Judges are then given
these statements to categorise them in 11
categories – ranging from showing very
unfavourable attitude to very favourable
attitudes. Each statement is evaluated by many
judges in terms of the degree of negativity of
the view expressed, or degree of favourableness
(about child marriage) of the statement. If the
statement is put in the first category, it implies
that the judge considers that statement as
showing very unfavourable attitude toward child
marriage, if the statement is put in category 6, it
would mean that the statement is considered
Introduction to Psychology
showing neither favourable nor unfavourable
attitude about child marriage. The mean of the
ratings of all judges is taken as the scale value
of that item, as shown below. A set of items is
then selected from the pool of such statements,
which are then presented to the participant who
are asked to indicate the statements with which
they agree. The Sum total of the scale values of
those selected items is the attitude score of that
participant.
Attitude toward Child Marriage
Scale Value
1. Child marriage should be
a cognisable offence. 8.3
2. Child marriage should be seen
as one of the many social ills. 4.2
3. There is nothing wrong in
child marriage. 1.4
4. Many times child marriages
do not work. 3.2
5. People responsible for child
marriage should be put behind
the bars. 9.8
Bogardus Method : Another attempt to develop
an attitude measure was made by Emory
Bogardus. Also known as the Social Distance
scale, Bogardus developed this measure to find
the attitude, which people have toward different
ethnic groups, in terms of how much social
distance people wish to maintain between
themselves and various ethnic groups.
Bogardus’ Social Distance Measure first
names an ethnic group and then asks the
respondent to check which one of the seven
relationships they would be willing to engage in
with members of this group. For example, if a
respondent is willing to accept a person into the
closest relationship (by marriage), a score of 1
would be assigned, a score of 2 would be given
if the respondent is ready to admit the members
of other ethnic groups in their fold, and so on. A
score of 7 is given to the respondent who wants
the members of other ethnic groups entirely
excluded from their social life.
Attitude and Social Cognition
FORMATION, MAINTENANCE AND
CHANGE OF ATTITUDES
Formation of Attitudes
As mentioned earlier, we are not born with
attitudes. A newborn baby has no attitude
towards a snake. If not stopped by elders, it
will have no problem in playing with a snake.
Only when it grows little older than a child it
learns to fear and avoid a snake. We can also
ask a question, ‘how do people acquire an
attitude toward the Chinese food’? Can we
acquire an attitude about something we are
not exposed to? Why do people have different
attitudes? The term attitude formation refers
to the movement we make from having no
attitude toward an attitude object to having
a positive or negative attitude. Lets examine
what factors contribute to the formation of
attitudes.
The attitudes are acquired through
different types of learning. You have already
studied about the basic processes of learning
in Class XI. Therefore, the relevance of
learning process in relation to attitude
formation is only briefly indicated. The three
basic learning procedures involved in the
acquisition of attitudes are as follows.
Classical conditioning : As you know this
kind of learning shows how a neutral object
gets associated with an already established
stimulus-response connection. Any
attitude object, which is repeatedly
associated with a stimuli capable of
evoking positive or negative feelings, will
acquire the ability to evoke a similar
response. For example, you may develop
a positive attitude about a person who was
present whenever you won a match. Players
often develop a strong liking for the bat by
which they made good runs.
Instrumental conditioning : It applies to the
situations when people learn attitudes which
are systematically rewarded by significant
others, such as parents, teachers or friends.
In fact, children are taught certain attitudes
and behaviours by controlling reward and
punishment and systematically reinforcing
certain kinds of attitudes. While the specific
form of such rewards may vary greatly,
ranging from praise, affection, approval to
89
offering monetary rewards, jobs and positions.
It has been observed that people quickly come
to express specific point of views when they
are rewarded for their expression.
Observational learning : It suggests that
human beings are capable of acquiring new
responses simply by observing the actions
and their outcomes. Children are keen
observers and learn a whole lot of things from
their parents and other family members. They
learn many of their attitudes about other
ethnic groups, neighbours, and ideologies
simply by observing the behaviours of adults.
Factors Influencing Formation of Attitudes
The formation of attitudes takes place in our
social environment. The different aspects of
environment shape the development of
attitudes. Some of the important aspects of
environment, relevant to the formation of
attitudes are described below.
Family : Parents have an all-encompassing
influence on the way their children come to
form attitudes. Children get their first
exposure to the social world through their
parents and other family members. They
acquire initial knowledge about the people
and places from their parents and very often
imbibe their values and observations. The
young children learn by observing and
imitating their elders in the family. Parents
provide categories, which their children pick
up to form attitudes. Children often learn to
categorise other children as good or bad based
on the categories supplied by their parents.
They form attitudes about other social and
religious groups on the basis of such
categories defined by their parents. Thus,
families constitute the primary source of
information for children. Imagine how much
young children learn about the world from
the stories told by their grand parents!
Reference Groups : As the children grow older
the diversity of influences on their lives
increases. They form opinion about many
more people and objects. They come in contact
with teachers, policemen, vendors, and more
importantly with peers. These groups
constitute the reference groups for children.
The children learn a great deal from these
reference groups. They imbibe attitudes about
90 Introduction to Psychology

occupations, social and religious groups, be positive in their judgement of the groups
consumer products, national leaders, etc., to which the perpetrators belong.
which are endorsed by such reference groups. Media Exposure : Today’s life media has
If their reference group is biased about some assumed a prominent place. Think how many
religious group, probability is high that the hours you and your friends watch the T.V.
child will also show similar kind of bias. On an average, urban middle school children
watch T.V. for at least 4-5 hours and this
ETHNIC exposure has become a potent way to learn
about the world. T.V commercials tell us
lCaste and Social which products we should buy. Since children
are more impressionable, they tend to believe
lAttitudes of family what they see on the T.V screen. They rarely
l Patterns of question what they see on the T.V. Several
Socialisation

DEMOGRAPHIC
lSocial Group

lStructure of
studies have reported that high-school
Inheritance
Social Trends
ECONOMIC

Population
Affiliations

lGenetic
lChanging

MULTIPLE children rate the mass media as their most

IDENTITIES
OF A important source of information.
CHILD Figure 4.1 presents the range of factors
lInteractions with
that may influence attitude formation.
Peer Group
MAINTENANCE OF ATTITUDES
lRules traditionally defined
lInequality in status
lSocialisation Once formed, attitudes persist. The social
GENDER
environment including people, the pattern of
interaction, and the distribution of reward
Fig.4.1 Influences on Attitude Formation
and punishment, remains stable to a large
extent. They help to maintain attitudes.
Direct Personal Experience : How do you form People like to have consistency in their
an attitude about an army personnel? It largely attitudes and they do this in many ways.
depends on your personal encounter with such 1. We discount the contradictory information.
a man in the past. If he was very kind and If they are confronted with information,
helpful to you, you tend to have a favourable which is against their present attitude, they
attitude towards the army men. If an army man either consider that information as not very
has roughed you up for trespassing, your relevant or important, or believe that it is
attitude may not be favourable toward all army coming from a dubious source. One can
men. We tend to generalise. thus ignore such information.
Apart from day-to-day life experiences, 2. Our reference group may be exerting
there are other unique significant life events influence to maintain the attitude, which
and situations. Meeting Ramkrishna is important for the smooth functioning
Paramhans changed Narendra and his whole of the group. The reference group resists
attitude toward life and people. From a any change and people succumb to the
skeptic, he became a believer and went on to group pressure. If the membership of the
address the World Religions’ Congress and reference group is important to the
became a legend as Swami Vivekananda. We person, he or she is more likely to retain
all have such turning points, which his/her former attitude even in the face
significantly shape our attitudes in a of contradictory information.
particular direction. It is understandable that 3. Maintaining a particular attitude may be
those who are born in extreme poverty beneficial for the person. For instance, if
conditions and have had many bitter someone is very helpful to you in achieving
experiences, their attitudes about others are your goals, even if you come to know about
not likely to be positive. The victims of criminal his negative qualities you justify his actions
assault and social discrimination can hardly and maintain your existing attitude.
Attitude and Social Cognition
4. Once we make a public commitment, or
take a position, it becomes very difficult
to change that. For example, if someone
has participated in a protest march
against the reservation policy, it will be
very difficult to take a favourable position
about it. If one changes one’s attitude in
such a situation, he or she may find it
difficult to justify it.
5. Attitudes greatly shape our identity. One’s
identity is largely determined by the
attitude one holds about people, issues,
and objects that matter. Changing
attitudes would, therefore, amount to
changing one’s notion of self and identity.
ATTITUDE CHANGE
Once formed, attitudes are difficult to change.
Yet, people do undergo substantial changes
in their attitudes during their lifetime. These
shifts in attitudes are not very sudden or
dramatic but are usually so gradual that we
fail to take notice of them. For example the
advertisers try to change our attitudes all the
time. Some attitudes are more resistant to
change, while others are more amenable to
change.
Our family, friends, well-wishers, and
seniors keep telling us what is good and
what we should do. A five thousand crore
BOX 4.2 A TWO–STEP CONCEPT OF ATTITUDE CHANGE
S.M. Mohsin, one of the pioneers of
scientific psychology in India, was a
Professor and the Head of the
Psychology Department, Patna
University, Patna. He proposed a two-
step concept of attitude change. The
first step is the identification of the
target of attitude change with the agent
or source of change. Identification
implies generation in the target a liking
for agent. It amounts to investing the
agent with the potential to release
agreeable thoughts and pleasurable
feelings in the target with regard to the
agent. To achieve this, the agent himself
has to be inspired by a genuinely
positive regard for the target. This will S.M. Mohsin
set the reciprocated attraction process
91
advertising industry all over the world keeps
telling people what product they should buy.
You switch on your television and your
auditory and visual senses are bombarded
with all kinds of advertisements. Go to any
public place and you cannot escape seeing
the hoardings inviting you to join a
particular coaching, or buy some particular
brand of a product. Political parties want
you to change your attitude in their favour.
New and innovative techniques are
constantly devised to catch the attention
of people and bring about the desired
change in attitudes.
Attitudes can change in the positive or
negative direction. This change in attitude can
be congruent or incongruent. The congruent
change is the direction in which your present
attitude is. In contrast, the incongruent
change is a change in the reverse direction.
Generally, the incongruent change in attitude
is difficult to achieve. Of course, whether
our attitude will change or not, depends
on several factors. Here we will discuss
some important factors, which contribute
to the changes in attitudes. These
factors can be broadly put into two
categories (i) characteristics of attitude
(ii) communication factors. Let us now
examine these factors :
into motion – the agent being
attracted to the target will attract
target to himself. To foster a positive
attitude towards the target, the
agent has to undergo a process of
self-correction through sincere heart
searching. After having been
through the first step without
faltering, the second step calls upon
the agent to enact the attitude
relevant behaviour. Later, this
behaviour will serve as a model for
its imitation by the target person.
The two-step concept of attitude
change is grounded on a synthesis
of the view point of Bandura’s social
learning theory and the principles
of inter-personal attraction.
92
ACTIVITY 4.3
Understanding the Dynamic
Nature of Attitudes
Following is a list of attitudes. Please read
them carefully and indicate which attitude is
difficult to change and why?
l Attitude toward a teacher whom you like
and attend his/her classes very
regularly.
l Attitude toward a friend whom you
consider very good at studies but do not
like his/her work habits.
l Attitude toward parents who are strict
disciplinarians.
l Attitude toward a profession, which you
want to take up as a career.
l Attitude toward a writer whose novels
your friends have read.
l Attitude toward a group whose
membership was very restricted and hard
to get.
Discuss your answers with the teacher.
Characteristics of Attitude
The following characteristics of attitude play
important role in the change of attitude.
1. Strength : Attitudes, which are extreme
in nature, are less likely to change. For
example, if you have a strong opinion
that India should make nuclear bombs,
you are less likely to pay attention to
the information, which is contrary to
your attitude.
2. Complexity : It refers to multiple factors,
which constitute an attitude. For example,
the attitude toward parents is much more
complex than attitude toward a particular
brand of soap.
3. Importance : If an attitude is the basis of
our relationship with friends or life goals,
these attitudes become more stable,
because changing such attitudes will
change many other aspects of our lives.
4. Interconnectedness : If the attitude is
closely connected with several other
attitudes and if they are in a state of
balance, these attitudes mutually
reinforce each other.
Introduction to Psychology
5. Functionality : If the attitude serves a
useful function for the individual, he is
less likely to change it. For example, if
the membership of a particular club
enhances your self-esteem, you would
like to maintain a positive attitude about
that club.
Communication Factors
You have read about the basic ideas of
communications process in Class XI. Suppose
you are given a task to change the attitude of
your classmates in favour of peer learning,
how will you go about doing it? What will
persuade them to change their attitude? The
task is not as easy as it may appear to many
people. Simply telling them good things about
peer learning may not work. You have to
present that information in an effective
manner. Even then some people will change
and others will not. Let us see when and how
people change their attitudes in the light of a
new information.
The first thing you may need is to have
convincing ground for the position that you
want to advance. Thus, based on available
information you have to build a very forceful
argument in favour of peer learning. In this
context, the source of information plays an
important role. If the information comes from
some very credible source, e.g., a researcher
or educationist, it is likely to be more
effective. If something is said by an expert
or a trustworthy person, it is more
persuasive. Sometimes attractiveness or
likeableness of the communicator makes a
difference. You must have noticed that if your
favourite actor comes in the advertisement
of a particular product, it is supposed to have
a greater appeal.
The way or mode in which a message or
information is presented to the students,
whose attitude you want to change will also
be important. In general, face-to-face
communication is found to be more effective
than indirect communication. This enables
you to modify your argument to fit the motive
and characteristics of the student you want
to persuade. It is, though, not always,
possible to engage in face-to-face
communication, if the group is very large
and you are not sure of your persuasive
Attitude and Social Cognition
skills. People more often use print and
visual media to reach the larger audience.
Recapitulation
Attitudes are acquired through the processes
of Classical conditioning, Operant
conditioning and Social learning. The factors
affecting attitude formation include Family,
Reference groups, Personal experience, and
Media exposure. Reward and punishment
meted by the family and the community play
important role in reinforcing the acquisition
of attitudes. The various reference groups as
teachers, policemen, vendors etc. affect our
attitudes toward occupations, social and
religious groups. Personal experiences,
significant life events, and situations also
contribute towards attitude formation. In
recent times, mass media has emerged as the
most important factor in affecting opinions
and attitudes. Once formed, attitudes are
quite resistant to change. People like to be
consistent in their attitudes. However,
attitudes can be changed, though this
change may be slow and unnoticeable. The
factors that lead to attitude change are
related to the characteristics of attitude and
communication process.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Understanding the Dynamics
of Attitude Change
How can you resist the influence of T.V.
advertisements?
Suggest a strategy and discuss it with
your friends and teachers.
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Learning helps to acquire attitudes.
T/F
2. Family has a major influence in the
formation of attitudes. T/F
3. Attitudes shape our identity. T/F
4. Attitudes can be easily changed by
explaining and talking. T/F
5. Effective communication plays a
significant role in changing attitudes.
T/F
93
ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR
We often believe that if we know something
about a person’s attitude we should be able
to predict his or her behaviour. Do we, in fact,
behave in accordance with our attitudes?
Early researchers assumed that a close link
did exist between attitude and behaviour.
However, a review of attitude – behaviour
research shows that attitudes, at best, are
only weak predictors of behaviour.
The main reason why attitudes became a
popular area of research was that, attitudes
were seen as determinants of behaviour.
Thus, persons with a positive attitude toward
nuclear bomb, for example, shall praise the
government for its decision to become a
nuclear power. When in conversation with
friends, they celebrate this idea, and do other
things to show their approval. On the
contrary, those who have a negative attitude
about nuclear bomb will protest in some or
the other way.
Imagine a situation in which a new student
joins your class. You find him very casual in
his studies and you do not think very positively
about him. One day he approaches you to
borrow your class notes. What will you do? The
chances are very high that you may refuse to
lend your notes. This may not happen in the
case of a student whom you like and consider
very studious.
For many decades psychologists kept
studying attitudes to predict behaviour. They
undertook investigations to predict actual
cheating on the basis of attitude toward
cheating; Church attendance on the basis
of attitude toward the church; Racial
discrimination on the basis of attitude toward
race, etc. The findings were not very
encouraging, as no clear and consistent
relationship between attitude and behaviour
has been found. Whether or not attitude and
behaviour will be associated in the same
direction (congruent) is influenced by several
conditions discussed below.
1. When external influences are minimal :
Attitudes influence actual behaviour when
external pressures to behave in a
particular manner are minimal. One acts
under many social pressures, which may
have greater influence on behaviour than
the attitudes. When such pressures are
94
minimal, the chances are high that
attitude and behaviour will be closely
linked. For example, a person may have a
negative attitude toward exercise. But
peer group pressure may compel the
person to exercise. Had the external
influence not been so strong, the attitude
and behaviour may have been more
consistently related with each other.
2. When behaviour is observed by others :
When people are placed in situations
where their behaviour is under close
observation, they tend to behave as others
might expect them to. The behaviours
might not reflect their actual attitudes.
3. When attitude is strongly held : When
attitudes are strong they are more
accessible, and are more likely to be
reflected in behaviour. On the other hand,
if the attitude is weak and not so
important to the person, or if person is
unclear or ambiguous, the attitude is less
likely to be tied to behaviour.
4. When one is conscious of one’s attitude :
If the attitude is strongly held, by a person,
he/she is more likely to be conscious of
his/her attitude. When one is conscious
or aware of an attitude, it is also easily
accessible and so there is greater tendency
to behave consistently with attitude.
BOX 4.3 ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR CONSISTENCY : A CLASSIC STUDY
It seems logical to assume that attitude and
behaviour are closely related. This question has
been raised from time to time that how accurately
can attitude predict the behaviour. An early study
conducted by LaPiere in 1934 suggested that
the relation between attitudes and behaviour is
weak. LaPiere travelled twice with a Chinese
couple across the United States of America – a
total of 10 thousand miles and stayed in 66
hotels and tourist homes and ate in 184
restaurants. They were refused service only
once. Six months after their return, Lapiere sent
copies of a questionnaire to all those places
where they stayed and ate. The questionnaire
asked, “Will you accept members of the Chinese
race as a guest in your establishment?” Of the
81 restaurants and 47 hotels that replied, 92%
said that they would not accept Chinese
customers, and the remainder checked
“uncertain, depends upon circumstances”. It is
Introduction to Psychology
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Prejudice refers to a biased, often negative
attitude, formed about a group of people.
People express prejudice about some person,
group, nationality or race. It is a pre-judged
opinion about others. Thus, to say that an
individual is prejudiced against the members
of some group, implies that, such persons
are evaluated in a negative manner, not on
the basis of their individual characteristics
or behaviours, but simply because they
belong to a particular group. In this sense
prejudices represent a general rejection or
dislike, a tendency to evaluate them
negatively. We can also understand prejudice
in terms of the three components of attitudes
mentioned earlier.
The cognitive component of prejudice
refers to generalised beliefs and expectations
regarding members of a group. It relates to
the way we think about others. It refers to
stereotypes. Stereotypes are clusters of
preconceived notions regarding various
groups. All members of a particular group
are perceived very much in the same manner,
regardless of their unique traits and
characteristics. Stereotyping is frequently
clear that these written replies did not correspond
with the actual behaviour of the respondents.
After LaPiere’s controversial study, many
studies were conducted to test the correspondence
between attitude and behaviour in the areas of
voting behaviour, family planning, higher
education, etc. The findings are mixed. Attitude
and behaviour are found to relate most when
researchers define them similarly, in terms of
specific aspects of an attitude. For example,
we can have an attitude about psychology in
general and about this paper in particular. In
the same vein, behaviour can also be examined
in terms of psychology in general, or in terms
of behaviour related to this course. Clearly, if
we have measured the attitude about this
course only then it may yield a good
correspondence with the behaviour related to this
course. This controversy has not yet subsided
in psychology.
Attitude and Social Cognition
automatic and saves on the time and effort
required to evaluate people individually. It
simplifies our social world. It ignores the
diversity within social groups and fosters
inaccurate perceptions of people.
The affective component of prejudice
refers to negative emotional state and dislike
towards the members of a particular race,
religion, caste, region or community. These
emotions are based on some preconceived
beliefs and unpleasant personal experiences.
The behavioural component refers to the
specific practices toward that group. People
keep a distance, decide things, which go
against that group, or in extreme cases engage
in violence against them.
The expression of prejudice in overt
behaviour is called discrimination.
Discrimination against women, for example,
may imply denying them jobs because of their
gender, paying them low wages, giving them
a status of secondary citizens, and denying
them public facilities.
It may be noted that while concepts of
prejudice and discrimination are closely tied,
they are different and can be independent of
one another. An individual may have
prejudiced notions about a group – such as
people suffering from AIDS – yet not overtly
discriminate against members of that group.
And just because a person does not discriminate,
it does not necessarily mean that he or she is
not prejudiced. Discrimination can emerge
from institutional policies that have nothing
to do with hatred of members belonging to a
particular group.
Sources of Prejudice
Prejudice is an experience common to all the
societies. The researchers have identified
many factors, which work as motivational and
cognitive sources of prejudice.
1. Motivational Sources
Self-serving biases that justify one’s own
status by downgrading others. Often those
who are underprivileged, are viewed as “lazy”,
“irresponsible”, and “lacking ambitions” – as
having those traits, which justify their status,
and one’s own privileged status. It justifies
the economic and social superiority of those
who have wealth and power. Such
95
discriminations have some effect on the
victims, who may accept such negative traits
as true and see themselves as inferior to the
privileged. For example, underprivileged
people may conform to the expectations of
the rich and thus a prejudiced view is
maintained.
Ingroup-bias : Often people are divided into
‘we’ (in-group) and ‘they’ (out-group)
categories and treated accordingly. Ask
children which school is better - their own or
the other one in the town. The probability is
very high that they will mention their own
school. Considering our own group better
than the other one is important to maintain
a sense of belonging, as well as, to have a
positive self-esteem. The more strongly one
identifies with own group the greater is the
strength of negative stereotypes about the
other group or groups. Then, there are
situational factors that contribute to the
prejudices which one has. When people are
frustrated and there is no clear cause for it,
people have a tendency to find someone to
blame. This is known as scapegoating. People
feel that they have been victimised because
they belong to a particular group. It is a
common experience that people who fail to
qualify for a job attribute it to caste, class, or
religious factors and harbour negative
attitudes for people associated with them.
Belief in a just world : It is a belief that people
get what they deserve. Thus, if someone is
underprivileged in the society, people often
tend to attribute negative characteristics to
them to justify their status in the society. They
perceive the world as a fair and predictable
place in which good behaviour is rewarded
and bad behaviour is punished. People get
what they deserve.
2. Cognitive Sources
Prejudice is also considered as a matter of
beliefs about people, race, and other things.
It has been argued that the root of prejudice
is the fact that our memories are fallible and
therefore we are prey to beliefs about groups
of people that are not in accord with our
experience with them.
There is no country or society in the world
where there is no prejudice and
discrimination. In some or the other disguise
96 Introduction to Psychology

they operate in societies and shape intergroup
relationships in all societies. The prejudices
which people harbour for other significant
groups (minority or majority groups) are
primarily responsible for intergroup conflicts.
In a country like India, which has so much
diversity in terms of religion, custom,
languages, and ethnicity and where all groups
are competing for scarce resources,
intergroup conflicts, and social tensions have
become major challenges.
Social Categorisation : We are all members
of a variety of social groups or categories,
some of which are more important and others
are less important in our lives. There is no
escape from category memberships, many of
which, such as gender, caste, nationality, and
religion operate as organising principles in
society. Emphasis on category membership
underestimates the differences within a
category and overestimates the differences
across categories. We develop stereotypes for
the members of each category. Many people,
for example, think that men are aggressive
and women are sensitive.
Search for Positive Identity : Henry Tajfel
has proposed that people in the process of
forming positive social identity make
favourable group comparison. They consider
their own group as better than the out-group
with which they are competing. The stronger
these social identities are greater will be the
intensity of intergroup conflicts. Fig.4.1 shows
the linkages of self esteem identity and
intergroup conflict.
Another consequence of group comparison
is a sense of relative deprivation. It is a feeling
that the other group is unjustifiably more
privileged than their own group. This sense
of deprivation makes the underprivileged
group hostile toward the privileged group.
Conflict of interest occurs when groups are
in competition with each other over valued
commodities or opportunities. This results in
intergroup tension and violence because
competing groups consider each other
as rivals.
Intergroup Conflicts
People join groups for various reasons and
when they work together, there is always
the potential for conflict. Such conflict can
take place between a group and an
individual or it can occur between two or
more groups. It has been found that
conflicts have negative effect but it does not
mean that conflict is always bad. Interestingly
enough moderate conflict may enhance group
performance. It can stimulate new ideas,
increase friendly competition and increase
team effectiveness.
Individual group conflict occurs when the
individual’s needs are different from the
group’s needs, goals or norms. Intergroup
conflict refers to the situation of conflict
between two groups. In each and every society
diverse groups exist. The groups are often
organised around religion, language,
profession, region etc. The conflicts among
such groups often occurs to maintain the
identity of the groups different and stronger
than other groups. Unfortunately in today’s
world the number of the conflicts is
increasing. In the worst circumstances they
take the form of war. The relations between
ethnic groups, between religious groups and

A person join group A to Identifying with group A

enhance self-esteem and thinks it is the best

Intergroup
Conflict-prejudices

A person join group B to Identifying with group B

enhance self-esteem and thinks it is the best

Fig. 4.2 Relationship of self-esteem and identity with conflict

Attitude and Social Cognition
between groups following different ideologies
often appear strenuous and indicate different
degrees of conflict. In today’s world groups
cannot exist in isolation. The interdependence
among groups makes intergroup relations an
important topic.
Muzafer Sherif did an interesting
experiment, on the emergence of group
conflict. In a group of adolescents, he
examined the process of the development
of intergroup relations. He found that when
individuals interact with one another
toward some common goals, gradually a
group structure emerges. The group
develops norms to regulate the activities
within the group. Intergroup conflicts occur
when two or more groups come in contact
in competitive and frustrating situations.
They develop negative attitudes and
stereotypes toward one another. However,
when these groups interact with one
another toward super-ordinate goals, they
tend to cooperate.
Studies of intergroup relations indicate
various factors, which shape the course of
such relationships. Many of them are
discussed in the context of prejudice. Here
we may briefly refer to some of the
strategies of conflict resolution. While some
of them are more effective than others, each
of them is found useful in specific
situations. The main modes of conflict
resolution are as follows :
1. Withdrawal from the situation.
2. Winning at all costs.
3. Persuading the other party with the help
of evidence.
4. Use of smoothing and conciliation.
5. Use of negotiations and bargaining.
6. Jointly arriving at a solution.
7. Inviting a third party to intervene. This
neutral third party can use arbitration
or mediation to settle the matter. In
arbitration, the third party listens to both
the groups’ arguments and then makes
the decision. In mediation, a mutually
agreeable solution is sought.
97
STRATEGIES TO OVERCOME PREJUDICE
A question, which is of great significance, is,
‘how to reduce prejudice and discrimination
in any society’. Racial prejudice has played
great havoc and caused major tragedies in
the history of mankind. The racial prejudice
against the Jews in the Second World War
resulted in the killing of 60,00,000 Jews by
the Nazis. It was a strong religious prejudice,
which was responsible for communal violence
and the killing of several lakhs of Hindus and
Muslims during the partition. Even after 50
years of Independence, ethnic prejudices are
still rupturing the fabric of Indian society.
Since groups are bound to exist, it is utopian
to think that there can be a society free
of any kind of prejudice, where everyone will
be treated equally, irrespective of caste,
creed, race and nationality. For psychologists
it is a big challenge to work for that kind
of a society, or at least device the ways to
reduce prejudices in the society. Some
possible interventions in this regard are
as follows :
Providing Intergroup Contact : An important
technique to reduce intergroup conflict is to
provide greater opportunities to different
groups to come in direct contact with each
other. When people have to work together it is
very difficult to maintain negative stereotypes
about each other. However, simply increased
contact will not decrease intergroup relations.
It is essential that increased contact takes place
under the conditions of equal social and
economic status. Unless this happens,
communication will be difficult between groups,
and mistrust and suspicion may enhance
intergroup prejudices. It is also necessary that
when two groups come in contact they should
equally share power. That means each group
should have equal opportunity to influence the
rewards of the other group. When one group
has more power than the other group, the less
powerful group may resent or feel threatened.
Only when these conditions are met, social
contacts between competing groups will lessen
the prejudices.
Reorganising Learning in the Family and
School : Early socialisation plays a major role
in developing prejudices. Children who are
98 Introduction to Psychology

brought up in an authoritarian style are

BELIEFS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
found to be more prejudiced than those who
are brought up in a liberal atmosphere.
We have beliefs about our ‘selves’, about the
Children often internalise the attitudes and
world we live in, about the other world, about
stereotypes of their parents and the other
the causes of various happenings, etc. Here
family members. If parents and teachers de-
one can ask a more general question: Why
emphasise social categories in dealing with
do people have beliefs? Why does one have to
the members of other groups, and see them
have beliefs about objects, people, groups and
as persons, prejudices may not take their
events? To take a concrete example, why do
toll. Another factor that may play a crucial
you believe that Indians are religious people?
role in reducing prejudice is Mass media.
Or that, all our success and failure depends
The Newspaper, Radio, Television etc. have
on luck. On the basis of what one has been
become powerful tools in the pubic education
told, or has experienced, one forms ideas
and opinion formation. Fair, free and
about the general properties of objects,
balanced reporting can reduce social tension
events, and groups of people. It is not
and help in maintaining communal and
necessary that whatever one believes in, is
ethnic harmony. In today’s work, social
true, but one’s actions are predominantly
diversity is increasing and we do need greater
guided by these beliefs. Beliefs summarise
tolerance for people from different groups.
previous experiences and make future
Also, having prejudice is not healthy. The
interactions with the world more
prejudiced people often suffer from anxiety,
predictable and meaningful. Once a belief
anger, and fear. This makes life less enjoyable.
is formed, one’s thinks one knows what to
Since the parents and teachers want to
expect from certain objects, events and
enhance the well-being of their children they
groups, and how to interpret and make sense
should discourage transmitting prejudiced
of what one sees. Without beliefs, all of us
views to them.
would be overwhelmed by the complexity of
Recategorisation : It has been found that
our environment. Beliefs simplify and
when people hailing from different groups
organise what one sees. Further, beliefs
view themselves as members of one single
provide a context for experience and, to some
social identity, their attitudes toward the
extent, determine what information one will
former outgroup members’ change. The
seek out.
favourable attitudes promote positive
The term ‘belief’ has been used in different
contact that reduces intergroup bias. Thus
ways by people. Sometimes this word has
the weakening of group boundaries by
been used to convey opinion, sureness,
recategorisation helps to reduce prejudice.
feeling, other times, to reflect faith, and at
Cognitive Interventions : Stereotypes may
conviction and so on. Therefore, it is essential
be reduced promoting attribute driven
that we define the term “belief” before
thinking instead of category driven
proceeding to study the relevance of belief in
processing. People may be encouraged
human behaviour. Beliefs are relatively stable
to pay attention to the characteristics
cognitive structures that represent what
of people rather than to their membership of
exists for an individual in a domain beyond
various groups. This may reduce prejudice.
the direct perception or logical inference from
Developing Positive Attitudes : Some
the observed facts. In other words, the beliefs
strategies, which help in reduction in we hold are not verifiable: For example, our
prejudices focus on learning appropriate beliefs in God, spirits, soul, etc., are not
positive attitudes. This can be achieved verifiable through legitimate scientific
through a variety of activities such as procedures. Nevertheless, our belief structure
exposure to additional information, changing is enduring, internally consistent and exerts
in-group affiliations, enforcing behavioural profound influence on our behaviour.
modifications, face-to-face persuasion, group The study of human history leaves little
discussions, and role-play. doubt about the importance of beliefs in the
Attitude and Social Cognition
affairs of human species. In modern life too,
beliefs exert profound influence on the
personal and social lives of individuals and
groups. Beliefs are norms shared by the
members of a society (e.g., ‘Karma’ among the
Hindus). The certain beliefs are universally
shared (e.g., some form of religion, magic,
etc.). Similarly, there is a large and complex
universe of human belief systems e.g., the
religious beliefs, belief about God, holy
spirits, angels, soul, fate, luck, chance,
superstitious, life after death, etc.
Individuals subscribe to such and other
beliefs, which are internally consistent.
The Functionality of Beliefs
Beliefs do exist and influence our behaviour
immensely. Beacause they are functional in
nature. Besides, they serve a very important
role in human life and behaviour and fulfil
certain needs. Pepitone has proposed four
functions performed by beliefs: Let us
examine these four functions briefly.
(a) Emotional : Beliefs serve to manage
emotions such as fear, anger,
uncertainty, frustration, etc. For
example, the belief in life after death and
the indestructibility of the soul helps in
reducing death anxiety.
(b) Cognitive : Beliefs provide cognitive
structures and help in understanding the
“why” of the life events. For example,
human beings hold strong beliefs about
the supernatural forces that maintain and
sustain life and nature in this universe.
(c) Moral : Beliefs function to regulate the
allocation of moral responsibility between
the self and others. For example, religious
beliefs mark the boundaries between right
and wrong actions, between virtues
(Punaya) and sin (Paap).
(d) Group : Beliefs serve to enhance group
solidarity by providing people with common
identify, hence enhance group solidarity.
For example, in-group, feelings among
members can be based on religious beliefs.
Social Cognition
The study of social cognition deals with the
mental process by which we make sense of our
social world comprising of people and social
99
situations. The mental processes involved are
often automatic and occur without conscious
awareness or intention. You will remember
that people evaluate others and social objects
spontaneously. We try to explain the motives
and traits of others. In fact the field of social
cognition deals with the ways in which we
interpret, analyse, retain and utilise
information about the various aspects of our
social world. We use heuristics or rules to
make social judgements quickly and with
reduced effort. One of the most important
processes of social cognition is causal
attribution. Let us try to understand it
in detail.
Causal Attributions
Do you remember the day when your
examination result was declared last time?
Some of your friends had done well and others
had not done so well, or had failed. You and
your friends must have talked about the
causes of good or poor performance. Some
would have said that they did poorly because
the examination papers were tough, or that
they did not study hard. Those who had done
well might have thought that they were lucky
or had a high ability.
The process of thinking and perceiving the
causes of your own or others’ success and
failure is an example of causal attribution.
(You have already read about it in the chapter
on Motivation and Emotion in Class XI). All
of us are interested in understanding the
causes of all those events or outcomes that
affect us. We normally tend to believe that
nothing happens in this world without a
cause. Or in other words, anything that
happens must have a cause. The search for
causes is an ongoing mental activity,
particularly when something unexpected
happens. Causal attribution in this sense is
an integral part of our everyday thinking. All
of us are naïve scientists in this respect, trying
to establish cause and effect relationships,
as you did in the case of examination results.
It should be remembered that the perceived
causes of success and failure are not
necessarily the actual causes of success and
failure. For example, you may think that your
poor examination performance was because
100 Introduction to Psychology

the marking was not done properly, whereas
the fact may be that you had no interest in the
subject and did not put in much effort.
Fritz Heider, who is credited as the founder
of attribution theory, suggested that human
beings function as naïve scientists. As such
we try to think in terms of causes and effects.
We try to find out the causes of all personal
and social events. We blame or give credit to
the people depending on the perception of
their intentions and abilities. For example,
we attribute responsibility to a person when
we think that he or she had both the ability
and the intention to attain the outcome. For
example, if someone stole, because he had
no money to pay someone’s fee, people will
not blame the person for stealing. The other
situation is where someone has a habit of
stealing. Here the blame will go to the person.
Heider categorised all causes into two
categories: internal and external. The
internal causes include people’s attributes
while external causes include anything
outside a person. Causal attribution plays an
important role in regulating our social life.
Not only does the blame depends on the
perception of causality, but rewards too. If a
person does a good deed and the action seems
to be voluntary, or intentional, the person will
receive far more reward from others than
would be the case if he or she had been paid
to do the deed. If the person is paid the causal
responsibility lies outside the person.
Many psychologists have tried to
categorise the causes as internal and
external. In the situation of success and
failure in the examination, for example, the
ability and the effort are internal causes, and
the chance and the question paper are
external causes. Research work has shown
that people attribute their success more to
internal factors and failure more to external
factors than vice versa. You will recollect from
the chapter on Motivation and Emotion in
Class XI that Weiner added another
dimension to causal attribution, known as

ACTIVITY 4.5

Understanding Causal Attribution-I

Suppose you have just failed in an exam, and you think the failure was due to a certain factor.
The responsible cause will be indicated below. You expect to take a similar exam in the near
future. Indicate your subjective expectation of succeeding at the next exam.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Very low Intermediate Very high
(1) The prior failure occurred because you do
not have the ability in the subject matter (for
example, you think you are poor at math,
art, etc.). — — — — — — —
Likelihood of future success:
(2) The prior failure occurred because you
did not study enough. — — — — — — —
Likelihood of future success:
(3) The prior failure occurred because this
teacher makes up difficult exams and
the class is very difficult for you. — — — — — — —
Likelihood of future success:
(4) The prior failure occurred because of
bad luck (unlucky guessing, happened to
study the wrong material, etc.). — — — — — — —
Likelihood of future success:
Attitude and Social Cognition
stability. It refers to whether the cause is
stable – it does not change over a long
period (memory, family), or is unstable – it
may change over a short time (interest,
luck). To take some examples: ability is both
internal and stable; effort is internal and
unstable (you may not make efforts
tomorrow); chance is both external and
unstable. Weiner suggested that when you
attribute your success to internal factors
you have a sense of pride. Also, attributing
success to stable factors gives you high
expectations of success in future. Many
studies have supported these predictions.
Another dimension along which our
causal attributions differ is actor-observer
dimension. That is, whether we are making
attribution for our own behaviour (actor), or
for the behaviour of others (observer). Think
of a situation when one of your classmates
tripped and fell and got injured. You may tend
to think that he must be walking carelessly
and attribute the responsibility for injury to
him. Now let us presume that the same thing
happens to you. You would put the blame on
the condition of the road, or on another
person or some other external factor. The
tendency to blame external factors for our own
behaviour and internal factors for other’s
behaviour is known as the fundamental
attributional error.
ACTIVITY 4.6
Understanding Attribution-II
Take a paper and a pencil, sit in a quiet
corner and visualise the following scenario :
You had taken an important examination
and expected to do well. When the result
was declared you found that you did very
poorly. Think when it happened to you in the
past, and on the basis of that experience,
answer the following questions.
To what causes would you attribute your
poor result?
What were your feelings at that time?
Conduct the same experiment on your
friends and list the causes and feelings they
have mentioned. On the basis of these data
try to establish the linkages between causal
attributions and the feelings associated with
them.
101
You can easily find the evidence of
fundamental attributional error from personal
experience. Do you remember how many
times you were blamed for misplacing or
loosing things, or forgetting an appointment?
You might have felt hurt because you thought
it was not your mistake, that you were
careless. There may be many instances when
you did the same to your friends or family
members. Think of the situation when you
hear that one of your acquaintances met an
accident. A general tendency is to blame the
injured person – his or her careless driving,
poor traffic sense, or poor maintenance of
the vehicle. People blame the person because
it is assuring for them that if they are
more vigilant they will not meet such an
accident. Studies have shown that such an
attributional error is also seen in perceiving
the causes of poverty, unemployment,
communal riots, etc. The blame is often placed
on the people who are the sufferers. Even in
the cases of natural disasters, such as
earthquake, cyclone, floods, there is a pervasive
belief that it is because of the sins, which
people have committed. This phenomenon is
known as blaming the victim.
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Preconceived notions regarding various
groups are called ________________.
2. _________________ are biased negative
attitudes formed about a group or
people.
3. ______________influence our behaviour
by making our interactions more
meaningful and predictable.
4. _____________________ is a behavioural
manifestation of prejudice.
5. _____________ can serve as an important
tool to reduce prejudice and intergroup
conflict.
Recapitulation
Prejudices are negative attitudes, which
represent a general rejection or dislike toward
the attitude object. Stereotypes are clusters
of these preconceived notions regarding
various groups. Discrimination is the
behavioural manifestation of prejudice. The
various sources of prejudice are
102
motivational, emotional and cognitive.
Prejudices which people harbour for other
significant groups as minority or caste
group are responsible for intergroup
conflicts. Some of the important techniques
to reduce prejudices and intergroup
conflicts are greater contact between
different groups, early socialisation and
using mass media as an important tool.
PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR :
NATURE AND DETERMINANTS
Humans are social beings. Most of their
activities are organised with the help of others.
We cannot live and grow unless there is
support from others. We often engage in
helping others. Such efforts are considered
as pro-social behaviours. Suppose you are
boarding a train to visit a relative in the
summer vacation. There is a big crowd and
confusion in the coach and you find that a
very old man is sitting on your reserved seat.
What will you do? Will you ask the old man
to vacate your seat or will you try to
accommodate him? There could be another
example. Suppose you are walking on a busy
street and are in a rush to meet your friend
for some important work. Suddenly you find
that someone has snatched the purse of an
old lady and is running away. Many are just
watching and shouting but nobody is doing
anything. What will you do? Will you run after
the thief and try to catch him, or would you
just ignore the event and go on your way?
If you leave your seat for the old man or
set out to chase the thief, you are engaging in
prosocial behaviour. Most of us experience
such situations in our everyday life. Sometimes
we help, but most often we don’t. There are
others who always go out of their way to help
others even if there is a risk involved. Some
people sacrifice their own interests while
engaging in prosocial behaviour.
Pro-social behaviour can be defined as a
behaviour that is positively valued by society
and is generally beneficial to other people and
the society at large. This definition
emphasises that pro-social behaviour involves
social judgement, which depends on time and
place. For example, a violent act against
Introduction to Psychology
the informers of an enemy country may
be considered pro-social behaviour. The
most common pro-social behaviour is,
however, helping others. For any behaviour
to be prosocial it should fulfil the
following conditions.
1. There has to be an intention to benefit
the other person. Any-prosocial act, which
one accomplishes by compulsion or as a
requirement of a job, does not merit to be
called prosocial.
2. The behaviour should be considered
socially desirable by the other members
of the society. Obviously, helping a thief
in stealing is not a prosocial behaviour.
3. If an act intended to benefit others is also
expected to benefit the helper, it cannot
be termed as pro-social.
One thing should be clear that though pro-
social behaviour is intended to benefit others,
it is not necessary that it should actually be
so. You may offer to drop your friend to the
station, but because of the breakdown of your
vehicle your friend misses the train. Should
your behaviour be still considered pro-social?
The answer is ‘yes’. The intentions and the
consequent positive behaviour are more
important considerations of pro-social
behaviour than the actual benefits.
The other terms, which are used
interchangeably with pro-social behaviour, is
altruism and helping. The literal meaning of
altruism is doing things or acting for the
interest of others, without any ulterior motive.
All charitable, humanitarian, philanthropic
activities, which people do without any self-
interest, come under the category of altruistic
behaviour. Helping others is only one, but the
most important kind of altruistic behaviour.
Pro-social behaviours are, of course a much
broader category, which would include all
the activities for the interest of individual,
society, and humanity.
Determinants of Pro-social Behaviour
The pro-social behaviour depends on
many factors.
1. The Feeling State : Suppose you have done
very well in the examination, much better
than what you had expected. You have just
got your report card and are feeling great
Attitude and Social Cognition
BOX 4.4 BYSTANDER BEHAVIOUR, ALTRUISM AND EMPATHY
How often have you come across a road accident
where someone got injured by a speeding vehicle
and was lying in a pool of blood on the roadside?
A big crowd must have gathered around and
must be anxiously watching the injured man
moaning for medical help. No help comes forward
for long. The passers-by stop out of curiosity and
go on their way. Such instances are plenty.
Whether it is a case of eveteasing or purse
snatching, there are always more passive
watchers than active help providers.
Why are people not forthcoming in providing
help in such crisis situations? Some laboratory
experiments were conducted to answer this
question. In one such study, students were
invited to the psychology lab to participate in a
study. On arrival they were told that arranging
the experiment would take a few minutes more
and they were requested to wait in the lobby.
From the lobby they could hear sounds of
furniture being moved for the experiment in the
connecting room.
While waiting to be called in for the
experiment, the participants heard a crashing
sound, as if somebody had fallen from a height.
Then they heard somebody moaning and calling
for help. What would the subjects waiting in the
lobby do? Will they help the person who is calling
for help? If yes, how long would they take in
reaching out to help? These were some of the
questions, which the experimenters tried
to investigate.
The findings were very clear. If there were
more participants sitting and waiting in the lobby,
it took longer for them to provide help. If there
was only one participant in the lobby, it took him
or her the minimal time to rush inside to help. Of
course, no body actually fell, as it was an
experimental manipulation only. Nevertheless, the
findings were the same, as we observe in a real
life situation. This phenomenon is known as
about it. If at that time someone approaches
you for donation for earthquake victims,
you are likely to donate more than in the
situation where you had failed and were in
a bad mood. People in a positive mood are
more likely to help others than those who
are in a bad mood.
2. The Cost : People are less likely to help
when the cost of helping is too much. For
example, people are less likely to lend
103
bystanders’ effect; that is, the tendency of a
person to be less likely to help in the presence
of others than when alone.
Why does the presence of more people result
in delayed help? On the basis of further inquiry
from the participants many plausible explanations
were obtained. The most plausible one is what
researchers call ‘diffusion of responsibility’.
According to this hypothesis, people feel inhibited
to help in the presence of others because they
fail to see themselves as being personally
responsible for helping. Each person believes that
the responsibility for helping is spread (diffused)
equally among all bystanders. As a result, all
are likely to feel less responsible than they would
if they were alone.
Empathy refers to the tendency of responding
to another person’s mental state, particularly the
emotional state with feelings resembling the
emotions of the other person. Some researchers
have used empathy to refer to taking the
perspective of the other person. Empathy is
considered as an important component of
altruistic personality, which is more involved in
pro-social behaviour. It is a source of altruistic
motivation involving an other-oriented emotional
reaction while seeing another person in need.
The perceived welfare of the other person is
quite important. Studies have shown that
feeling empathy for a person in need leads to
increased helping toward that person. It
enhances the human capacity to care by
allowing us to experience what other people
are feeling, to imagine ourselves in another
person’s place. It allows us to feel his or her
joys and sorrows as if they were our own.
Empathy becomes a source of moral motivation
by inducing altruistic acts to make someone else
feel better. The tendency to empathise is more like
in care of people who are considered to be similar
to one self.
money when the amount is big than in a
situation where the amount is small. People
are far less likely to jump in a river and save
someone’s life at the risk of their own lives.
3. Perceived Deservingness : You will not
lend your class notes to someone who is
very casual about his/her studies. People
like to make donations only to those
charitable organisations, which they think
are doing good work.
104
4. Modelling : This effect is important in
learning pro-social behaviour. If everyone
close to you chooses to do voluntary
service for the earthquake victims, you are
more likely to do the same. Children
observe their parents acting pro-socially
and learn such behaviour from them.
BOX 4.5 AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE : ITS CAUSES AND REMEDIES
Why there is so much aggression and violence
all over the world. No country, or society is free
from incidences of violence. Pick up any
newspaper and you will find some news of
murder, rape, riots, kidnapping, terrorism, etc.
everyday. Violence against women, children and
other weaker sections has become a cause of
concern for everyone. Aggression and violence
has always been there, and in a way history is
a record of wars and killings. We always desired
a society in which there is no place for any kind
of physical, verbal and mental violence.
In psychology, aggression is defined as a
behaviour that is designed to deliver negative
outcomes (pain and suffering) to another person.
Unintended harm or injury to other person is not
termed as aggression; intention is an essential
aspect of aggression. It should also be noted that
feeling may or may not be associated with
aggression. In personal and direct aggression
people may have negative feelings (of hate, anger
or dislike), but in the case of war and organised
crime feeling is not an essential component. It
should also be understood that this definition of
aggression is from the aggressor’s point of view.
It is quite possible that the behaviour which the
aggressor does not consider harmful may
be considered harmful by the other person
or persons.
The universality of aggressive behaviour
gives credence to the proposition that there is a
biological basis of aggression and that it is
essential for the survival. Many psychologists
consider aggression as instinctive, an inborn
Key Terms
Attitude, Belief, Pro-social behaviour, Prejudice,
Discrimination, Cognition, Social Attribution,
Altruism, Empathy, Reference group, Stereotypes,
Self-serving biases, In-group bias, Scapegoating,
Introduction to Psychology
5. Diffusion of Responsibility : People do not
jump to help others in crisis in every time.
In an ambiguous situation where people
are not clear about their own role, or when
they think that someone else is supposed
to provide help, they may not help. This
point is discussed in more detail in Box 4.4.
disposition that we share with all living beings.
This view holds that nothing can be done to
prevent human aggression and that we are
biologically programmed to be destructive.
Learning psychologists do not agree with this
view and argue that people learn to be
aggressive, the same way as they learn to be
moral. They argue that aggression persists
because it pays. The reward system of the
society is such that people who are aggressive
are directly or indirectly rewarded by the society.
The children copy such behaviours and learn to
be aggressive. It is further argued that if the
reward system of the society can be appropriately
changed, it will reduce aggression and violence in
the society. A third viewpoint is suggested by two
American psychologists – Dollard and Miller,
who proposed frustration-aggression hypothesis.
This hypothesis states that a feeling of frustration
always leads to some form of aggression. That is,
whenever people experience frustration, which is
defined as blocking of their goals, aggression will
be a certain outcome. Of course, many situational
factors will not only modify the expression of
aggression but also results in the displacement of
the aggression. It is contended that a society,
which is open, liberal, and less competitive, will
have fewer instances of violence. Dollard and
Miller’s hypothesis was criticised by many other
psychologists as too simplistic. The critics argued
that aggression and violence are outcomes of
complex personal and social conditions and need
to be understood in a broader cultural, social,
political and economic context.
Intergroup conflict, Social identity,
Recategorisation, Fundamental attributional
error, Diffusion of responsibility, Aggression,
Ingroup, Outgroup.
Attitude and Social Cognition 105

SUMMARY

l Attitudes are relatively stable dispositions to think, feel and act in a particular manner.
Attitudes are not innate but people learn them in the process of socialisation. Attitudes
have three components – cognitive (evaluative), affective (feeling) and behavioural
(expression). When all the three components of attitude are in the same direction,
such an attitude is more stable and difficult to change.
l Measurement of attitudes is done with the help of survey (questionnaire), Rating scales
and behavioural measures. The rating scales are based on different types of items
and response alternatives. They are most frequently used. Unobtrusive measures are
also used.
l Attitudes are formed through classical conditioning, operant learning and social
learning. They are the products of a person’s life experiences. Many factors contribute
to the formation of these attitudes. Important among them are family influences, social
learning, media exposure and personal experiences. There is an extensive research
to show that source, medium and message are important factors in attitude change.
Generally, attitudes, which are extreme, consistent, and useful, are resistant to change.
l Prejudices are attitudes, which are biased toward a person or group, which refers to
a generalised response towards the target. These prejudices are primarily because of
social categorisation, in-group bias, self-serving biases, tendency to blame the victim,
etc. Family, reference groups and media can play important role in reducing prejudice
and discrimination.
l Causal attributions constitute an important part of social cognition. They deal with the
way people give causes to explain important social events. All of us try to understand
success and failure in terms of the factors, which caused them. It has been found that
people give internal causes for the behaviour of others and give external causes for
the behaviour of own-self. This tendency is known as fundamental attributional error.
l Pro-social behaviour is essentially one which is intended to benefit others. Such
behaviour depends on positive mood state, cost of helping, and deservingness of the
help seeker and behaviour of others in similar situation. It has been discovered that
more are the number of people present, the less is the help provided.

Review Questions

1. What is an attitude? What functions do attitudes perform?

2. Which are the components of attitudes?
3. What are techniques of measuring attitudes?
4. How are attitudes acquired? Which environmental influences affect the formation of
attitudes?
5. Which factors play an important role in the change of attitude?
6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotypes?
7. What are the sources of prejudices?
8. Discuss the strategies, which help in overcoming prejudices?
9. What are beliefs and their functions?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. No, 2. Yes, 3. Yes,

4. Yes, 5. No, 6. No, 7. Yes.
II : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T.
III : 1. T, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T
IV : 1. Stereotypes 2. Prejudice
3. Beliefs 4. Discrimination
5. Mass media
106 Introduction to Psychology

5 COPING WITH LIFE CHALLENGES

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä The concept of adjustment Introduction
Ä The nature, sources, and types of stress What is adjustment?
Ä Different ways of coping Who is Socially Adjusted? (Box 5.1)
Ä Explanation of healthy lifestyle Nature and Sources of Stress
Ä The factors contributing to health and Concept of Stress
well-being Sources of Stress
Types of Stress
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
A Measure of Stressful Life-Events
BE ABLE TO
(Box 5.2)
Ä know how people adjust with major life Coping with Stress
challenges,
Stress and Health
Ä understand the type of stresses one
experiences in life, Life Style and Health
Ä appreciate how people deal with life stress, Some Stress Management Techniques
Ä know what kinds of behaviours help (Box 5.3)
people to stay fit and healthy, and Health Impairing Behaviours (Box 5.4)
Ä understand what factors promote positive
Positive Health and Well-Being
health and well-being.
Positive Health through Positive Attitude
(Box 5.5)
Learned Helplessness and Learned
Resourcefulness (Box 5.6)
Optimism and Thriving (Box 5.7)

Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Coping with Life Challenges 107

INTRODUCTION

For Sunita it was her first day at the new school. Her brother dropped her at the
school gate, but she did not know where to go. She felt lost in the teeming crowd
of strangers. It took her some time to gather courage to approach a school employee
and inquire about Class XI. After a few wrong turns, she could finally find her
class. There was no familiar face in the class and she could feel many eyes
staring at her and making faces. Her heartbeat went up when a girl who had just
entered the room asked for her name. Sunita, in her nervousness, mistook her
as the teacher and addressed her as ‘sir’, as she fumbled for words. The whole
class laughed.
This could be a familiar experience for many. Every one faces similar
situations, which are challenging and difficult to deal with. In fact, no stage of
life is free from struggles and crises, and everyone has to deal with such
situations. There could be conflicts between what you want and what your parents
want you to do. You could be experiencing failures in some competitive situation,
be it admission in some important course, securing good marks in the examination,
or making friends. At times having more choices is also problematic, where one
feels the pressure to make a judicious decision. You may feel tense when someone
questions your abilities or intentions, and you may go out of the way to prove
yourself. You may be worried about your future, or about loosing those who are
close to you. It is not only the negative events, which cause tension, but at times
positive events also throw up many challenges before us.
All these are considered normal life stresses with which one has to deal
within everyday life. At times there are more serious problems, like the death of
a near and dear one, a serious injury or illness, loosing a job, a break in
relationship or a financial loss which are not only very stressful but demand
major readjustment in one’s life. Human beings are constantly trying to adapt
themselves to the changing environmental situations both internal as well as
external. The various internal and external changes demand modification of
behaviour that will enable people to adapt to that situation. When the situations
are not very demanding or beyond the capabilities of an individual, they result
in successful adjustment. When situations are difficult and demanding the
situation is termed stressful and requires the person to utilise various coping
mechanisms to adjust to the situation.
This chapter would help you to understand the nature of adjustment, and
the nature of stress and its manifestations. You will also come to know about
how people cope with stress. The effects of chronic stress on mental and physical
health will also be discussed.
Success is going from failure to failure without loss of enthusiasm.
– Winston Churchill
108
WHAT IS ADJUSTMENT?
Human beings are born and grow in a socio-
physical environment. As we know, the life
functioning depends on a balance or harmony
between the demands made on the organism
by the environment and the organism’s
functioning to deal with such demands. For
example, as atmospheric temperature
changes the balance is disturbed and our
body functions in a way to restore the balance
between the body temperature and the
atmospheric temperature. If it is hot outside,
sweating functions to maintain a balance, at
least temporarily. At a psychological level, we
also engage in similar activities or processes
to deal with the demands from the external
reality or from within ourselves. For example,
your parents expect you to perform at a
certain level in your studies. Many of your
behaviours, thoughts, plans, feelings, and
motivations are perhaps modified as you
strive to meet such expectations. You also
have your own goals, which create demands
from within, and you know that many of your
acts are directed at meeting such demands.
Thus, we make efforts to deal with the
environmental-biological, physical, social,
BOX 5.1 WHO IS SOCIALLY ADJUSTED?
Social adjustment refers to a condition when we
are able to adjust with other persons in general
and the group in particular to which we belong.
Socially adjusted persons are skilled in social
relations. They have positive thinking about
others. As children grow older, they are expected
to be both adjusted to the demands of social life
and behave in accordance with the social
expectation for their age levels. The level of social
adjustment shown by children depends on the
quality of family environment, motivation, and
guidance. The degree of social adjustment
attained by a person can be judged on the basis
of the following criteria.
l Behaviour : When a person’s behaviour or
overt performance comes up to the expectation
of the members of the group to which one
belongs, we call the person adjusted.
l Adjustment with diverse groups : Since
a person has to work or interact with
Introduction to Psychology
internal, and external demands. Adjustment
is the outcome of such efforts. We are
considered well adjusted when we deal
successfully with our situations such as in
home, schools, and work places without much
problem. Researchers have developed tools
to assess adjustment in different areas or
aspects of life, such as school, marriage, work
organisations etc. These tools explore or
predict the relative presence or absence of
problems faced by the people.
Temporary or more enduring failure of
adjustment is maladjustment. It disturbs our
balance or harmony with the environment
and/or within ourselves. Normally, we
mobilise our resources for achieving
adjustment. When our resources are limited
or when we fail to properly harness such
resources to meet effectively the
environmental demands, problems of
maladjustment are seen. We all have
experienced situations in our lives, which
have posed challenges for us. Extreme
conditions in our physical environment such
as cyclones, heat waves, or earthquakes,
problems in our social and psychological
environment such as death of a near one,
personal failure, and frustrations threaten our
different groups, a person who adjusts
well with different groups is regarded as
well adjusted.
l Positive thinking about groups and
people : We need to have a positive view
about people, social participation, and
behaviour in group setting.
l Personal happiness : When we are
adjusted well we feel satisfied and happy
about our role performance.
While each of the above is true, we must
also remember that happiness and health
as well depend on our ability to find
innovative and creative paths in life. Many
a times such paths may be different from
the rules and norms of our group. Hence,
along with adjustment, the ability to
acknowledge one’s difference and to strive
in a creative manner is also the indicator of
positive mental health.
Coping with Life Challenges
well-being. But such situations do not always
lead to maladjustment, abnormal behaviour,
or mental disorder. Faced with any challenge,
we put in additional efforts and mobilise all
our resources and the support system to meet
the challenge. All the challenges, problems,
and difficult circumstances put us to stress.
We respond to stresses in many ways. Some
of these ways are helpful to us in dealing with
the situation so that we are able to bring
things under control or tolerate the situation
or, at least, reduce the negative effects of the
same on our well-being. Responding to stress
in such helpful ways is coping. It can be said
that adjustment is an outcome of coping.
THE NATURE AND SOURCES OF STRESS
The Concept of Stress
However, science and technology bring
improvement in the quality of human life in
many ways, it also resulted in many new
crises. Crowding, noise pollution, competition,
social insecurity, unemployment, violence,
loneliness, etc., are all accompaniments of
modern living. One is also subjected to
prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation
because of one’s belongingness to a particular
social class, religion, or region. Nature also
inflicts certain crises in the form of earthquakes,
floods, and drought. When all these are taken
into consideration, it gives an impression that
there is no escape from stresses. Stress is an
integral part of our lives. While stress is
considered a major cause of mental and
physical health problems, its effect is not
always undesirable. In fact, stress is a basic
ingredient of life. Our biological system is
equipped with some stress alarms that are
essential for survival and allows one to
function effectively in many situations.
Without undergoing stress, there can be no
constructive and creative activity. A certain
level of stress is necessary to perform better
in examinations. Stress quite often increases
our efficiency and makes us search for new
coping resources. It improves our adaptive
system and we are better able to deal with
such situations in future. However, those who
have not experienced any stress in their lives
have a poor adaptive mechanism and may
109
succumb to even mild forms of stress. There
are also people who thrive on stress and show
greater efficiency in handling crises.
The term ‘stress’ has its origin in the field
of engineering. To an engineer it means any
external force directed at some physical
object. The result of this force is strain, which
refers to a change produced in the structure
of the object. Many psychologists adopted this
definition - stress being the external event or
stimulus and strain being the resultant effect,
mostly in terms of health consequences.
Generally, it is found that high levels of stress
lead to greater strain. They create distress.
However, this is not always true. We also
experience positive stress or U stress. It
occurs when we have positive experiences or
uplifts, which are welcome.
Stress can be described as the pattern
of responses an organism makes to
stimulus event that disturbs the
equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability
to cope. The stimulus events include a large
variety of external and internal conditions
called stressors if they are perceived to
threaten one’s well-being and demand some
kind of adaptive response.
In the contemporary analysis the stress
is considered as a process that depends on
what events a person notice and the way it is
appraised or comprehended. The stress
process is described in Figure 5.1. Your
response to a stressful situation largely
depends upon what events you notice and
how you interpret or appraise them. Events
that are stressful for one person may be a
matter of routine for the other person. It
depends on the nature of stressor, the
characteristics of the person and the
resources available at the disposal of the
person. Lazarus has distinguished between
two types of appraisals : primary and
secondary. Primary appraisal is an initial
evaluation of whether an event is relevant,
and if relevant, whether it is personally
threatening or not. When you view an event
as threatening or stressful, you are likely to
make a secondary appraisal, which is an
evaluation of your own resources and options
available for dealing with the stress. These
resources may be mental, physical, personal,
110 Introduction to Psychology

or social. One who thinks that he or she has
the positive attitude, health, skills, and social
support to deal with the crises will feel less
stressed. Often such appraisals are very
subjective and will depend on many factors.
One such factor is the past experience of
dealing with such a stressful condition. If one
has handled similar situations very
successfully in the past, they are less
threatening. Another factor is, whether the
stressful event is perceived as controllable
or uncontrollable. A person, who believes
that he/she can control the onset of a
negative situation, or its adverse
consequences, will experience less amount
of stress than those who have no such sense
of personal control. Thus, the experience and
the outcome of a stressor may vary from
individual to individual.
As indicated earlier, stress, in a broad
sense, includes all those environmental and
personal events, which threaten or challenge
the well-being of a person. The stressors can
be external, such as environmental (e.g.,
noise, air pollution), social (e.g., loneliness,
break in relationship), or psychological (e.g.,
guilt frustration, conflict, pressure shock).
Very often, these stressors result in a variety
of stress reactions, which may be
physiological, behavioural, emotional, and
cognitive. At the physiological level, arousal
plays a key role in stress-related behaviours.
Hypothalamus initiates action along two
pathways. The first pathway involves
autonomic nervous system. You will recollect
from your study of nervous system in
Class XI that the adrenal gland releases large
amount of catecholamines into the blood
stream. This leads to physiological changes
seen in fight-or-flight response. The second
pathway involves pituitary gland which
secretes the corticosteroid which provides

STRESSORS RESOURCES
Types Physical
Environmental Money
Psychological Medical Care, etc.
PERSON
Social Personal
CHARACTERISTICS
Skills
Dimensions Physiological Coping style
Intensity Physical Health
Duration Social
Constitutional Support Networks
Complexity Vulnerabilities
Predictability Professional Help
Psychological
Mental Health
Temperament
Self-Concept
Cultural
Cultural Definitions
and Meanings
Expected Response
Style

STRESS APPRAISAL

Physiological Behavioural Emotional Cognitive

response response response response

Fig. 5.1 A Theoretical Model of the Stress Process

Coping with Life Challenges
energy. The emotional reactions to the
experience of stress include fear, sadness,
and anger. The emotional arousal may
interfere our dealings with stresses. The
behavioural and cognitive responses
involve coping or active effort to master,
reduce or tolerate the demands created by
stress. The stresses which people experience
also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity
vs. high intensity), duration, (short-term vs.
long term), complexity (less complex vs.
more complex) and predictability
(unexpected vs. predictable). The outcome
of stress depends on the position of
particular stressful experience along these
dimensions. Usually more intense,
prolonged (or chronic), complex, and
unanticipated stresses have more negative
consequences than less intense, short-
term, less complex and expected stresses. A
person’s experiences of stress depend
importantly on the physiological strength of
the person. Thus, people with poor physical
health and weak constitution would be more
vulnerable than those who enjoy good health
and strong constitution.
Psychological characteristics like mental
health, temperament, and self-concept are
also relevant to the experience of stress.
The cultural context in which people live
determines the meaning of any event and
defines the nature of response that is
expected under various conditions. Finally, the
stress experience will be determined by the
resources of the person. These resources can
be physical like money, medical facilities, and
personal like social skills and the particular
style of coping used by people to deal with
stress. All these factors determine the appraisal
of a given stressful situation.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Appraising Stressful Events
Identify the stressful events, which your
three friends have experienced in the past
one year. List these stressful events and
select those that are common for all three of
your friends. Find out how much ability, skill,
and family support your friends have to deal
with each of those stresses. Examine the
differences in the stress experienced by your
friends in the light of their coping resources.
Discuss these results with your teacher.
111
Sources of Stress
Studies in medical science are increasingly
showing the role of stress in various disorders.
In fact, many health professionals recognise
that the concept of a single cause for an illness
is no longer suitable. Many different sources
of stress are known to precipitate illness like
heart disease. Some of the important sources
of stress are given below.
Traumatic Events : These include a variety
of extreme situations such as fire, being a
hostage, witnessing a gory crime, etc. In fact,
the effects of such events may occur after the
lapse of some time, may be months after the
traumatic event has occurred. A victim may
start feeling depressed or have flashbacks and
relive the horror of the earlier experiences.
Some victims also report nightmares. These
kinds of traumatic events, however, are rare.
Recent Life Events : It has been found that
the effects of life changes cumulate and
contribute to stress. Events in family (e.g.,
death of a spouse, divorce, marriage),
personal life (e.g., change in residence, change
in eating habits, personal injury), work (e.g.,
retirement, trouble with one’s boss) and
financial matters (e.g., mortgage, major
change in financial condition) generate stress.
The exact effect of such events is not known
but it is certain that they do contribute to
stress in different degrees.
Hassles : These involve the happenings in
everyday life. Thus preparing children for
schools, looking after their home work, care
of family and attending to various
emergencies are daily hassles, experienced
by a housewife. There are jobs in which such
daily hassles are very frequent. Such stresses
make life full of desperation. These stresses
may not be known to an outsider.
TYPES OF STRESS
Looking at the range of stressful experiences
that are faced by people one may divide the
stresses with reference to their domain. In
this way, we find three major types of stresses,
i.e., environmental, social, and
psychological. It may, however, be noted that
this division is for analytical purpose and all
112
these types of stress are interrelated. Let
us try to learn about these different types
of stresses.
Environmental Stress
These stresses could be of very high intensity,
like earthquake, flood, fire, etc. that are
sudden and have a powerful impact, and are
more or less universal in terms of initial
response. These are known as catastrophic
events or disasters. These events may affect
a large number of people at the same time
and require a great deal of effort for effective
coping. A second group of environmental
stressors could be events, which impinge on
all people uniformly, but there are large
individual differences in the way people react
to them. These could be environmental
pollution, crowding, industrial noise, etc.,
which have known and predictable health
impairing consequences. You will read more
about environmental stressors in Chapter 8
on Environment and Human Behaviour.
Social Stress
Social events or conditions, like death and
illness in the family, divorce, strained
relationships, separation, and hostile
neighbours are some of the examples of social
stressors. Many of these are major life
stresses, which affect individuals at various
times in their lives. People vary widely in their
life experiences. Some go through more
hardships and personal tragedies than others
do. Some suffer from a chronic health problem
and have to think in terms of long-term
adjustment. For others, these life events could
be one-time happenings.
Some of these stressors involve minor
irritating events, called ‘daily hassles’, which
occur in the course of everyday life. These
events or conditions are perceived as stressful
by the individual experiencing them, but not
necessarily by others. When these continue
to persist daily over a long period in a person’s
life and he/she can in no way avoid them,
then these hassles take their toll.
Psychological Stress
These are personal and unique to the person
experiencing them and are considered as
Introduction to Psychology
internal sources of stress. The internal
sources of stress are many. Some of the
important ones are: frustration, conflict, and
tension. Let us try to understand the nature
of these stressors.
Frustration : It results from the blocking of
needs and motives by something that
prevents or hinders us from achieving a
desired goal. For an adolescent who wants to
attend a college party, over-restrictive parents
would be a source of frustration, while lack
of water would be a source of frustration for
someone living in the desert. Frustration may
be minor and inconsequential, or may be a
serious threat to our well-being and survival.
There could be a wide range of environmental
obstacles, which can lead to frustration. These
include accidents, interpersonal hurt, death
of the loved ones, and the like. Furthermore,
there could be social discrimination and
barriers impeding the efforts of the weaker
sections of the society.
Conflict : Stress may originate from a conflict
between interests and motives (see
Chapter 11 of Class XI textbook). You may
be in conflict regarding whether to study
psychology or music. You may want to take
up a job offered to you and at the same time
may want to continue your studies. The
conflicts could be of approach-avoidance,
approach-approach, or avoidance-avoidance
type, causing tension when one has to
decide. You may be in conflict with the other
people, inside or outside the family network
for material and non-material rewards.
There could be value conflicts when you are
forced to take action that is against the
values held by you. There could be conflicts
because of your membership of a particular
group. For example, as a member of a social
group one may experience a sense of
insecurity and deprivation.
Pressure : The third source of stress, which
we experience in everyday life, is social and
other types of pressures. Like frustration,
pressure may stem from inner and outer
sources, and typically centres on our
aspirations and life goals. Many of us drive
ourselves ruthlessly towards achieving goals,
and try to live up to unrealistically high
Coping with Life Challenges 113

standards. In today’s competitive world, to affect physical health. Even if a stress is of

everyone is under pressure to produce more
and work for extra hours. The world in which
we live today is flooded with opportunities and
choices, and one is constantly under pressure
to optimise the gains. In the rapidly changing
world of today, one is constantly under
pressure to adapt to the newer reality and
challenges. These often cause many
emotional and interpersonal upheavals.
It should also be made clear in this
context, that stress need not be very severe
the low intensity but continues over a longer
period (chronic stress), it can be at times
more damaging for health. Poverty,
unemployment, strained relationships,
unfriendly co-workers, and arthritis are some
causes of chronic stress. Again, it is also not
always true that minor stresses will result in
minor strain. Research has shown that
everyday hassles may have significant
harmful effects on the mental and physical
health of a person. Daily hassles, like missing

BOX 5.2 A MEASURE OF STRESSFUL LIFE-EVENTS

The question, which is of much significance in
stress research, is: how to find out the level of
stress which people are experiencing – like the
body temperature, blood pressure? Is it possible
to know the stress level by using an appropriate
psychological measure? For quite some time
psychologists have been trying to develop, such
measures which can tell us about the stress level
of a person.
An attempt was made in this direction by two
psychologists named Holmes and Rahe. They
developed a life-events measure of stress. They
developed a self-rating questionnaire made up
of forty-three life changes, which a person may
have experienced. Each of these life changes is
assigned a numerical value in terms of their
severity. For example, the death of one’s spouse
is assigned 100, divorce 73, personal illness or
injury 53 life-change units. Both positive and
negative events are taken, believing that both
kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent
is asked to check how many of these life changes
they have experienced in the recent past (a year
or so). The stress score of that person is the
weighted sum of all the items checked.
Some of the sample items of their measure
are:
Life Events Value
Death of close family members 100
Marriage 63
Change in health of family member 44
Change in responsibility at work 29
Trouble with the Boss 20
Change in sleeping habits 16
Vacation 13
This measure developed by Holmes and Rahe
became very popular and more than 400 similar
measures were developed in later years. It was
found to be of great practical use to be able to find
out the stress level of a person. This data can be
used to predict the work efficiency and mental
health problems of a person. It may be noted that
mental health does not depend merely on the stress
level experienced, but more importantly on the
coping resources available to the person.

ACTIVITY 5.2

Understanding Various Types of Stress

Following is a list of certain situations that are encountered in our life. Read them carefully and
analyse their nature. Try to find out what is the nature of underlying psychological stress. It may
be conflict, frustration, pressure, or change in life circumstances.
l Laxman is late for an appointment but is stuck in traffic.
l Manisha feels that she will not be happy unless she stands first in the Annual Examination.
l Akhil has cleared a course in communication and has joined a company.
l Gurmeet has lost his job and needs to find another.

Discuss your interpretations with teacher.

114
the school bus, someone not acknowledging
or returning your greetings, noise at night
may be minor irritants but their cumulative
effect is found to have more harmful
consequences than the major stressful events.
Recapitulation
In order to survive and grow we need to adjust
with the demands of our environment. This,
however, is not always possible. We find that
stress is very common in our daily life. It refers
to the pattern of responses you make to
stimuli that disturb your physiological and
psychological equilibrium, and exceed your
ability to cope. Stressors are stimulus
situations that cause stress. Three major
types of stressors are: environmental, social,
and psychological. These stressors vary in
intensity, duration and in frequency of their
occurrence. The responses to stress are
physiological, emotional, behavioural, and
cognitive. The type of response made by the
person depends on the nature of stress,
characteristics of the person and the
availability of resources. The role of appraisal
in this process is very important because the
way we appraise the situation changes the
pattern of our responses.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. All stressful events have negative
effects on health. T/F
2. Tragic events are more injurious than
everyday life hassles. T/F
3. Not all stressors have long-term
consequences. T/F
4. Moderate stress is necessary for good
performance. T/F
5. Those outcomes, which people can
control, are less stressful. T/F
6. Those who know why they are suffering
are less miserable. T/F
7. The relationship between stress and
physical health is not direct. T/F
COPING WITH STRESS
Coping refers to the process of dealing with
the stress experienced by an individual.
People cope with the stress that they
experience in everyday life in a number of
Introduction to Psychology
ways. As you can guess, the response to a
given stress may vary across persons. How
do people react to all those stresses that they
experience in everyday life? It is surprising
that despite all the stresses one goes through,
of high and low severity, one generally does
not succumb or shows signs of breakdown.
To cope effectively with the stresses people
continually scan their environment – both
external and internal, to see what
opportunities or dangers may be present and
learn new skills to adapt to the changes. In
addition, various personality dimensions like
optimism, hardiness and detachment,
moderate the responses to stress.
Generally, when we become aware of a
new demand, the first task is to define it and
evaluate the degree of threat. It is important
that one makes a realistic evaluation of the
problem. Having defined the problem and its
degree of threat, the next step is to decide
what to do about it. This involves formulating
new courses of action that might solve the
problem by identifying the best alternative.
Some of the coping reactions come into
operation automatically rather than as a
result of deliberate effort of the individual.
They are a part of the survival mechanism
and can be termed as built-in reactions,
which come into action whenever there is a
threat to survival. Some of these built-in
reactions are physiological and psychological
changes to restore the state of equilibrium.
One such built-in mechanism is crying. It is
useful in relieving emotional tension and pain.
Though more common in children, crying is
not uncommon in adults and may serve, an
important purpose of relieving tension and
hurt. Some other such mechanisms are falling
asleep in the face of highly traumatic events.
Coping reactions can be broadly divided
into three broad categories: task-oriented,
emotion focused and ego-defensive. A brief
description of the reactions in these categories
is given below.
Task-oriented Coping : These reactions aim
at realistically coping with the adjustive
demands. They tend to be based on an
objective assessment of the stress situation
and on a deliberate, logical, and constructive
course of action. These actions may entail
making changes in one’s self, or in the
Coping with Life Challenges
surrounding, or both, depending upon the
situation. The action may be overt, as in
improving one’s study habits, or covert, as in
lowering one’s level of aspiration, or changing
one’s attitude. The action may involve
confronting the problem, withdrawing from
it, or finding a workable compromise. Dealing
with the problem headlong may amount to
appraising the threat emanating from the
stress, appraising one’s coping resources, and
accordingly, trying to remove the obstacles,
or the source of the problem. People seek
social support and use planful problem
solving. Such coping behaviour when
appropriate to the individual’s resources and
the stress situation is often found effective in
dealing with the stress.
When confronting, the problem does not seem
to be working, a better option could be to
escape or withdraw from a stressful situation
that we cannot handle or prefer not to deal
with. In that situation, we either escape or
avoid facing the problem. For example, we
may handle a monotonous and unrewarding
job by changing to more suitable one. Of
course, the situation may be much more
complicated, as in the case of a breakdown
in a love relationship in which one is deeply
involved. In other instances, we may try to
anticipate and avoid many situations that we
view as potentially dangerous or threatening.
Such behaviour is often shown by students
who avoid taking courses that they think are
very difficult.
Compromise involves bringing change in us
and is resorted to when the stress situation
cannot be changed. We often have to live as
best we can with what cannot be changed.
Two common compromise reactions are
substitution and accommodation. In
substitution, we tend to reduce the stress by
accepting whatever goals we can meet. For
example, the man who is consistently denied
a job may finally accept one, which is less
attractive. Accommodation here refers to a
kind of compromise in which we settle for a
part of what we wanted. It is like accepting
whatever is available in the given situation.
Emotion-focused Coping : The emphasis
here is on self-control and emotion regulation,
i.e., controlling anxiety, frustration, anger,
115
and other emotional reactions, or trying to
change these emotions. Often people think
about the potentially harmful consequences
of stressful events in order to make
anticipatory preparations. It is a remedial
rather than a problem-solving approach. The
emotion focused coping aims at relieving the
emotional impact of stress to make one feel
better, even when the threatening stressor is
present. To relieve tension, people may take
alcohol or tranquilisers – which may provide
temporary relief. People use the strategies of
distancing or disengagement by going to a
party or movie, or watch TV when feeling
distressed. Many people whistle or laugh
when they are afraid or over eat when
anxious, and engage in daydreaming when
they feel helpless. Such emotion-focused
coping may not solve the problem, but helps
people in managing the adverse outcomes.
Reappraisal of the stressful situation and
accepting the responsibility also help to cope
with the stresses.
Ego-defensive Coping : In this kind of coping,
the person primarily tries to protect oneself
ACTIVITY 5.3
Understanding Problem –
Focused Coping
Which of these are problem-centred coping
behaviours? And why?
l Trying to find out environmental
stressors for poor health.
l Feeling sorry for failing in the
examination.
l Discussing his/her problem with a
friend.
l Hiding poor examination performance
from parents.
l Making efforts to anticipate when the
problem will recur.
l Going for an eye test after hitting a pole
while driving a scooter.
l Reading literature to find out negative
consequences of stress.
l Finding fault with the teacher for doing
poorly in the examination.
l Eating a lot during the examinations.
l Trying to remember what one did in a
similar crisis last time.
Discuss the answers with your teacher.
116
psychologically from emotional hurt and self-
devaluation. In general, these mechanisms
are learned responses, but they tend to
operate on habitual and unconscious levels.
They (e.g., rationalisation, projection,
repression, displacement, fantasy, denial of
reality) have the component of self-deception
and reality distortion. Thus, they are not
adaptive, in the sense of realistically coping
with the stress situation. The primary aim of
most of the ego-defencive responses is to
cushion failure, reduce anxiety, repair
emotional hurt, and maintain feelings of
adequacy and worth. You have read about
various defence mechanisms in Chapter 2 on
Self and Personality.
Recapitulation
People use three different types of coping
strategies. These are: confronting the problem
or task orientated coping, which refers to
examining the problem objectively and then
working on strategies to remove it. The other
is emotion focused copying, which aims at
controlling and managing emotions. The third
is ego-defence mechanism, to protect the
ego against the impending dangers of hurt
and self-devaluations.
LEARNING CHECKS II
Match the defence mechanism in the
following examples.
1. An overweight boy indulges in binging
when he feels neglected by his
classmates.
2. An incompetent person imagines himself
chosen by an organisation as a manager.
3. A chain smoker draws the conclusion
that the evidence of linking cigarette use
to illness is worthless on scientific
grounds.
a. Fantasy, b. Denial of reality,
c. Over compensations
STRESS AND HEALTH
Did you ever realise that many of your friends
(if not you) fall sick during the examination
time. As examinations approach, these people
frequently suffer from stomach upsets, fever,
body aches, cramps, and the like. You might
Introduction to Psychology
have also observed that people who are
unhappy in their personal lives fall sick more
often than those who are happy and enjoy
life. Because of the close connection between
the mind and the body, when the stress is
prolonged, it affects the physical health, and
impairs the psychological functioning as well.
Chronic stress takes its toll on one’s ability
to think and perform effectively even in one’s
routine activities. People experience
exhaustion and attitudinal problems when
demands at the work place are very high. The
physical exhaustion includes chronic fatigue,
weakness, and low energy. The mental
exhaustion includes irritability and the
feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and
being in a blind alley. This state of physical
and psychological exhaustion is technically
called burnout. It is chiefly caused by intense
and prolonged work–related stress. It may
also be caused by many other life experiences,
for instance, looking after a severely ill family
member may as well lead to an experience of
burnout. Similarly, caretakers in families
which have physically, mentally, or
neurologically ill or challenged member(s) too
frequently express the feelings of extreme
exhaustion or burnout.
Research in this area has also established
that tragic life events, like natural disasters
(flood, earthquake, etc.), death in the family,
unemployment, failure in examinations, etc.
make people more vulnerable to all kinds of
mental, physical, and psychosomatic
diseases. When people have to live in an
undesirable, uncertain, and threatening
situation for a long period of time, and when
all efforts to change such a situation fail, the
consequences are bad for physical and mental
health.
Why does this happen? Various
explanations are provided to answer this
question. Hans Selye proposed General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to explain the
bodily consequences of stress. The GAS is a
three-stage model of reactions to stress. First
is the alarm reaction. It is the experience of
a stressor, or the presence of a noxious
stimulus. Here a person prepares to resist
the stressor. The adrenal activity and
cardiovascular and respiratory functions are
Coping with Life Challenges 117

heightened as the body makes its preparation
to face the threat. The second stage is that of
resistance. This is the stage when body’s
reserves are ready to deal with the stressor
and typically achieve suitable adaptation. At
this stage, there is relatively constant
resistance to the stressor, but a decrease in
response to other stimuli. For example, when
you are preparing for an exam you fail to pay
attention to what is happening around you.
When these reactions are repeated many
times, or when they are prolonged because
of recurring problems, the person may be at
the risk of irreversible physiological damage.
This is the third stage of exhaustion. This is
the stage when the body’s entire reserves are
exhausted and the person is no longer in a
position to resist the stressor. This could lead
to the onset of physical symptoms, and in
many cases, a major illness may occur. The
GAS Model is shown in Fig. 5.2. and its details
are given in Table 5.1.
The ongoing stress experience causes
many bodily changes and over secretion of
glandular chemicals. Imagine an acute stress
situation of seeing a snake crossing your path.
What happens? Your blood pressure goes up,
Level of
Normal
Resistance
Alarm Stage of
Stage of
Reaction Resistance Exhaustion
Figure 5.2 The General Adaptation Syndrome
heart beat increases, sympathetic nervous
system gets aroused, and breathing becomes
faster. All this prepares you to defend yourself
from the danger. Your body mobilises all its
resources, as you get emotionally aroused on
seeing danger. In stress situations, the
secretion of endocrine glands also increases
to manage bodily activities. Emotions, such
as anger, fear, sadness, lead to bodily
activation in which stored energy is converted
into usable resources. Long-term depletion
of such stored energy inhibits growth and
repair functions. This is the reason why
prolonged stress consumes all bodily energy
and impairs the efficiency of different systems.
There is also increasing evidence that
stress related negative emotions (such as
grief, depression) affect the body’s immune
system, rendering the person vulnerable to a
host of diseases. The immune system protects
the body from foreign invaders (known as
antigens) – bacteria, virus, fungi, and
parasites. The basic functions of the immune
system are, detecting and identifying
antigens, neutralising them and removing
them from the body. The cells that perform
these functions are produced in the lymph
organs and bone marrow. They are known as
lymphocytes. These are special white blood
cells (medically called T-cells, B-cells, and
NK-cells), which produce their own antigens
to mobilise the body’s defence system to kill
the invading microorganisms in the blood
stream. The effectiveness of the immune
system is called immuno–competence. Only
when the immune system is suppressed and
weakened, an individual becomes susceptible

Table 5.1. Stages of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Stage Description
Alarm In response to a stressor, the body prepares for immediate physical
action. The sympathetic nervous system is activated, and stress
hormones (cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine) are released in
greater amounts.
Resistance If the stressor continues, the body maintains a moderate level of
physiological arousal. The organism has increased its ability to
withstand the original stressor, which brought about the alarm
reaction.
Exhaustion With added stressors or depletion of the ability to continue resisting,
the body enters a stage in which a variety of illnesses or even death
may occur.
118
to all kinds of diseases. At present, this is
one of the most exciting fields of research
to establish the linkages between stress
and illness.
However, as Lazarus pointed out, much
depends upon how an individual evaluates a
stressor. Unless one perceives a situation as
threatening, one would not experience stress.
There are many other factors, which
determine how stress would affect the body’s
immune functioning. The stressors, which are
uncontrollable, cause more adverse effects
than those stressors, which are controllable.
Again, depressed people are found to be more
susceptible to infectious diseases and show
a slower recovery rate once they fall sick.
Social and emotional support also makes a
major difference. Those people who have
friends and relatives to care in case of an
illness take less time in recovering.
As mentioned earlier, some characteristics
of personality moderate the impact of stressful
events. One is optimism. It is a general
tendency to expect good or positive outcomes.
Optimists are more likely to engage in action-
oriented and problem-focused coping. They
are more willing to seek social support and
more likely to emphasise the positive aspects
of any stressful event. In comparison,
pessimists are more likely to deal with stress
by giving up or engaging in denial. The other
personality characteristic known as
hardiness also buffers the adverse impact of
stress. Hardiness is a personality disposition
that is marked by commitment, challenge,
and control. It is associated with strong stress
resistance. It was found that people high on
hardiness are less prone to illnesses. The
third personality dimension is anaskti or
detachment. This is a kind of mental attitude
of not being overly concerned about the
outcomes. It is a mindset in which a person
does not emotionally respond to stressful
events but rather maintains equanimity.
Studies have shown that people who are not
outcome-oriented (detached), experience less
strain, and less mental and physical health
problems. Management of stress is receiving
considerable attention in different walks of
life. Some of the stress – management
techniques are given in Box 5.3. You may like
to study these techniques.
Introduction to Psychology
LIFE STYLE AND HEALTH
As we have seen, stress has direct
implications for our health. In fact, according
to medical experts, the link between stress
and personal health is very strong. To list a
few, stress has been implicated in the
occurrence of heart disease, high blood
pressure, and other diseases. Keeping
these effects of stress in view, one wonders
why some individuals live life for more than
hundreds years. Factors like diet, genetic
influences, regular exercise, family stability
and personality characteristics play an
important role in longevity and good health.
A growing body of evidence suggests that
people may be able to extend their lives
significantly by adhering to a lifestyle that
includes balanced, low fat diet, regular
exercise, and continued activity during
later years.
People develop different styles and habits,
many of which are health impairing. Many
people are their own enemies and do precisely
those things that are bad for their health. For
example, some people drink heavily, even
when they know that they are damaging their
liver. Others eat all wrong food. Smoking is
another health impairing habit. It is found
that lung cancer and heart diseases kill the
largest number of smokers. The increased
prevalence of diseases among smokers may
not be due to their smoking alone, but
smokers are prone to other habits injurious
to health. They exercise less and eat more.
Alcohol and drug abuse are very common
health-impairing habits. These habits can kill
people directly and immediately when taken
in an overdose. The addiction to alcohol and
narcotics damage the liver, respiratory
system, intestine and can cause neurological
and infectious diseases as secondary
complications. Many of these drugs can also
damage one’s ability to think logically and
coherently. Curiously, most of the people who
engage in such harmful habits have a
tendency to underestimate the risk of
damaging their health. The modern lifestyle
has led to violation of many basic principles
of health and paid little attention to what do
we eat, where do we live and how do we think.
Coping with Life Challenges
BOX 5.3 SOME STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Stress is called a silent killer. It has been
estimated that stress plays some role in 50 to
70 per cent of the total of physical illness. Heart
disease, high blood pressure, ulcers, and
diabetes are closely related to stress. In view of
increasing incidence of stress, schools, offices,
and communities are taking interest in evolving
stress management techniques. Some of these
techniques are as follows.
Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : These
techniques try to inoculate people against stress.
Most of the programmes involving these
techniques have three stages, i.e., education,
training, and practice. In the education stage,
the participants come to know the nature and
effects of stress, and are helped in recognising
stress – symptoms. In training, they learn time
management, social skills, use of relaxation
techniques, positive self-talk, setting realistic
goals, and rewarding goal achievement. In the
practice stage, the participants rehearse the skills
learned in real life situation.
The fundamental principles of life style
described in Ayurveda are Ahara (food),
Vihara (Recreation) Achara, (routine) and
Vichara (thinking). These are briefly discussed
here:
Ahara (food) is the most important of all the
four basic principles for a healthy and happy
life. Vegetarian food is considered safe and
healthy for the body. Food should contain
fresh fruits, enough fibre content, and very
small quantity of spices and oils. Affirmative
eating can keep the body free from diseases
and can delay the ageing process. Garlic,
BOX 5.4 HEALTH IMPAIRING BEHAVIOURS
People do not take ‘health’ as a serious matter
until they fall ill. They do things that are injurious
to health. Such self-destructive behaviours are
many. Some of these are:
l Smoking
l Use of tobacco
l Poor nutritional habit
l Lack of exercise
119
Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor and
control the physiological aspects of stress. By
providing feedback about body’s functioning, a
person is trained to recognise and control it. This
mechanism helps to reduce stress.
Relaxation Techniques : The state of relaxation
is opposed to stress. Thus by reducing muscle
tension the feelings of stress and anxiety can
be reduced. Usually relaxation starts from the
lower body, and progresses up to the facial
muscles and the whole body is relaxed.
Controlled breathing is another technique in
which deep long breaths are used.
Exercise : Aerobic, swimming, walking,
running, asanas, cycling, dancing, and
skipping help to reduce stress. One must
practice these exercises at least three times a
week for at least fifteen minutes at a time.
Each session must have warm-up, exercise,
and cool-down phases. Exercise helps to
improve endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular
fitness, and stress tolerance.
onion, spinach, salty meal, citrus fruits,
tomatoes, carrots and almonds provide
vitamins, minerals, iron, antioxidants, beta-
carotene and fibre.
Achara (routine) comprises of ‘Ritucharya’,
‘Dincharya’, and ‘Ratricharya’. Ritu (season)
charya means to eat and act according to the
six seasons of a year. Din (day) charya
(routine) and Ratri (night) charya means to
eat and act according to the time of day
(morning, noon, evening and night). According
to the principles of ‘din charya’ one should
wake up early in the morning and exercise.
l Alcohol and drug use
l Behaviours involving risk of AIDS (Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome): Person-to-person
contact involving the exchange of bodily fluids,
primarily semen and blood.
The above listed health-impairing behaviours
develop gradually and are often accompanied
by pleasant experiences. People tend to ignore
the risk that lie in future and also underestimate
the risk.
120
The Ratri charya advises to take dinner 2-3
hours before sleep.
Vihara (recreation) refers partially to
psycho -physiological and partially to
physical aspects.
Vichara refers to mental or
psychological aspects. Positive thinking,
impulse control, and realistic goals are
important for healthy life.
Recapitulation
This section dealt with the interrelationships
between stress and physical health. General
Adaptation Syndrome as proposed by Selye
explains how the ongoing stress causes
depletion of the bodily resources and results
in physical illness. Another view posits that
stress lowers the body’s immunity and
secretion of harmful chemicals in the body.
Social support and positive aspects of
personality like hardiness, optimism, and
detachment reduce the harmful impacts of
stressors.
People can have good health by adhering
to a life style, which includes balanced diet
and regular exercise. Certain styles and habits
such as smoking, alcohol, drugs, wrong foods
can be injurious to health. The fundamental
principles of Life Style described in Ayurveda
are Ahara, Vihara, Achara and Vichara.
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Prolonged stress affects a person
physically as well as psychologically.
T/F
2. Burnout is a state of physical
exhaustion T/F
3. Stress affects the body’s immune
system T/F
4. A person’s life style is unrelated to his
health and longevity T/F
5. Optimism is tendency to expect good or
positive outcomes T/F
POSITIVE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
Health is often defined as the absence of
physical illness. If one is not suffering from
any disease or other bodily affliction, which
needs some treatment, then that person is
Introduction to Psychology
considered healthy. In medical practices, this
is a well-accepted definition of health. Here
virus or organic malfunctioning is considered
the main cause of illness. If one is suffering
from fever, diarrhoea, or heart disease, proper
medication is believed to bring the person
back to good health. This definition of health
is, however, very restricted, and does not do
justice to psychological health, which is as
important as physical health. It is now
realised that health is more than a medical
problem and that medical doctors alone
cannot deal with all kinds of health problems,
nor can they be entirely responsible for
maintaining good health. Good health is more
than just good physical health and includes
social and mental health also. Such a broad
concept of health is now well accepted in all
health care programmes of the government
and other health organisations.
How can health be defined in a broader
sense? In recent times, one definition of
health, which is widely acceptable and
sufficiently broad, has been proposed by the
World Health Organisation (WHO). According
to this definition health is the state of
complete physical, mental, social and
spiritual well-being, and not merely an
absence of disease or infirmity. This is a
definition of positive health. It goes beyond
the mere absence of a disease, the focus being
on maintaining good health, rather than on
ACTIVITY 5.4
Are you in Good Physical Health?
A simple way to determine physical health is
to find out the Body/Mass/Index (BMI).
You can compute the BMI for yourself
using the following formula:
Body weight (kg)
BMI = ——————————
[height (m)]2
You can interpret the score according to
the following chart:
BMI RANGE Obesity/Health Risk
20 – 25 Not obese, no risk
25 – 30 Low risk
30 – 35 Moderate risk
35 –40 High risk
Above 40 Very high risk
Coping with Life Challenges
treatment of different diseases. This definition
views health as a multidimensional concept:
the four dimensions and components of
health being physical, mental, social, and
spiritual health.
Interestingly, the WHO definition of health
is very close to the concept of health as given
in Ayurveda, the Indian medicinal system.
Ayurveda literally means ‘the science of life
and longevity.’ This system of medicine was
developed and practiced for thousands of
years in India and other neighbouring
countries and is given in the ‘Charak Samhita’
and ‘Sushrut Samhita.’ It defines health in
terms of balance and harmony of the body,
the mind, and the soul (swasthya). The literal
meaning of swasthya is the ‘state of being
located in itself’, in a state of harmony. Illness,
in this sense, is a state of imbalance.
Ayurveda deals with both internal and
external causes of illness and views health in
a very wide sense, as the total well-being and
happiness of a person. It lays emphasis on
the cultivation of certain positive attitudes,
ACTIVITY 5.5
Identifying the Indicators of
Positive Health
Which of the following should not be
included in the definition of positive health?
l Good health is a matter of self-perception.
l Culture decides what we should call
‘good health’.
l Positive health is accompanied by a
general feeling of wellness.
l A sound and logical mind is essential for
positive health.
l The socially maladjusted can still have
good health.
l People who are self-centred and egoist
cannot have sound health status.
l Those who have not visited a doctor can
be considered as having sound health.
l Faith and trust are essential ingredients
of positive health.
l People can depart from social norms and
still be healthy.
l Ill health is a part of health.
Discuss your answers with your teacher.
121
personality characteristics, intellectual and
moral standards, freedom from anxieties, inner
conflicts and truthfulness - all considered as
essential conditions for maintaining good
health. According to Ayurveda, only a healthy,
happy, and well-adjusted person can attain the
state of well-being.
Factors Facilitating Positive Health and
Well-being
Diet : Diet can affect health independently
or may enhance or modify the effects of stress
in combination with other factors. A healthy
diet appears to directly reduce the risk of
disease, but the maintenance of good
nutrition is based on motivation and social
practices. Poor diet, conversely, appears to
contribute to disease. How much nutrition
one needs depends on one’s activity level,
genetic structure, climate, and health history.
In fact, there is no one diet, which is ideal for
everyone, in all situations.
What people eat and how much they weigh
involve behavioural processes. Some people
are able to maintain a healthy diet and normal
weight, and others become obese. Obesity is
very much dependent on psychological
factors, which interact with genetic
and metabolic characteristics. Weight
management and nutritional risk
management have become part of the health
promotion programmes of modern societies.
Being overweight is not only a health risk
factor but is also socially stigmatised.
Stress is supposed to affect diet and
weight in many ways. People who are under
stress or in a negative mood are often seen
eating more. They seek, ‘comfort foods’ or
foods that make them feel better. Most of
these foods are relatively high in fat and salt
or sugar, meaning that stress may increase
consumption of less healthy foods. Such
people gain weight and loose stamina to fight
stress. In some cases, increased metabolic
demand during stress may increase the
consumption of food without necessarily
affecting weight.
Whereas obesity and weight gain is a
problem for a section of the society, a much
larger section of the society, which is below
the poverty line, suffer from malnutrition.
122
While good nutrition enables one to lead a
socially and economically active life,
malnutrition has an adverse impact on health
and life expectancy, and increases mortality.
It retards physical growth and leads to
functional impairment, disability, and
diminished productivity, and reduces
resistance to diseases. People who are most
vulnerable to malnutrition are those below
the poverty line, infants, pre-school children,
and pregnant women. The problem of
malnutrition is a resultant of unavailability
of food, purchasing power of the people, and
population growth.
In conditions of poverty, women are the
one’s who are most malnourished. Studies
have shown that in India diets of female
children and women are inadequate due to
discriminatory practices. Women are
discriminated in terms of both quantity and
quality of food available to them. The low
dietary intake and maternal malnutrition is
a major cause of low birth-weight children.
Malnutrition of the mothers again causes
child mortality and mental retardation. The
Low status of women in the society and social
practices are greatly responsible for this sorry
state of affairs.
Exercise : Exercise, is directly related to
promoting positive health. Moderate and
ACTIVITY 5.6
Try Relaxation
l Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
l Close your eyes.
l Deeply relax all your muscles. Start from
your feet and progress up to your face.
Keep them relaxed.
l Breathe through the nose. Try to become
aware of your breath. As you breathe out,
say the word “one”. Breathe easily and
naturally.
l Continue for 10 to 20 minutes. When you
finish the relaxation exercise, sit quietly
for several minutes, at first with your
eyes closed. Do not stand up for a few
minutes.
l Maintain a passive attitude. Ignore the
distracting thoughts. Do not practice this
within two hours after any meal.
Introduction to Psychology
regular physical exercise play an important
role in managing weight, stress, as well as,
in keeping oneself physically and mentally
fit. Two kinds of physical exercises essential
for good health are stretching exercises,
such as yogic asanas , and aerobic
exercises, such as jogging, swimming, and
cycling. These two kinds of exercises have
opposite effects. Whereas stretching
exercises have a calming effect, aerobic
exercises increase the arousal level of the
body. Yogic asanas provide systematic
stretching to all the muscles and joints of
the body and massages the glands and
other body organs. Similarly meditation,
deep breathing, TM (transcendental
meditation) and Zen are considered helpful
in resolving stress or enhancing an
individual’s stress tolerance levels. They
relax muscles and bring about a decrease
in their activity level. Sleeping is very
essential for any living organism. Persons
who have good sleep habits are able to
resolve stress better. Aerobic exercises have
activating and stimulating functions - to
energize the heart, lungs, and the muscles.
These exercises increase the heart rate and
the breathing, and reduce the cholesterol
level. Although these two types of exercises
produce different effects, they are equally
essential for healthy living.
ACTIVITY 5.7
Coping with Stress
People use different techniques for coping
with stress and being healthy: Active coping,
Suppression of competing activities,
Planning, Restraint, Use of social support,
Positive reframing, Religion like faith in
God, Acceptance, Denial, Behavioural
disengagement, Use of humour, and
Self-distraction.
Talk to two different persons, one whom
you consider stressful, and the other who is
often relaxed. Find out which of the two uses
the above means of coping with stress.
Recapitulation
Healthy lifestyle reduces the risk of falling
sick. Smoking, alcohol, drugs, and faulty food
Coping with Life Challenges
are generally accompanied with other health-
impairing habits. Proper diet and exercise
help to maintain good health. The state of
Health includes physical, social psychological
and spiritual well-being. Such a definition of
health is given by the WHO and is found
consistent with the Ayurvedic understanding
of health.
BOX 5.5 POSITIVE HEALTH THROUGH POSITIVE ATTITUDE
Positive health and well being can be realised by:
l perceiving the reality fairly accurately.
l tolerating and understanding different points
of view.
l having a sense of purpose in life and being
problem-centred.
l having a sense of responsibility, accepting
BOX 5.6 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS AND LEARNED RESOURCEFULNESS
It has been found that persons who were
exposed to uncontrollable outcomes show the
symptoms of learned helplessness. It is also
observed in real life situation that people, who
repeatedly meet failure in spite of all the efforts
they make, do not make efforts even in the
situations where their efforts can succeed. This
is often seen in the case of unemployed youths
who have seen their efforts failing in the past.
People who experience learned helplessness
show the symptoms of performance
impairment, depression, and lack of efforts.
Many training programmes are developed,
especially for children, to alleviate learned
helplessness.
The concept of learned resourcefulness is
in a way opposite to that of learned helplessness.
Learned resourcefulness refers to acquired skills
BOX 5.7 OPTIMISM AND THRIVING
Optimists are those who are hopeful and
confident in life and pessimists are those who
think that all things tend to evil, and only bad
things can happens to them. It has been found
that people differ in the manner and the
degree of success while coping with adversity.
Thus while optimists tend to assume that
adversity can be handled successfully in one
fashion or another, pessimists anticipate
disasters. Optimism has a positive effect on the
123
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Positive health includes physical, mental
and social health T/F
2. Stress does not affect an individual’s
diet and health T/F
3. Stress may cause obesity in some
individuals T/F
4. Meditation cannot enhance stress
tolerance T/F
blame for failures, and taking credit for
success.
l being open to new ideas, activities, or ways
of doing things.
l having a good sense of humour, to be able to
laugh at oneself and absurdities of life helps
to see things in their proper perspective.
and behaviours by which a person can effectively
manage internal responses to stressful situations.
They are better able to self-regulate and self-
monitor their own thoughts, feelings, and
behaviour. The person who has acquired these
skills of self-management develops a sense of
learned resourcefulness. Most of us acquire such
skills without any formal training.
It is also found in the research that people
who have gone through a lot of hardships in life,
or who come from the lower strata of the society,
where they had to struggle hard to survive, show
learned resourcefulness. They are less affected
by life-stresses and display better coping with
the adversities of life. These people always have
adequate internal resources to deal with any
crisis. Such people show resilience and adapt
better to life-changes.
psychological well-being of people as well as
caregivers. Optimists use more problem focused
coping strategies. If that does not work, they use
acceptance, humour, and positive reframing.
Pessimism often leads to self-defeating
patterns. Scheier and his colleagues have
developed a measure to assess optimism.
Some of its items are as follows:
l In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.
contd...
124 Introduction to Psychology

l If something can go wrong for me, it will.
l I am always optimistic about my future.
l I rarely count on good things happening to
me.
l Overall, I expect more good things to happen
to me than bad.
The responses are to be given on a 5-point
scale ranging from strongly disagree to ‘strongly
agree’.
There is an increasing interest in the positive
aspects of health behaviour, in the form of coping
with illness and thriving. Thriving is the process
of “going beyond survival and recovery from a
stress or illness” by an individual or a
community. Research has shown that people with
high internality (internal locus of control) manifest
more health-related activity and cope better with
illness than those with external locus of control.
They show a higher level of thriving.

Key Terms

Homeostasis, Stress, General Adaptation

Syndrome (GAS), Coping, Alarm Reaction,
Exhaustion, Optimism, Detachment, Health,
Burnout.

SUMMARY

l Stress is considered as a disease of existence. It is all around in our environment.

Changing environment (internal as well as external) demands adaptation.
l Adjustment involves individual’s adaptive response to the demands of the environment
and maintaining a harmonious relationship with it.
l There are three major types of stresses: Environmental, Personal, and Social. There
are some everyday hassles in our environment, which arise from routines of life and
lead to stress. The sources of stress include traumatic events, recent life events, and
hassles.
l The effect of stress depends on personal characteristics, resources, and characteristics
of the stresses.
l The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model of stress has three stages of stress,
e.g., Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion.
l The response to stress may be physiological, emotional, behavioural, and cognitive.
l Coping with stress is more of an individual and culture based mechanism. There are
three main types of coping: Task-Oriented, Emotion focused and Defensive. In Task
oriented reactions an individual confronts, escapes, or compromises with the stressful
situation. In emotion focused coping the individual shows symptoms of anxiety,
frustration, anger, and other emotional outbursts. Defensive reactions involve the use
of various defence mechanisms.
l It is essential to have healthy life styles for stress tolerance and coping. An individual
can promote health through exercises, aerobics, yoga, and meditation. An optimistic
approach in thinking is also useful for counteracting stress.
l Positive health and well-being come through a healthy attitude of the mind. There is
also need for spiritual health and the overall harmonious conditions in the society.
Stress should be coped with positive and healthy approaches and one must avoid
escape routes like drugs, alcohol, and other socially unacceptable behaviours.
Coping with Life Challenges 125

Review Questions

1. What is adjustment?
2. What is stress? State the factors that determine the effect of stress?
3. What is GAS model?
4. What is the relationship between stress and health?
5. What are the various sources of stress?
6. What are the ways of coping with stress?
7. What is meant by healthy lifestyle?
8. What is meant by positive mental health? How can it be facilitated?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. T, 7. T.
II : 1. c, 2. a, 3. b.
III : (1) T, (2) F, (3) T, (4) F, (5) T.
IV : (1) T, (2) F, (3) T, (4) F.
126 Psychological Disorders

6 Psychological Disorders

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä Basic understanding of abnormal
behaviour
Ä An overview of different types of disorders
Ä Causal determinants of abnormal
behaviour
Ä Symptoms and causes of anxiety and
mood disorders
Ä Factors responsible for schizophrenic and
personality disorders
Ä Problems and remedies of drug abuse
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä understand the meaning and
classification of abnormal behaviour,
Ä appreciate the factors which cause
abnormal behaviour, and
Ä familiarise with major forms of
psychological disorders.
Introduction
Evolution of Understanding about
Abnormal Behaviour
What is Abnormal Behaviour?
Concepts of Normality and Abnormality
Criteria of Abnormal Behaviour
Classification of Psychological Disorders
Perspectives on Abnormal Behaviour
(Box 6.1)
DSM IV Classification System (Box 6.2)
Causal Factors Related to Abnormal
Behaviour
Biological, Psychological and Socio-cultural
Factors
Major Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Epidemiology of Mental Illness in India
(Box 6.3)
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Box 6.4)
Mood Disorders
Schizophrenic and Delusional Disorders
Substance Related Disorders
Behavioural Disorders
Personality Disorders
Types of Personality Disorder (Box 6.5)
HIV-AIDS (Box 6.6)
Mental Health Regulations (Box 6.7)

Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Psychological Disorders 127

INTRODUCTION

In our everyday life, many of us have problems, which are psychological in nature.
We may find some people over-reacting to simple statements and situations.
For example some have difficulty in relating to other people, some often find
fault with their family members and colleagues and feel threatened; others seem
to experience hallucinations and delusions. We perceive or comprehend that they
have some kind of psychological problem and use terms like ‘mad’ and ‘eccentric’
for such persons. These distressed people do have certain psychological disorders
but are not necessarily the way they are perceived. Due to rapid social and
technological changes, there is wide prevalence of psychological problems
involving anxiety and depression and most of the afflicted people do not seek
professional assistance. Various forms of psychological problems are becoming
common in India. Abnormal behaviour and various other forms of psychological
disorders are on the rise. There is also increasing awareness and understanding
of such disorders. This chapter shall help you to understand certain basic concepts
related to these disorders. It will begin with a brief overview of the evolution of
human understanding about abnormal behaviour. Then the concepts and criteria
for abnormal behaviour are described. This is followed by the classification and
description of various psychological disorders. It is hoped that the study of this
chapter shall broaden your perspective on the nature of human behaviour and
enable you to appreciate the problems that people suffer.
128
EVOLUTION OF UNDERSTANDING ABOUT
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR
The pre-historic man used to explain
lightning, thunderstorms, earthquakes, fires,
floods, sickness, epidemics and many such
phenomena, which were hither to
incomprehensible as the work of ‘good’ and
‘bad’ spirits. It was natural for them to extend
such logic to mental disorders also. Mental
patients were considered to be possessed by
such spirits, mostly by the bad ones. The
treatment for possession was exorcism,
which was meant to drive the evil spirit out
of the body of the afflicted person. Techniques
employed for such purposes were magic,
prayer, drum beating, incantation and
administering purgatives and various forms
of torture.
Shamans or witch-doctors practiced
exorcism. These practices still prevail in many
parts of the world including India. These
practices are not only prevalent in non-literate
cultures, but are also found in industrialised
societies and often exist alongwith the modern
approaches of treatment. Sudhir Kakar has
provided a detailed psychoanalytic
description of some of the shamanistic
practices that still prevail in India.
One can find reference to psychological
disorders in Atharva-Veda, which is dated
around 2000 BC. It describes three physical
gunas as vata, pitta and kaph and three
mental gunas i.e., sattva, rajas and tamas.
Excessive indulgence and predominance of
Tamas guna over Sattva and Rajas gunas is
manifested in psychological disorders. Some
of these have been named in Atharva–Veda
as Unmad, Grahi (fit or seizure), Apasmar,
Bhaya (fear), Manastap (anxiety) etc. There is
an elaborate description of the symptoms and
methods of treatment of these disorders.
In ancient Greece, (800 BC) disturbed or
abnormal behaviour was interpreted as
punishment for offences against Gods. Later,
this belief gradually declined. The Greek
physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC)
considered to be the father of modern
medicine, denied the role of deities and
demons in the development of mental
disorders. He emphasised that they are
Psychological Disorders
caused by brain dysfunctions. He classified
mental disorders into three general
categories, namely, mania (intense unfounded
excitement), melancholia (depression) and
phrenitis (brain fever).
In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientific
methods came to replace faith and dogma as
ways of understanding the natural world.
Johan Weyer (1525-1588), a German
physician, emphasised psychological conflicts
and disturbed interpersonal relationships as
causes of mental disorders. In 1547,
Henri VIII officially made the monastery of
St. Mary of Bethlehem at London into a
mental hospital. Such hospitals or ‘asylums’
were gradually established in other countries
also. However, by the late 18th century,
measures to reform mental hospitals were
initiated in Europe and America. Such a
movement resulted in improving the
conditions and the establishment of some
32 mental hospitals in USA, Canada and
Europe. In India, Lumbini Park hospital in
the state of West Bengal was established in
1920 for the treatment of mentally ill.
Twentieth century was instrumental in
establishing the mental hygiene movement
for the cause of mentally ill. Emil Kraepelin
(1856-1926) believed that abnormal
behaviour was caused by organic
disturbances. He also gave classification of
mental disorders. Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) established clearly that
psychological factors, especially that, the
unconscious mind, played an important role
in the causation of mental disorders. It was
also the beginning of understanding of
psychological, social and cultural factors
causing mental disorders.
Later, Watson (1878-1958), Skinner
(1904-1994) and many others, advocated that
maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty
learning or failure to learn appropriate
behaviour. This led to the development of
various behaviour modification techniques.
According to Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
and Carl Rogers (1902-1987),
psychopathology is a blockage or failure to
develop the tremendous potentials inherent
in human beings. Sullivan (1892-1949) and
many others viewed unsatisfactory
Psychological Disorders
interpersonal relationships, especially with
parents during childhood as the root cause
of maladaptive behaviour. Around 1950’s
Ruth Benedict, Kardiner and Margaret
Mead established through their cross-
cultural investigation that there was greater
need for understanding of socio-cultural
influences on psychopathology.
Recapitulation
During pre-historic period, mental patients
were considered to be possessed by evil
spirits. Shamans practiced exorcism.
Psychological disorders find a place in
Artharva-Veda (2000 BC) as physical gunas:
vata, pitta and kaph, and mental gunas:
sattva, rajas and tamas. Hippocrates
emphasised that mental disorders are caused
by brain dysfunctions. Mental hospitals or
asylums were established during the 17th and
18th centuries. Sigmund Freud was the first
to establish that psychological factors play an
important role in causing mental disorders.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Exorcism is the modern technique of
psychological treatment. T/F
2. Pre–historic men attributed mental
illness to possession by bad spirits.
T/F
3. Atharva-Veda has the oldest written
documentation about mental disorders.
T/F
4. In Middle age, mental patients were
treated with kindness and compassion.
T/F
5. In 18th and 19th century, revolutionary
reforms were made for the care of
mental patients. T/F
6. Sigmund Freud was the first to tell that
psychological disorders are caused by
psychological reasons. T/F
WHAT IS ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR?
Concepts of Normality and Abnormality
Literally, abnormality means deviation from
normality. However, the demarcation between
‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ is not clear,
particularly when we think of abnormalities
129
involved in psychological disorders. In case
of physical illnesses, the nature of our
biological system presupposes a level or a
range of normal functioning in reference to
which abnormality or conditions of illness can
be identified. The normal body temperature
of human beings is around 970 F (or 370 C)
and a gross deviation from the same may be
safely taken as a symptom of some physical
illness. Similarly, the human heart has a
normal range of beats per minute and any
departure from this range may indicate
abnormal physical condition. Nevertheless, in
respect to human behaviour and
psychological functioning, there is no
universal or objective standard of normality.
As we have seen in several other chapters,
in this book, cultures differ in the conception
of acceptable and normal behaviour. For
instance, the Jarwas in Andaman live in a
different habitat, have very different life-
styles, and consider wearing clothes as
abnormal. The behaviour of Jarwas could be
considered abnormal in settings other than
their own. Further, social values and practices
change over a period of time making
‘normality’ a changing concept. For instance,
earlier on homosexuality was considered quite
abnormal in most societies. But today, several
societies have now changed to accept it as a
normal sexual preference of some people in
the society. As such, normality and
abnormality are only relative concepts.
Abnormality cannot always be
characterised as a quantitative or statistical
extreme of the range of normality or simply
as a statistically infrequent phenomenon. A
very high level of intelligence of a genius is a
quantitative or statistical deviation from the
‘normal’ level of intelligence in the society but
we rarely speak of a genius as ‘abnormal’ or
psychologically disordered. A very low level
of intelligence-characteristic of mental
retardation, is considered abnormal but not
simply due to its low frequency in a
population, nor because it lies at the low end
of the range of distribution of intelligence in
a population. In any society, certain forms of
behaviour or a range of such behaviours is
considered acceptable, adaptive, and
functional (or non-problematic) for
130
the individual in his/her relationship with
others in specific contexts or situations.
However, a gross departure from the
acceptable range of behaviour in usual
contexts or from the social norms, may hinder
a person’s adjustment or his/her ability to
function. Such a condition may be considered
‘abnormal’ from a psychological point of view.
You may have seen a very scary movie in a
cinema hall. Some scenes in such films evoke
fear and anxiety in people and often, many in
the audience scream out of fear. Such
behaviour is accepted as normal.
Nevertheless, if you express similar levels of
fear and scream often in relatively non-
threatening situations, your behaviour can
be considered abnormal.
At some stage of our life, almost everyone
of us feels low and sad. During such periods,
we may find it extremely difficult to carry on
with life. At other times, anyone could face
many inner fears and anxieties. Thus, Instead
of only labelling ourselves and others
‘abnormal’, we should understand that
normality and abnormality are not very rigid
concepts. Instead, as states of mind, they lie
on a continuum and in different phases of
life, most human beings experience them.
Hence, we should know that behaviours or
psychological states such as anxiety,
delusions or hallucinations, aggressiveness,
depression, etc., are found with ‘normal’
people as well as with those identified as
suffering from mental disorders. In fact, most
of the behavioural symptoms of clinically
diagnosed mental disorders are not unique
to the mental patients; sometimes and in
some situations, normal people also engage
in similar behaviours. Thus, abnormality is a
matter of the degree to which a set of
behaviours of an individual are considered
inappropriate as against accepted norms of the
society and which are problematic for the
person in his social functioning and
adjustment. From this point of view, every
person can behave abnormally and show
symptoms for mental disorder, particularly
under difficult circumstances.
The Criteria of Abnormal Behaviour
Since the distinction between ‘normal’ and
‘abnormal’ behaviours is not easy to make,
Psychological Disorders
we must have some criteria for defining
‘abnormality’ for proper identification,
assessment, treatment and prevention of
abnormal behaviours associated with mental
disorders. There must be some criteria for
including some behaviour within the category
of abnormal based on which we can identify
people suffering from mental disorders in
order to help them.
The American Psychiatric Association has
specified some standards for defining and
classifying mental disorders, which are
widely accepted. Accordingly, mental
disorders are defined in terms of the
following two broad criteria :
1. There must be clinically significant
behaviour or set of behaviours or
symptoms resulting in dysfunction
(associated with distress/disability/
increase risk) of the individual.
2. The behaviour(s) must not be considered
culturally sanctioned or culturally
appropriate.
Thus, abnormal behaviour is to be viewed
in terms of cultural inappropriateness and
the problems (dysfunctions) they cause for
the individual or his/her group or
community or the society. It is difficult for
persons with abnormal behaviour to adapt
or to function smoothly in society;
abnormality has an adverse effect on a
person’s well-being as well as the well-being
of the society. Stated simply, abnormal
behaviour is a maladaptive behaviour. As
Carson, Butcher and Mineka have stated
“…… behaviour is abnormal, a manifestation
of mental disorder, if it is both persistent and in
serious degree contrary to the continued well-
being of the individual and/or that of the human
community of which the individual is a member”.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Views about Abnormal Behaviours
Talk to people, both-general public as well as
families who have a member suffering from
any psychological disorder and get their ideas
about the basis for designating a particular act
or behaviour as abnormal.
Match it with what is given in your book.
Psychological Disorders
BOX 6.1 PERSPECTIVES ON ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR
Several perspectives have been proposed to
understand abnormal behaviour. A brief
description of these is given below.
I. Biological Perspective : ‘Behind every
twisted thought there is a twisted molecule’
is an exaggerated statement but signifies the
importance of biological factors in the
understanding of abnormal behaviour.
Finding of recent advancement in the field
of genes and chromosomal studies,
behaviour genetics, biochemical and
glandular systems and advances in the
area of Neuro psychology provide
sufficient evidence for the role of biological
factors.
II. Psycho-Social Perspective : It includes
many perspectives, the major ones are
described below in terms of their core
assumptions.
a) Psychodynamic : Abnormal behaviour
is a function of intra-psychic conflicts and
experiences, which are repressed and
become part of unconscious. These
conflicts cause abnormal behaviour.
b) Behavioural : Maladaptive behaviour is
the result of failure to learn necessary
adaptive behaviours and learning the
ineffective responses.
c) Humanistic–Existential : Abnormality
is a failure to develop the potentials of
human being. It is blocking or distortion
of the individual’s natural tendencies
toward health and personal growth.
Recapitulation
The distinction between normal and
abnormal is relative, what may be normal in
one culture may be considered abnormal in
other cultures. Behaviours or psychological
states such as anxiety, delusions,
aggressiveness, depression etc. are found in
‘normal’ people as well as those with mental
disorders. Thus, abnormality is a matter of
degree to which certain behaviours are
considered inappropriate in a society and
problematic in his social functioning and
adjustment. According to the American
Psychiatric Association, the criteria for
defining and classifying mental disorders are
(i) clinically significant set of behaviours
resulting in dysfunction and (ii) the
131
Abnormal behaviour is the product of a
failure to deal constructively with
existential despair, anxiety, and
frustration.
d) Cognitive : People are disturbed not by
things and situations but by the
interpretations they make. The
interpretations and views are based on
the kind of underlying ‘schemas’ and
experiences they have learnt to operate
with. E.g., ‘All Sadhus and Pirs are
learned religious people’.
e) I n t e r p e r s o n a l : Unsatisfactory
interpersonal relationship in the
past or in the present is the primary
causal factor of many maladaptive
behaviour.
III. Socio-Cultural Perspective : Maladaptive
behaviour results from the inability to cope
effectively with social changes, catastrophes,
and is partly a failure of the individual’s
social support systems.
IV. Eclectic Perspective : Rather than
accepting any one of the different viewpoints
discussed above, some practitioners call for
the integration of all the approaches to
understand abnormal behaviour.
The various perspectives on psychological
disorders are not mutually exclusive, often the
richest insight about the cause of a disorder arise
from a combination of several viewpoints. Today
many psychologists are trying to develop an
integrated model of abnormal behaviour.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. There exist clear-cut boundaries
between normal and abnormal
behaviour. T/F
2. Concept of normality is changing with
the change in social values and
practices. T/F
3. Certain behaviours considered
abnormal are sometimes shown by
normal people. T/F
4. Abnormal behaviour is considered
culturally appropriate. T/F
5. Behaviours which cause dysfunction of
the person are called abnormal
behaviours. T/F
132
behaviours must not be considered
culturally appropriate.
CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
Most psychiatrists (medical specialists
dealing with psychological disorders) and
clinical psychologists (psychologists
dealing with psychological disorders) agree
that abnormality is an important aspect of
modern life and people exhibiting abnormal
behaviours should be diagnosed. Diagnosis
facilitates communication amongst
professionals to decide about the further
course of treatment. It helps in
understanding, analysing and actively
intervening in any given situation.
However, the clinical psychologist must go
beyond diagnosis. He or she must try to
listen to the unique experience of every
patient. Only in doing so, can the
psychologist help the patient in a humane,
sensitive and in-depth manner.
Any attempt at classifying psychological
disorders begins with the patient’s
symptoms. However, same or similar
symptoms may be present in different
psychological disorders. Therefore, the
emphasis should not be on individual
symptoms but on syndromes. A syndrome
is a cluster of symptoms that are generally
found together (in a psychological disorder).
Investigators in a variety of ways have
classified psychological disorders. Currently,
two systems of classification are in vogue.
One is known as the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD) accepted
by the World Health Organisation (WHO). It
covers both physical and mental disorders
and is used worldwide. Currently it is in its
tenth version (ICD-10 ). However, the
classification system, which is becoming
increasingly popular, is the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM) devised by the American Psychiatric
Association (APA). Currently, its fourth
version (DSM-IV) is being used (see Box 6.2).
DSM is a system that aids the psychologist
in the diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and
management of the person. The DSM system
Psychological Disorders
classifies disorders based on symptoms i.e.,
pattern of thoughts, emotions and
behaviours. It adopts a system of diagnosis
that is broad based (multiaxial) and not just
symptom based (Axis I). The psychologist
tries to gather information about different
areas of the person’s functioning (such as,
whether he has had any developmental
disorders) (Axis II), whether he has any
medical and physical problems, {e.g.,
hypertension etc.) (Axis III), What are the
present stressors? (Axis IV), and what is
the present level of adaptive functioning
(Axis V). Thus, DSM asks for judgements
about individuals on five separate
dimentions or “axes”.
In our day-to-day observation, we see
disturbed behaviour of all sorts with varying
degrees of severity and duration. At the one
extreme, there are grossly disturbed people
termed as psychotics. At the other end, there
are people who are unhappy, limited in their
ability to love, to relate with others, to work
or have meaning in their lives. These are
examples of lesser psychological problems
and maladjustment. In between, there are
people who are anxious, fearful, attention
seekers, sad, needlessly rigid, moralistic, and
intolerant of others, shy, self-centred,
immature, impulsive or feel inadequate,
defeated and worthless. The various forms of
abnormal behaviour are analysed from a variety
of theoretical perspectives. You are encouraged
to know more about it (see Box 6.1).
CAUSAL FACTORS RELATED TO
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR
The various theoretical viewpoints on
abnormal behaviours focus on different
factors that contribute to their development.
However, it may be noted that the causes of
abnormal behaviour are of a diverse nature.
The main sets of factors that work as causes
are as follows.
Biological Factors
The biological factors underlying mental
disorders are of various kinds. They include
genetic defects, chromosomal aberrations,
Psychological Disorders 133

BOX 6.2 DSM IV CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence Acute Stress Disorder
Mental Retardation Generalised Anxiety Disorder
Learning Disorders Somatoform Disorders
Motor Skill Disorder Somatisation Disorder
Communication Disorders Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder
Pervasive Developmental Disorders Conversion Disorder
Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behaviour Pain Disorder
Disorders Hypochondriasis
Feeding and Eating Disorders of Infancy Body Dysmorphic Disorder
or Early childhood Factitious Disorders
Tic Disorders Dissociative Disorders
Elimination Disorders Dissociative Amnesia
Other Disorders of Infancy, Childhood, Dissociative Fugue
or Adolescence Dissociative Identity Disorder
Depersonalisation Disorder
Delirium, Dementia and Amnestic and
Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders
other Cognitive Disorders
Sexual Dysfunction
Delirium
Sexual Desire Disorders
Dementia
Sexual Arousal Disorders
Amnestic Disorders
Orgasmic Disorders
Other cognitive disorders
Sexual Pain Disorders
Mental Disorders due to General mental Paraphilias
condition not elsewhere classified Gender Identity Disorders
Substance-Related Disorders Eating Disorders
Alcohol Use Disorders Anorexia Nervosa
Amphetamine (or Amphetamine-like) Bulimia Nervosa
Caffeine-Related Disorders Sleep Disorders
Cannabis-Related Primary Sleep Disorders:
Cocaine-Related Dyssomnias
Hallucinogen-Related Parasomnias
Inhalant-Related Impulsecontrol Disorders not
Nicotine-Related elsewhere classified
Opium-Related Intermittent Explosive Disorder
Schizophrenia and Other Kleptomania
Psychotic Disorders Pyromania
Schizophrenia Pathological Gambling
Schizophreniform Disorder Trichotillomania
Schizoaffective Disorder Adjustment Disorders
Delusional Disorder Adjustment Disorder
Brief Psychotic Disorder Personality Disorders
Shared Psychotic Disorder
Paranoid Personality Disorder
Mood Disorder
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Depressive Disorders
Bipolar Disorders Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Anxiety Disorders
Borderline Personality Disorder
Panic Disorder Without Agoraphobia
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia without History of Panic Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Specific Phobia Avoidant Personality Disorder
Social Phobia Dependent Personality Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
134
endocrine dysfunction, constitutional
weakness, brain dysfunction, and physical
deprivation. All of them individually or in
combination, may cause the onset of
abnormal behaviour.
If faulty genes are transmitted from
parents to progeny, they may lead to
psychological and physical disorders. It has
been found that certain psychological
disorders like schizophrenia and manic-
depressive psychosis have strong genetic
basis. Likewise, Down’s Syndrome–a kind
of severe mental retardation–is due to
chromosomal aberrations where one extra
chromosome is found in the 21 st pair of
chromosomes. Cretinism, again a form of
severe mental retardation in young children
is due to lesser production of Thyroxin
hormone by Thyroid gland. The Physique
and other aspects of body constitution also
play an important role. They determine our
primary reaction tendencies towards stress
and in turn determine our adaptation to
stress. Brain damage and neurotransmitter
dysfunction are largely responsible for
several types of symptoms and psychological
disorders. Lastly, physiological
homeostasis is disturbed due to nutritional
deficiencies and lack of rest. Extreme
physical deprivation is found to lead to
psychological abnormalities.
Psychological Factors
The role of psychological factors in causation
of abnormal behaviour is less specific and
unpredictable than that of biological factors.
It is because these factors are difficult to
identify and measure. They are less precise
and work indirectly in uncertain ways. The
effect of these factors is not very predictable.
Development of distorted identity, dominance
of faulty and unconscious motives, maternal
and emotional deprivation especially during
early childhood, and psychic trauma play an
important role. Inadequate parenting which
includes overprotection, making unrealistic
demands from children, over-permissiveness
and over-indulgence, inconsistent reward and
punishments, and faulty communication and
undesirable parental models are found to be
significantly related to the development of
Psychological Disorders
abnormal behaviour. Maladaptive peer
relationships also contribute to abnormal
behaviour. Stress is an experience due to
stressors in the environment that disrupts
the normal psychological and physiological
functioning, thereby causing disturbance in
the individual. Stress has usually a negative
influence on the mind and the body. However,
stress is also a stimulus for many and brings
new motivation and zeal. Stress is harmful to
a person only when the person is relatively
unable to cope with stressors. You have
already read about stress in Chapter 5.
Socio-Cultural Factors
These factors also contribute to the genesis
of psychological disorders. They vary from
culture to culture. For example, poverty does
not equip growing children with adequate
coping resources and makes them more
vulnerable to psychological disorders.
Prejudice, discrimination, unemployment,
gender inequality, rapid social and
technological changes, etc., work in very
subtle and complex ways and contribute to
the genesis of psychological disorders.
Unfortunately, very little is specifically known
about these factors.
Types of Causes : Primary, Predisposing,
Precipitating and Reinforcing
The causes of mental disorders vary in terms
of their relationship with the onset of disorder.
From this angle, there are four types of
causes: primary, predisposing, precipitating
and reinforcing. A primary cause is the
condition that must exist for the disorder to
occur, but the disorder may or may not occur
depending on other factors. A predisposing
cause is a condition that comes before and
increases the chances of the occurrence of
the disorder later. It increases the
vulnerability of the individual to become a
victim of the disorder. A precipitating cause
is an immediate condition that triggers the
disorder. A reinforcing cause is a condition
that tends to maintain some already occurred
abnormal behaviour.
Predisposition towards a given disorder
is called diathesis. In other words, individuals
have certain vulnerability for specific
Psychological Disorders
psychological disorders. The causes lie within
the person, either in his/her biological make-
up or within the personality. Certain stresses
or excessive demands compel him/her to
make adjustment. The person tries his/her
best to do so by mobilising of the resources
available to him/her. However, a point comes
when one is unable to cope with these
excessive demands and a breakdown takes
place. It is known as the manifestation of
psychological disorders. In this context, we
shall discuss the role of biological,
psychological, and socio-cultural factors
separately. However, it is the interaction of
these which is crucial.
Recapitulation
Psychological disorders have been classified
in many ways. Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) devised by
the American Psychiatric Association (APA)
is popularly used. The causes of abnormal
behaviour relate to biological factors such
as genetic defects, chromosomal
abnormalities, brain dysfunction, etc.
Psychological factors (deprivation, psychic
trauma, stress etc.) and socio-cultural
factors (poverty, discrimination,
unemployment, etc.) have important roles to
play in the causation of abnormal behaviour.
The causes in terms of the onset of disorder
may be primary (condition must exist for
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. A cluster of symptoms generally found
together are called ______________.
2. Mental retardation caused due to
chromosomal aberration is __________
________.
3. Nutritional deficiencies and lack of rest
cause ____________.
4. Inability of the person to cope with
excessive demands resulting into a
break down is known as manifestation
of _______________.
5. A ______________ cause increases the
vulnerability of the person to become a
victim of the disorder.
6. Predisposition towards a disorder is
called ______________.
135
disorder to occur), predisposing (condition that
comes before and increases the chances of
occurrence of the disorder), precipitating
(immediate condition that triggers the disorder),
or reinforcing (condition that tends to maintain
already occurred abnormal behaviour).
MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
As you have seen in Box 6.2, the list of
disorders is very long and it is not possible
for you to understand all of them. Therefore,
only some important classes of disorders are
being selected for the present discussion.
They include anxiety disorders, somatoform
disorders, dissociative disorders, mood
disorders, schizophrenic, and delusional
disorders, substance-related disorders,
behavioural disorders of childhood and
adolescence, and personality disorders. Let
us try to understand each of these in term of
their main features.
ANXIETY DISORDERS
There are many types of anxiety disorders.
The major ones include generalised anxiety
disorder, panic disorder, various forms of
phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder,
somatoform disorder, dissociative
disorders and post traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). Earlier on, many
psychologists described people who were
suffering from anxiety disorders as ‘neurotic’.
The current scheme of classification uses the
clear and overt presence of marked anxiety
as the criteria for including the different
clusters of symptoms in the group of anxiety
disorders. Here the individual is excessively
anxious in general or under specific
circumstances but still has (or maintains)
enough contact with reality and rarely
requires hospitalisation. Various types of
anxiety disorders involve a wide range of
symptom patterns (syndromes). In general,
the patients (i) frequently experience anxiety,
worry, fear, and apprehension more intensely
and long lasting than the common people do,
and (ii) they try to cope with these feelings
through ritualised behaviours, or repetitive
thoughts that may reduce anxiety slightly, or
136
try to avoid situations that trigger the anxiety.
Generalised Anxiety Disorder : It is marked
by unrealistic or excessive worry. It was
traditionally described as ‘free floating anxiety’,
which persists for months or longer, and is not
attributed to recent life experiences. Persons
suffering from generalised anxiety disorders
manifest the characteristics shown in Table 6.1.
It is a common disorder and roughly, five
percent of population suffers from it at one time
or other in their life.
Panic Disorder : It is characterised by a sudden
attack of unanticipated, overwhelming, and
apparently unexplainable terror that reaches
its peak within 5-10 minutes. Increased
palpitation and respiration, shortness of
breath, chest discomfort, trembling, sweating,
dizziness and a sense of helplessness mark
the panic attack. These attacks generally
subside after a while. The unexpectedness of
attack is often extremely disturbing as the
patient is unable to relate it to any particular
situation or event. This leads to the
development of ‘anticipatory anxiety’ and
gradual change in the life style of the
patient, i.e., patient avoids going to public
places, and the avoidance behaviour
(agoraphobia) interferes with patients’ work
and other activities. The disorder results in
personal distress and often impairs relations
within the family.
Table 6.1 Psychological and Physical Symptoms in Generalised Anxiety Disorders
Psychological Symptoms
l Nervousness
l Tension
l Worry and apprehension
l Sleeplessness
l Difficulty in concentration
l Heightened vigilance
Generalised anxiety disorder differs from panic
disorder in the diffusion of anxiety, which is
more focused and intense in the latter than
in the former. Panic disorder is like sudden
release of the pressure from the cooker, where
before and after the release, calmness
Psychological Disorders
prevails. People with panic disorder may not
remain anxious all the time, as is the case
with generalised anxiety disorder.
Phobic Disorder : Every one of us has fear of
one thing or the other. Most of the time, these
fears are realistic and appropriate in view of
the danger posed before us. These are normal
fears. However, many people have fears which
are out of proportion, seem inexplicable, and
are beyond voluntary control. They have fear
of specific objects, people, or situations. They
try to avoid them, and this makes their lives
difficult. Traditionally, phobias have been
named by means of Greek or Latin prefixes
that stand for the object of fear, but today they
are grouped into a few categories. For example,
some are afraid of losing their voice when
speaking on the stage or talking to strangers.
These irrational fears are called social phobias.
The non-social irrational fears are called
specific phobias like fear of rats or cats. There
are irrational fears of public places called
agoraphobia.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders : An
obsession is an unpleasant and unwanted
thought that keeps coming to mind, despite
a person’s effort to resist it. The most common
obsessions are sexual, aggressive, and
religious in nature and of contamination and
doubt. Examples of obsession are recurring
thoughts of killing a loved one or constantly
Physical Symptoms
l Feeling tired
l Dizziness
l Frequent urination
l Increased palpitation
l Feeling faint
l Breathlessness
l Sweating
l Trembling
l Dryness of throat.
wondering whether the gas stove had been
turned off before leaving for work.
A compulsion is an act or a series of acts a
person feels compelled to perform repeatedly
despite knowing that it is senseless e.g.,
repetitive hand washing. The most common
Psychological Disorders
forms of compulsive acts are counting,
ordering, checking, cleaning, or mentally
reciting a series of mantras or numbers.
Often obsessions and compulsions go
together, i.e., obsessive thinking leads to
compulsive acts. However, about one fourth
of the people having these disorders only have
obsessive thoughts but do not act on them.
On the contrary, a compulsion need not
always be caused by an obsession.
Healthy people with a few obsessive-
compulsive tendencies tend to work
meticulously, efficiently and are able to
organise their daily activities. They are assets
in certain kinds of jobs like cashier of a bank
or laboratory technician or machine designer.
Many of them can maintain a high level of
achievement. However, obsessive persons
prove to be a disaster, specially working on
the jobs where public dealings are a constant
requirement. When obsessive thoughts or
compulsive acts begin to interfere with the
routine of daily life, it becomes a major
problem and requires professional attention.
Instead of order, they create confusion,
disorganisation, and hindrance.
Somatoform Disorders : The term ‘soma’
means body and therefore, these disorders
refer to physical problems. Here an
individual complains of a serious physical
problem over a long period, but on medical
examination, no organic basis is found.
These individuals sincerely believe that the
symptoms are real and of serious nature.
They seek frequent medical attention. Thus,
psychological problems are manifested in
sincere complaints of physical dysfunction.
The main types of somatoform disorders are
given below.
(i) Somatisation Disorder : In this disorder, the
most common complaints are headaches,
fatigue, nausea, palpitation, abdominal pain,
bowel troubles, and vague body pains. It is
not surprising that somatising patients
frequently go to doctors, change them and
even undergo needless surgery. They believe
that they are sick, narrate long and detailed
history to support it and take lot of medicines.
They impress other people by their self-
centeredness, immaturity and over-
excitedness. Their complaints are dramatic,
137
vague, and exaggerated. They differ from
hypochondriacs as the latter focus on the fear
of having specific disease while these people
remain preoccupied with symptoms.
(ii) Conversion Disorders : People with these
disorders exhibit symptoms of deficits affecting
voluntary motor or sensory function that
suggests a medical condition. Psychological
factors are judged to be associated with these
symptoms as they appear without regard for
the actual fact of anatomy and often lead to
a stressful life experience. Paralysis, loss
of voice, double vision, selective hearing,
severe laryngitis or mutism etc. may be such
disorders. Symptoms may be sensory,
motor, or visceral in nature. Secondary gain
(seeking attention or affection) that he or
she might not get otherwise is evident in
such patients. However, it is on the safer
side to rule out any medical reasons before
coming to the conclusion.
(iii) Hypochondriasis : It is diagnosed when
an individual believes that he has a
serious illness, despite contrary evidences
and medical reassurances. These people
have an obsessive concern about the
disease and preoccupation with body
organs. Hypochondriacs monitor their
physical condition and look for signs of
illness. If assured by doctors that they do
not have any illness, they often are
skeptical and disbelieving.
Thus, somatoform disorders consist of
physical symptoms, which cannot be
explained on medical basis, by current
knowledge of body functions and believed to
be having psychological basis of their
occurrence and maintenance.
Dissociative Disorders : Dissociative
disorders are not always considered
pathological in nature. In fact, some such
behaviours are commonly accepted as
cultural–religious experiences in many
societies. They involve large memory gaps,
feelings of ‘alienation’, and splitting of the self
into multiple self-states. The main types of
this disorder are listed below :
(i) Dissociative Amnesia : It involves selective
memory loss, which is not due to any visible
indication of organic changes. Memory loss
can be localised to a particular event or time
138
or so generalised that the entire past is
forgotten. Some people cannot recall their
past while others are unable to recall specific
events, persons, places, and things. Some
accident or severe emotional trauma can
trigger these amnesias.
(ii) Dissociative Fugue : It involves unexpected
travel away from home and assumption of a
new identity. Such a person may set up a
new life in some distant place. After several
years, he or she may ‘wake up’ and feel
distressed being in a strange place.
(iii) Multiple Personality : It is the most dramatic
disorder. It involves the coexistence of two or
more largely complete, and usually very
different personalities, in one person. Neither
of the personalities has any awareness of the
other. It is, however, a rare disorder.
MOOD DISORDERS
We often hear that someone whom we
thought happy and well settled suddenly
starts talking about ending his/her life. Such
a person exhibits a disturbance in mood.
When we know that the talk of suicide was a
result of ‘failure in a business deal’ the
BOX 6.3 EPIDEMIOLOGY OF MENTAL ILLNESS IN INDIA
Place Year Population
All Psychosis
Bangalore 1983 35,548 3.29
Baroda 1983 39,655 3.25
Calcutta 1983 34,582 6.50
Patiala 1983 36,595 10.96
(Source: ICMR Bulletin Vol. 18, No. 12, 1988)
BOX 6.4 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDERS (PTSD)
Many victims of war, terrorist attacks, rape, riots,
accident or natural calamities like flood,
earthquake, fire, etc. go into a state of anxiety,
depression and numbness immediately after or
in the following months and some times for years.
They complain of tension, sleeplessness, and
difficulty in concentration. They get recurrent
nightmares in which the trauma is relived. The
magnitude of the trauma, presence of cues
resembling to the traumatic event and poor
Psychological Disorders
person would then be described as being
‘emotionally disturbed’. Mood disorders are
disorders of emotion of sufficient intensity
and duration which require immediate
psychological and medical attention. The
three main types of mood disorders are:
depressive disorders, bipolar disorders,
and other mood disorders . Bipolar
disorders are much less common than
depressive disorders.
Depressive disorders should be distinguished
from depressed mood. All of us become sad,
grieved, and depressed, at one time or the
other in our life. These feelings occur during
cloudy weather, due to death in the family,
losing a job or honour, failure in
relationships or major financial loss.
However, these are temporary phases, which
represent a short-term response to stress
and in due course of time, we usually
overcome these feelings. This is ‘normal
depression’ that most of us feel occasionally.
This is often transitory and time bound and
often a period of genuine introspection.
Depressive Disorders : Symptoms of
depressive disorders are more severe and long
Rate Per 1000 Population
Schizophrenia Epilepsy All Causes
1.83 7.82 11.10
1.77 1.28 4.60
2.05 1.71 8.30
3.09 3.17 14.10
‘coping styles’ of the victim are some of the
factors identified for recurrent attacks of PTSD.
It is considered a delayed stress reaction that
reoccur repeatedly even long after the trauma
– victims experience emotional numbing in
relation to everyday events and feelings of
alienation from other people. They may have
symptoms like sleep problems, difficulty in
concentration, exaggerated startled response,
and guilt about surviving.
Psychological Disorders
lasting. They include dissatisfaction and
anxiety, changes in appetite, disturbance of
sleep and psychomotor functions, loss of
interest and energy, feelings of guilt, thoughts
of death, and difficulty in concentration. In
major depressive episodes, loss of interest and
pleasure in all activities of life is marked.
Weight loss or gain, sleep disturbances,
agitation or slow-down behaviour, fatigue,
inability to think clearly, feeling of
worthlessness, and frequent thought of death
and suicide are common symptoms.
Bipolar Disorder : It includes both, periods
of depression as well as periods of elation
(Mania). These may be in varying degrees of
intensity ranging from mild to severe. Manic
has the symptoms of elevated mood,
increased psychomotor activities and
grandiose ideas.
Dysthymic Disorder : It is a mild depression
of less incapacitating nature, often lasting for
years and sometimes hard to recognise. A
person who remains depressed has either poor
appetite or overeating tendency. They may have
difficulty in sleeping or too much of sleeping.
They constantly suffer from the feelings of
tiredness, hopelessness, and worthlessness.
They have also difficulty in concentration and
decision-making. It is chronic disorder and the
least amenable to therapy.
Genetic factors are often involved in severe
depression and the bipolar disorders. The role
of neurobiological factors is important in this
respect. Biological therapies including Electro
Convulsive Therapy (ECT) and drug therapies
are found very effective in treating mood
disorders. Social skills training and cognitive
therapy are also used for the treatment of
depression. You will read about these in
Chapter 7.
SCHIZOPHRENIC AND DELUSIONAL DISORDERS
Schizophrenia is a serious psychotic
condition. The name is coined after the two
Greek words : schizo meaning ‘split’ and
phrene meaning ‘mind’. Thus, schizophrenia
means, spilt or fragmentation of mind or
personality. Some prefer to call it
schizophrenias, as they believe that it is not
a single disease. Approximately 1 percent of
the population suffers from this disorder at
139
some point of time in their life. Such persons
typically have problems with attention,
perception, thinking, social relationships,
motivation, and emotion. For example, they
‘hear voices that are not there, speak a
language others don’t understand, laugh
when there is nothing humorous, and do not
have touch with reality’.
Schizophrenics are typically known for
their thinking disorders. They suffer from
delusions or false beliefs, which cannot be
shaken inspite of clear contrary evidence.
Prominent among delusions are ideas of
reference in which patients believe that their
thoughts, feelings, or actions are being stolen
or controlled by someone else or by some
machines. A schizophrenic, seeing his wife
talking to a stranger may be convinced that
they are in love and hatching a plot to kill
him. Such a belief is known as delusion of
persecution. A schizophrenic may imagine
that he/she is famous, beautiful, wealthy or
powerful and he or she may win a noble prize.
They have a delusion of grandeur.
Schizophrenics also have hallucinations,
which are mostly auditory in nature. They
hear voices and commands, which are not
there in real sense. Many schizophrenics have
disorders of attention, motivation and
emotion. For hours, they may sit listlessly
without any expression in an apathetic
manner with expressionless face. At the social
level, they generally have very poor
relationship with others. There is progressive
withdrawl from the world of reality, which
paves the way for gradual deterioration. The
major types of schizophrenia are described
in Table 6.2.
SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS
Psychoactive drugs including alcohol
influence our thoughts, emotions, and
activities. Prolonged use of them may cause
changes in motivation, attention,
concentration, and motor co-ordination in a
negative way. Intense craving, increased
tolerance of some substance, withdrawal
symptoms when substance is stopped, and
drug seeking behaviour (e.g., spending lot of
time, effort and energy in procuring drugs)
are characteristic features of these disorders.
140
Table 6.2 Major Types of Schizophrenia
Types of Schizophrenia
Paranoid
Catatonic
Disorganised
Undifferentiated
Residual
Though alcohol is a drug, but for many, the
addiction of choice may be ‘gutka’,
panmasala, tobacco, opium, marijuana, all
of which are natural substances. The
synthetic drugs like ‘smack’ and ‘ecstasy’,
which have been universally banned, are a
combination of chemicals like barbiturates
and tranquillisers often attract adolescents.
They tend to get drawn into groups that
experiment with different kinds of drugs.
These ‘thrill seeking’ persons often end up
with moderate to severe addictions, requiring
de-addiction therapy and individual
counselling. They cause extreme distress to
parents and teachers and often drift into
criminal activities to sustain their addictions.
Medical treatment of this disorder, related
to particular substance may differ from drug
to drug, but the actual process adopted to
de-addict a patient have the following
common steps :
(i) Detoxification : It is a medically
supervised process aimed at removing
the toxic effects of the substance from
the body.
(ii) Administration of drugs to ease
withdrawl symptoms : Withdrawl
symptoms, like tremors, sweating,
confusion, increased blood pressure,
depression, and agitation do occur due
to stoppage of substance intake and
detoxification. Therefore, some safe
drugs are given to ease the effect of
these symptoms.
(iii) Aversive conditioning : For treatment,
aversive stimulus, such as nausea
producing drug along with very small
Psychological Disorders
Main Symptoms
Delusion of persecution/grandeur, ideas of
reference/jealousy, if hallucination, auditory.
In excitement phase, psychomotor activities
increase up to level of agitation; in stupor phase,
person remains standstill for hours or days.
Bizarre and silly behaviour, inappropriate emotions
Those types that do not fall into any of the
above categories.
Apathy, social isolation, lack of will.
amount of drug or alcohol is given to
the patient in several trials. This
association produces aversion to
addictive substance in the patient.
(iv) Encouragement for abstinence : The
patient is encouraged to remain away
from the drugs.
(v) Mutual social support : The patient is
encouraged to join ex-patient groups.
Members of such groups have
successful history of overcoming their
addiction.
(vi) Individual and group psychotherapy :
The patients are also offered
individual/group psychotherapies
where their personality, emotions and
inter-personal problems, and the
possible causes of their indulgence in
addiction, are discussed in an attempt
to resolve them.
(vii) Rehabilitation programme : Recreational
and occupational therapies are offered
to engage patients, mind and to keep
them busy.
(viii) Relapse prevention and follow-up :
From time to time it is done so that
ex-patient may not return to the earlier
addictive stage.
BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS
Maladaptive behaviours of the childhood may
continue into adolescence and even into
adulthood. The major disorders that occur
during these stages are given below.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder :
Children may suffer from either or both
Psychological Disorders
problems. They may not be able to attend to
specific stimuli or may show hyper level of
activity. As a consequence, they may show
deficiencies in academic and social skills.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct
Disorder : The child or adolescent behaves
in defiant and hostile manner toward parents,
teachers or other authority figures. In conduct
disorder, the basic rights of others are
severely violated. They behave aggressively
toward other individuals and cause damage
to the person/animal or property.
Separation Anxiety Disorder : Children with
this disorder have excessive anxiety and even
panic if separated from parents especially
from mother. They cannot live alone and
refuse to go to school.
Eating Disorder : Children and adolescents
may have Anorexia Nervosa or conscious and
ACTIVITY 6.2
Understanding Drug Addiction
Interview individuals who are addicted
to drugs/alcohol. Organise classroom
discussion on the causative factors
(biological, psychological, socio-cultural).
Discuss ways in which students can be
made aware of addiction.
deliberate refusal of food and preoccupation
with weight reduction and related behaviours.
Contrarily, they may have Bulimia where
large quantities of food are consumed followed
by vomiting, purging and excessive exercise.
Eating disorders often have cognitive-
emotional basis for indulgence in them.
Functional Enuresis : This refers to bed-
wetting or habitual involuntary discharge of
urine after the age of five. Faulty learning and
disturbed family interactions often appear to
be the cause of this disorder.
Autism : It is a very disturbing condition in
which the young child is unable to relate to
people and situations and remains aloof. He
or she remains occupied with inanimate
objects and disregards, ignores, and shuts
out any thing that comes to him/her from
outside. They have very poor language
acquisition and show peculiarities of speech.
The autistic child often engages in orderly,
141
repetitive and compulsive activity and if
disturbed, becomes agitative. The signs of
autism are visible from the infancy itself
where infant remains unresponsive to the
mother’s gestures and cuddle. Approximately
80 per cent of autistic children have I.Q. below
70 indicating the presence of mental
retardation, but some have better visuo-
spatial skills. It is a rare condition and difficult
to treat. However, operant conditioning and
drug treatment have promise to treat at least
some autistic children.
Mental Retardation : It is a condition of
arrested intellectual growth before the age of
18 years, but when it prevails early in life,
the severity of condition is marked. You have
read about the levels of retardation in some
detail in Chapter 1 on Intelligence. You may
recollect that the broad categories of
retardation are mild, moderate, severe and
profound. When I.Q. is below 70, the child is
considered to be retarded. There are many
causes of mental retardation. Broadly
speaking, these are genetic, metabolic,
organic and environmental. People need to
be aware about the problems and various
special education and rehabilitation
programmes that are run in India and
elsewhere in the world. All these efforts are
like a drop in the ocean and much more is
required to be done in this direction.
Juvenile Delinquency : Many children and
adolescents commit minor offences such as
stealing, or fighting on streets. However, there
are some who persistently behave in a way,
which causes offence to other people and their
properties. They are people with conduct
disorders. It covers a great variety of
behaviour patterns such as aggression,
defiance, disobedience, verbal hostility, lying,
destructiveness, vandalism, theft,
promiscuity and early drug and alcohol
abuse. Genetic and environmental factors
including disturbed family relations play a
part in the development of such behaviour.
Elder children often come in confrontation
with police and law enforcing agencies and if
their offences are proved, they are put in
Remand Homes and Reformatory Schools.
Courts are lenient toward them and they are
not severely punished, as is the case with
adult offenders. However, the conditions of
142
Reformatory schools and Remand Homes
need to be conducive for their rehabilitation
and reform. It is difficult to treat them but
therapy based on principles of operant
conditioning is useful.
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality disorders are longstanding,
maladaptive, and inflexible styles of relating
to the environment. They cause problems
in interpersonal relationships, on the job
or result in personal distress. In your life,
you might have come across persons who
are over suspicious and distrustful to others
or too much orderly and systematic even in
trivial matters that puts your patience on
trial. You might have seen people who give
too much importance to self and have little
time for others. They suffer from some sort
of personality disorder. An understanding
of their behaviours will definitely help you
to deal with them in an effective manner.
These disorders are grouped into following
major clusters :
1. Paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal.
2. Histrionic, narcissistic, anti-social, and
borderline.
3. Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-
compulsive and passive-aggressive.
4. Self-defeating.
BOX 6.5 TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDER
Paranoid persons have unwarranted feelings
of suspiciousness and mistrust. They are cold,
incapable of having warm and close relationship
with others. They have hypersensitivity to
criticism and have fears of losing independence
and power. They rarely have insight into their
problems and hardly seek psychological help.
Schizoid persons are cold, reserved, reclusive,
and lack capacity for close and warm
relationships. They lack humour, social skills and
remain comfortable in isolated jobs.
Schizotypal persons have odd ways of thinking,
perceiving, communicating and behaving. They
are like schizoid but in addition to it oddities of
speech and ideas is visible in them, at times to
the extent of bizarreness.
Histrionic people always try to keep themselves
Psychological Disorders
These types are described in Box 6.5.
However, a detailed description of antisocial
type is given below.
The Antisocial Person
A very important sub-category of the
personality disorder is the antisocial person,
also known as Psychopath or Sociopath.
They require special mention because the
damage they cause to their potential victims
is, mostly so devastating that it ruins the life
of a person, family or of the whole community
in one stroke. The characteristic features of
these persons are that they constantly engage
in anti-social activities and in turn, harm
others but have little guilt or remorse for their
behaviour. Many of them are charming and
intelligent persons who manipulate their
victims by giving a false sense of intimacy,
love or belonging and then exploit them
financially, sexually or otherwise. One may
find these persons in all shades and varieties
ranging from a petty pickpocket to a
fraudulent share broker/banker, a deceitful
lover, a firebrand politician, and a flippant
cult leader. Psychopaths are pleasure
seekers, have short-term objectives, do not
learn from experience, and have little regard
for others, social norms or law. They are so
clever that they seldom come in the clutches
of law and order agencies. Charles Shobraj
at the centre of attention. They are attention
seekers, and express their emotion in an
exaggerated and dramatic fashion. They may
indulge into suicidal threats to manipulate
significant others. They generally respond with
impressions rather than details. This disorder is
more prevalent in women than men.
Narcissistic persons are in love with the self
and give too much importance to it. They have
great expectations of special favours and
constant attention from others. They feel that they
are very special in brilliance, power, and beauty
or in love relationships. They lack empathy and
take advantage of others.
Borderline persons, more of women than men,
are found to have unstable interpersonal
relationships. Intense clinging, dependency, and
contd...
Psychological Disorders
manipulation are marked in their relationships.
They have impulsiveness in areas of sex, crime,
substance abuse, and reckless driving and have
chronic feelings of emptiness.
Avoidant persons avoid relationships and social
interactions. They want to enter into
relationships, but fear of rejection and doubts
about acceptance by others restrain them from
doing so. Therefore, they avoid it until they
become sure of uncritical acceptance. They seem
to be cold, withdrawn and timid but remain
hyper vigilant and continuously assess all signs
and cues, both positive as well as negative, while
interacting with others and cautiously move
ahead accordingly.
Dependent persons live on others to make
all-important decisions of their lives and
subordinate their own needs to the needs and
demands of the others. They have difficulty
and the famous cheat Mithilesh Kumar
Shrivastava alias ‘Natwarlal’ are best
illustrations of psychopathic personality.
In our day-to-day interactions, we come
in contact with ‘normal’ persons but feel
distressed after dealing with them. Obviously
these so called ‘normal’ persons have
problems, of which they themselves are not
aware or don’t know where to get help, while
others often wonder why these people behave
in strange ways. These are the persons
suffering from personality disorders.
Recapitulation
In anxiety disorders, the individual feels
excessive anxiety in general or in specific
circumstances but maintains contact with
reality. The main types of anxiety disorders
include generalised anxiety disorder, panic
disorder, phobias, obsessive-compulsive
disorder etc.
Somatoform disorder refers to physical
problems having no organic basis. They
include somatisation disorder, conversion
disorder, hypochondriasis etc. Dissociative
disorders are pathological in nature and
involve memory gaps, feelings of alienation
and splitting of self into multiple-self-states
such as dissociative amnesia, dissociative
fugue and multiple personality.
143
to act independently and feel insecure when
left alone.
Obsessive-compulsive persons are rigid and
unadaptive but feel that things are under their
control. They show excessive concern for rules,
order, and cleanliness. There is a preoccupation
for trivial details and poor allocation of time.
Passive-aggressive persons express their
hostility and resentment in indirect and
non-violent ways such as being stubborn or
becoming intentionally inefficient. They do not
comply with demands others make on them. It
is visible in their behaviour, in their work place,
in their social interactions, and in social relations.
Self-defeating persons engage in excessive self-
sacrifice and avoid pleasurable experiences. Such
an individual chooses relationships or situations
that lead to failure, in spite of having opportunities
or ability to choose rewarding alternatives.
Mood disorders are disorders of emotion
requiring psychological and medical attention.
These include depressive disorders, biopolar
disorders etc. Schizophrenia means
fragmentation of mind or personality.
Paranoid, Catatonic, disorganised,
undifferentiated, and residual are its major
types. There are substance related disorders
LEARNING CHECKS IV
Write the names of the disorders
associated with each of the following
symptoms :
1. She remains all the time in a state of
high alert and apprehension though she
does not know the cause of it.
2. He checks and rechecks door lock at
least ten times before leaving for work.
3. For some months he remains very happy
and for some months very sad.
4. His mother is perturbed, as he is bed
wetting even at the age of ten.
5. All the time she does something or other
to attract the attention of others.
6. He has duped the public after collecting
a large sum of money for years in saving
schemes and now his whereabouts are
not known .
144
BOX 6.6 HIV-AIDS
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection
causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS).
According to WHO estimates more than
9 million cases of HIV infected people exist in India
and 36.1 million people were living with HIV
infection at the end of 2000 in the world. It is
becoming a major health problem and awareness
about it can prevent susceptibility to it.
l HIV-AIDS is a deadly infection and efforts
are being made for its cure. Sooner or later,
a patient having this infection has to die.
l It is mostly due to unsafe sexual behaviour
or due to some other factors like transfusion
of infected blood or body fluid etc.
l People can be educated and awareness can
be spread about safe sexual behaviour.
l There are many myths of HIV-AIDS. They
need to be removed.
l Life can be made happy and comfortable
during the period an HIV-AIDS patient is alive.
BOX 6.7 MENTAL HEALTH REGULATIONS
l Mental health regulations, in general, centre
around (1) rights of the persons suffering
from psychological disorders and (2) right of
the public to be protected from people
suffering from such disorders.
l Admission to mental hospitals or places of
treatment is called commitment process.
Civil or involuntary commitment is carried
out by court of law when an insane person
is judged dangerous to the self or to the
society or has committed a crime and put in
mental hospital instead of prison, to serve
the best interest of all concerned.
l Voluntary commitment to a mental health
treatment facility is carried out by patient
himself or by relatives of the patient.
l Final authority for discharge from mental
hospital in civil commitment rests with court
and in case of voluntary commitment with
doctors, patients, and his relatives.
l Insanity defence is the view that ‘a person
is not responsible for his criminal acts, if at
the time of committing such an act, he was
insane’. In 1843, Daniel McNaghten
assassinated Edward Drummand, secretary
to the Prime Minister of England. He was
found not guilty because court stated that
Psychological Disorders
l Psychosocial support to the victims and their
families can be provided as a community
service.
l Further spread of infection in the population
can be controlled by creating community
awareness.
l High-risk behaviours can be identified and
measures taken to contain the infection.
Psychologists have an increasingly
important role to play in combating the
HIV-AIDS epidemic. They are engaged both in
primary and secondary prevention efforts.
Primarily, they can help in educating people
to change their behaviour so that HIV
transmission may decrease. They also help
people who have HIV infection to live with
infection, counselling people to get tested for
HIV, help patients and their families to deal
with social and interpersonal aspects of the
disorder and advising them to adhere to
complex treatment programme.
he was in such a mental state where he did
not know that he was doing wrong.
McNaghten Rule became the ‘right and
wrong’ test of insanity. In 1954, a U.S. judge
broadened the scope of insanity defence
further and stated that a person is not
criminally responsible if he is suffering from
irresistible impulse due to mental disease.
This is known as Durham Rule. Insanity
defence rules are not without controversy
and much progress has been made to
improve upon these rules.
l Assessing potential danger upon : Court
may often ask mental health professionals
to give their expert advice about a patient
regarding danger/risk the patient poses to
self or to others. Procedures and
professionals involved in seeking such advice
differ from country to country.
l ECT or Electro Convulsive Therapy has been
declared illegal and unlawful in many states of
the USA. However, in India it is not so.
l Indian Lunacy Act of 1912 was the
legal document for governance of mental
patients, but in 1986, Mental Health Act
replaced it. During the past few decades,
tremendous advancement has taken place
contd...
Psychological Disorders 145

in the care of the psychologically ill. taken care of all these. It needs a further
Current trend is multi-professional care, improvement. The bill has used new
community approach, and psychosocial terminology but maintains old spirit of the
therapies. However, the new bill has not antiquated act of 1912.

(addiction to drug, alcohol, tobacco etc.), deficit, hyperactivity, autism, etc.) and the
behavioural disorders of childhood and personality disorders (histrionic, narcissistic,
adolescence (juvenile delinquency, attention anti-social, avoidant, dependent etc.).

LEARNING CHECKS V Key Terms

1. Schizophrenics predominantly have Exorcism, Psychopathology, Maladaptiveness,
disturbances of emotions. T/F Syndrome, ICD, Schizophrenia, Predisposing,
2. Humour, autonomy, love, work, and Panic, Phobia, Obsession, Compulsion,
play are the sign of a normal person. Dysthymic, Delusion, Hallucination, Anorexia
T/F Nervosa, Enuresis, Paranoid, Narcissistic,
3. Social deviance is one of the common Psychopathy, Depersonalisation, Alienation,
but not an absolute sign of Somatoform, Dissociation, Neurotransmitter,
psychological disorder. T/F Phobia, Hypochondriasis, Amnesia, Autism.
4. DSM classification is popular one.
T/F
5. Excessive stress makes a person
healthy and strong. T/F
6. Depressive persons have a suicidal
risk. T/F
7. One should remain aware and
cautious about psychopaths. T/F

SUMMARY

l From prehistoric to the modern period understanding of and practices dealing with
abnormal behaviour have changed gradually.
l There are two major criteria to identify normal and abnormal behaviours. First, it is
clinically significant dysfunction and second, it is culturally inappropriate.
l Classification of psychological disorders is needed for diagnosis. Currently International
Classification of Disorders (ICD) by WHO and Diagnostic and Statistics Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) by American Psychiatric Association in their recent versions
are in vogue. DSM-IV is gaining popularity for diagnostic purposes.
l Psychological disorders may be caused by biological, psychological, and socio-cultural
factors. They may be primary, predisposing, precipitating, and reinforcing in nature.
Diathesis-stress model explain the causation in a better way.
l The major psychological disorders including anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders,
dissociative disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenic and delusional disorders,
substance related disorders, behavioural disorders, and personality disorders. Each
of these categories has several subtypes.
l Mental health regulations and psychological aspects of HIV-AIDS need to be part of
understanding psychological disorders.
146 Psychological Disorders

Review Questions

1. What are the criteria of abnormal behaviour?

2. What are the socio-cultural causes of psychological disorders?
3. What are the biological causes of psychological disorders?
4. What are the main types of anxiety disorders?
5. What are delusions and hallucinations? Give examples.
6. What are the behavioural disorders found in children.
7. What are the main types of personality disorders? Give example of an
antisocial person?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T.
II : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T.
III : 1. syndromes, 2. Down’s Syndrome,
3. physiological homeostasis,
4. psychological disorders,
5. predisposing, 6. diathesis.
IV : 1. Anxiety Disorder,
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,
3. Mood Disorder, 4. Enuresis,
5. Histrionic Personality,
6. Psychopathic Disorder.
V : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T, 7. T.
Therapeutic Approaches 147

7 THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä The basic nature of therapies and Introduction
the therapeutic process The Nature and Process of Therapy
Ä Introduction to major therapeutic A General Model of Psychotherapy
techniques Types of Therapies
Ä Client-therapist relationship
Ä Yoga, meditation and rehabilitation Bio-medical Therapies
techniques Psychodynamic Therapies
Behaviour Therapies
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO Humanistic-Experiential Therapies
(Box 7.1)
Ä understand the nature of psychological
Cognitive Therapies
therapies,
Ä appreciate that different techniques are Application of Cognitive Therapy for
suitable for different persons, and Depression (Box 7.2)
Ä know that there are indigenous traditions Stress-Inoculation Therapy (Box 7.3)
of healing prevalent in India.
Indigenous Therapies
Yoga
Meditation
Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill
Reiki and Pranic Healing (Box 7.4)
Limitations of Therapies (Box 7.5)

Key Terms
Answers to Learning Checks
Summary
Review Questions
148 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

In the preceding chapter, you have learned about the major psychological
disorders and steps for their treatment which were briefly indicated. In this
chapter, you will study more about the therapist’s efforts to help their patients.
At present, various therapeutic approaches are available for mental disorders.
While some of them focus on self-understanding, the others are more action
oriented. A particular approach may be more suitable for a particular kind of
disorder or for a particular type of patient.
Therapy is a broad term referring to any attempt by a mental health
professional to assist a client to adjust to or overcome certain dysfunctions. While
the therapeutic approaches are diverse, all are designed to be corrective and
helpful. All of them involve an interpersonal relationship between the therapist
and the client. Both jointly share the goal of increasing the patient’s adaptive
and autonomous functioning. You must have realised that psychological disorders
involve different types of problems. These problems may be, in thought processes
(e.g. delusions and hallucinations in schizophrenics), in emotions or mood states
(e.g. in manics and depressive patients), with activities (e.g. the avoidance
behaviour of phobic patients or the ritualistic behaviour of compulsive patients),
or sometimes emotional problems may manifest themselves as physical symptoms
(as in anxiety disorders and psychosomatic disorders).
The treatment of mental disorders is often guided by different theoretical
orientations. The treatment may be given to the patient by psychologists,
psychiatrists, social workers and other helping professionals in hospitals,
community or private clinics. Therapy can follow a variety of formats. At times, in
individual therapy the goal of the treatment is to remedy personal adjustment
problems. This enables the person to function independently. At times, it is found
that the involvement of the person’s partner may be helpful and therapy is
extended to the couple. We also have the family therapy approach in which the
entire family receives therapeutic help. In such situations, the therapist
emphasises the fact that the problem belongs to the family as a unit. Then, there
is group therapy in which a therapist brings people together who may not know
each other, but all of whom are interested in resolving personal problems. The
group develops an interpersonal system in which an effort is to improve the level
and quality of adjustment of all the group members. Thus in this chapter you are
going to learn about the nature and process of psychotherapy. This will be followed
by a description of major types of therapies. Finally, you will learn about the
problems of rehabilitating the mentally ill people.
Therapeutic Approaches
THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF THERAPY
There are various forms of psychological help
spontaneously available in every day life to a
person who is emotionally disturbed. They
range from simple advice by a teacher or a
wise person, consolation from a friend,
parents, or relatives to a discourse delivered
by a saint, priest, or a clergy person. All these
make some impact towards emotional
healing. All these acts of people around us
contain some elements of psychotherapy, yet
there are important differences between what
they do and psychotherapy.
psychotherapy, there is a systematic attempt
to treat a person using psychological means.
This can be done by a trained person who
deliberately establishes a professional
relationship with a client (patient), having
problems of an emotional nature. The aim is
to remove, retard, or modify the existing
symptoms of maladaptive behaviour, in turn
helping the person to gain insight into the
development of his problem. This process
helps him to select more adaptive and solution
oriented behaviours resulting in personal
growth and the integration of the self.
However, therapeutic changes in the patients’
life can occur without psychotherapy, as
happens in instances of spontaneous recovery
and or sometimes even because of suggestive
measures such as placebos (Which influence a
person’s behaviour related to his or her
expectation of change). Earlier, psychotherapy
used to be defined as verbal and nonverbal
mode of treatment for emotional dysfunctions.
Recently, with the developments in the area
of cognition, there has been some
reorientation also, to include cognitive aspects
of communication in the therapeutic situation.
Overall, however, the psychotherapeutic
process revolves around the unique
relationship between the therapist and the
patient. It focuses on both verbal and
nonverbal communication, which can relieve
distress and set the conditions for relearning
and personal growth.
All psychotherapeutic approaches have
the following characteristics : (i) there are
systematic application of principles
underlying the different theories of therapy,
149
(ii) persons who have received practical
training under supervision can do
psychotherapy and not everybody. An
untrained person unintentionally may cause
more harm than any good, (iii) the therapeutic
situation involves a therapist and a client who
seeks and receives help for his/her
emotional problems (this person is the focus
of attention in the therapeutic processes),
and (iv) the interaction of these two persons
– the therapists and the client – results in
the consolidation/formation of the
therapeutic relationship. This is a
confidential, interpersonal, and dynamic
In
relationship. This human relationship is
central to any sort of psychological therapy
and is the vehicle for change.
Psychotherapies aim at changing the
maladaptive behaviours and decreasing the
sense of personal distress and helping the
client to adapt better to his environment. At
other times, inadequate marital,
occupational and social adjustment also
require that major changes be made in an
individual’s personal environment.
A General Model of Psychotherapy
Goals and Purpose : All psychotherapies aim
at a few or all of the following goals.
(i) Reinforcing patient’s resolve for
betterment.
(ii) Lessening emotional pressure.
(iii) Unfolding the potential for positive
growth.
(iv) Modifying habits.
(v) Changing thinking patterns.
(vi) Increasing self-awareness.
(vii) Improving interpersonal relations and
communication.
(viii) Facilitating decision-making.
(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in life.
(x) Relating to one’s social environment in
a more creative and self-aware manner.
All psychotherapies aim at removing
human distress and fostering effective
behaviour, but they differ greatly in concepts,
methods, and techniques. Instead of focusing
on the differences, we will consider the generic
approach to understand how psychotherapy
150
proceeds. Most therapeutic processes
are inclusive of at least three phases :
(1) the Initial Phase, (2) the Middle Phase,
and (3) the Phase of Termination.
Starting the Therapy : the Initial Phase
1. The Initial Interview : In the first contact
of a patient with the therapist an attempt
is made to (i) establish a relationship of
trust and hope, (ii) gain information about
the patient and his difficulties, (iii) provide
information about formal conditions of
therapy e.g. fee, timings and nature of the
therapy, and (iv) enhance the client’s
resolve to change for better.
2. The Therapeutic Alliance : Most
therapists come to understand that every
patient has two distinctive inner parts.
One is hopeless and self-defeating. The
other is rational, health-seeking and
striving for growth. The term therapeutic
alliance refers to the process through
which the therapist tries to establish a
relationship between his healthy self and
the rational self in the patient. This is a
very important aspect, that therapy
requires the voluntary efforts of the
patient, a high motivation, and the
sacrifices of time, efforts and money. The
therapist is there only to help him.
3. The Therapeutic Contract : The mutual
obligations and understanding between
the therapist and the patient is known as
therapeutic contract. They are openly
discussed by both the parties and formed
over several sessions, negotiated and
renegotiated. At the surface level they
are related to time schedules, fee,
appointment and its cancellation rules,
availability during emergencies etc. But
at the deeper level, the therapeutic
contract is about agreeing to work
together with honesty in achieving the
therapeutic goals.
4. Setting the Goals : The progress and
direction of therapy depends upon what
one wants to achieve. Thus, setting the
goals in therapy are essential, though they
may be modified later with mutual
consent. At times the patients’ goals are
of immediate concern. At other times, the
patients may be having unrealistic
Introduction to Psychology
expectations. The therapists also
communicate which goals are worthy,
realistic and attainable. The discussion
between the two helps to arrive at
mutually agreeable goals.
5. Setting of Limits : The Psychotherapeutic
atmosphere must be free and permissive.
This however, does not mean that a
patient can do whatever he likes. The
patient must respect the person and
property of the therapeutic setting. He or
she is free to express anger or affection;
indeed, it is encouraged at some stage of
the therapy, but not free to be aggressive
or violent. Physical touch is generally not
allowed. Similar rules are equally
applicable for the therapist also.
Psychotherapy Actual : the Middle Phase
The actual process of psychotherapy depends
upon the type of therapy that one is
undergoing. As you will study in the next
section, various types of therapies differ
greatly in this respect. However, as a process
and irrespective of the type of psychotherapy
given or taken the following components are
always present.
1. Relearning : In accordance with a learning
paradigm, neurotic problems develop
through faulty learning during early
socialisation process, so these can be
undone through unlearning and relearning.
Thus, psychotherapy provides opportunity
and experiences for new kinds of learning
to take place.
2. Experiencing : To bring about positive
change, new, personally meaningful,
emotionally corrective and fulfilling
experiences must take place during the
process of psychotherapy. The patient
needs an experience, not an explanation.
Swimming can best be learnt by throwing
oneself in the water than by only taking
lessons about it.
3. Psychotherapeutic Relationship : It is a
fundamental requisite of effective
psychotherapy and differs from other
human and professional relationships.
Psychological problems are different and
require highly specialised skills to tackle
them. Psychotherapy is a professional
relationship between a psychotherapist and
a client. A psychotherapist fixes his/her fee
Therapeutic Approaches
properly, keeps the appointments, and
follows the clinical contract. The client is
assured of full attention, privacy,
confidentially and a non-judgmental
attitude. He/she does not manipulate the
patient to serve his/her own needs. His/
her goal is to see the advance and the well
being of the patient by forwarding this
unique relationship.
4. Motivation and Expectations : A patient
comes for psychotherapy with doubt,
anxiety, as well as hope. He/she has faith
in the ‘expert’ who will be able to understand
him/her as a person and help him/her in
the achievement of personal happiness.
Ending the Psychotherapy : the Phase
of Termination
In the last phase of psychotherapy, the patient
becomes more adaptive, lives in the present
rather than in the past, and develops a
forward-looking approach. In one sense,
psychotherapy never ends, as there is no limit
to personal growth. However, pragmatically
it should be terminated when the stated goals
are reached. It may also be terminated
without reaching the goals stated earlier,
when either the patient or the therapist feels
that they are no longer capable of working
further and have come to an impasse. The
successful ending of therapy often requires a
follow up action on a periodical basis.
Whatever learning or understanding is gained
by the patient during the therapy is to be
transformed into actual life situations.
Recapitulation
The therapeutic situation involves a therapist
and a patient. The psychotherapist is a
trained person who establishes a professional
relationship with a patient to change
maladaptive symptoms and to help the person
to develop insight in his/her problems.
Psychotherapies are of various kinds and
vary in details. However, in general there are
phases of therapy. It begins with the initial
interview, and progresses towards developing
the therapeutic alliance, establishing therapeutic
contract, goal setting, and setting of limits of
therapy. This is followed by the middle phase,
which is the actual therapeutic phase. It
involves relearning and experiencing. The
151
psychotherapeutic relationship, motivation,
and expectations play an important role. The
third phase of the therapy can be termed as
the termination phase. The successful ending
of therapy demands follow up action on a
periodical basis. The experiential growth
attained in the therapy needs to be
transformed into actual life situations.
ACTIVITY 7.1
First Hand Ideas about Therapies
Visit the psychiatric department of a medical
college, Counselling centre, Psychology clinic,
Rehabilitation centre, Drug de-addiction
centre, Yoga centre, or a voluntary
organisation providing some psychosocial
services. Talk to the persons available there
and observe the services they are giving.
Relate it with what is given in the book.
TYPES OF THERAPIES
All therapeutic approaches aim at producing
change for the better in the thought
processes, emotions, activities, and bodily
processes. However, differences exist about
how these changes can be brought about and
which is to be changed first. In the following
sections, we will describe five important types
of therapies.
BIO-MEDICAL THERAPIES
Medically trained people consider mental
illness parallel to physical illness and
accordingly treat them on the basis of a
medical model. They want to reduce the
symptoms associated with psychological
disorders. It is assumed that the psychological
disorders are at least partly caused by
biological reasons. Some of the therapies used
for the treatment of psychological disorders
by them are as follows.
Insulin Coma Therapy : Today the use of
this therapy has markedly declined. It was
introduced for the treatment of schizophrenia.
Here increasing amounts of insulin (hormone
that regulates sugar metabolism in the body)
on an every day basis is injected in the body
152
of the patient until he or she goes into coma
caused by an acute deficiency of sugar in the
blood. This process is repeated for 50 days
or more and closely monitored by doctors. It
causes severe stress on body, cardiovascular
and nervous systems and considerable risk
is involved. Due to the damage it may cause
to the body and to the emergence of more
improved methods of treatment for mental
disorders, this therapy is not preferred any
longer. The rationale of the therapy was that
coma causes convulsions of the body and
mind, which in turn improve the behaviour
of the patients.
Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) : It is
widely used, though, in some countries its
use has been banned or stringently restricted.
Convulsive therapy was introduced on the
basis of two different observations (1) it was
observed for a long-time by mental hospital
physicians that patients would suddenly lose
their symptoms when they had a spontaneous
convulsion, and (2) epilepsy and
schizophrenia hardly ever occurred
simultaneously in them. Therefore, it was
thought that introducing artificial convulsions
might cure schizophrenia and other mental
disorders. In the beginning, it was done by
injecting metrazol and other drugs in mental
patients. Now, a simple and reliable machine
has been developed through which a mild
electric current can be applied to the patient’s
temple that passes through the brain and
produces convulsions in the patient. There is
amnesia for the whole treatment procedure and
after several such treatments; there is memory
impairment, which may last for several weeks.
However, no lasting loss of memory occurs.
Drug Therapies : Drug treatment has been
used mainly with four types of disorders –
schizophrenia, mania, depression, and
anxiety. These drugs are referred to as
Psychotropic drugs because their main effect
is on the psychological behaviour of the
patients. These drugs are also called
antipsychotic drugs. These are used with
major psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.
They produce a calming effect on the patients
and reduce the intensity of psychotic
symptoms like delusions and hallucinations.
Socially withdrawn patients become
Introduction to Psychology
responsive to the environment. However, the
prolonged use with high dosage produces
severe side effects. The drug approach has
yet to produce a ‘cure’ for schizophrenia.
Antimanic drugs are used to treat patient
who are highly agitated, excited and at times
unmanageable. Antidepressant drugs are
used for patients having depression and
suicidal risk. Antianxiety drugs are known
as minor tranquillisers.
Psychosurgery : Prefrontal lobotomy
introduced by Moniz in 1935, in search of an
effective treatment for psychosis won him, the
Nobel Prize in medicine for the year 1949. Later,
it was recognised that the undesirable side
effects of such psychosurgery was devastating.
Today such operations are extremely rare and
used only as a last resort.
Recapitulation
Biomedical therapies are physiological
interventions for psychological disorders. The
Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) is used to
create a cortical seizure that has therapeutic
value for mood disorders like depression. Its
effectiveness is not very high. Drug therapy
includes antianxiety drugs to relieve excessive
apprehension and antipsychotic drugs for
schizophrenia. At one time psychosurgery too
was a prominent method of treatment, today
it is no longer the treatment of choice.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Electro Convulsive Therapy is meant for
the treatment of convulsions. T/F
2. Major tranquilisers are used as a drug
of preference to treat anxiety patients.
T/F
3. Psychosurgery is frequently used to
treat psychological disorders. T/F
4. Insulin has been used for the treatment
of schizophrenia. T/F
5. For the treatment of psychological
disorders medical approach believes in
changing the bodily processes. T/F
6. ECT is used to prevent future episodes
of mania. T/F
Therapeutic Approaches 153

The manifest content of the dream is the

PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES
dream as it appears to the dreamer. This
is a mixture of present and past wishes
Modern psychotherapy begins with the work
which is condensed into a single event.
of Sigmund Freud in the 1880’s. In the
The latent content is the hidden and
following years, Freud developed an
repressed material. The therapist
elaborated, revolutionary, and systematic
interprets the symbolic meaning of the
theory of psychoanalysis. Freud’s associates,
patients’ dream.
disciples and followers added to the richness
3. Analysis of resistance : During free
of psychoanalysis. Psychodynamic therapy
association, dream analysis, or therapy,
is based on the psychoanalytic perspective.
an individual may show resistance. It may
The underlying assumption of this therapy is
be manifested in various forms, like
that the genesis of psychological problems lies
coming late for sessions, flight into
in childhood experiences. Often the child is
sickness or flight into health,
subjected to psychic traumas or may be in
unwillingness to talk about certain things,
situations where unacceptable impulses are
sudden blocks, forgetting and so on. These
stimulated. These impulses are repressed into
are indicated and discussed with the
the unconscious, remain so, but always
patient in order to provide a better
threaten to come into consciousness. Patients
understanding of the unconscious causes
spend a lot of psychic energy to maintain the
of such resistances.
repression and are left with little energy for
4. Transference analysis : Patients react to
living more effectively. It is believed that
the therapist as they did with significant
gaining insight into such repressed material
others, often with father or mother in their
can free individuals from pain and the shame
childhood. This reaction may be in the
associated with it.
form of hostility, dependency or exhibition
The different techniques used by the
of overaffection to the therapist. The ill
psycho analytically oriented therapist are
effects of undesirable early relationships
as follows :
are counteracted in the therapeutic
1. Free association : Here the patient is
setting. The resolution of transference is
simply asked to say whatever comes into
the essential element in effective
his mind spontaneously without
psychodynamic cure.
censoring it and regardless of how
Thus, the psychodynamic therapy
personal, painful, shameful or irrelevant
attempts to bring the unconscious material
it may be. The patient, in a relaxed
into consciousness and to help the patients
position, is asked to spontaneously share
develop insight into the genesis of difficult
his/her thoughts and feelings as they
come to his/her mind. The therapist puts emotional patterns, through a reliving of the
together the patient’s verbalisations into past during the process of therapy. There are
a meaningful perspective and helps various versions of psychodynamic therapies,
him/her to gain insight into for example, the psychoanalytically oriented,
his/her unconscious. The therapist’s interpersonal therapies or Jungian depth
interpretations lead the client towards oriented psychotherapy. Psycho-analytically
increased awareness and understanding oriented psychotherapy remains the
of one’s unconscious and its relationship treatment of choice for individuals seeking
to the experienced distress. extensive self-reflection or insight into himself
2. Analysis of dreams : Freud said that or herself.
dreams are the royal road to the
unconscious. Ego censor is often less Recapitulation
vigilant during sleep and repressed ideas Psychodynamic therapy is based on the
from unconscious are more likely to assumption that unresolved conflicts are the
appear in dreams than in waking states, main sources of psychological problems. Free
and are expressed in symbolic form. association and dream analysis are used to
154
explore the patient’s unconscious. Probing
into sensitive areas may be met by
resistance on the part of the patient. The
transference relationship is used to delve
into the patient’s past.
Though the Freudian approach still
provides the core features of psychoanalysis,
yet in modern times, many recent
developments in the field have led to marked
advancements and shifts in analytical method
and technique.
LEARNING CHECKS II
Fill up the blanks with appropriate terms.
1. The science of emotional cognition and
adaptation is known as ______________.
2. Relation between therapist and the
rational part of the patient is known as
___________________________.
3. The mutual obligations and
understanding between the therapist
and patient is known as ____________.
4. During the course of psychodynamic
therapy, the ‘flight into health’ is termed
as __________________________.
5. ______________ are the royal road to the
unconscious.
6. Some formal arrangements for contact
even after the termination of therapy is
known as __________________________.
BEHAVIOUR THERAPIES
Some prefer to call it Behaviour Modification.
It is based upon the learning principles,
especially on Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning techniques.
J.B. Watson in the United States during the
1920s reported some applications of
conditioning methods for curing behaviour
disorders. Behavioural methods as an
approach to clinical problems started a little
later. Lindsley and Skinner coined the term
‘behaviour therapy’ in early 1950s in their
effort to modify psychotic behaviour.
Experimental psychologists have joined
clinicians in the quest to address the
problems of psychological disorders. Many of
the psychological disorders are due to faulty
learning. Therefore, their modification
requires relearning or new learning.
Introduction to Psychology
Disordered observable behaviour is the
focal interest of behavioural therapists. They
do not address themselves to subjective
feelings, internal states, or unconscious
determinants. They focus on the elements in
the environment, which trigger specific
habitual responses and aim to modify the
response by modifying the eliciting stimulus
or vice- versa, i.e., conditions which maintain
such observable behaviours and habits
matters. It is felt that if these can be modified,
then disturbed behaviours would disappear,
and behaviours that are more functional
could be substituted. This can be done
through the application of learning principles
and use of reward and punishment
schedules. However, the ultimate goal is to
bring the desired behaviours under the
control of the individual concerned.
According to Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning, every individual operates on his
environment. Those behaviours become
established which lead to reward or avoidance
of punishments. Similarly, behavioural
patterns, which lead to punishment or no
reward situations, are usually weakened.
Techniques of Behaviour Therapy
1. Systematic Desensitisation : This is the
best known and most widely used technique
of behavioural therapy used in the treatment
of Phobia and other anxiety related disorders.
Developed by Wolpe, it is based on the simple
assumption that one cannot be both relaxed
and anxious at the same time. Therefore, if
increasingly anxiety producing stimuli are
presented while the patient is in a deeply
relaxed state, the relaxation state overpowers
the anxiety state and the patient is
desensitised to the anxiety inducing stimuli.
The following four steps are followed as part
of the systematic desensitisation procedure :
(i) Interview : A few initial interviews are
conducted. These are followed by the
administration of some personality
questionnaires to discover the person’s major
sources of anxiety. (ii) Training in
relaxation : First few sessions are devoted to
train the patient in relaxation. Therapists
use different relaxation techniques.
Therapeutic Approaches
(iii) Construction of anxiety hierarchies :
On the basis of the initial interviews, a
hierarchy of anxiety producing situations
ranging from the most moderate to the most
extreme is prepared. It consists of 20 to 25
pictures or statements of roughly equal gaps.
For example, for a person afraid of Lizards,
hierarchical situations may range from the
Lizard being seen 20 feet away to just on the
head. (iv) Desensitisation sessions : In these
sessions, the patient is presented with, or
asked to visualise the least anxiety producing
item, while he/she is in a relaxed state. After
some time, the therapist moves on to the next
most disturbing stimulus on the hierarchy
and then goes on to the next situation up to
the highest level of anxiety producing
stimulus. This process is continued until the
patient asks to stop due to the overwhelming
anxiety producing situation. After several
sessions, the patient is generally able to
visualise anxiety at the highest level of
hierarchy. The treatment continues by
repeating this process.
2. Implosive Therapy and Flooding : In
comparison to systematic desensitisation
Implosive therapy operates precisely in a
reverse manner. The therapist describes the
most frightening event or client is asked to
imagine the most anxiety-arousing situation.
Flooding on the other hand involves placing
the client in a real life anxiety-arousing
situation. The technique works well, but there
is a need for caution in the use of this
technique.
3. Aversion Therapy : If a response is followed
by pain or punishment, its strength should be
weakened. In practice, chronic alcoholics have
been treated by this technique. A nausea-
producing drug is mixed into an alcoholic drink,
so that drinking leads to sickness and vomiting.
After a number of such trials, over a period of
time, the sight of the drink alone may lead to
nausea. The technique has been used to treat
a variety of problems like overeating, heavy
smoking, sexual perversions, and drug and
alcohol abuse.
4. Assertive Therapy : Another use of the
reciprocal inhibition principle is the teaching
of assertive responses as conceived by Wolpe.
One cannot be assertive and timorous at the
same time. The patient is asked to try out
155
new behaviour, pushing one, first in a mild
way and later in a more intense way. For the
development of such skills behaviour
rehearsal, role-playing, or social modelling
has been used. Roles may be reversed.
5. Token Economy : This technique has
been used to establish adaptive behaviours,
ranging from eating behaviour in children to
institutionalised psychotic patients. A token,
instead of money, is paid for the work and
later the token can be exchanged for the
desired objects or activities. Three steps are
involved in this technique.
(i) Designate the behaviour felt to be
desirable and hence to be reinforced.
(ii) A medium of exchange is established.
A token may be a card or a clip.
(iii) Back up reinforcers are decided. They may
be a movie show, some special foods or a
picnic. Accumulation of certain numbers
of tokens can be traded for any one of
these. The goals of a token programme
are to develop desirable behaviours that
will lead to social approval from significant
others and to develop necessary skills in
the individual. The person learns that he
can control his own environment in a way,
which will elicit positive reinforcement
from others.
6. Modelling Technique : In children, an
important part of learning is based on
watching and imitating others. Bandura has
worked extensively on developing the modelling
technique. Modelling can influence behaviour
as it serves (i) as a basis for learning new skills,
(ii) to eliminate fears and inhibitions, and
(iii) to facilitate socially existing behaviour patterns.
7. Biofeedback : The importance of the
Autonomic Nervous System in the
development of abnormal behaviour has been
recognised. In this type of treatment, a person
is taught to influence his or her own
physiological processes. The steps required
are, (a) monitoring the physiological response
that is to be modified, (b) converting the
information to a visual or auditory signal,
(c) providing means of a prompt feedback,
indicating to a subject as rapidly as possible
when the desired change is taking place. Thus,
biofeedback is oriented to reducing the
reactivity of some organ system innervated by
the ANS by bringing it under voluntary control.
156
Recapitulation
Behaviour therapies are based on the
principles of learning. They focus on changing
the particular aspects of behaviour.
Systematic desensitisation is used to treat
phobias and other forms of specific fears.
It starts with constructing an anxiety
hierarchy, relaxation training, and step-by-
step movement through the hierarchy, paring
relaxation with each phobic stimulus.
Implosive therapy and flooding involve
exposure to the frightening condition.
Aversion uses the principles of learning to get
rid of an undesirable behaviour.
Assertiveness training, token economy,
modelling, and biofeedback are used to shape
behaviours in desired ways. All of them utilise
certain principles and procedures of learning.
These therapies are particularly suited for
children and hospitalised patients.
BOX 7.1 HUMANISTIC-EXPERIENTIAL THERAPIES
These therapies emerged out of the reactions
to psychoanalytic and behaviouristic approaches
to therapy, which are authoritarian and
mechanical in nature. Humanistic-experiential
therapists feel that human beings have
existential problems but they need freedom to
make choices. By expanding one’s awareness
about the possible avenues and about one’s
potentials, a person will be able to search his
or her own way. The therapist’s job is only to
facilitate, guide, and counsel the client’s effort.
There are a number of such therapies, which
are based on these assumptions. Some of them
are briefly described below.
The Client-centred Therapy of Carl Rogers :
This therapy creates a psychological climate in
which a client can feel unconditionally accepted,
understood, and valued as a person. Here,
clients for the first time explore their real feelings,
thoughts and accept negative emotions of hate,
anger and ugly feelings as parts of themselves.
As their self-concept becomes more harmonious
with their actual experiencing, they become more
open to new experience and new outlook. In time,
they become better-integrated people. This
therapy is also called nondirective therapy,
because the therapist does not direct the course
of therapy. He or she does not give answers,
Introduction to Psychology
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Behaviour therapy assumes that
behaviour is primarily a product of
heredity. T/F
2. Deep muscle relaxation is used in
systematic desensitisation. T/F
3. Systematic desensitisation involves
unlearning troublesome anxiety
response. T/F
4. According to behaviour therapy neurotic
anxiety is a conditional response. T/F
5. In aversion therapy a pleasant stimulus
is paired with an unwanted response.
T/F
6. Modelling cannot be used to develop
new skills. T/F
7. Token economy utilises the principles of
reinforcement. T/F
interpret, or make judgements about what the
client says. The therapist only acknowledges or
restates and encourages the client to look at them
and to explore further. Rogers was rated as one
of the most influential psychotherapists and his
approach had immensely influenced counselling
procedures.
Gestalt Therapy : It was developed by Fritz
Perls to recognise the bodily processes and
emotional modalities blocking off from
awareness. Gestalt means “whole” and the
therapy emphasises upon unity of mind and
body, integration of thought, feeling and action.
Logo Therapy : It emerged out of Viktor
Frankl’s traumatic three years experience in the
Nazi concentration camps. His father, mother,
brothers, and first wife died in the camps or were
sent into the gas chambers. Frankl observed that
prisoners who gave ‘meaning’ to their lives
survived anyhow. Those who had lost all faith
in the future fell into depression and were
doomed. In the camps, there were many suicides.
Therefore, Frankl and other like minded tried to
forestall suicide by giving meaning to the lives
of those who had sunk into depression. Logos
stands for ‘meaning’. This therapy, therefore,
endeavours to help the client find or create
purpose and meaning in his/her life.
Therapeutic Approaches
COGNITIVE THERAPIES
In the past two decades, there is a significant
increase in the use of cognitive therapies due
to their efficacy specially in the treatment of
depression and anxiety. Albert Ellis and
Aaron Beck were the pioneers in the use of
cognitive therapy. The term cognition refers
to functions like attention, judgement, learning,
thought, memory, and consciousness used in
comprehending the world of our experience.
Cognitive therapy, emphasises on
recognising and changing negative thoughts
and maladaptive beliefs. Cognitive therapists
consider that cognitive processes and
structures like beliefs, attitudes, long-term
memories etc. have significant influence on
behaviour. The negative or self-defeating
contents or schemata towards the self, the
world, and the future; the so-called cognitive
triad – make the self miserable, the
environment threatening, and the future
feared. These are important components in
many forms of mental disorders, especially
in depression and anxiety. Altering these
processes and structures at realistic levels is
the primary goal of cognitive therapy. For
example, irrational expectations like “I should
be loved by everyone” is the main cause of
trouble for many. The reality is that some may
love you, some may be indifferent, and some
may hate you in this world. If the client
realises how unrealistic and self-defeating
BOX 7.2 APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE THERAPY FOR DEPRESSION
The cognitive therapy should start with
uncovering and challenging the negative and
unrealistic beliefs of the depressed patients,
specially the cognitive triad. The depressed
patient regards him/her self as helpless,
worthless and inadequate. The patient sees the
world as posing obstacles and finds the future
as totally hopeless. These negative thoughts are
repetitive in nature and play an important role
in the maintenance of the depressive state.
Depressed people also make a number of errors
in logic in their thinking. This include :
(i) Selectivity : This involves emphasising the
insignificant aspects of an event or situation
while ignoring its major aspects.
(ii) Personalisation : It refers to attributing the
157
her/his beliefs and attitudes are, she/he will
then seek to change them. This is how
cognitive therapy works.
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Aaron Beck has developed a system of
therapy, which has been most widely used in
cases of depression. Cognitive therapists help
the clients to recognise the negative thoughts,
biased interpretations, and errors in logic that
pervade their thinking and, according to Beck,
cause them to feel depressed. The therapist
also guides clients to challenge their
dysfunctional thoughts, try out new
interpretations, and ultimately apply
alternative ways of thinking in their daily lives.
Depressed people who are treated with Beck’s
approach are found to improve significantly.
In recent years, Beck’s cognitive therapy has
also been successfully applied to panic
disorders and other anxiety disorders.
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) :
It is one of the most widely used therapies,
which attempts to change the patient’s
basic maladaptive thought processes. A
psychologically healthy person is one who is
rational and in tune with reality. Many people
harbour unrealistic beliefs and perfectionist
values. They act accordingly, and invite
failures, disappointments and feel always
miserable about themselves. For example, ‘I
should always be able to win every one’s
approval and be competent in every thing I do’
cause of negative events to the self.
(iii) Arbitrary inference : It involves drawing
conclusions that are not supported by
evidence.
(iv) Magnification : It stands for the trivial
negative conclusions drawn about self or
others based on very limited facts.
The objective in cognitive therapy is to change
the depressed patient’s distorted and self-
defeating thought patterns and to help him or
her to have a more realistic and positive direction.
The therapist uses various techniques such as
challenging, activity raising and graded task
assignment for this purpose. Cognitive therapy
has a comparable success rate in the treatment
of depression with some other therapies.
158
is an unrealistic way of thinking in this world.
It inevitably leads to the non-realisation of
one’s goal. The failure to achieve such a goal
evokes emotional responses of worthlessness,
ineffectiveness, inadequacy, and self-defeat.
These emotional responses of self-devaluation
are not necessarily the consequence of ‘reality’
but of one’s thought processes, of faulty
expectations from self and others. RET
attempts to restructure the person’s self-
valuation and belief system in the context of
irrational ‘shoulds’, ‘oughts’, and ‘musts’ that
are hindering his/her creative, spontaneous,
and emotionally satisfying life. It aims at
increasing the individual’s feelings of self
worth and paves the way for self-growth.
Recapitulation
The cognitive therapies focus their
interventions on explicit cognition and try to
alter cognitive processes and structures at a
realistic level. Beck’s therapy helps the patient
to recognise the negative thoughts, and, the
wrong interpretations that lead to depression.
The therapist guides the client to challenge
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. According to cognitive therapists the
main problem is negative or self-
defeating thoughts. T/F
2. Cognitive therapy focuses on
unconscious conflicts. T/F
3. Beck’s therapy is used in panic
disorders. T/F
4. The goal of RET is to change maladaptive
thought of the patient. T/F
5. Unrealistic and perfectionist thinking
creates feeling of self worth. T/F
BOX 7.3 STRESS-INOCULATION THERAPY
Stress-Inoculation therapy is done in three stages :
1. Cognitive preparation : This is the first
stage when a client and therapist together, frame
the self-statements about the problem-situation.
They also agree on new self-statements which are
more adaptive,
2. Rehearsal : in the second phase of
rehearsal, new self-statements are learned and
practised, and
3. Therapy : in the third phase of therapy,
Introduction to Psychology
these thoughts. The rational-emotive therapy
developed by Ellis also tries to change the
patient’s maladaptive thought processes by
restructuring his or her self-evaluation and
belief system.
INDIGENOUS THERAPIES
In ancient Indian literature, vast varieties of
practices have been mentioned for the cure of
psychological disorders. Atharva-Veda, Charak
Samhita, Susrut Samhita, Ashtang Sangrah,
Yoga Sutra, and also Buddhist and Jain
literature contain a number of psychotherapeutic
practices. Some of these are purely
psychogenic, some are psychosomatic, and
others are physiological in nature. Most of these
need to be rediscovered but some of them have
stood the test of time. A few of the latter are
described here.
Yoga
Yoga, an ancient Indian system of thought
as well as practice is very pertinent to the
treatment and prevention of psychological
disorders as well as the maintenance and
promotion of physical and psychological
well being.
The objective of yoga as given by Patanjali
is chittavrittinirodh or restraining the mental
modifications. The literal meaning of the
Sanskrit word yoga is to ‘yoke’. Accordingly,
yoga can be defined as a means for uniting
the individual spirit with the universal spirit
or God. Patanjali compiled and refined various
aspects of yoga systematically in his famous
treatise known as ‘Yoga Sutra’. He presented
the eight-fold path of yoga for the
new coping strategies are applied to actual
situations. Starting with simple situations the
client is gradually placed in difficult
situations.
Thus, an individual gets prepared to face
stress in an adaptive manner. The use of cognitive
therapies is growing rapidly. They are being
applied in a variety of disorders, ranging from
simple disorders to complex ones, like
schizophrenic disorders.
Therapeutic Approaches
overall development of human personality.
These are : (1) Yama, (2) Niyama, (3) Asana,
(4) Pranayama, (5) Pratyahara, (6) Dharana,
(7) Dhyana and (8) Samadhi. This is called
‘Ashtanga Yoga’ i.e., steps of yoga. A brief
description of these components is given
below and summarised in Fig. 7.1.
1. Yama means restraints in behaviour.
These are five in numbers, i.e., (i) Ahimsa
or non-violence. It is not to harm other
living beings in deeds, thoughts and
language unnecessarily, (ii) Satya or
truthfulness. This means not to tell lie,
(iii) Asteya means not stealing or
misappropriating the things that belong
to others, (iv) Brahmacharya means
celibacy or purity of sexual life and
(v) Aparigraha means not to possess
beyond the actual needs.
2. Niyama means observances in
behaviours. These are five in number i.e.
(i) Saucha means keeping purity of
internal and external body, (ii) Santosh
means contentment, (iii) Tapa means
conditioning the body to endure
Fig. 7.1 Steps of Yoga
difficulties like fasting etc.,
(iv) Svadhyaya means to study spiritual
scriptures to acquire correct knowledge
of self and the supreme divinity, and
(v) Ishwara Pranidhana means
surrendering oneself to the Almighty.
3. Asanas are special patterns of postures
that stabilise the mind and the body.
By practicing various bodily postures,
some of the dormant psychophysical
159
systems of the body are activated. Every
asana should be performed effortlessly, and
maintained for a comfortable time. Asanas
may be classified as (i) meditative,
(ii) stretching, and (iii) relaxative.
4. Pranayama is the regulation of breath.
Literally, it means the pause in the
movement of breath. Holding of the
breath for a prolonged and comfortable
time is an essential technique of
pranayama. However, in the initial
practice, the breath–holding phase is
avoided and emphasis is put on the
controlled inhalation and expiration.
There are graded techniques from simple
to complex, of practicing pranayama.
The main purpose of pranayama is to
gain control over autonomic nervous
system and through it influence the
mental functions.
5. Pratyahara is purely a psychological
technique. It is the withdrawal of mind from
all senses. It is a very advanced method
and requires daily practice. By this, there
comes the determination of withdrawal of
senses from outer and inner
stimuli. It is useful in
psychotherapy for breaking the
learned and conditioned
responses.
6. Dharana, 7. Dhyana and
8. Samadhi : Dharana means
steadiness of mind, which
comes after the state of
mastery over the senses.
Pratyahara facilitates pushing
aside all sorts of distractions.
In this stage the practitioner
keeps his mind empty but
steady for longer and longer
duration and continues to
practice concentrating on any one point.
The next stage is Dhyana (Meditation). It
is the unity of mind with some object.
When the awareness of oneness is carried
to the extent of even forgetting this act of
becoming one with the thing thought of,
it is called the state of Samadhi.
The stages and processes of Pratyahara,
Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi are
160
inseparable and may be considered as gradual
stages of meditation. Under the broad
umbrella of the eight-fold path of yoga, various
practitioners, and researchers have developed
miniature and selective techniques to address
specific psychological symptoms and
disorders. Vipasana, Sudarshana Kriya and
Transcendental Meditation are some of
the techniques.
Meditation
Meditation involves a group of techniques,
which have in common a conscious attempt
to focus attention in a non-analytical way and
attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating
thought. There are three major categories of
focusing attention in meditation: (i) a focus
on the field (mindfulness meditation), (ii) a
focus on specific object within the field
(concentrative meditation), and (iii) a
contemplative meditation. Thus, vipasana
requires one to merely notice and label the
thought (thinking) and then to merely notice,
observe with equanimity, and, when weary
of watching, let go. Contemplative meditation
involves opening and surrendering to a larger
self (e.g., God, benevolent other, guru).
Contemplative meditation presupposes skills
in concentrative and mindfulness meditation.
They involve three process levels: focussing,
opening up, and asking, respectively.
It may be noted that meditation
emphasises the development of greater
understanding through the systematic
cultivation of inquiry and insight. It is a way
of being that needs to be cultivated.
Meditation leads us to wake up to our true
nature and offers a road map to reach optimal
openness, awareness, and insight.
There is growing evidence that
meditation enhances physiological and
psychological well-being. The specific
results include physiological rest, increased
happiness, sense of coherence, stress
hardiness, empathy, and self-actualisation.
It has been found effective in problems of
anxiety, alcoholism, insomnia, and
borderline hypertension. The studies,
however, have certain methodological
limitations. It may provide a comprehensive
and integrative approach to healing.
Introduction to Psychology
ACTIVITY 7.2
Therapies Suitable for Various Kinds
of Problems
You have just read different kinds of
therapies used for psychological disorders.
Now certain disordered behaviours are listed
below. Your task is to identify and indicate
which therapy or technique will be suitable
for the treatment of these disorders.
l Your sister is afraid of lizard.
l Ramu Kakka, the peon in your school is
depressed since several months.
l Rashmi always avoids speaking in the
class.
l Ranjan wants to please everybody but
nobody takes him seriously. Therefore,
he feels let-down.
l Ramesh is a good student but lacks
concentration.
l Raghwan’s thinking appears to be
confused.
l Surendra has lot of potentials, but is shy
to put them in practice.
Discuss your answers with your teacher.
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. Practice of different asanas can activate
certain physiological systems of body.
T/F
2. Yoga means asana. T/F
3. There are six aspects of yoga. T/F
4. Yoga involves meditation. T/F
5. Pratyahara refers to attachment of
sense organs to object. T/F
6. Behavioural observances are called
niyama. T/F
7. Pranayama involves regulation of
breath. T/F
Recapitulation
Indigenous thought in India provides detailed
accounts of healing processes that are useful
in therapy. Two of them that have received
attention from modern researchers are yoga
and meditation. Yoga focuses on retraining
or educating the mental processes. The yogic
system of Patanjali delineates eight
components of yoga i.e., Yama, Niyama,
Asana, Pranayama, Prayahara, Dharana,
Therapeutic Approaches
Dhyana, and Samadhi. Taken together, this
system provides a way of life that enhances a
sense of well being in people. Meditation has
been used in recent years to help people attain
health and cure diseases. There are many types
of meditation and different kinds of claims.
Practicing meditation has been found useful
in many kinds of health-related problems.
REHABILITATION OF THE MENTALLY ILL
The purpose of rehabilitation is to help
psychologically disturbed people to achieve a
high level of adjustment as far as possible on
their return to the community following the
treatment. The success of rehabilitation
depends upon the residual capacity as well
as the degree of disability of the patient
released from the hospital and the
BOX 7.4 REIKI AND PRANIC HEALING
Reiki is a Japanese word. It refers to a simple
hands-on-healing technique, a kind of energy
medicine. It is an interesting development in the
context of healing. Universal life force or energy
calms the mind and body. The energy is passed
through the hands laid on the body in certain
positions. This accelerates the healing process.
Reiki is the fundamental nature of the existence,
as energy is the fundamental nature of the
universe. Our thoughts and emotions are all
composed of energy at various frequencies. By
getting the body and mind in touch with
universal energy, Reiki can release the
individual from bondage and allow him to
experience health and freedom.
Reiki raises the life energy in the body.
According to it, the body is actually energy
vibrating at a certain frequency. Negative
thoughts are experienced as uncomfortable
vibrations. Such thoughts may turn into
headaches, ulcers, or anger (blockages) Reiki
exposes those thoughts to the much higher
vibratory frequency of universal life force energy,
which can then penetrate and dissolve any block.
Pranic healing : It is not intended to supplant
orthodox medical treatment, but rather to
complement orthodox treatment. Pranic Healing
is the transfer of subtle energy from one person
to another. It deals with physical, mental,
161
environment, in which the discharged patient
will reside. The task of readjusting back into
the community, following release from a
hospital may be very difficult. Currently,
“After Care Programmes” are found to be
effective in ensuring a somewhat smooth
transition from the hospital to community life.
They are markedly reducing the number of
relapses. “After Care” is the responsibility of
the community as a whole. Some of these
programmes are described below.
Ex-patient Clubs : The primary objective of
such clubs is to redevelop social skills in
individuals. They provide a permissive,
informal atmosphere in which socialisation
is encouraged through organised group
activities and individual relationships.
Ex-patients engage in a variety of recreational
activities such as drama, sports, and outings,
emotional and spiritual disorders without the use
of touch or drugs. According to the precepts of
pranic healing body is actually composed of two
parts : The visible physical body, and the invisible
energy body called the bioplasmic body or aura.
The visible physical body is that part of the
human body that we see, touch, and are most
acquainted with. Our aura is that invisible
luminous energy body, which interpenetrates the
visible physical body and extends beyond it.
Pranic Healing is an ancient science and an
art of healing that utilised prana (or chilqilki) or
life energy and the charkas or energy centres to
heal diseased energy levels. There are three
primary sources of prana : solar prana, air prana,
and ground prana. Solar prana is prana from
sunlight. It invigorates the whole body and
promotes good health. Prana contained in the
air is called air prana is absorbed by the lungs
through breathing and is also absorbed directly
by the energy centres of the bioplasmic body.
These energy centres are called charkas. Prana
contained in the ground is called ground prana.
This is absorbed through the soles of the feet.
This is done automatically and unconsciously.
Walking barefoot increases the amount of
ground prana absorbed by the body. Pranic
healing requires much practice and time to
achieve a certain degree of proficiency.
162
BOX 7.5 LIMITATIONS OF THERAPIES
To evaluate the success of psychotherapy is
difficult. However, the general conclusion of
various researchers has shown that various
treatment approaches are effective to varying
degrees. Does psychotherapy encourage
conformity to the status quo? Whether it should
do this? This is a difficult question, which
involves moral and social issues, and there is
no definite answer to it. Which type of therapy
is more effective with which type of patient and
which type of problem is again a difficult
question. Experience reveals that various
therapies have their own limitations, so is the
case with patients and their problems.
Psychodynamic therapy is usually effective with
reflective persons, but it has a limited value with
others. It also demands much time, money, and
efforts on the part of individuals receiving it.
which enhance their sense of belonging and
decrease their feelings of alienation. Similar
clubs have been formed for ex-alcoholics,
drug addicts, and other groups attempting
to make an adjustment in the community
after hospitalisation.
Partial Hospitalisation : Day Hospitals, Night
Hospitals, and Weekend Hospitals may serve
as “after care facilities” during the transitional
period following hospital discharge, or as an
alternative to hospitalisation. Partial
hospitalisation facilitates transition from
hospital to community. It also helps to prevent
a relapse, and provide space and time to family
and community to reintegrate the person who
was psychologically troubled. In this way,
valuable mental health resources are saved.
Halfway Houses : These are living facilities for
recently released patients who are not yet
prepared enough to live a full family life. These
houses are partially run by the inmates
themselves who are attempting to make
adjustment in the community after discharging
from hospital. Mental health professionals
generally work as facilitators in half way home.
Occupational Therapy : Like normal people,
the psychologically disturbed people also
become restless when they have too much
Introduction to Psychology
Behaviour therapy is most effective with children
and problems of habit disorders. However, it is
simple and economical. It is also mechanical and
somewhat reductionist. Cognitive therapy has
proved its efficacy in the treatment of depression
and anxiety disorders. Humanistic therapies are
valuable for persons having potentials but who
experience themselves blocked by existential
problems. Rehabilitation approaches have proved
valuable in integrating mentally ill persons with
the society. Yoga and encounter groups are
growth-oriented approaches and help in self-
actualisation efforts. Thus, each approach of
therapy has some limitations and some
advantages. Ultimately it is the discretion of
the therapist and the client to choose the best
available approach or to work with a
combination of more than one.
free time on their hands. Work has a curative
effect upon them too. Initially, activities or
work used to be assigned to the withdrawn
patients in an attempt to involve them, but
today occupational therapy has become a
regular treatment of several psychologically
disturbed persons. In planning occupational
therapy an attempt must be made to fit tasks
to the needs of every individual patient. It is
possible to learn how a patient feels about
himself and others through the medium of
occupational therapy. In the later phase,
occupational therapy imparts vocational
and interpersonal skills required to
carryout an earning for living. It enables a
person to be economically self-sufficient,
self-confident and earn him or her self-
respect. It gi ves him/her a feeling of
worthiness and fulfilment.
Here, it is also important to mention the
concept of sheltered workshops, which serve
multiple functions. For patients with skill,
they serve as “way stations” and open the door
for regular employment. For others, they
provide opportunities to develop new skills
and appropriate work habits. For patients
having major residual defects, they may
provide a permanent refuge.
Therapeutic Approaches 163

Recapitulation LEARNING CHECKS VI

Rehabilitation tries to facilitate the process
of achieving a higher level of adjustment by a
patient after the formal termination of
treatment. In other words, it involves after
care. The success of rehabilitation depends
upon the capacity of the patient, the level
of dysfunction, and the support facilities
available in his or her environment. In
recent years, a variety of such programmes
have been initiated. They include ex-patient
clubs, partial hospitalisation, half way
homes, occupational therapy, and
rehabilitation centres. All of them are not
available in every community, nor do they
have an equal degree of success in the
rehabilitation of patients. The effectiveness
of these methods depends on the patient’s
characteristics and that of the environment.
Name the applicable therapy, technique, or
term with which following statements are
associated :
1. One cannot be both relaxed and anxious
at the same time.
2. Climate in which client can feel
unconditionally accepted.
3. Prisoners who gave ‘meaning’ to their
lives survived anyhow.
4. Groups which strive to increase man’s
positive potentials.
5. Therapy which tries to change
expectations like ‘I should be loved by
everyone’.
6. Technique, which tries the volitional
withdrawal of senses from outer and
inner stimuli.
7. Facilities for recently released patients
who are not yet ready to live a full family
life.

Key Terms

Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Arbitrary Inference, Group Therapy, Implosive Therapy, Meditation,
Aversion Therapy, Avoidance Behaviour, Modelling, Mood Disorder, Rational-Emotive
Behavioural Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, Therapy, Relaxation Training, Role Play,
Depression, Free Association, Gestalt Therapy, Systematic Desensitisation, Token Economy.

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1.F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T.
II : 1. Psychotherapy, 2. Therapeutic alliance 3. Therapeutic contract, 4. Resistance,
5. Dreams, 6. Follow-up.
III : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. F, 7. T.
IV : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F.
V : 1.T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. F 6. T 7. T.
VI : 1. Systematic Desensitisation, 2. Client centred Therapy, 3. Logo Therapy,
4. Encounter Groups, 5. Cognitive Therapy, 6. Pratyahara, 7. Halfway houses.
164 Introduction to Psychology

SUMMARY

l Therapy involves a professional relationship between a trained professional and a

patient suffering from psychological difficulties/distress.
l For the sake of clarification/explanation, the therapeutic process can be divided into
three phases – the initial phase, the phase of actual therapy and the termination
phase.
l Bio-medical therapies provide physiological interventions for the treatment of
psychological disorder. Some of the therapies used are Insulin Coma therapy, Electro
convulsive therapy (ECT), Drug therapies, and Psycho-Surgery.
l Psycho dynamic therapies assume that the genesis of psychological problems lie in
childhood experiences and unresolved conflicts. Free-association, analysis of dreams,
analysis of resistance and transference analysis are some techniques used by
psychoanalysts.
l Behaviour therapies are based on principles of learning. The techniques used in
behaviour modification are – Systematic Desensitisation, Implosive Therapy and
flooding, Aversion Therapy, Assertive Therapy and Token Economy and Modelling.
l Cognitive therapies try to alter the cognitive processes and structures at a realistic
level. Beck’s Cognitive Therapy, and Ellis Rational-Emotive Therapy are examples of
Cognitive Therapy.
l Indigenous therapies such as Yoga and Meditation provide a way of life to help people
attain health and cure diseases.
l Rehabilitation involves ‘after-care’. It facilitates a higher level of adjustment after the
formal termination of the treatment.

Review Questions

1. What are the common features in all psychotherapeutic approaches?

2. Which are the different types of psychological disorders for which drug treatment has
been used?
3. What are the four techniques through which unconscious materials are brought to
the level of consciousness?
4. What are the steps involved in Systematic Desensitisation Technique?
5. What is the focus in Cognitive Therapy?
6. Name the aspects of Yoga Approach.
7. Name the facilities used for the rehabilitation of patients released from hospitals?
Environment and Behaviour 165

8 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOUR

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä Introduction to the study of environmental
psychology
Ä Perspectives on human-environment
relationship
Ä Nature and effects of environmental
stresses
Ä Ways of promoting pro-environmental
behaviours
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä understand the scope of environmental
psychology,
Ä appreciate the modes of human-
environment relationship,
Ä explain the nature of environmental
stresses and their consequences, and
Ä understand how pro-environmental
behaviours can be encouraged.
Introduction
Man-Environment Relationship
The Forest is Father and Mother (Box 8.1)
Environmental Stresses and their Effects
Personal Space and Territoriality (Box 8.2)
Environmental Effects on Human
Behaviour
Air Pollution
Noise Pollution
Crowding
Natural and Man-made Disasters
Tragedy of Commons (Box 8.3)
Nuclear Energy and Waste (Box 8.4)
Impact of Human Behaviour on
Environment
Recycling and Energy Conservation (Box 8.5)
Green House Effect and Nuclear Threat
(Box 8.6)
Promoting Pro-environmental
Behaviours

Key terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
166 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

We live in a world surrounded by physical objects and socio-cultural settings.

Social interactions depend not only on the people, but also on the environments
in which they occur. The environment in which we live and work affect our
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. The relationship of man and environment,
however, is bi-directional. That is, human beings are affected by the
environment and human beings affect the environment. In today’s
environment, many things are happening which are creating problems not
only for today but for the future also.
The physical environment has aspects of natural environment such as
landscape, wilderness, and other geographic features. In addition, there is built
or man-made environment of cities, homes, markets, offices, rail, road, etc. The
social and cultural environment refers to all aspects of culture such as socialisation
processes, norms, customs and values, etc. The physical environment influences
our behaviour in many ways. You must have observed that people become more
irritable and aggressive when the weather is hot and humid in comparison to
cold weather. The cases of “road rage” (you must have read in the newspapers)
increase during the hot summer days. Some negative reactions to heat involve
more harmful interpersonal behaviour. For example, it has been found that higher
the temperature, the greater the mean number of batsman hit by a ball,
representing aggressive behaviour of players. Temperature level has also been
linked to more serious interpersonal aggression like murder and rape.
Environmental pollution (air, water, noise, crowding, etc.), which is partly an
outcome of human behaviours adversely affects our performance. We have to
draw extra physical and mental resources to work under noisy conditions. In
such environments, we tend to get irritated, fatigued, and our reactions become
abnormal. Similarly, interacting with people and working under crowded
conditions adversely affect our performance. All this indicates that some
environments are more nourishing for us than others. Therefore, we have to
make efforts to maintain the quality of environment that is supportive and
constructive. This chapter will help you to understand the nature of human-
environment relationship, effects of environmental stresses, some critical
environmental problems faced today, and the strategies to protect and maintain
the environment.
Environment and Behaviour
Man-Environment Relationship
We have just noted that physical environment
directly or indirectly influences our behaviour.
Our interest in such environmental variables
has led to the development of a field known
as Environmental Psychology. This field of
psychology is dedicated to the study of
reciprocal relationships between
psychological processes and physical
environments, both natural and man-made.
Reciprocal or transactional relationship deals
with the two-way process in which
environment influences human behaviour
and human beings affect environment. When
we talk about the physical world, it includes
both physical reality and social-cultural
phenomena which surround us. The ambient
noise in our physical surroundings, the
temperature, the quality of air and water, and
the nutritional value of food we eat and such
other objects and things all these constitute
the physical world around us. The social
environment around us includes the verbal
stimulation received from parents, beliefs,
and attitudes of peers, various social
challenges, etc. The cultural environment
includes all the material and the non-material
man made environment like poetry, work of
art, important structures like Taj Mahal, etc.
The psychological processes include thinking,
perceiving, learning, feeling, etc. Behaviour (or
people’s actions) is a broad term that is a
function of our thoughts, feelings, perceptions,
attitudes, and other psychological processes.
Since environment is a theme relevant to many
others disciplines such as geography,
architecture, urban planning, etc., the field is,
thus, multidisciplinary in the true sense.
Understanding of environment-
behaviour relationship involves several
concepts as given in Fig. 8.1. In the central
part of this figure, we have five major
components as described below :
1. Physical Environment : It includes
aspects of natural environment such as
climate, terrain, temperature, rainfall,
flora, and fauna.
2. Social-Cultural Environment : It refers
to all aspects of culture such as norms,
customs, processes of socialisation, etc.
167
3. Environmental Orientations : It refers
to the beliefs that people hold about their
environment.
4. Environmental Behaviour : It includes
the use of environment by people in the
course of social interactions (e.g., personal
space).
5. Products of Behaviour : These include
the outcomes of people’s actions such as
homes, cities, dams, climate change, etc.
Fig. 8.1. Aspects of human-environment interface
All the said five aspects of the environment
interact and determine the following crucial
psychosocial and environmental outcomes,
which constitute the field of environmental
psychology.
1. Worldviews about human-environment
relationship.
2. Cognitions and perceptions about
environments.
3. Experiences of privacy, personal space,
territory, crowding, and environmental
stresses.
We shall be discussing some of these
aspects in subsequent sections of this
chapter. Before we do that, it is important
to understand the different views in which
human-environment relationship has been
conceptualised in various cultures. In this
context, we notice that there are three
major views :
1. Human beings are subjugated to nature
and are controlled by the environmental
forces. Nature is viewed as threatening.
2. Human beings are an inherent part of
nature and the two constitute the whole.
They are in harmonious relationship.
3. Human beings are over and above nature
and control the environment.
168
In the Indian tradition human-
environment relationship has been of
symbiotic type in which humans are part
of the total existence. Its main features are
as follows :
l Humans are not considered superior to
nature and do not have right to exploit
the nature.
l The emphasis is on relationship and
totality of existence.
l Concern for everything in the universe is
perceptible in the Indian thought.
l There is considerable emphasis on
correspondence between macrocosm and
microcosm.
l A basic sharing of all the life forms and
their interconnectedness is recognised.
l Human life is enveloped by a dynamic
cosmic order.
l It presents an integral view of man,
nature, and the universe.
l Humans and the rest of creation are
partners.
Kurt Lewin differentiated between
psychological environment and physical
environme nt. He has introduced the
concept of life space to explain the nature
of relation between person and
environment. According to Lewin, life space
is the whole psychological reality that
determines the behaviour of an individual
(B). Life Space (L) includes everything
present in the environ ment (E) that
influences an individual’s behaviour. This
environment (E) contains everything
outside the person (P), including physical,
psychological and social aspects. Lewin calls
“the person (P) in the environment (E)” as life
space (See Figure 8.2).
BOX 8.1 THE FOREST IS FATHER AND MOTHER
Worldviews vary across cultures. The Pygmies
of Zaire, Africa live in a highly vegetated,
dense forest. They view themselves as an
intrinsic part of it. They see the forest as a
living thing with which they interact on a
personal basis. A pygmy observes : “The forest
is father and mother to us, and like a father
and mother it provides everything we need:
food, clothing, shelters, warmth, and
Introduction to Psychology
Mathematically, life space can be
described as : B = f (L) = f (P.E)
Fig. 8.2 Life Space
The physical environment that does not
directly influence behaviour is called “foreign
hull”. However, this foreign hull can influence
the psychological reality of a person. For
example, if a person is not aware of the
weather of his neighbouring countries, then
it is not part of his psychological reality.
Therefore, it is not part of his life space. As
such it will constitute foreign hull. But it is
quite possible that the weather of this
neighbouring country may influence that of
his own country which, in turn, my affect his
behaviour.
Bronfenbrenner has a different view of the
environment. He proposed hierarchy of
environments and describes it in terms of five
systems that are organized in a nested
manner (See Fig. 8.3.)
(i) Microsystem : is the setting in which the
individual lives. These contexts includes
the person’s family, peers, school and
neighbourhood. In this system most direct
interactions with social agents – parents,
peers and teachers, for example.
affection——. The forest is good to its
children.” When something goes wrong, the
Pygmies think that the forest must have been
sleeping and was unable to take care of its
children. The Pygmies then go to the forest,
wake it up by singing to it. They want to
awaken the forest happy. “Then everything
will be well and good again.” Interestingly,
Indian thinking also shares similar views.
Environment and Behaviour
(ii) Mesosystem : It is the region in which
various Microsystems are related. For
example family experience of child may
affect his interaction with peers or
teachers. Children from broken family
may face difficulty in his adjustment
with peers.
(iii) Exosystem : It is involved when a person’s
experience in an close context is affected
by his experience in some other not so
close setting. For example, a person’s
experience at work place affects his
interaction with his children.
(iv) Macrosystem : It is the culture in which
the person lives. Culture refers to beliefs
system, values myths etc that are shared
by majority of the common people.
(v) Chronosystem : It involves the behaviour
patterns that respond to the change in life
course, socio historical context. For
example, individual in the young age is
active and optimistic and as they age they
become less active and less optimistic.
From the above analyses it may be
concluded that the environment has three
major components, i.e., physical, social, and
cultural, and all these components influence
and affect human behaviour. The
environment surrounds us and its impact is
simultaneously felt on all the sense organs.
The present crisis of deforestation, floods,
green house effect, and nuclear waste are
some of the serious problems human beings
have created by abusing the environment.
Thus, to have a healthy and fulfilling life we
have to learn to conserve the environment and
Fig. 8.3 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
169
protect the scarce natural resources like
water, which are essential for our life.
Recapitulation
We live in a world surrounded by physical
objects and well defined social and cultural
settings, all these influence our behaviour.
Environmental Psychology is the study of
reciprocal relationships between
psychological processes and physical
environment, both natural and man-made.
Human beings affect the environment and
environment influences human behaviour.
The term environment has been used to
include the physical world and socio-cultural
set-up in which we live and interact. The views
of Lewin and Bronfenbrenner concerning
environment have been presented.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. We live in a world surrounded by
physical objects and well defined
and settings.
2. Environmental Psychology is the study
of relationship
between psychological process and
physical environment.
3. environment includes
aspects as terrain, temperature, rainfall,
etc.
4. environment includes
aspects as norms, customs, processes
of socialisation etc.
5. According to Lewin Life Space (L) is
equal to + .
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES THEIR EFFECTS
We have discussed earlier that the
environment influences human behaviour
and human actions affect the environment.
Environmental stresses demonstrate this
reciprocal relationship (Refer to Chapter 5).
We will discuss the environmental stresses
and their effects under two separate heads,
i.e., (i) Environmental effects on human
behaviour, and (ii) The impact of human
behaviour on the environment. These two,
however, are interrelated.
170
BOX 8.2 PERSONAL SPACE AND TERRITORIALITY
Personal space refers to the “invisible
boundary” or personal area around us that we
try to keep from being invaded by others.
Intrusion into it often produces discomfort or
tension. In other words, in our social interaction
we always keep a physical distance with others.
This space is very personal, and if invaded we
feel uncomfortable and threatened. Studies
indicate, on the average, for strangers, our
personal space is roughly 2 feet around us. If a
stranger comes closer, we feel uncomfortable and
we move away to maintain this personal space.
However, the personal space can approach zero
for someone we truly love. This indicates that
the personal space will vary according to the
closeness to the other person with whom we
are interacting.
Males generally have been found to have a
larger personal space than females. Further,
wide cultural differences exist in the way people
maintain the personal space. For example, in
many Middle Eastern countries, people stand
very close together in conversation. The northern
Europeans, on the other hand seem to maintain
more physical distance. Germans are more
sensitive to spatial intrusion than Americans are,
and both Germans and English are rather
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
The environment has both nourishing as well
as destructive effects on human life.
Throughout human history, people have
been threatened by floods, earthquakes, and
other natural disasters. In recent times,
technological advances have brought us new
potential threats from the environment, which
are man-made. Since environmental threats
are physically harmful and stressful, people
must find ways to cope with these stressors.
The environmental stressors are many. Here,
we shall focus on four: Air pollution; Noise
pollution; Crowding; and Natural and man-
made disasters.
Air Pollution: Rapid modernisation and
industrialisation have led to the degradation
of quality of air, so vital for the human, animal,
and plant life. Due to auto and industrial
emissions large quantity of harmful and toxic
Introduction to Psychology
“private” people. Within culture, variations are
found with age, sex, and social class.
Territoriality refers to one’s attachment to
a fixed area designated as one’s own and the
tendency to defend it against intruders. It
involves ownership and control of environmental
areas and objects. All animals have a sense of
territoriality, attachment to a fixed area set aside
for their use. Animals will attack anyone who
comes within that space. Human beings may not
attack in the same manner as animals do, but
we are also territorial. For example, we would
not like a stranger to walk into our home without
seeking permission. Territoriality is a boundary
regulation process. People use different markers
and signalling devices to designate the territory,
e.g., walls, entranceways, hedges, fences, etc.
Territories can be grouped into three types:
primary, secondary, and public. The primary
territories are owned and exclusively used by
individuals or groups. They are clearly identified
as theirs (e.g., tent, hut, bed). Secondary territories
are less central and exclusive. The occupants do
not have total control over them. Public territories
have a temporary quality and anyone has access
and occupancy rights as long as certain rules
are observed (e.g., park, cinema hall).
gases like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
sulphur dioxide, etc., are being mixed with
the air that we breathe. Carbon monoxide
prevents the brain, heart, and other organs
in the body to absorb enough quantity of
oxygen from the air. This can lead to serious
health problems. Scientists believe that about
50 to 90 percent occurrence of cancer in some
way or the other are related to pollution. Air
pollution leads to reduced visibility, eye
irritation, headache, fatigue, insomnia, and
various respiratory and related diseases. It
has also been found that all types of
psychological problems are on the increase
during periods of high levels of air pollution.
There are more emergency visits to specialists
for depression during cloudy and humid days.
Though, worldwide concern about air
quality was expressed at the Rio Conference
on the global environment in 1992, pollution
still poses a serious problem all over the
world. Data released by the Environmental
Environment and Behaviour 171

Protection Agency and by the increase in the level of noise

Harvard School of Public pollution. Noise is defined as
Health indicate that 50,000 to unwanted sound or sounds that
60,000 deaths are caused each create a negative effect on
year in the United States by human beings. Thus, any
particulate matter (e.g. sound, which an individual finds
emission from diesel engines) unpleasant, is considered noise;
in the air we breathe. The even music could be noise for
victims are primarily children some people.
with respiratory diseases. In Sound pollution leads to
India, also the incidence of adverse physiological and
such diseases is very high and psychological effects. It may
the worst sufferers are children lead to high level of arousal,
and elderly people. Most of the stress, narrowing of attention,
Fig. 8.4 Air Pollution
particulate matter is released reduction in reading
into the air by industrial plants and the comprehension, and performance
exhausts of vehicles powered by diesel decrement in general. The aversiveness of
engines. Recently, in Delhi, the diesel, noise largely depends on its intensity
powered buses have been replaced by CNG (loudness), predictability, and perceived
(Compressed Natural Gas) and this has led control. Those, who live in surroundings
to a reduction of pollution level by about 15 with high level of noise, have to utilise
percent. The quality of diesel is also being physical and psychological resources in
improved to reduce the harmful effects of access, get fatigued early because of extra
diesel engine exhausts. energy loss in the process.
In addition to particulate matter and Loudness is one major reason that a
poisonous gases, odour is given sound is evaluated
also involved in our as unpleasant. Unpredi-
response to impure air. In ctability is the other major
general, bad odours evoke reason for a negative
negative feelings. In response to sound. We can
contrast, air that has adapt more easily to a
pleasant odorous smell has regular, predictable
the opposite effect, leads to sound, such as chirping of
positive emotions and birds in the morning. The
friendly behaviour. negative effects of noise
People who are exposed Fig. 8.5 Noise, when exceeds are reduced when
to pollution on a regular certain limit, may lead to various individuals perceive that
basis learn to accept physiological disturbances in they have control over it.
polluted air as normal. For human body In one study, it was found
example, newcomers to a that when participants
heavily polluted city like Delhi or Kolkata were told that they can press a switch and
complain about the poor quality of the air, turn off the noise, they performed better and
but after living for some time they get felt less upset – even though most of them
used to it. After some time they do not did not actually press the switch (to turn off
consider it an important issue and this the noise). It has been found that daily
tendency is dangerous. The polluted air exposure to sounds of a busy airport causes
not only has harmful effects on physical adults to have memory loss, hearing loss,
and mental health, it also affects human hypertension, and higher incidence of
behaviour negatively. fatal strokes.
Noise Pollution : Industrial and technological Crowding : Crowding occurs when a large
advancements have led to considerable number of people live in a limited space. Early
172
Table 8.1 Effects of Noise at different Levels
Cause of Noise Loudness in dB
Jet aircraft take off 130
Textile-weaving plant 100
Food blender 95
City traffic 90
Train (100 ft. away) 80
Noisy restaurant 70
Normal Speech 60
Normal noise at home 40
Soft whisper 30
Breathing 0
studies on crowding on animals showed high
incidence of illness and pathology. Studies
with human beings indicate that density not
only affects individual behaviour it also affects
the quality of social behaviour. For example,
physical presence of a large number of people
in a defined physical space can influence
interpersonal relations, aggressive acts,
BOX 8.3 TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS
In an obscure pamphlet published in 1833 by
an amateur mathematician named. William
Foster Lloyd discussed the following scenario.
Imagine a small town with a town commons,
an area of pasture on which all of the town
people’s cattle are allowed to graze. For centuries,
the town people have been grazing their cattle
on the commons without problem. Imagine that
one-day there is a great medical discovery, and
a disease that had been killing many of the cattle
is cured.
The immediate effect of discovery is
wonderful for the town. First the cattle owners
and later the town prospered. However, there is
a second effect of the new medical treatment.
That is, not so wonderful. The townspeople had
not realised that commons had been able to
support their herds because the number of cattle
had been held in check by the disease. Once
the cure for the disease was available, the
restraint on the number of cattle was lifted, and
the number of cattle overgrew.
Introduction to Psychology
Effect of Noise
Brief exposure can result in permanent
deafness.
Blood pressure increases.
Cognitive performance is reduced.
Legal acceptable noise limit for 8 hrs day.
Reaction time affected.
Telephone use is difficult.
helping behaviour, (reduced), withdrawal
symptoms, etc.
Crowding is more of a problem at the
subjective level (perception of crampedness).
In fact, many researchers are of the opinion
that the term “crowding” should be used for
the subjective feelings of crampedness. For
some, physical density (large number of
In such a situation, what will be the reaction
of the people using the commons; will people stop
adding cattle before the commons was killed off?
It is possible that people may not. If someone
decides to add an animal to his herd, there could
be two effects to this situation: (1) he will achieve
a profit equal to the value of an animal, and (2)
he will suffer a loss caused by the declining
ability of the commons to support cattle.
Every herdsman will realize that by adding
an animal to his herd he will increase his wealth
substantially while decreasing the total wealth
of the community a bit. So the outcome is: “Ruin
is the destination towards which all men rush;
each pursuing his own best interest in a society
that believes in the freedom of the commons.
Freedom in commons brings ruin to all.”
The tragedy of commons is relevant to the
difficult problems we are facing in the world today,
i.e., overpopulation and pollution. The tragedy of
the commons is the generalized case of a situation
of mixed motives, one in which it is to a person’s
advantage both to cooperate and to compete.
Environment and Behaviour
people in a defined space) may not create the
perception of crowding. It is, therefore,
necessary to use two different terms for the
condition where large number of people are
present, that is, density and crowding.
Density is the actual number of people per
square foot, while crowding is the subjective
feeling of being too close to each other. Density
at a rock concert may be very high but
crowding may be low.
A large number of studies carried out in
India and abroad reveal that crowding has
negative effect on task performance,
personality, interpersonal relationships,
general physical and mental health, etc. The
experience of crowding and its behavioural
effects is mediated by the availability of social
support and perception of control. Goal
blockage, interference, and mental and
physical discomfort are common when people
experience crowding. The ill effects of
population density are different across
cultures. In India the relationships are
respected and valued, families are generally
large and extended, under such a situation
self is not given importance over others, the
experience and consequences of crowding are,
therefore, expected to be different in
BOX 8.4 NUCLEAR ENERGY AND WASTE
Since 1970s, there have been vehement public
opposition to various new technologies with
possible adverse consequences on public health
and environment. Most prominent among these
has been nuclear energy. The other aspect of
serious concern of nuclear energy production is
the disposal of toxic waste.
Public has been opposing construction of
nuclear and other hazardous facilities. For their
inherent risks, public concern has not been
without any foundation. For example, there had
been serious accidents at the nuclear facilities,
such as those at Three Mile Island (1979) in
U.S.A and Chernobyl (1986) in erstwhile USSR.
The accident of Three Mile Island (TMI)
resulted in the release of radioactive material.
The nearby populations experienced
psychological and emotional damages. Large
number of people around the TMI experienced
considerable stress due to perceived
psychological and physical threat.
173
comparison to the experience of people in the
Western Culture.
The population explosion and migration
of large rural population to big cities are
causing increased degree of stress due to
crowding. In order to accommodate large
number of people, multi-storeyed housing
complexes are coming up, creating civic and
social problems of different kinds. One
important outcome of crowding is the loss of
personal life and increased social strifes.
Natural and Man-made Disasters: Natural
disasters include earthquake, volcanic
eruption, windstorm, tornado cyclone,
famine, flood, etc. The earthquakes at Latoor
and Bhuj (2001) and Super Cyclone in Orissa
(1999) not only caused extensive damage to
property and physical environment but also
had long-term effects on the lives of the
people. There are man-made disasters also.
The technological disasters such as Three
Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986), and
Bhopal MIC Disaster (1984), etc., have intense
and longterm adverse effects on the lives of
people. Both natural as well as man-made
disasters are catastrophic, which disrupt the
entire life system. In the Bhopal, disaster
more than 3000 people died and over
Another major disaster at nuclear facility
occurred at Chernobyl in 1986. Although, the
number of immediate fatalities were 31. However,
over the next 50 years there may be up to 28,000
delayed fatalities worldwide, about half of them
in the Ukraine and neighbouring states and half
in Europe.
These accidents provide stress related
reactions in the public in a number of countries.
For example, significant increase in number of
abortions, panic buying of tinned, frozen, and
other long-life food, buying of radiation
measuring equipments for personal use, uptake
of potassium iodine, etc.
Another problem of great public concern is
the management of nuclear waste from the
nuclear facilities like nuclear power house.
Radioactive waste management is a serious
challenge to the governments all over the world.
Nuclear and toxic waste disposal facilities remain
problem of major concern all over the world.
174
2,00,000 were physically affected. Thousands
of the gas victims are still suffering from
mental and physical health problems. Studies
indicate that the survivors of such disasters
suffer from anxiety, withdrawal symptoms
depression, stress, anger, and nightmares.
IMPACT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR ON
ENVIRONMENT
We defined environmental psychology in
terms of interaction between our behaviour
and our physical surroundings. It is a two-
way process, the environment affects our
behaviour, and our actions affect the
environment. In this section, we shall
consider how the human activities affect
the environment.
In fact, almost everything human beings
do has small but cumulative effect on the
environment in which we live. Whenever,
someone drives a car, uses hair spray, cooks
food, produces garbage, the environment is
affected. Anything that you do personally may
have very little immediate perceptible effect
on the quality of environment. However,
imagine that billions of people living on our
planet in some way or the other affect the
environment; the total effect will significantly
alter (pollute) the environment. This alteration
adversely influences the life of all of us. The
most serious long – term threat facing the
world is the danger that human actions are
producing irreversible and harmful changes
Fig. 8.5 Water Pollution
Introduction to Psychology
in the environment that supports and
sustains life on our planet.
Environment is a naturally given capital
having certain limits. Air, water, food, fuel,
etc. all are gifts of this environment to the
human kind. Its judicious use, and
conservation is necessary for the survival of
human beings and plant life on this earth.
Our actions, however, are usually contrary
to what is desired. Unmindful of the
consequences of our activities and actions,
we indulge in a behaviour that goes against
the environment and ultimately threaten our
own existence on the earth.
We are over using the natural resources
that we are not replenishing. For example,
we are using water and are unmindful of its
conservation. On our planet, there are now
at least eighty countries having serious water
shortages with a consequent threat to
the agriculture.
Perhaps, the most obvious by – product
of human activity is waste material we
produce, ranging from sewage to garbage. It
is a serious problem for municipalities,
corporations, and Governments to manage
the sewage and garbage. You are aware that
much of our sewage disposal is flushed
untreated into the rivers. This has created
severe problem of water pollution, which
makes our river water unfit for human
consumption. You must have read in the
newspapers about the threatening state of our
important rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, and
others. It is sad that most of these rivers are
now unfit for drawing water for
human consumption.
There are no easy solutions to the growing
problem of waste that we produce everyday.
Some waste is biodegradable, other is not
(e.g., plastic bags). Harvesting of rainwater is
helpful in augmenting ground water. The
rainwater that falls on the roof of our house
is sent into a deep pit in the ground that raises
the water table. Similarly, planting trees helps
in preventing soil erosion and protecting
environmental quality. Recycling the waste
is one promising approach – paper, glass,
plastic, and metal can be saved, recycled, and
reused. However, to recycle the waste we have
to persuade citizens to be aware and
concerned about this serious problem and do
Environment and Behaviour
BOX 8.5 RECYCLING AND ENERGY CONSERVATION
The threat to the humanity today is due to
human population growth, over consumption,
and lack of resource conservation. We are
producing irreversible and harmful changes to
the environment that supports our life system.
If this problem is not overcome early, there
may be no viable world for our descendants
to live. Enormous efforts and changes in our
lifestyles and cultural practices are required
to overcome this grim situation.
Recycling is being adopted as an easier way
of ensuring that large amounts of natural
resources are used again in productive ways
rather than being dumped in landfills, often
contributing to pollution problems. For
example, aluminium cans, used for soft drinks,
are melted down and reused in making
aluminium products. Similarly, glass, paper,
rags, metals, etc., are being recycled. Further,
water is becoming more and more scarce and
it is important to conserve it and recycle the
enormous amount of water that flows in our
sewage system. The city sewage is now being
treated and the harmless water after recycling
BOX 8.6 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND NUCLEAR THREAT
Human beings, for quite some time now, have
been indulging in anti-environmental behaviours
on a large scale. Because of this abuse of the
environment, like producing waste, burning of
fossil fuel (Petrol, diesel, etc.), deforestation,
burning of coal, forest fires, the use of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) for refrigeration,
aerosol cans, etc. global warming is gradually
taking place. The gradual increase in the
temperature of earth’s atmosphere and its oceans
brought about partly because of various human
activities has far reaching consequences on the
ecology and environment. Among the
consequences are increase in storms and other
weather extremes, melting of ice caps at the North
and South Poles that have resulted in raising
the sea levels. These effects have been observed
in several parts of the world. The oceans are
raising about one inch every five years. It has
been observed that three of the islands of the
Republic of Maldives are now under water.
The cause of this change in climate (global
warming) is known as the green house effect.
Greenhouse has a glass roof that lets in warming
175
is disposed off into the rivers.
Energy Conservation: One of the main sources
of Earth’s Environmental problems is over
consumption of natural resources, particularly
energy (e.g., petroleum products). The extreme
example is the United States. With only five p.c.
of earths’ population, the United States of
America uses 25 p.c. of the Earth’s commercial
energy and uses it only about half efficiently as
Japan.
The result of worldwide over consumption
of Earth’s resources is that traditional supplies
of many materials are being used up rapidly,
the key example is petroleum. It is estimated that
world oil production will begin to decline around
2010. Since much of the industrialized
world runs on oil, this situation will have
dramatic impact on many aspects of life. It is
extremely important for all the nations of the
world to use this and other energy resources very
carefully, curb over consumption, and develop
plans and strategies to conserve the
energy resource for future use and safety
of environment.
sunlight but prevents warm air from escaping.
In the same manner the three main gases
released into the atmosphere (carbon dioxide,
methane, and Nitrous oxide) trap the sun’s heat
that turn the earth into a vast “green house”.
The increase in the levels of these three gases
began about the middle of the 1800’s and it still
continues. If this continues, it is estimated that it
will result in an average warming of the earth’s
surface air temperature by about 3.5 degrees
Fahrenheit by the year 2100. Even an average
increase of 1 or 2 degrees can change regional
climates and disrupt agriculture worldwide. This
trend will cause extensive melting of polar
icecaps, resulting in raised ocean levels and
flooding of huge low-lying coastal areas in many
countries.
The global warming can be reversed if
human behaviour that brought about this problem
is changed. For example, the carbon dioxide
emissions are reduced, planting more trees, and
ban on the use of CFC, for refrigeration. The
ban on CFC use by fifty nations has brought
about some change in the ozone layer. However,
contd...
176
the extent of damage to the ozone layer has been
so much that it should return to its normal
thickness in fifty to one hundred years.
In a recent UN report, it has been reported
that South Asia (India included) is covered by a
three km-deep blanket of pollution, which is
their share – develop communications that
encourage people to help in the process of
recycling, develop attitudes about recycling
and promoting other pro-environmental
activities.
If this problem is not tackled, early, there
may be no viable world for our descendants
to inhabit. This threat is caused by human
population growth, over consumption, and
lack of resource conservation. Because, the
culprits are human beings, social scientists
have a vital role in helping our world to
present the ecological disaster.
Recapitulation
Environment affects human behaviour and the
human actions affect the environment, the two
are interrelated. Throughout human history
floods, earthquakes, and other natural
disasters have threatened our existence on
earth. Technological advances have brought us
new potential threats, which are man made.
Rapid modernisation and industrialisation
have led to the degradation of quality of air
which is so vital for the human, animal, and
plant life. Harmful and toxic gases like carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide
etc, produced by automobile and industrial
emissions, have led to serious physical and
mental health problems.
Industrial and technological
advancements have led to considerable
increase in the level of noise. Noise is any
unwanted sound or sounds that an individual
finds unpleasant. The aversiveness of noise
largely depends on its intensity, predictability,
and perceived control. Daily exposure to high
intensity sounds causes adults to have
memory loss, hearing loss, hypertension, and
higher incidence of fatal strokes.
Crowding is another problem that affects
the quality of life. It is subjective feeling of
crampedness resulting from the condition
Introduction to Psychology
responsible for changing weather patterns,
impacting crops, and killing lakhs of people by
respiratory diseases. It should be a very urgent
agenda for countries all over the world to get the
machinery working on checking automobile
emissions,and reduce energy use.
where large number of people are present. It
has been found that crowding has negative
effect on task performance, personality,
interpersonal relationships, and general
mental and physical health.
Natural disasters have long-term effect on
the lives of people, e.g. the earthquakes at
Latoor and Bhuj and super-cyclone in Orissa.
Man-made disasters, such as: three Mile
Island, Chernobyl, and Bhopal disaster, have
equally affected the environment and lives of
large number of people.
Environment is a naturally given capital
to us; we must preserve it, especially the
quality of air and water. Social scientists must
develop strategies to promote pro-
environmental behaviour.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. pollution causes
narrowing of attention.
2. is a non-
biodegradable substance.
3. Industrial plants release
matter into the air.
4. prevents the brain
and heart to absorb enough oxygen.
5. Environment affects and human
actions affect the .
PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOURS
It is important to realise that the
environmental problems are quite complex.
The problem is not solely technical in nature,
therefore, the help from disciplines like
engineering, physics, and chemistry will not
be sufficient to address the problem. Because,
the problem is man-made, social scientists
have to play a crucial role in modifying human
behaviour.
Environment and Behaviour
Since 1970s, social psychologists,
environmental psychologists, and sociologists
are trying to find ways to encourage pro-
environmental behaviour to save the
environment from further degradation.
Enormous changes in the lifestyles and
cultural practices are required to achieve this
goal. Some efforts are being made in this
direction. Efforts made in conserving energy,
recycling the waste (e.g., paper, plastic, meals,
etc.), reducing the use of detergents, and
avoiding littering are too meagre to have
significant impact on the environment. To
achieve the objective citizens need to perceive
the nature and extent of problem we are
facing now and change their attitude and
behaviour to make it pro-environmental.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Understanding The Environment
Make observation of the nature and state of
facilities for environmental management in
your neighbourhood about garbage disposal,
maintenance of park, cleanliness of roads,
harvesting of rain water and sewage system
and prepare a report.
Pro-environmental Behaviour
The most important concern for the
environmentalist is not only to stop the abuse
of the environment but also to reverse the
process. The indiscriminate use of CFC
(chlorofluorocarbons) for refrigeration has
gradually thinned down the ozone layer in the
atmosphere that protects us from the harmful
effects of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Because of loss of much of earth’s protective
ozone layer, human beings are increasingly
experiencing greater risk to skin cancer.
Through international cooperation, 50 nations
have discontinued the use of CFC. However,
the problem is so acute that it is estimated that
the ozone layer would take fifty to hundred
years return to its normal thickness.
There is no easy solution to the waxed
problem of environmental damage that has
already been done. It is possible to control
the situation if public cooperation is
forthcoming. The governmental efforts alone
will not be sufficient to tackle this serious
177
problem. It is important to make the public
aware about the seriousness of the problem.
In various studies in India and abroad, it has
been found that people are not even aware
about the intensity and extensity of the
problem. Therefore, the first step in the right
direction will be to start an awareness
programme. Later the values and attitudes
of the people have to be changed to make their
behaviour pro-environmental.
To promote pro-environmental behaviour
several motivational approaches can be
adopted to deal with different types of people.
Let us consider some possible motivational
approaches to deal with the problem situation.
Motivational Approaches for Promoting
Pro-Environmental Behaviour
1. Voluntary Simplicity : In India we have
the age-old saying, “If you want to be happy
in life reduce your needs”. This is the
essence of Aparigrah. This is what should
be voluntarily practiced by everybody. It is
a way of life that is outwardly simple and
uses minimum amount of natural
resources and technology. In global
perspective, it requires all nations to share
earth’s resources efficiently, peacefully, and
equitably. It is to live with balance – taking
or using no more than we require and at
the same time, giving fully of ourselves. The
environmental problems facing the world
demand that everyone must move in that
direction.
Modern way of living requires
advanced technology, which is heavy on
the natural resources. For example, using
shower for bathing requires large amount
of water and electricity in comparison to
the age-old way of using bucket. People
should be made aware about the problem
of resource deficit so that voluntary
simplicity is practiced by all.
2. Encouraging Concrete Actions : People
should be encouraged to reduce resource-
use by installing and using energy efficient
devices, recycled products etc. To reduce
air pollution car pools or mass transit
system should be used. However, it is not
enough to inform the people about the
availability of such products and services
and their usefulness but need to motivate
them to make appropriate behavioural
178
actions. Community participation in
programmes for reducing resource use,
efficient use of energy, recycled products,
etc., could be more effective than personal
approaches.
3. Providing Behavioural Norms : Agencies
responsible for enforcing environmental
standards (e.g., Government) should bring
out more specific environmental regulations
and norms to guide and enforce public
actions. Providing clear behavioural norms
and their strict adherence, sometimes with
punitive actions, are essential to motivate
people to act in right direction. For example,
in Delhi the vehicle owners are required to
get their vehicles checked for the pollution
level and display the “pollution check”
certificate. The quality of fuel is being
constantly improved (e.g., lead free fuel) and
the emission norms for the vehicle
manufacturer are being made more and
more stringent.
Though, open burning of waste and
dead leaves are prohibited, it is not being
strictly adhered to. Enforcing agencies
should be armed with necessary powers
to enforce the norms strictly. The
production and use of CFC is being
gradually phased out and it is being
enforced on a time-based schedule all over
the world. Gradually, we have to adopt
Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs) like electric
cars and vehicles powered by fuel cells.
4. Organised Group Activity: Another
important approach is to carefully use
group activity in monitoring and
controlling environmental concerns.
Organised activism is frequently necessary
to reduce and curb environmental damage
caused by government agencies (e.g.,
power houses, transport corporations,
waste management bodies, etc.), powerful
corporations, industries, etc. Such powerful
and influential organisations ignore the
individual protests and complaints and in
such situations, group activism works as a
very effective tool in curbing the menace.
Sometimes, Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
has proved very effective. For example, The
Supreme Court of India directed
Government agencies to strictly adhere to
fuel norms, emission norms, phasing out
of old and inefficient vehicles, compulsory
Introduction to Psychology
conversion to CNG of Commercial Vehicles,
etc. The Supreme Court of India has also
initiated action to cleanse the rivers in India.
Similarly, mass media are very important
in arousing concerns and promoting
necessary actions towards the creation of
healthy environment.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Experiencing Pro-Environment Action
Develop a plan for plantation of saplings in
your community.
Discuss and present the plan in the class
and seek support and help from other
students in the class to plant the samplings.
Recapitulation
To save the environment, it is imperative that
people perceive the gravity of the situation
and develop a pro-environmental attitude.
Because, the situation is man-made, social
scientists will have to work hard in devising
strategies in creating a pro-environment
attitude among the people. Some of the
motivational approaches have been discussed
to create a pro-environmental behaviour
among the people.
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. To effectively reverse the situation, it is
important that people the
gravity of the problem.
2. To promote pro-environmental
behaviour, social scientists have to
change the of the people.
3. The essence of Aparigrah is: “ If you want
to be happy in life reduce your .
4. To promote pro-environmental behaviour
social scientists have to develop
appropriate approaches.
Key Terms
Environment, Social Environment,
Cultural Environment, Personal space,
Territoriality, Physical Environment, Life
Space, Ecology, Crowding, Lifestyles,
Environmental psychology, Noise,
Ecological system, Global warming, Green
house effect.
Environment and Behaviour 179

SUMMARY

l Our behaviour is influenced by the physical objects and well-defined social and cultural
settings in which we live.
l Environmental Psychology is the study of reciprocal relationships between psychological
processes and physical environment, both natural and man-made.
l Human actions affect the environment and environment influences human behaviour.
l According to Lewin, behaviour (B) is a function of life space (L), which is composed of
person (P) and environment (E). The region outside the life space is called “ foreign
hull”.
l Bronfenbrenner proposed hierarchy of environments and describes environments in
terms of five systems: Microsystem; Mesosystem; Exosystem; Macrosystem; and
Chronosystem.
l Air pollution, Noise pollution, Crowding and natural and man-made disasters pose
serious threats to human life and existence.
l Human action affects the environment in which we live. The most serious long-term
threat to human existence is due to the misuse and abuse of natural resources like
water and air.
l Waste management ranging from sewage to garbage is a serious threat to human life
and a challenge to the civic authorities.
l To save the environment, first of all, people must perceive the gravity of the situation
that we are facing
l To solve the problem, effectively the social scientists should devise methods and
strategies of creating pro-environmental attitude among the people.
l Motivational approaches could be usefully employed in persuading the people for the
adoption of pro-environmental behaviour.

Review Questions

1. Discuss the nature and scope of environmental psychology.

2. How do human beings affect the environment?
3. What is environment and how does it influence human behaviour?
4. What is air pollution and how can it be controlled?
5. What is noise? How does noise affect human behaviour?
6. Is population density and crowding the same thing? What are the effects of crowding on
human behaviour?
7. What is waste management? Does it pose a serious threat to the health and life of human
beings?
8. What is pro-environmental behaviour and how can it be promoted?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. social, cultural 2. reciprocal
3. Physical 4. Social-cultural
5. P, E.
II : 1. noise 2. plastic 3. particulate
4. carbon monoxide 5. human
behaviour, environment
III : 1. perceive, 2. attitude, 3. needs,
4. motivational.
180
9 PSYCHOLOGY IN ORGANISATIONAL SETTING
THIS CHAPTER COVERS
Ä Introduction to the field of organisational
psychology
Ä Meaning of organisation
Ä Structure of organisation
Ä Functions of a manager
Ä Role of psychologist in organisational
setting
Ä Relevance of advertising and marketing
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä understand the nature of organisation
and its defining features,
Ä know the structure of organisation,
Ä understand the basic functions
performed by a manager,
Ä appreciate the different kinds of roles
performed by organisational psychologists,
and
Ä learn to relate advertising and marketing
in the context of organisations.
Introduction to Psychology
CONTENTS
Introduction
What is an Organisation?
Structure and Functions of Organisation
Key Questions related to Organisational
Structure (Box 9.1)
Delegation of Authority (Box 9.2)
Types of Organisational Structure
Basic Functions of Managers
Mintzberg Managerial Roles (Box 9.3)
Personnel Selection
Some Methods of Job Analysis (Box 9.4)
Interview for Personnel Selection (Box 9.5)
Work Motivation
Reward Management (Box 9.6)
Training and Performance Appraisal
Human Resource Development (Box 9.7)
Marketing and Advertising
Techniques used to Attract the Customers
(Box 9.8)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Psychology in Organisational Setting 181

INTRODUCTION

An organisation covers a whole gamut of places like bank, hospital, police station,
court of law, school, college, and industry. Some of them have been around for a
long time. For example, TATA, Hindustan Levers, Maruti Udyog Limited, Indian
Railways, MTNL, State Bank of India etc. Others are smaller, locally based such
as a school, a family owned restaurant, a small departmental store, or a service
station. Organisations affect our lives in significant ways. We work for them and
consume their products. As an adult, we spend more time at jobs than at any
other activity (with the possible exception of sleep) in life. We read about various
organisations in newspapers and follow their financial growth and its impact on
economy and our day-to-day lives.
Organisations are often identified by their buildings, factories or by their
products. The material part of an organisation is very obvious. Thus, a school has
its buildings, which houses classrooms, laboratories, libraries, etc. A school or a
bank also use machines like computers, typewriters, etc., even though these
machines do not play a prominent role in their functioning. However, in some
organisations, machines and equipments form the backbone and are used to
produce goods like-steel, iron, fertilisers, textiles, food products etc. Thus, the
material aspect in these organisations is quite tangible. In contrast are some
organisations where inputs are mostly intangible and products are the services
they offer. These constitute ‘service organisations’, like-hospitals (health services),
religious organisations, NGOs, hospitality industries (hotels) etc. But, do
organisations function only through materials and machines? No. They must
have ‘people’ who put the materials and machines to use and make organisations
what they are. Without a principal, the teachers and the support staff, the school
cannot function as an organisation. What an organisation does or how it functions,
and what happens within an organisation depends on behaviour of the people in
it. To understand, control and predict the functioning of an organisation we need
to understand the psychology of these people. We need to understand their
behaviours, values, attitudes, thinking, needs, and motives. Organisational
psychology helps us to understand these aspects of organisation in proper
perspective. It involves internally integrative and externally adaptive activities. It
applies knowledge and the principles of psychology including social psychology
to the study of organisations and their functioning.
This chapter shall help you to understand some of the basic concepts used in
the study of organisations. You will study about the way organisations are
structured and the way they function. The managerial functions are also
described. This is followed by a description of the processes of selection, training,
and performance appraisal. Finally, the problems of work motivation and
advertising are discussed.
182
WHAT IS AN ORGANISATION?
Organisations are necessary for achieving
certain goals and objectives, which are
difficult to achieve by the individuals alone.
For example, consider the case of your own
education. Can you get education without
taking admission in a school or college? Yes,
you can, by making necessary arrangements
at home, but that education may not be
acceptable in the society. It is important to
know how work is organised and allocated
to various people working for the school or
any other organisation. In this context, many
questions arise: How to recruit, train, and
effectively manage the people to maximise
output? How to create conditions which
would enable the people to work effectively
over a long period of time? How to make
people and organisations to adapt the
changing environmental conditions and
technological innovations? How to cope with
competition from other organisations in the
some domain? Organisational behaviour,
which is also referred to as OB, is a multi-
disciplinary field of study different from
organisational psychology, and investigates
the impact of individuals, groups and
organisational structures on behaviour
within the organisation for the purpose of
applying such knowledge towards improving
an organisation’s effectiveness.
As stated above, it is important to
recognise that organisations come into
existence to accomplish goals–
organisational, group and individual, which
otherwise will not be possible to achieve by
individuals alone. The techo-structural or
structural and the human components of
organisation need coordination of efforts at
different levels. Coordination, infact is
backed by authority to be exercised
if required.
Organisations have people with common
goals who coordinate their individual and
group efforts. This is done by assigning
different kinds of work to different individuals
who are entrusted with responsibility, power,
and authority. For instance, in your school the
teachers, the students, the principal and the
administrative staff work towards providing
Introduction to Psychology
quality education. You will notice that each
individual or group has a specific role and
assigned work; and each has some
responsibility, some power, and authority.
Thus, organisations typically have the
following features:
Common Goals : Each organisation has goals
that are shared by a group of individuals.
Organisations have their objectives, which are
accepted by the people who constitute the
same. The objectives guide the activities of
an organisation.
Coordination of Efforts : The people in an
organisation put in their efforts, help each
other, and organise themselves to coordinate
their activities so that the organisational
objectives can be attained.
Division of Labour : In order to achieve the
goals of an organisation different functions
are required to be performed. The labour or
work involved in these functions is assigned
to different individuals or groups of
individuals. In your school, you will notice
a clear division of labour. Teachers, students,
clerks, principal, librarian etc. have assigned
roles and functions, which may sometimes
overlap; but broadly, the division of labour is
functional. Based on different skills and
capabilities of the people employed, they are
trained to perform different functions.
Responsibility and Authority : Coordination
of efforts and division of labour in
organisations imply that each individual has
assigned tasks, responsibilities, and duties.
Attainment of goals of an organisation
depends on the extent to which the task
responsibilities are fulfilled. Very often, this
is maintained by self-discipline and work
ethics of the people assigned with specific
tasks. Each person with assigned task has
responsibility for the same and has some
power and authority in order to control task
performance and its outcome.
The coordination of efforts towards
achievement of organisation’s objectives
requires monitoring and control, at different
levels. This implies different levels of
authority, control, and power. In your school,
for instance, students, teachers, staff, as well
as the principal have assigned tasks, roles,
and responsibilities and some degree of
authority to enforce the minimum conditions
Psychology in Organisational Setting
for task attainment. The librarian has the task
of issuing books to students as per rules. She
is responsible for this work and has some
authority and power in order to ensure that
this task is done. In coordinating the efforts
for goal achievement, organisations evolve
different levels of authority. They exercise
control over others’ activities and task
performance. Thus, your principal has a
higher level of authority compared to the
teachers. Usually, organisations have a
hierarchy of authorities so that some have
greater control over others. However, this is
not always the case; some organisations are
less hierarchical than others are.
If we put the above-mentioned features
in view, following definition of organisation
can be given:
An organisation is the rational
coordination of the individual or group
efforts and activities for attainment of
some commonly shared or agreed upon
objectives and goals, through the division
of labour and functions, and through a
hierarchy of authority and responsibility.
While describing an organisation, it must
be noted that an organisation functions as
an organism. It is often thought of as an open
system that operates within an environment.
Unlike the closed system, an open system is
that which has a relatively more flexible
structure. Its boundary is open to
accommodate the new informations and the
changes relevant in environment. In fact, the
open system is always in active interaction
with the environment in order to make
smooth the export of its products (outputs) and
to generate additional resources which are
necessary for the survival of the system. These
resources can then be subsequently used to
import various forms of energies (inputs).
It should be noted that any living system,
be it a human being or an organisation, has
a natural tendency of entropy. However, an
open system develops a mechanism of
re-energising the system which enables it to
negate the entrophy. It imports energy and
resources (inputs) from the environment (e.g.,
people, capital, machines etc.) and after
processing these inputs produces certain
products (e.g., consumable goods, services,
183
machines etc). It should also be remembered
that all organisations involve people who
interact with each other and with machines.
These interactions are social and
psychological. As a result, we find in
organisations all the psychological processes
in operation. People perceive each other,
cooperate, feel motivated, communicate,
come in conflict, feel frustrated, stressed,
work in teams and try to achieve objectives
that are fixed for the organisation.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Understanding the Nature of an
Organisation
Think of an organisation with which you
are familiar. It can be a school, an industry,
a hospital, a service station, a departmental
store, or an NGO. Attempt to answer the
following questions about that organisation.
l What are the objectives of this
organisation?
l What connection does it have with the
society and environment?
l How is it functioning to attain the
objectives?
After you have written the answers to
these questions, discuss them in the class.
Try to see how far your answers
approximate the definition of organisation
that you have studied.
Recapitulation
Organisations are increasingly playing
important role in contemporary life.
Organisational psychology specialises in the
study of organisational functioning.
Organisations are created when it is realised
that individual efforts are not enough to
achieve the goals. All organisations share the
following characteristics: common goals,
coordination of efforts, division of labour,
responsibility, and authority. Organisations
can be defined in terms of rational
coordination of people’s efforts to attain
shared goals. They function as an open
system which imports energy from
environment and after processing sends its
products to the environment. Thus,
organisations are open systems which are
related to the external environment.
184
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. A work done by machine represents
organisation. T/F
2. The attitudes and inter–departmental
conflicts in a college can be a problem
for organisational psychologist. T/F
3. Organisations are introduced to achieve
shared objectives. T/F
4. Division of labour is a characteristic of
organisation. T/F
5. Organisations may not require rational
coordination of efforts. T/F
6. Organisations work as an open system.
T/F
STRUCTURE AND F UNCTIONS
OF O RGANISATION
It is a well-known fact that human behaviour
is affected by the kind of set up one is placed
in. An organisation also provides a set up.
The organisations vary in terms of their
structures, which characterise their set up.
Different types of organisational structures
influence the behaviour of employees in
different ways. Organisational structure tells
how jobs are divided and assigned to its
employees. For example, in the early part of
the last century, Henry Ford built
automobiles on an assembly line. Every
worker of the Ford company was assigned a
specific task: one person would just put on
the right front wheel and someone would
BOX 9.1 KEY QUESTIONS RELATED TO ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
Concerns
To what extent tasks are sub–divided
into separate jobs?
On what basis jobs would be grouped together?
To whom do individuals and groups report?
How many individuals can a manager efficiently
manage?
Where does a decision-making authority lie?
What is the extent of rules and regulations to direct the
employees?
Introduction to Psychology
install the right front door. Thus, the jobs
were divided into smaller units of
standardised nature, which could be
performed repeatedly. By doing this, Ford was
able to produce cars at the rate of one every
10 seconds while using individuals who had
limited skills.
An organisational structure is defined in
terms of how jobs are formally divided,
grouped, and coordinated. There are six key
elements in designing an organisation’s
structure. They deal with different concerns
of an organisation (Box 9.1). Let us try to
understand these elements in some detail.
Work Specialisation : It helps in identifying
the degree to which tasks in an organisation
are sub–divided into separate jobs. The
important aspect of work specialisation is
that an entire job is not done by one
individual, but is broken down into a number
of steps. Each step of the job is completed by
a different individual or groups of
individuals. In essence, individuals
specialise in doing part of an activity. In some
organisations, work is highly specialised
whereas in others, specialisation is minimal
and each of the employees is trained for and
required to undertake the whole or most of
the work to be done.
Departmentalisation : Jobs are not only
divided into steps and assigned to different
individuals; they can also be grouped
according to their functions. The basis by
Elements of Organisational Structure
Work specialisation
Departmentalisation
Hierarchy (chain of command)
Span of control
Centralisation
Formalisation
Psychology in Organisational Setting
which jobs are grouped together is called
departmentalisation. For example, a hospital
might have different departments devoted to
research, patient care, administration,
accounting, rehabilitation, and so forth.
Similarly, a small restaurant may have
departments like cooking, service, accounts,
customer care, security, and vigilance. The
major advantage of this type of grouping is to
obtain better coordination and efficiency in
work and productivity.
Chain of Command : It refers to the line of
authority that runs from the top of an
organisation to its bottom. In practical terms,
it clarifies who reports to whom. It tells the
employees whom to approach if they have a
problem. The chain of command involves
authority and unity of command. These are
complementary concepts. Authority refers to
the rights inherent in a certain position to
give orders and to expect the orders to be
obeyed. It has a definitive place in the chain
of command. It is necessary for facilitating the
coordination of activities and doing the jobs.
The unity of command principle states that a
person should have one and only one superior
to whom she/he is directly responsible. If the
chain or unity of command is broken, the
employees may be put to conflicting demands
from several superiors.
Span of Control : It specifies the number of
employees a manager should efficiently and
effectively direct. It determines the number
of levels of managers an organisation has. If
the span is too large, it will affect the
employees’ performance because the
managers have less time to provide the
necessary leadership and support. If the span
is too small, it will require more managers to
control the employees. It would cost more to
the company.
BOX 9.2 DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
Sometimes authority is delegated to
subordinates for certain assignments. When
managers have to delegate authority they are
required to:
l clarify the assignment to subordinates,
l specify to the subordinate the range of
discretion,
185
Centralisation : In certain organisations, top
managers make all the decisions. People
down the line carry out top management
directives. Such an organisation is highly
centralised. Contrary to these are
organisations where decision-making powers
have been given to all those employees who
are closer to action. They take decisions at
their levels. Such an organisation is highly
decentralised, and the decision-making
power is shared. Thus, organisations vary in
respect of the degree to which decision,
making powers are concentrated or shared.
Degree of centralisation/decentralisation
affects the speed with which decisions can
be taken and implemented. It also determines
the level of involvement of employees in their
jobs and organisations.
It is important to note that in a
decentralised setting, the tasks are assigned
by delegating. This is also a way of
empowering the employees. This can be
achieved better if the delegation is
supplemented by periodic checks to ensure
that the authority guidelines are not being
abused, organisation’s policies are being
followed, and proper procedures are being
met. The key considerations while delegating
authority to the subordinates are summarised
in Box 9.2.
Formalisation : It refers to the degree to
which jobs within an organisation are
standardised and made formal. In a highly
standardised procedure, the employees have
the least amount of discretion in performing
their specific roles. Every time a job is given,
it is to be done by following the same
procedure in a uniform manner.
Organisations function within a framework
of rules and clearly defined procedures.
When formalisation is of a lesser degree the
l allow the subordinate to participate,
l make him accountable and extend
managerial support,
l inform others that delegation has occurred,
and
l establish the feedback control to regulate
and monitor.
186
job behaviours are relatively non-
programmed and employees have
considerable flexibility and freedom in
exercising discretion. Formalisation has
advantages as well as disadvantages. The
advantages are that employees are not
allowed to engage in alternative forms of
behaviours. The disadvantage is that
employees may feel paralysed if the rules and
procedures do not apply to a given situation.
TYPES OF ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
There are several kinds of organisational
structure. Some organisations make use of
simple structure whereas others use
bureaucratic and other complex structures
such as matrix type structure. There are tall
and flat structures as well. Let us try to
understand three types of structures, i.e.,
simple, bureaucratic, and matrix in some
detail.
Simple Structures: These are structures with
low degree of departmentalisation and a wide
Fig. 9.1 Example of a Simple Organisational Structure.
span of control. The authority is largely
centralised in a single person with very little
formalisation. It is also called ‘flat structure’.
It usually has only two or three vertical levels,
a flexible set of employees, and generally one
person in whom the power of decision–
making is invested. This simple structure is
most widely practiced in small business
settings where manager and owner happen
to be the same person. Its advantage lies in
its simplicity. This makes it responsive, fast,
accountable, and easy to maintain. However,
Introduction to Psychology
it becomes grossly inadequate as and when
the organisation grows in size. You may
consider the structure of a departmental
store owned by a hypothetical person say, Mr.
Hariram Banarasi Das. He is owner–manager.
He has employed five sales–persons who
directly report to him. This simple structure
is shown in Fig. 9.1. Such a simple
structure is becoming popular because of its
flexibility, responsiveness, and high degree
of adaptability to change.
Bureaucratic Structure : This structure is
characterised by routine operating tasks
achieved through specialisation, formal set
of rules, and activities organised around
functions. The authority is highly
centralised. It has a chain of command and
narrow span of control. Its strength lies in its
ability to perform standardised activities in
an efficient manner. The managerial
discretion is minimised by wide range of
rules and regulations. The operational duties
are standardised with high degree of
formalisation.
The major weakness of bureaucracy is its
extreme concern with strict adherence to
rules. When cases arise that do not fit the
rules, there is no room for modification.
Bureaucracy promotes established
procedures and programmed decision-
making. Most of the organisations, however,
were designed after bureaucratic structures.
Now the dominant trend is to decentralise
organisations into smaller units, making
them fully autonomous, and having
minimum obstacles in decision-making.
Psychology in Organisational Setting
The Matrix Structure : This structure
integrates two forms of departmentalisation.
They try to combine different functional
groups and the final output i.e., product.
Generally, Research and Development (R&D)
organisations, advertising companies,
consulting firms, hospitals, universities, and
construction companies use matrix type
structures. Its strength lies in putting
specialists together that allow pooling and
sharing of specialised resources across
products. For example, a business school
using a matrix design would have several
departments, like academic department of
HRD, Finance, Accounting, and Research
Methodology and so on. In addition to this,
they may have several courses like, BBA,
MBA, PGDBM, Ph.D., Management
Development Programme (MDP), which can
be called as products. Members in the matrix
structure have dual assignment; one to their
functional department and the other to their
product groups. For instance, a Professor of
HRD teaching MBA course reports to the
Director of the Institute as well as to the
Chairman of the MDP, if assigned the course
responsibility of teaching a module of HRD.
The strength of matrix lies in its ability to
facilitate coordination when the organisation
has multiple, complex, and interdependent
activities. Matrix structure reduces many
problems which typical bureaucratic
structure suffers. It facilitates efficient
allocation of specialists but it can also induce
power struggle in organisations.
Recapitulation
Organisational structure can be described in
terms of specialisation, departmentalisation,
chain of command, or span of control,
centralisation of power, and formalisation.
Besides, organisations can have various types
of structures such as simple structures,
bureaucratic design, matrix design, etc.
Newer forms of structures are also being tried
these days.
Organisational structures also constrain
the behaviour and set the limits. For example,
an organisation structured around high level
of formalisation, departmentalisation,
centralisation, strict chain of command and
little delegation of authority gives freedom
to a minimum possible extent.
187
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Organisational structures have no effect
on individual behaviour. They affect the
profit-related activities only. T/F
2. Simple structure is good for quick
decision-making. T/F
3. In bureaucratic structures, decision-
making flows toward the lower level of
employees. T/F
4. Decentralisation amounts to power
sharing and creating various centres of
decision-making. T/F
5. Formalisation means having a formal
dress code and living the life in a
traditional mode. T/F
6. The most central feature of bureaucracy
is objectivity and accountability. T/F
ACTIVITY 9.2
Understanding Organisational
Structure
Find a partner from your class. Take a
notepad and visit the nearest departmental
store, service station, school office, and
find out the organisational structure by
asking following questions:
l How many people are working here?
l What are their roles and duties?
l Whom do they report to?
l Who writes their confidential reports?
l Who is the decision taking person in
case of a problem?
l How are they held accountable?
Discuss the responses obtained with
your teacher and try to find out the nature
of organisational structure that the
organisation has?
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF MANAGERS
Organisations are blueprints for human
activities, but they do not begin to function
unless people come and join them and
perform the specific roles. In this context, the
role of managers is very important. The
important functions of a manager are
described as under.
188
Planning : Organisations exist to achieve
certain goals. These goals need to be defined
and the ways of achieving them are worked
out. People in the highest authority represent
the organisation and they take on the
responsibility of defining these goals.
Planning includes defining an organisation’s
goals, proposing strategies for achieving these
goals and developing a comprehensive plan to
coordinate the different activities of the people
working in the organisation.
Organising : It refers to specifying and
linking the various roles and responsibilities
to be taken up by the people working for the
organisation. It answers the following
question: What tasks are to be performed and
by whom? How the tasks are to be grouped?
Who will report to whom? Where the decisions
are to be made? All these things are to be
specified along with the areas of responsibility
and accountability. Organising the
organisation is necessary for effective goal
attainment.
Staffing : Selection and recruitment of the
personnel to undertake the various activities
is another responsibility of managers. The
process of selection of right persons for the
right kind of job requires analysis of job profile
and use of a dependable selection procedure.
In older organisations, the problems of
performance appraisal, promotion policy, and
outsourcing (using external resources rather
than employees) are to be decided. The
employees also need training for updating
their skills.
Leading : Organisations involve people and
it is important that their activities are
coordinated to achieve the goals. Providing
direction and establishing mechanisms for
coordination is called leading. It involves
motivating people, directing their activities,
establishing the most effective way of
communication, and setting up the ways of
handling conflicts.
Controlling : Once the objectives and goals
of an organisation are established, the plans
are formulated, the structural arrangements
are worked out, and people are selected and
put to work, there still remains the task of
coordinating and making people deliver the
expected level of performance. If people in the
Introduction to Psychology
organisation are not putting and
coordinating their efforts to attain the stated
goals, the organisation evolves mechanisms
to bring them back on the right track. This is
called controlling. It includes the
monitoring, comparing, appraising, and
correcting the activities of the members of an
organisation. It can be done by using reward
and punishment mechanisms.
Management Roles
All managers are expected to perform certain
roles in their respective organisations. Based
on a study, Mintzberg concluded that
managers carry out 10 different roles, which
are highly interrelated. These roles can be
divided into three categories, i.e.,
interpersonal, informational and decision
related. You may consult Box 9.3 if you want
to know more about these roles. However, a
brief description of these roles is given
below.
Interpersonal Roles : Managers have to
communicate with other people in order to
get the work done. They have to be in contact
with the people inside and outside the
organisation. They have to provide leadership
to their followers, perform the role of
selecting, training, and motivating them and
maintaining the discipline. These are
interpersonal roles involving relationships
between managers and workers.
Informational Roles : Managers need to
receive and process information regarding
various aspects of organisation’s functioning.
They are required to transmit and
disseminate information and play the role of
spokespersons when interacting with others
outside the organisation. Such activities
represent the informational roles of
managers.
Decisional Roles : Managers have to play
the role of decision-maker. They make
choices, and initiate new ideas to improve
organisational functioning. They, at times,
take corrective decisions for solving
problems. They decide about assignment of
duties and what are the resources required,
etc. A variety of such decisional roles are
involved in managerial functions.
Psychology in Organisational Setting
BOX 9.3 MINTZBERG MANAGERIAL ROLES
Interpersonal Roles
Figurehead : Manager acts as a symbolic
head and represents organisation to inside and
outside clients.
Leader : In this role, a manager is responsible
for the motivation and direction of his or her
subordinates.
Liaison : A manager maintains a network of
outside contacts that provides resources and
information.
Informational Roles
Monitor : A manager receives a wide variety
of information and serves as the nerve centre
for internal and external activities.
PERSONNEL S ELECTION
Selection is a deliberate effort to engage a
fixed number of persons usually out of a large
number of applicants. The objective
of selection is to match individual
characteristics with the requirements of a
given job. If the management is unable to get
a proper match, the employee–performance
and satisfaction suffer adversely affecting the
goals of an organisation. In order to have the
right kind of individual-job fit, it is necessary
to assess the demands and requirements of
the job. The process of assessing the activities
performed within a job is called Job Analysis.
Job Analysis
It involves developing a detailed description
of the tasks involved in performing a job,
working out the nature of relationship of that
job with other jobs and determining the level
of skills, competence, attitude and abilities
necessary to function in that job. There are
various methods of doing job analysis. Based
on the job analysis, job descriptions are
prepared. A job description is a written account
of job contents, working environment, and
conditions of employment. It identifies the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to
perform a job. It also helps in identifying the
characteristics of a successful jobholder. Job
description is a crucial document for guiding
the selection process. If you want to know
189
Disseminator : A manager transmits
information received from outsiders or from other
subordinates to the members of organisation.
Spokesperson : A manager transmits
information to external agencies on plans,
policies, and results of the organisation. In this
way, he or she serves as an expert.
Decisional Roles
Entrepreneur : A manager searches
opportunities and initiates projects to bring
about changes in the organisation.
Resource Allocator : A manager makes or
approves significant organisational decisions.
Negotiator :A manager represents
organisation during negotiations.
more about the methods of job analysis, you
are encouraged to study Box 9.4.
Selection Methods
A variety of methods are used to select
personnel. They can vary from one
organisation to another, depending upon the
specific job requirements. Usually, the level
at which an organisation needs people
determines the choice of the method for
selection. Some of the widely used methods of
selecting personnel are described below.
Application Blank : It is used for obtaining
information about the suitability of candidates
for a particular job. The blanks are highly
structured, standardised, and determined in
advance. It also tests the applicant’s ability to
write, organise thoughts and presenting the
facts. It also provides interview leads.
Application blanks are designed in many ways.
They require candidates to provide
biographical data, educational qualification,
job experience, and references.
Interview : Interview is a way of obtaining
information about a candidate so as to
determine whether the candidate has the
ACTIVITY 9.3
Understanding the selection process
Collect five different kinds of
advertisements published in a newspaper
and describe the main types of job
descriptions.
190
BOX 9.4 SOME METHODS OF JOB ANALYSIS
Observation: Detailed specifications of
activities are prepared directly by observing
employees on the job. It can also be done by
Video recording employees’ behaviour and
watching it to create a job description.
Individual Interview: Selected employees are
interviewed in detail, and job analysis is
carried out by content analysing the interview
protocols.
Group Interview: It is also a kind of interview
but in this case, a large number of employees
participate in groups in generating ideas about
the job details.
requisite skills, knowledge, attitude, and
ability appropriate for the job in question. It
is the most frequently used selection device.
It consists of interaction between an
interviewer and the applicant. If handled
properly, it can be a powerful tool for
achieving accurate information and getting
access to information, which is otherwise
unavailable. It is particularly suitable for
assessing intelligence level, motivation, and
interpersonal skills. To learn more about
interview see Box 9.5.
Written Tests : As a selection device, these
tests are also conducted for evaluating
intelligence, aptitude, ability, interest and
integrity of the applicants. There are several
advantages of using tests. They are unbiased
and standardised devices and can be easily
administered to a large number of people.
They are cost effective and save time.
However, unless they are properly developed
and used, tests may not accurately predict
job success.
BOX 9.5 INTERVIEW FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION
Generally, four kinds of Interviews are used in
personnel selection.
Preliminary Interview: The applicant is given
job details during the interview to make him
think whether the job will suit him or her.
Stress Interview: Stress is deliberately
created to observe how an applicant performs
under pressure. It ranges from frequent
interruptions to strong criticism of the opinions
expressed by the candidate.
Introduction to Psychology
Structured Questionnaire: Structured
questions are prepared and employees are
given the questionnaire to fill out the relevant
details. Information relevant to jobs are
analysed based on responses to the
questionnaires.
Diary: Jobholders record their daily activities
in diaries. These diaries are analysed to get
the details about the job.
Technical Conference: Experts who have
extensive knowledge of the job, suggest specific
characteristics of a job by conferencing.
Performance Simulation Tests : The use of
performance tests has increased significantly
in the last two decades. They are based on
job analysis data. They are maps of actual
behaviours and not hypothetical as the
written tests. Two best-known approaches to
simulation are work-sampling and
assessment centres. The former is suited to
routine jobs, whereas the latter is relevant to
the selection of managerial positions. In work
sampling, an effort is made to create a replica
of the job situation making a candidate
perform in a job like setting. In assessment
centres, trained psychologists run evaluation
workshops wherein actual problems are
presented through simulated situations. The
candidate confronts them through business
games, exercises, discussions, and decision-
making games. The effectiveness of
assessment centres is very impressive. They
have been found to predict job
behaviour effectively.
Depth Interview: It covers the life history in
detail about work experiences, health, interests,
and hobbies.
Patterned Interview: It is a combination of
direct and indirect questioning of the applicant.
What is to be asked during the interview is
already structured.
The Interview Process
Generally, interview is made up of four stages.
contd...
Psychology in Organisational Setting
It starts with preparation, followed by opening
stage, then questioning and finally concluding.
In preparation stage, the job descriptions and
resume of the candidate is reviewed for the
position a candidate is being considered. Then
the agenda for the interview is set. While
preparing the agenda, it is important to
organise questions in terms of what, how and
why–what questions are expected to be handled
by descriptions and information details about
the understanding of the candidate? How
questions are concerned with explanation and
why questions deal with the analysis of issues.
In the opening stage, a candidate is made to
enter in rapport in order to make him/her feel
Recapitulation
Managers have to perform certain basic
organisational functions. They are: planning,
organising, staffing, leading and controlling.
Planning involves defining the goals and
preparing a blue print for goal achievement.
Staffing refers to selection and recruitment
of the personnel. Organising means putting
things in order by assignment of roles
and responsibilities so that the goals can
ACTIVITY 9.4
Role-play for Monitor or Leader
of the Class
Create a board of interviewers to conduct
an interview for selecting monitor of the
class. The monitor of the class is expected
to have following qualities:
Regular in the class; must have good
communication skill, be sensitive to other’s
feelings, must possess some artistic talent
like singing, drawing, sports and game
preference and must be neatly dressed.
Prepare your questions in advance to tap
the required qualities.
Ask members of the class to play the
role of candidate one by one (You can have
three candidates in one session). You can
announce that the above-mentioned
qualities are needed.
Conduct the interview and make
judgement about the most suitable candidate.
Discuss the process with data in the class.
Examine the way the board conducted the
interview. Ask the candidate how he/she felt
about the interview process.
191
relaxed, the interviewer should introduce
himself or herself, friendly. The second stage
begins with questions for ice breaking. The
third stage is of questioning and discussion.
In this stage, questions prepared during the
preparatory stage are used as a road map. It
is important to cover these and some additional
questions arising out of the interview process.
Taking the issues deeper into what the
candidate says should also be done. The final
stage of interview is concerned with wrapping
up the event. The candidate should be informed
about the next stage of happening. Evaluation
should be done immediately after the candidate
has left.
be achieved. Leading function involves
providing directions, coordinating,
motivating, communicating, and resolving
conflicts. Controlling function involves ways
of making people achieve the organisational
goals by delivering the expected levels of
performance.
Managers play a variety of roles i.e.,
interpersonal, decision-making and
informational roles. Interpersonal roles
involve relating to people, communicating
and providing leadership. Informational roles
involve receiving, processing, and
disseminating information within and
outside the organisation. Managers play an
important role in the decision-making
processes in the organisation.
Proper selection and recruitment of
employees is important for organisations. Job
requirements need to be analysed so that the
right individuals can be fitted to the right jobs.
Organisations have different types of
selection methods in which application
forms, interviews, written tests and
performance simulation tests are used.
W ORK M OTIVATION
It is through the studies on worker’s
motivation, incentive systems, personnel
policies, and intergroup relations that
organisation as a total system began to come
into focus. Psychologists found that workers’
motivation is determined by various factors.
They include relationship with co-worker,
192
ACTIVITY 9.5
Role of psychologists in organisations
It would be clear to you by now that OB is
an applied behavioural science that is built
on contributions from a number of
behavioural sciences. Early industrial/
organisational (I/O) psychologists
concerned themselves with the problems of
fatigue, boredom, and other factors related
to working conditions that could impede
performance. More recently, their
contributions have been expanded to
include topics like, learning, perception,
personality, training, leadership
effectiveness, motivating, job satisfaction,
decision-making, performance appraisal,
attitude measurement, employee selection,
job-design and stress management. All
these activities are now considered as part
of human resource development.
In brief, the organisational
psychologists play important roles in
helping organisations achieve their goals.
Their most crucial concern is effective
utilisation of people’s capacities. Some
areas of organisational functioning to which
psychologists contribute significantly are
given below:
l Organising work and allocating them to
right worker.
l Recruiting and training personnel to
perform adequately.
l Creating working conditions for
effective and smooth functioning.
l Establishing effective reward,
punishment, and incentive procedures
to enable the people to maintain optimal
level of functioning.
l Helping to adapt to organisational
conditions and changing technological
circumstances.
l Helping organisations cope with the
internal and external competition and
other environmental pressures.
You may visit an organisation near the
place where you live and try to understand
the problems where a psychologist can
contribute. Prepare a report and discuss
with your teacher.
Introduction to Psychology
amount of pay being received by the
employees, their relationship with the boss,
and the nature of group to which they belong.
Psychologists have developed many theories
and frameworks about motivational problems
of the people. The key motivational theories
are summarised below:
1. Need Theories : These theories suggest
that people will work hard if their needs
are met. In order to motivate people, their
basic needs or deficiencies must be
satisfied. Various theories consider needs
in a different manner.
2. Goal-setting Theory : It emphasises
goal-setting as a motivator. It is assumed
that if people feel motivated
toward certain goals, they work
toward realising them. Setting specific
challenging and plausible goals
increases work motivation.
3. Reinforcement Theory : This theory
tends to emphasise the role of
reinforcement followed by action. If a
particular behaviour results in a positive
reward, it is likely to be strengthened.
4. Equity Theory : People experience
feelings of unfairness or inequity when
the ratio between their efforts (work input)
and what they receive (outcome) are not
similar. Feelings of inequity reduce work
motivation.
5. Expectancy Theory : It argues that the
strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends upon the strength of
expectation that the action will be followed
by a given outcome and it will be attractive.
For instance, when workers believe that
their efforts will improve performance,
which will be rewarded by something they
value, they will work harder.
Drawing from these motivational theories,
efforts have been made to help organisations
solve motivational problems of employees.
The details about reward management given
in Box 9.6 may help you to understand
certain related issues.
TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Psychologists are involved in developing
training systems and helping organisations
Psychology in Organisational Setting
BOX 9.6 REWARD MANAGEMENT
It is a well-known fact that people tend to do
what satisfies their needs. Generally, they do
so after looking for payoffs or rewards that an
organisation offers. There are direct as well as
indirect compensations. The rewards can be
distributed on an individual or group basis.
Sometimes an individual receives rewards, which
enhance the sense of personal worth. They are
internally rewarding. These kinds of rewards are
improve their appraisal systems. They do
training needs analysis, develop training
programmes, and assess the impact of
training on effectiveness of employees. Many
of the psychologists are currently playing the
role of trainers and consultants to improve
the internal processes concerning individual
and group functioning. Training and testing
are undertaken on continuous basis because
of the need to learn new skills and acquiring
relevant capabilities. They are required to
cope with technological and environmental
changes.
Performance appraisals are periodic
evaluations of employee’s performance in an
organisation along with feedback to the
employees. Through suitable performance
appraisal, performance can be linked to
rewards such as promotion, awards, and
recognitions. Performance appraisals can
sometimes be affected by certain biases. In
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Selection is a mechanism of finding out
the best person for a job. T/F
2. Selection helps the process of job analysis
to decide the requirements. T/F
3. Interview technique involves meeting a
candidate with a defined agenda. T/F
4. Feedback to employees is a necessary
aspect of performance appraisal. T/F
5. Feeling of inequity increases the
motivation of employees. T/F
6. Expectations about attractive outcomes
may motivate the employees. T/F
7. Performance appraisal should be linked
with promotion. T/F
193
called intrinsic rewards. Similarly, an
employee expects some kind of direct and explicit
compensation, like, basic salary, overtime
allowances, holiday’s premium and bonus, profit
sharing, and purchase of stocks or shares. These
rewards are called extrinsic rewards. These
rewards, if carefully aligned to individual
needs, can provide stimulus for improved
performance.
order to be effective, such appraisal should
be objective and relatively free from biases
and errors.
Recapitulation
Principles of psychology are useful in
understanding organisational functioning
and the behaviour of people in organisations.
Psychologists play important role in training,
performance appraisal, work design,
development of leadership and motivation,
job satisfaction, counselling, etc. The theories
of work motivation provide strategies to
improve performance of employees in
organisations. Similarly, training and
performance appraisal are other areas of
psychological applications.
MARKETING AND A DVERTISING
The study of psychological processes
underlying the acquisition, consumption,
and disposition of goods, services, and ideas
is done in a related area called consumer
psychology. Consumer psychologists study
buying behaviour, consumption of products,
marketing appeals, effect of advertisements,
and consumer decision-making. For
example, market appeals are often made
through television, newspaper, and radio. It
is also done through billboards, magazines,
hoarding, and through Internet. Business
organisations spend crores of rupees every
year on advertisements and in developing
messages that appeal to customers.
Advertisements play a crucial role in
influencing buying decisions. Estimates are
that the average urban child sees 20,000
194
BOX 9.7 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (HRD)
Goal attainment in an organisation depends
primarily on the way people working for the
organisation are able to utilise their capabilities
to an optimal extent and help their organisation
achieve its goals. The process of looking into
human capabilities for its maximum utilisation
is known as human resources development
(HRD).
The key HR activities in organisations are as
follows:
Staffing : This includes providing data for job
analysis and determining minimum
qualifications. Interviewing candidates and
making final decisions at the entry-level is also
done.
Retention : This comprises of providing fair
treatment to the employees, open
communication, face-to-face resolution of
conflict, promotion of teamwork, and pay
management.
Development : This function includes on the
job training, job enrichment, applying
motivational strategy, and providing feedback
to the subordinates.
Adjustment : Discipline, discharge, layoffs,
and transfers are included in this function.
Training and Development
Let us learn more about training and
development activities in which psychological
input is very crucial. It is observed that a
competent employee does not remain competent
forever. People’s skills can become outdated
with the passage of time. Moreover, with rapid
technological changes, the threats of
obsolescence are increasing. Training is the
most crucial device for updating human
capabilities in order to make them suitable to
the changing and current requirements of the
organisation. For example, clerical staff needs
to learn how to fully utilise the latest software
commercials every year. Children under
eight years of age are very trusting of
commercials. Thus, advertisements shape
children’s desire for products irrespective of
the merit of the product. They also confuse
children and take advantage of their
misunderstanding, and contribute to poor
decision-making skills by focusing on
irrelevant attributes of the product.
Introduction to Psychology
programmes for computer applications.
Executives participate in workshops to enhance
their effectiveness or to develop strategic plans
for their departments. In one or the other way,
all members of an organisation should be
involved in training-related activities. The two
central activities in this respect are skill
development and career development.
Skill Development : Skills can be divided
into three categories, namely technical,
interpersonal and problem solving. In
order to develop them, training methods of
several kinds are used. Training usually
takes place on the job. One such method is
job-rotation. It involves lateral transfer that
enables one to work at different
workstations. Employees get to learn a wide
variety of jobs and gain insight into the
interdependency across different jobs.
Similarly, they undergo an apprenticeship
phase to learn the trades of the job under
an experienced person. Job rotation and
apprenticeship apply to the learning of
technical skills. Interpersonal and problem
solving skills are acquired more effectively
by training that takes place off the job.
Career Development : Career development is
a way for an organisation to increase its
employees’ productivity and preparing them for
the changing world scenario. It also helps
develop people to take up future assignments.
This ensures that right people will be available
for meeting the changing staffing requirements,
increasing work force diversity, and providing
employees with realistic job expectations. A
career is a sequence of positions, occupied by
a person during the course of a lifetime. Any
work pursued over an extended period can
constitute a career. If an employee is to remain
productive, a career development and training
programmes are needed.
Disappointment, irritation, and conflict with
parents takes place when children’s
television induced desires are not fulfilled.
The activity of advertising involves three
main institutions, i.e., the advertiser, the
advertising agency, and the media. The
advertisers may be at national or regional
level. They deal with different kinds of
products such as packaged goods, consumer
Psychology in Organisational Setting
durables, or industrial products. The
advertising agency creates advertisements
and makes the media allocation decisions.
They are paid for this. The print media,
television, and radio are used for
advertising in a powerful way. The
advertising plan is developed keeping in
view the company’s total marketing
programme. It involves situation analysis,
assessment of the consumers/market and
the competitive situation of company. An
advertising manager has to attend to
objective and target selection, message
strategy and tactics, and media strategy
and tactics. He or she has to focus on
cognitive and affective processes that occur
in between exposure to the advertisement
and buying or consumer behaviour.
Now, as the market is globalising,
BOX 9.8 TECHNIQUES USED TO ATTRACT THE CUSTOMERS
There are some techniques, which are practised
quite regularly, in the marketing and selling
segments for attracting the customers through
advertisements. Le us take a brief look at some
of them.
Bait-and-switch : In the personal selling
areas, it is a commonly used technique. It is
based on consumer greed. In this approach, the
retailer advertises a product at a very low price
in order to get the customer into the shop.
However, the retailer does not intend to sell the
advertised product. The idea is to lure the
customer in, so that the higher priced product
could be sold.
Low-ball approach : In this approach, a
retailer invites the customer to buy some product
at a low price but the strings attached to the
main products are costly. They make the client
Key Terms
Organisation, Authority, Division of Labour,
Span of Control, Centralisation, Formalisation,
Matrix Structure, Planning, Organising,
195
advertisements have to cater to both–global
and local needs.
Recapitulation
The area of consumer psychology was
presented as an example of special
application of organisational psychology. The
advertisement is a way of information
dissemination about a particular product,
services and concepts to a probable
consumer. There are various ways of
advertising including print media,
electronic media, radio, handbills,
hoardings, wall posters, Internet, and
personal campaign, etc. The T.V
commercials affect children. Use of media
for advertising is becoming an important
part of business. Its value is increasing
with the globalisation of market.
commit to certain deals and take advantage of
it. For instance, the advertisements suggest that
you can buy two shirts and get a clock free
and reduce the cost of shirts and add it to the
price of the watch.
Door-in-the-face technique : It is based on
the principle ‘you scratch my back and I will
scratch yours’. Examples of this technique are:
providing sample of a product to potential
buyers and entertaining a client with an
expensive lunch. It is based on the norms of
reciprocity. Getting something free creates some
feelings at a positive level and you, as customer,
would like to return the favour by buying a
product. This technique works because after
complying with the first request, the individual
develops the self-perception that it is a proper
thing to do and this will give the best deal.
Controlling, Human Resource Development,
Job Analysis, Equity theory, Consumer, Career,
Training, Job satisfaction, Advertisement.
196 Introduction to Psychology

SUMMARY

l Organisation refers to rational coordination of human effort for the attainment of

shared goals. It involves division of labour and functions within a framework of
authority and responsibility. Organisational behaviour (OB) and organisational
psychology focus on the application of psychological processes to the study of
organisational functioning.
l The structure of organisation is constituted by work specialisation,
departmentalisation, chain of command, span of control, centralisation, and
formalisation.
l There are many kinds of organisational structures. Its three main types are: simple
structure, bureaucracy, and matrix structure.
l The functions performed by managers include planning, staffing, organising, leading,
and controlling. The management roles are mainly of three kinds. They include
interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles.
l Selection of employees is an important area of OB. It is based on job analysis. The
selection is done with the help of many methods including application blank,
interview, written test, and performance on simulation tasks.
l Motivating the employees and achieving the goals is necessary to ensure
organisational effectiveness. The main approaches to work motivation include need
theory, goal setting theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy
theory.
l Marketing and advertising deals with an area called consumer psychology.
Understanding buying behaviours and pattern of consumption needs to be
understood to promote some product through advertising. Using print as well as
electronic media, advertising is becoming a very important enterprise. A number of
strategies are used to pursue people to buy a product.

Review Questions

1. How can you define organisational behaviour?

2. What are the contributions of psychologists towards the development of field of OB?
3. What are the salient features that help you define organisation?
4. What are the roles and functions of a manager in the organisation?
5. What are the characteristics of organisational structures?
6. What are the different types of organisational structure?
7. What role a psychologist can play in making organisations effective?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T.
II : 1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T.
III : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. T.
Psychology and Social Problems 197

10 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä Concepts of poverty and social
Introduction
disadvantage
What is a Social Problem?
Ä The challenge of national integration
Ä Discrimination based on gender roles Social Problems in India
Ä Population explosion Poverty and Social Disadvantage
Ä Impact of communication revolution The Concept of Poverty (Box 10.1)
and media
Ä The problem of urbanisation Interventions for Alleviation of Poverty
(Box 10.2)
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
Challenges for National Integration
BE ABLE TO
Why Does Non-Violence Work? (Box 10.3)
Ä appreciate the nature and types of social
Gender Discrimination
problems existing in India,
Ä learn about the main features Discrimination Against the Girl Child (Box 10.4)
characterising the conditions of poverty
Population Explosion
and social disadvantage,
Ä understand the problems related to Crowding and its Consequences (Box 10.5)
national integration analyse the nature of Impact of Media and Communication
gender discrimination in Indian society, Revolution
Ä understand the problem of population
Urbanisation
explosion,
Ä appreciate the consequences of
communication revolution, and
Ä understand the nature and consequences
of urbanisation. Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
198 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

After gaining independence the Indian society has been trying to achieve the
goal of providing social justice and fulfilling the basic needs of the people.
However, we have yet not been able to realise the dream of an egalitarian society.
The colonial past, the political situation in the subcontinent, the heterogeneity of
the population, the scarcity of resources, and the geographic and climatic features
have put constraints within which it has to grow. In the course of societal
development the country has been encountering a number of problems.
Inequalities, disparities, and prejudices of various kinds are affecting the lives
of people in significant ways. Various sections of the society are being influenced
by these problems in different ways. These problems are complex and need
inputs from the psychologists for their proper understanding, analysis, and
solution. A careful attention to these problems will promote a better understanding
of the social reality.
In recent years, the psychologists have become increasingly aware of their
role in solving social problems as consultants, advocates, activists, and agents
of change. The area of applied social psychology deals with the psychological
understanding of social problems. This chapter shall help you to understand
some of the problems faced by our country and its people. In particular, it includes
poverty and social disadvantage, national integration, gender discrimination,
population explosion, the impact of communication revolution and media, and
the problem of urbanisation. It is hoped that sensitivity to these problems shall
motivate you to know more about these problems, think about their solutions
and prepare you to contribute to their solution.
Psychology and Social Problems
WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?
Social problems represent social conditions
that are regarded by a large segment of
population as undesirable. Usually such
conditions are there and affect a large
number of people. The social problem may
be latent or manifest. A manifest problem
is recognised by the public as a threat to
major social values or social norms. In
contrast, a latent problem is one that is not
recognised as a threat to major social norms
or values such as dictatorship,
overpopulation, and environmental
pollution. Social problems change with time
and are related to the social context present
at a particular point of time. Unlike the
problem in natural sciences, social problems
do not become obsolete once they are solved.
They have to be defined in different ways
during different times. In fact, they need to
be dealt with continuously and in different
ways each time. The social problems
nevertheless, are detrimental to the well-being
of human societies.
The social problems can be grouped into
primary, secondary, and tertiary types. The
primary social problems are those critical
social conditions, which have multiple
detrimental consequences. The secondary
social problems are those harmful conditions
resulting mainly from more influential
primary social problems and in turn
generating additional problems. Tertiary
social problems are those harmful conditions,
which are, directly or indirectly, the result of
more dominant problems. To illustrate this
point let us consider poverty, which may be
considered as a primary
problem. Fig. 10.1 shows that
poverty, as a primary problem
may lead to several secondary Primary
and tertiary problems. The two Problems
main secondary problems that
are outcomes of poverty are Poverty
slums and malnutrition. The
slums have further problematic
consequences. For instance,
they may lead to delinquency.
On the other hand,
Fig. 10.1: The social problem of poverty and its consequences
malnutrition can result in
199
illness, mental retardation, and apathy. It
may, however, be noted that the
categorisation of problems is for the purpose
of analysis. In reality, all the social problems
are interrelated.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Identifying Social Problems
Meet five adults in your neighbourhood and
ask each of them to list five most important
social problems faced by the Indian society
today. Then ask them to rank each problem
in terms of the urgency required for its
solution.
Discuss the data with your teacher and
classmates.
Perspectives on Social Problems
People often hold divergent views about the
nature and extent of a social problem. The
experts, policy makers, and the public often
differ on defining, analysing, and solving
social problems. Consider the issue of Sardar
Sarovar-dam. It is a project on which the
Government, the environmentalists, the
World Bank, the common people, and those
who are going to be displaced have different
perceptions. Understanding social problems,
therefore, demands recognition of the socio-
cultural and historical factors that shape
social reality. The task of social scientists is
to provide different perspectives and suggest
different options. The social problems can be
approached from the following perspectives.
1. Functional: It assumes that there is a
state of balance existing in the society and
Secondary Tertiary
Problems Problems
Slums Delinquency
Malnutrition Illness
Mental retardation
Apathy
200
conditions and events, which disrupt this
balance are problems.
2. Normative : According to this view,
problems involve situations in which the
norms of the mainstream society are
violated. The social problem exists for
those individuals whose norms have been
violated.
3. Objective : This view holds that problems
exist when empirical evidence points to
certain intolerable conditions that have
come about cumulatively. Over a period,
the condition worsens to such an extent
that it cannot be ignored any more.
4. Subjective : According to this perspective
the identification of a problem depends
on the perception of individuals. The
perception and cognition of issues as
problematic is necessary. Thus, social
problems are caused by values and norms
to which people subscribe.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN INDIA
India is a unique country in many respects.
Its culture spans over several thousand years
of unbroken continuity. It’s a country that
has assimilated diverse influences from many
parts of the world. The people of India are
diverse in many ways including language,
dress, religion, ethnicity, and customs. India
is rightly considered as an example of unity
in diversity.
Doing Activity 10.1 must have brought
you closer to the various social problems
faced in India. The list however, could
increase. If we analyse these problems you
will notice that they refer to different aspects
of life, such as the basic needs (economic,
health, education, security, housing etc.),
the social aspects (population, dowry,
communal violence, caste, child marriage,
corruption, unemployment etc.), the citizen
behaviour (indiscipline, juvenile
delinquency, lack of national character etc.),
the governmental problems (poor economy,
injustice, inadequate exploitation of
resources, law and order etc.) and other
problems (foreign influence, materialistic
attitude, religious dogmatism, laziness,
emphasis on rights etc.). It is obvious that
these problems are not isolated but
Introduction to Psychology
interdependent in nature. They in fact
reinforce each other. Let us study some
of the important problems that need
urgent attention.
Poverty and Social Disadvantage
Poverty is an unfortunate aspect of our social
reality. However, defining poverty in concrete
terms has proved to be a difficult task. The
way we define poverty provides different
estimates of incidence and prevalence of the
“poor”. According to the sample survey data
on consumer expenditure by the National
Sample Survey Organisation (July1999-June
2000) it is estimated that poverty ratio is
27.09 in rural areas. The percentage of
poverty in urban area is 23.62 and 26.10 for
the country as a whole. There are 260 million
poor, in India. India ranks 115th out of 162
countries in terms of the UNDP’s Human
Development Index.
Poverty is usually defined in terms of
economic resources. Thus, when some one
lacks material possessions to the point of
physical suffering (such as hunger) that
condition is characterised as poverty. Some
think that the lack of material possessions,
necessary to meet the basic human needs of
health reflect poverty. One may further
broaden the concept and say that poverty is
a lack of material possessions that are
necessary to have a decent standard of living.
In fact, any condition that falls at the lower
end of the socio-economic scale implies
poverty. For more details, you may study
Box 10.1.
The study of poverty and related
phenomena has attracted the attention of
social scientists from different disciplines.
They have approached the problem of poverty
from different perspectives. Psychologists
have been more interested in poverty as a
socio-psychological phenomenon and its
consequences for the individual and the
society. They are more focused on the
psychological dynamics of poverty and on the
psychological approaches of tackling it. In the
present discussion we shall be specifically
concerned with three concepts i.e., poverty,
social disadvantage, and deprivation. Let us
consider these concepts, briefly.
Psychology and Social Problems
Poverty is a comparative economic
concept. It is rooted in the notion of inequality.
It is a relative lack of or inaccessibility to the
resources and or inability to utilise the
resources to achieve what is needed or
desired. It deprives the individual of his/her
capability for a desired life. From a
psychological point of view individual
perception of his/her own condition as
poverty vis-à-vis others in a given society is
important in understanding poverty as a
social problem.
Deprivation refers to a sense of loss or
suffering. It is associated with poverty but it
is the individual’s experience or his/her
subjective feeling of lack of something desired.
(e.g., good food)
Disadvantage is a condition in which certain
groups or communities are constrained or
suffer from increased chances of failure
because of their social standing or
membership to a group or communities. It is
related to the socio-economic hardships that
are determined by the social structure.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Perceiving the Causes of Poverty
Ask six of your neighbours (3 males and 3
females) to enumerate the causes or factors,
which are viewed by them as responsible for
poverty. A person can mention any number
of factors. After collecting all the responses
try to see what are the more frequent and
less frequent causes stated by people to
explain the conditions of poverty.
Discuss your findings with your
classmates and teachers.
BOX 10.1 THE CONCEPT OF POVERTY
A person who is poor may not have the resources
or the resources may be present but remain out
of his or her reach. Poverty can be approached
from an absolute or a relative perspective. If a
large section of society’s population is incapable
of satisfying the basic needs then this situation
is termed as poverty. If a group lacks the
resources to meet the essential needs like
accommodation, nutrition, clothing, education,
201
The Causes of Poverty and
Social Disadvantage
Understanding poverty and disadvantage
necessarily involves value judgments about
the individual and the social order. These
phenomena refer to a complex set of social,
economic, and psychological conditions. The
study of the causes of poverty and social
disadvantage has indicated three sets of
factors namely individual, sub culture, and
social structure associated with poverty.
The Individual : The emphasis on the
individual focuses on the characteristics of
the person as the chief determinant of poverty
condition. A person is held responsible for
his or her condition. This kind of explanation
ignores the social context, which produces
and perpetuates poverty. In other words, the
victim of poverty is blamed for his or her state
of affairs.
The Culture of Poverty : According to this
view the cultural system prevailing in the
community of the poor, blocks any attempts
of society to change the values, norms, beliefs,
and lifestyle of the poor. The culture of poverty
fosters the typically disparaging behaviours
and values associated with poverty, keeping
the poor out of the mainstream of a modern
industrial society. It perpetuates itself from
one generation to the other. It creates a
stereotype that poor are fatalistic,
authoritarian, promiscuous, and physically
and emotionally isolated from the community
and from one another.
Social Structure : Both poverty and social
disadvantage are not viewed as just
economic phenomenon, but as social and
psychological reality. Various socio-cultural
conditions create inequality of opportunities,
and health, then that group is termed poor. In
this context the concept of poverty line has been
proposed. Poverty line separates population into
two categories namely those who have an
adequate level of living and those who do not. A
number of criteria are adopted for this purpose
including calorie intake, per capita income, food
ratio, and per capita consumption. Out of these,
income or consumption level has been frequently
contd...
202
used. An absolute definition of poverty does not
help much because people’s needs are
conditioned by the society in which they live.
Thus, two persons with same expenditure may
experience different levels of well being.
More recently, Human Development Index
has been proposed which considers poverty more
as denial of opportunities and choices most basic
to human development.
which put some in an advantaged and
others in disadvantaged position. The caste,
class, and other social institutions stack the
deck against the poor. They cause and
perpetuate poverty.
Poverty: A Psychological Analysis
Pareek proposed that behaviour is a product
of the social system in which people live. This
is produced through the intervening process
of motivation. He proposes that a social
system produces motivational patterns and
at the societal level, it produces reinforcing
mechanisms. Child rearing practices, the
schooling, and other institutions of
socialisation provide such mechanisms. They
condition human behaviour by producing
expectations of behaviour being rewarded or
punished. The expectancy framework built
on the basis of reinforcing mechanism
influences the feedback to the social system
and the reinforcing mechanism.
From this perspective, poverty is both a
structure and a product of a system. As a
structural component of the society, poverty
produces a specific pattern of motivation
and, through the relevant processes
Low n Achievement
Low n Extension
Poverty High n Dependence
Conditions
(lifestyle or culture of poverty) upward mobility of the
Socialisation Powerlessness
Fig. 10.2 A psychological model of poverty
Introduction to Psychology
The focus of researchers from different
disciplines has been different. Each discipline
looks at the phenomenon of poverty from its own
vantage point. This leaves many aspects of
poverty untapped. For instance, income or
consumption indices used by economists do not
appear to be an inclusive criterion. It does not
reflect the experience of poverty as a
psychological and social condition.
of socialisation, the expectancy of
powerlessness is produced. The model shown
in Fig. 10.2 indicates that poverty as a
structure produces a three fold motivational
pattern characterised by low need for
achievement, low need for extension, and
high need for dependence.
The low need for achievement results in
disproportionate risk taking, interest in chance
and not in control, low interest in feedback,
seeking company of friends instead of experts,
and lack of activity and initiative. The low need
of extension results in the lack of regard for
others, the lack of faith or trust, and the lack
of cooperation. High need for dependency
results in the lack of initiative, avoidance
behaviour, fear of failure, seeking
favours of superior, over conformity, and
counter dependence.
The above motivational pattern can be
achieved through appropriate programme of
training. However, the provision of
relevant material conditions is necessary so
that changes in motivation can be
sustained. In India, the change in
expectancy was introduced by certain
constitutional provisions to extend economic
opportunity, removal
of untouchability, and
reservation of seats. They
have facilitated the
development of new
Behaviour expectancies and helped
underprivileged groups
like the scheduled
castes and scheduled
tribes, minorities and
other backward
communities.
Psychology and Social Problems
Recapitulation
As a developing country, India is facing the
challenge of ensuring social justice and
welfare of the people. It is facing a number of
social problems. A social problem is one,
which influences a large segment of the
population. It may be latent or manifest itself.
While the manifested problem is apparently
recognised and the latent problem remains
unrecognised by the majority of the people.
These problems change with time.
Social problems can be categorised into
primary, secondary, and tertiary categories.
A primary problem leads to a few secondary
problems, which may result in tertiary
problems. The social problems are viewed
from different angles i.e., functional,
normative, objective, and subjective.
The most crucial problem faced today is
the problem of poverty and social
disadvantage. Poverty has been defined and
assessed in many ways. Each kind of
assessment provides a different way to
distinguish between the poor and those who
are not. The psychologists have focused
attention on the experience of dispossession
and social disadvantages. It is a kind of
deprivation, which is experienced because of
the membership in a group. Poverty is an
economic concept. It refers to lack or
inaccessibility to resources or inability to
utilise the resources. The causes of poverty
and social disadvantages have been identified
in the individual’s characteristics, cultural
characteristics, and social structure. Pareek
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Social problems can go unnoticed by the
people. T/F
2. The slums are examples of primary
social problems. T/F
3. According to functional perspective
social problems involve violation of
norms of the mainstream. T/F
4. Social problems are interrelated and
reinforce each other. T/F
5. The causes of poverty lie within the poor
people. T/F
6. The consequences of poverty make a
person poorer. T/F
203
has linked the poverty condition related to
poor motivation and socialisation that leads
to powerlessness.
Consequences of Poverty and
Social Disadvantages
The Indian researchers have examined the
performance of samples differing along caste,
income, region, socio-economic status (SES),
and other sub-cultural dimensions
representing poverty, deprivation, and social
disadvantage. The studies have used
measures of cognitive and intellectual ability,
motivation, personality, health, academic
achievement, etc. The main trends that
emerge from these studies are as follows:
l Mal and under-nutrition arrest physical
growth and adversely affect psychological
development. Children who are
undernourished are found to show apathy
and withdrawal. In general, the deprived
and disadvantaged groups are found to
show reduced curiosity, attentional deficits,
and learning problems.
l The children from the conditions of
poverty and social disadvantage show a
relatively low level of performance on
measures of intelligence, perceptual and
cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, concept
formation, language skills), and academic
achievement. Deprivation appears to
impair cognitive functioning.
l The gap between the level of performance
of the advantaged and disadvantaged
children increases with advancing age. In
fact, they are quite similar in the early
years but as they grow older the gap
between them increases. Such cumulative
deficits in performance retards academic
achievement. This may be one reason for
high drop-out rate which in some
disadvantaged groups is up to as much
as 80 per cent by grade 5.
l The personality of individuals growing up
under adverse socio-economic conditions
are characterised by the traits of
neuroticism, introversion, social
maladjustment, immaturity, alienation
and withdrawal. They have a very low level
of achievement motivation. Such
individuals are likely to attribute the
204
outcomes of their own behaviours to
external factors. They view success as
caused by some external conditions,
rather than by their own effort or ability.
They are more likely to believe in fate.
Some studies also suggest that they are
more aggressive and low in achievement
motivation.
l The adverse effects of poverty and
disadvantage are mediated by social,
political, and economic context.
Poverty Alleviation
It is clear that poverty is a great barrier in
the process of individual and societal
development. The negative effects of poverty
call for poverty alleviation measures on a
priority basis. The country has recognised this
problem and efforts are being made to reduce
poverty and to empower the poor to cope with
the problems and join the mainstream. These
efforts are of various types. Some are
Governmental initiatives while others are by
NGOs and other organisations or individuals.
A number of governmental and non-
governmental interventions were taken up
during the Five Year Plans to help people
outgrow the poverty trap. The ninth plan had
poverty reduction, employment generation,
BOX 10.2 INTERVENTIONS FOR ALLEVIATION OF POVERTY
The Government’s initiatives to provide economic
support and empowerment are reflected in
programmes such as: Training Youth for Self
Employment (TRYSEM), Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP), Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWACRA),
have been put together under Swarnjayanti Gram
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP),
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana, Sampurna
Gramieen Rozgar Yojana, National Social
Assistance Programme, Pradhan Mantri
Gramodaya Yojna. Swarna Jayanti Shahri
Rozagar Yojana, Indira Awas Yojana, Food For
Work Programme, Annapurna, and Shiksha
Sahyoga Yojana.
The policies of protective discrimination in
which seats are reserved in educational
institutions, jobs, and provisions for support to the
members of disadvantaged groups extend
opportunities for upward movement.
Introduction to Psychology
and providing basic minimum services as key
features. The anti poverty programmes are
of three kinds: land reform, asset provision,
and income and consumption support. The
Bhoodan movement of Vinoba Bhave was a
non-governmental movement to help the
marginalised. There has been some success
in these efforts but we still have to go a long
way. Some of the initiatives of this kind are
given in Box 10. 2. You may like to acquaint
yourself with them.
A close analysis of the poverty alleviation
programmes reveals that better results may
be obtained if the following considerations are
kept in view.
l Indiscrete support may lead to
dependency. It should be such that people
feel competent and responsible for their
actions and have the experience of self-
efficacy. The measures should ensure
initiative and active participation. They
should facilitate autonomous growth of
the poor. When supports available from
poverty alleviation programmes are
contingent upon people’s initiative
and effort, they become sustainable.
Nevertheless, if such support is not
associated with self-initiatives they are
Community based interventions have been
taken up by NGO’S. For instance, ‘Butterflies’ in
Delhi deals with children–victims of poverty and
abuse and destitutes. Gyan Prabodhini in Pune is
extending opportunities for all-round development
of the youth in poverty settings. BOSCO in Cochin
is trying to integrate street children with society.
The Swadhyaya movement under the leadership
of Pandrang Shastri Athawale mobilises the poor
for community participation, spiritual awakening,
and productive activity. Sulabha has taken
initiatives to provide clean environment.
Many researchers and institutions have
taken up psychological interventions. They
are founded on the assumption that human
development is shaped by the experiential base
of the child. They aim at strengthening and
equipping individuals from poverty backgrounds
with cognitive, motivational, and behavioural
skills and competencies necessary for effective
functioning.
Psychology and Social Problems
likely to foster psychological dependence.
l While individual psychological interventions
have to be embedded in a wider social
context, broader community level social
interventions need to consider the
psychological processes at the level of
individuals and groups. The changes in
school practices; enrichment strategies,
social policy, and economic input are
needed to operate simultaneously along
with inputs at individual level. Community
involvement in planning developmental
programmes creates commitment among
the members of the community towards
the success of such programmes.
l While a micro perspective focusing on
internal psychological processes in
conditions of poverty is not sufficient,
broad structural level changes without
changes in the psychological make up of
the individual and the community may
yield only short-term benefits. Therefore,
we need a multi-pronged strategy at the
individual, community, and group levels.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Observe the Life Under Poverty
Meet some people living in poverty. Ask them
about their daily routine, the problems they
face, and the factors responsible for their
present condition (as perceived by them):
Prepare a description of the life of these
people on the basis of answers obtained.
Do state on what (specific) basis you
have considered the two participants as
poor.
Discuss your observations with your
classmates and teacher.
Recapitulation
Poverty and social disadvantages have
important consequences for the individual as
well as the society. They arrest the optimal
growth of poor people and alienate them from
the main stream of society. Studies have
shown adverse effects of poverty condition on
all areas of development. The mal/under-
nutrition caused by poverty interferes with
brain development and physical growth. The
poor children, in general, have been found to
be behind their advantaged counterparts on
205
measures of cognitive development suggesting
cumulative deficit. In general, they show a
low level of competence, poor motivation, and
lack the coping styles needed for growth and
development. The studies also indicate that
the lack of support from home and school
environment plays an important role in
arresting the development of poor children.
There are some exceptions of invulnerable
children or lotuses of mud who outgrow the
adverse circumstances and attain equally or
better than the children from the socially
advantaged background.
Poverty alleviation has received attention
from many quarters. A variety of schemes
have been launched to empower the poor
through land reforms, asset provision, and
income and consumption support.
Community based and some psychological
interventions have also been made. While
organising interventions of any kind, it is
important to keep in mind that such
programmes do not lead to dependency. In
order to be successful, the interventions need
to be addressed to the levels of individuals,
groups, and community.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. The chance is high that malnourished
children shall become more social and
cooperative. T/F
2. The performance of socially
disadvantaged children on cognitive and
perceptual tasks is usually found lower
than that of advantaged. T/F
3. Cumulative deficit indicates that the gap
in performance between the advantaged
and disadvantaged group increases
with age. T/F
4. Usually the disadvantaged children are
more motivated to continue in the school
than the advantaged. T/F
5. The disadvantaged people internalise
success and externalise failure. T/F
6. The disadvantaged groups show
characteristics like introversion and
alienation. T/F
7. The efforts to remove poverty at
individual level can be successful only
if supported by the changes at the
structural level. T/F
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CHALLENGES FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION
People belonging to different ethnic and
cultural backgrounds inhabited India. They
vary in the religions they profess and practice,
the languages they speak, and the customs
they observe. One can trace the roots of this
diversity in history. Today India is the world’s
largest democratic country that embodies the
aspirations of a variety of people representing
diverse social categories like caste, religion,
language, etc. It has developed contacts with
people of different cultures over hundreds of
years. These contacts have influenced and
enriched the cultural heritage of our country.
The Indian music, dance, social rituals and
practices, literature, cuisine, sports and
architecture clearly reflect the trends of
accommodation and integration. As a result
of acculturation, a number of innovations
have been introduced in the Indian culture.
For example, can any one forget the
contributions of Jayasi, Rahim, Amir Khusro,
and Raskhan to Hindi poetry? Similarly, who
can think of Indian music without Alauddin
Khan, Bismillah Khan, Allarakha, Ustad
Amjad Ali Khan, and now A.R. Rahman? All
these artists command respect and affection
from Indian masses irrespective of their caste,
creed, or religion.
The diversity of the people provides a
unique structure or configuration to the social
fabric of India. The past experience shows that
bringing the diverse ethnic, religious, or sub-
cultural groups and communities together to
share national identity and creating the
feeling of belongingness has proved to be a
big challenge. During the freedom movement,
the idea of nationalism helped people to forget
the internal differences and dedicate their life
to the great cause of the nation’s liberation.
A new era began after gaining
independence. The country had to face the
enormous challenge of building an
infrastructure for one of the highly populated
nations of the world. Efforts were initiated
through the Five-Year Plans and other steps
to build a strong nation. The Country’s
accomplishments in the areas of food
production, expansion of education, advances
in science and technology, and nurturing the
Introduction to Psychology
democratic institutions have been significant.
The forces of modernisation and urbanisation
have helped to reduce the ethnic differences
and bridging the social distance. However,
much needs to be done.
Identity Construction : The Core Issue
The diversity and pluralism are intrinsic to
the Indian social reality and they are going to
stay. From a psychological perspective, it is a
challenge that requires us to deal with the
issue of identity. The formation of identity
provides uniqueness to a group. Contact with
other groups is very important for identity
formation. It may involve expansion or
narrowing of the group boundaries. While
establishing identity, the group differentiates
own group from other groups. Thus, people
distinguish one’s own group (in-group) from
other groups (out-groups). The formation and
differentiation of identity depend on the
broader societal conditions. Thus, if the
conditions promote cooperative and
collaborative relationships the identity
formation will be different from a situation
where resources are scarce and frustrations
are high. This may lead to inter group
conflicts.
The inter group relationship may be
collaborative or competitive. The
collaborative relationships prevail if the
goals or resources present in the society
are shareable. In contrast, when resources
and goals are not shareable competitive
relationships occur. Provision of super
ordinate goals may help to achieve
collaborative relationship. Pareek has
shown that in addition to this, the following
conditions are required for collaborative
relationship to occur.
1. The groups must perceive that each group
has equal power in the society.
2. There is minimum level of trust amongst
the groups.
3. There is continuous communication.
4. The general cultural orientation in the
society. This helps in developing a general
attitude towards other groups in the
society and may help in building
collaborative relationship.
Psychology and Social Problems
The multiethnic condition has a long
history in India. Indian culture has been
open to new ideas and trends. In addition,
there has been synthesis of the various
influences, which have come to India.
However, negative forces have also been
present that have led to intolerance,
conflict, and presence of prejudices and
discriminations. Pareek notes the following
psychological factors that are important in
this context:
1. Dependency : It leads to avoidance,
excessive fear of failure, over conformism,
and a tendency to seek favours.
2. Casteism : The tendency to have
hierarchical relationships amongst
various groups makes it difficult to relate
to other groups at an equal level.
3. Fatalism : The belief that what is to
happen is ordained and that what
happens is not within the control of the
individuals concerned.
4. Non-involvement and non-commitment :
It is the tendency to avoid and not confront
the issues.
Taken together these factors help to
develop prejudices, and a tendency to exploit
certain groups. It also leads to a tendency to
tolerate and live with such exploitation.
These trends have helped in maintaining
certain exploitative relationships among
various ethnic groups, particularly the
weaker sections.
The Challenges of Pluralism
The Indian Society is a pluralistic society in
which many groups live together. The success
of pluralism depends on three factors –
identity of the various groups, status of these
groups in relation to one another, and the
relationship among the concerned groups.
In a democratic set up, the Indian
society needs to move towards the goal of
synergic pluralism. This situation is like an
orchestra in which the various instruments
play in harmony with each other. They
maintain their separate identities and
contributions but produce music that
creates something new and different from
the individual contributions. In the Indian
context, achieving this situation shall
require us to use the strength of cultural
207
traditions, handling the negative forces, and
ensuring the different aspects of pluralism.
To achieve this goal the following steps shall
be helpful.
1. Maintenance of identity : Supporting
groups to hold their particular identities
and help different groups to have a sense
of pride. Enhancing acceptance of people
belonging to various groups and creating
opportunities to learn from each other will
be relevant.
2. Ensuring equal status : Steps like
reservation, providing equal opportunity,
and effective use of legislation and law
may help to achieve equality of status.
3. Collaborative relationship : It can be
achieved when necessary communication
and trust is maintained across the groups
and a super ordinate goal is made
available. Respect for each group and a
search for the contributions of each group
to society will be useful.
Meeting the Challenges : the Task Ahead
The idea of ‘one nation’ is a psychological one.
It is a feeling of belongingness, which
transcends over diversities. National identity
refers to the distinctive character of the nation
state. It involves psychological coherence of
the various socio-political and economic
institutions, which provides a distinctive
character to the country. In the Indian
context, equality of opportunity, composite
character, secularism, and the national
identification constitute the main features.
This identity derives its relevance from
history, culture, and commitment of the
people to the goals and objectives enshrined
in the Indian constitution.
Some of the ways in which national
identity can be strengthened are given below:
l Providing opportunities for greater contact
across different subgroups and
communities on various occasions can lay
a key role in enhancing national
integration. Sharing the joys and sorrows
together can help to achieve integration.
The increase in interpersonal contact,
cooperation and dependency on each
other shall help to eliminate the
unfounded stereotypes and contribute to
greater social tolerance.
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l Creating the necessary space for inter
ethnic dialogue may help to correct their
mis-perceptions and reduce the
mistrust. This will facilitate developing
an attitude of respect for each other.
This is an important step towards
the emergence of a true civil society
and strengthen the processes of
democratic governance.
l The process of socialisation is crucial for
the development of attitudes and value
systems. The attitudes start taking shape
from early childhood. The parents,
therefore, have to share the burden of
helping children to develop positive
attitudes toward different groups and the
nation as a whole.
l A sense of involvement of the deprived and
underprivileged groups in the
development and implementation of
policies and programmes may help to
increase the sense of empowerment. This
may facilitate national integration.
As Allport says, in the ultimate analysis,
there is no solution to the problem of inter
group tension excepting the inner growth
of serene and benevolent persons who seek
their own security and integrity not at the
expense of their fellow men but in
collaboration with them. The traits that
mark a serene and benevolent person are
culture relative. In this context, the concept
of non-violence is relevant. We need to learn
the value of non-violence (ahimsa) and try
to practice it in our lives. Mahatma Gandhi
was a person who preached and practiced
this ideal in his life. If you like to know more
about Ahimsa and Sathya, you are
encouraged to study Box 10.3.
Recapitulation
Indian society is multiethnic and consists of
diverse groups and communities, which share
diversity in language, religion, and customs.
The freedom struggle provided a super
ordinate goal to unite the entire nation.
The existence of diverse groups and
communities is a reality that needs to be
accepted and respected. Mutual understanding
and cooperation need to be established. This
is possible by creating space for greater
Introduction to Psychology
ACTIVITY 10.4
Understanding National Integration
Choose any two communities and collect
information from reliable sources (e.g.,
knowledgeable people) about the duties and
responsibilities of a human being as followed
in these communities.
Try to figure out the degree of similarities
and differences across the two communities.
Discuss your observations with your
classmates and teacher.
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Harmony and cohesiveness are the
means for social development T/F
2. Indian society represents a homogenous
community. T/F
3. Economic disparity and the need for
identity are linked with social conflicts.
T/F
4. Increase in inter group contact can
facilitate harmony. T/F
5. Lack of people’s involvement and
political participation is not a necessary
condition for social harmony. T/F
6. Social conflicts and tensions cannot be
eliminated from any society. T/F
intergroup interaction, increasing the scope
of dialogue across different communities,
parental education to socialise children,
involving people in programmes, promoting
interdependence and social mobility.
Religious tolerance and dialogue is crucial.
Non-violence is very pertinent in this
connection.
GENDER DISCRIMINATION
At the time of birth, a neonate has a sex, but
no gender. At birth, the biological sex can be
decided based on physical and anatomical
features. However, it is only through the
particular set of behaviours, attitudes
and feelings, which are socio-culturally
determined, that we define an individual’s
Psychology and Social Problems
BOX 10.3 WHY DOES NON-VIOLENCE WORK?
Mahatma Gandhi on Non-Violence
Non-violence is an active force of the highest
order. It is the soul-force or the power of
Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot grasp
the whole of that Essence–he would not be able
to bear its full blaze, but even an infinitesimal
fraction of it, when it becomes active within us,
can work wonders.
I am not a visionary; I claim to be a
practical idealist. The religion of non-violence
is not meant for the rishis or saints. It is meant
for the common people as well. Non-violence
is the law of our species as violence is the
law of the brute…. The dignity of man requires
obedience to a higher law – to the strength of
the spirit. Non-violence does not require any
outside or outward training. It simply requires
gender. Gender is a cultural construction on
a biological foundation. Males and females
have different sex organs and sex hormones.
However, on the basis of culture, people frame
a whole set of images, values, beliefs, and
expectations about genders. It is found that
every society has certain clearly defined and
commonly accepted gender differences in
behaviour. Some division of labour is found
everywhere. The magnitude of sex differences
in socialisation is found to be strongly
correlated with various features of culture.
For instance food preparation is a task
assigned to females in almost all societies.
Similarly, child rearing happens to be the
responsibility of females. However, males
sometimes share such responsibilities.
The differential socialisation of the two
sexes evolved as means for preparing children
to assume their sex linked adult roles. In other
words, the behavioural differences between
the sexes are products of different
socialisation practices that reflect training for
different adult activities. Traditionally the
Indians had the notion of ardhanarishwar, a
God who is half male and half female.
The Domains of Gender Discrimination
In contemporary India, the status of women
has improved from what prevailed in the pre-
independence India. However, a lot still
remains to be done to provide equal
opportunity to both the sexes and offer a life
209
the will not to kill even in retaliation and the
courage to face death without revenge. This
is no sermon on ahimsa but cold reason and
the statement of a universal law. Given the
unquenchable faith in the law, no provocation
should prove too great for the exercise of
forbearance.
With satya (truth) combined with ahimsa
(non-violence), you can bring the world over your
feet. Satyagrah in its essence is nothing but
the introduction of truth and gentleness in the
political, i.e., national life… By its very nature,
non-violence cannot seize power, nor can that
be its goal. However, non-violence can do more;
it can effectively control and guide power without
capturing the machinery of government. That is
its beauty.
of dignity, and respect that women deserve.
The issues related to women’s status in Indian
society are linked with caste, social class, area
of residence, economic status of the family,
type of family structure, education, and the
traditions prevailing in various subcultures
and communities to which people belong.
Hence, any generalisation made will fall short
of the description of the totality. However,
some events and incidents do provide
indicators of the status of women in society.
Let us examine the broad trends that are
visible in the Indian society.
The presence of women in public sphere,
and their increasing participation in
professional jobs, particularly in jobs that were
earlier considered exclusively for men (e.g.,
police service, army, pilot, engineering,
administration, social activism, judiciary,
corporate management etc.) provides faith in
the competence of women. At the same time,
unfortunately, the incidence of exploitation of
and atrocities on women are quite frequent.
The frequency of events such as bride burning
(dowry death), sexual abuse and harassment,
exploitation and discrimination in work places,
domestic violence including wife battering,
preventing girls from education, early marriage,
and infanticide are still not uncommon.
The mere fact that the sex ratio in the
population is unfavourable to women and the
literacy rate among the females is low, is
210
sufficient enough to indicate about the
unfavourable conditions of women. The
trends reported in Box 10.4 shall help you to
know more in this context.
Causes of Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination in contemporary
Indian society is associated with several
factors. Some of the important ones closely
linked with it are listed below.
Lack of education : Education happens to
be the main instrument of social change.
Provision of education accelerates the process
of upward social mobility, and opens up
horizons. The formal education empowers one
with the skills necessary in a fast changing
world.
Lack of exposure : Due to the lack of
exposure women had generally been confined
to the roles within the family. The world
outside the home remained alien to them. The
skills and attitudes needed to struggle with
the demands of the outer world need to be
emphasised for the upliftment of women.
Dependence on males : In the traditional
Indian families women had to be dependent
on men for almost everything. They had
to enact the roles of daughter, wife,
sister, mother, and grandmother. The
intergenerational differences were important.
The dependence on the father, the husband
and finally on their own children constituted
the fate of women.
BOX 10.4 DISCRIMINATION AGAINST THE GIRL CHILD
The roots of gender discrimination are seen in
the experiences of a girl child. In one of the
pioneering works, Anandlakshmy (1994) studied
the status of girl child in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West
Bengal on a sample of 13,200 girls. Their age
ranged from 7 to 18 years. The findings are as
follows:
l The girl child in India is discriminated even
before birth. Studies on amniocentesis have
shown that female foeticide is widespread.
Introduction to Psychology
Customs : Earlier the social mobility was low
and people used to live with kith and kin in a
community setting. The life activities demanded
close interaction with ecology and the local
people. The festivals, social occasions, and
entertainment were organised with family as
the basic unit. Women had to be embedded in
the web of social relationships.
The Changing Scenario
In the recent past, women’s role has been
undergoing important changes due to the
impact of western education, urbanisation,
and industrialisation. The resulting conflicts
in values and norms have required
readjustments and development of modern
attitudes. The women’s liberation movements
have also led to some changes in the sex roles.
Legal provisions for increase in the
participation of women (e.g., Panchayati Raj),
setting up institutions to support the cause
of women’s welfare, and creating schemes to
facilitate women’s empowerment have been
helpful in changing the situation. These are
helpful in promoting the status of women and
enhancing their participation in the
mainstream of the society. Such support for
the cause of women comes from non-
governmental as well as the government
agencies. The women in different parts of the
country are becoming aware of their rights
and responsibilities. For instance, in Gujarat,
women have formed a cooperative society
named SEWA and are running it on their own
very successfully.
Figures on female infanticide are also high
in several states.
l Even after the girl is born, she has to cope
with deep-rooted gender, stereotypes and
prejudices For instance the birth of a girl is
generally not celebrated.
l Girls usually stay home to help with the
household chores or look after the younger
siblings while the boys are sent to school.
l At mealtimes, the girl waits until the men of
the family have eaten.
l At puberty, the girl finds her movements
highly restricted; no longer is she allowed to
contd...
Psychology and Social Problems
move about freely. Her marriage becomes a
priority.
l Once she is married, the girl is often
harassed for bringing an inadequate dowry,
or for producing a girl child.
The girls are part of a social system, which
exploit and keep the women, subordinate and
powerless. The study by Anandalakshmy
ACTIVITY 10.5
Understanding Gender Discrimination
Take a sample of newspapers for a week.
Go through the news items and find out the
following:
l News items which in any manner are
gender discriminatory.
l News items showing women’s
empowerment, attempts to enhance their
status, and assuring new roles and
responsibilities.
Prepare a report on gender
discrimination based on the above-mentioned
survey of newspapers.
Discuss your report with your classmates
and teachers.
Recapitulation
Gender discrimination is a behavioural
manifestation of the prejudices against women.
The gender roles are predominantly social
constructions. The various sources of
socialisation promote these constructions.
Women had been dependent on males in
various ways. Today, a small section of women
have been able to move beyond the traditional
role boundaries. However, for a large segment
of women’s population the situation is grim.
The decreasing sex ratio in the population and
the high rate of illiteracy clearly exemplify this.
The factors, which maintain gender
discrimination, include the lack of education,
lack of exposure, dependence on males, and
social customs. With a view to remove
gender discrimination a variety of efforts
have been initiated. They include, legal
provisions, social support, and other
programmes by the governmental and non-
governmental agencies.
211
revealed that the celebration of the birth of
the girl child was reported by 2% of the
respondents. 78% respondents reported
sharing household work with their mothers.
In order of time spent a girl child is engaged
in the following activities: sweeping 72 %,
cooking 65%, fetching water 43%, cleaning
42%, and child care 33%.
LEARNING CHECKS IV
l Gender is socially determined while sex
is biologically determined. T/F
l Sex-related stereotypes are found only
in India. T/F
l According to current reports of India
women are lower in literacy than men.
T/F
l In Indian population, the sex ratio is in
favour of women. T/F
l Spread of education and urbanisation
has led to change in gender role. T/F
POPULATION EXPLOSION
The population in India has grown in an
alarming proportion. In 1901, the population
of India was 238 million (23.8 crores). In year
2001, it has reached the figure of 1,027 million,
(102.7 crores) 531 million males and 495.7
million females. While the country occupies
only 2.4 percent of the world surface area of
135.79 million sq km, it is required to support
16.7 per cent of the total world population.
With the increase in population, the
country is facing a number of problems.
Overcrowding is growing very fast in
large cities. Increase in population is
associated with increase in the incidence of
starvation, malnutrition, unemployment, and
underemployment. The effort to alleviate
poverty is also thwarted. The social stress and
tensions are correlated with population
growth. Some of the findings about it that may
interest you are given in Box 10.5.
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Controlling Population Growth through
Family Planning
In order to control the population growth,
family planning (FP) methods are required.
In a traditional society like India, family
planning has proved to be a real challenge. It
has been found that FP has been successful
in a limited way. The reasons why it is not
popular are many. The important ones are
as follows:
l Low economic security.
l High child mortality.
l Lack of health consciousness.
l Struggle for land and property ownership.
l Misconceptions about FP.
l Religious beliefs.
ACTIVITY 10.6
People’s Perception of Population Explosion
Meet two young and two old persons and
ask them to do the following:
1. Estimate the population (in approximate
term) of :
l The World
l India
l Your State
l Your City
2. Answer the following questions.
a) How urgent is the need to control the
population growth?
b) What is the possibility that India will be
able to successfully control the
population growth?
c) What steps are needed to control the
population explosion? Discuss the
findings with your teacher and
classmates.
BOX 10.5 CROWDING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
The population explosion has major impacts on
the environment and the quality of people’s
life. The high density aggravates pollution of
air and water. The open space also becomes
limited. When population grows, it grows not
only in size but also because of limited and
depleted resources it grows in density. The
initial efforts to study the effect of population
Introduction to Psychology
The adoption of FP methods by the people
is a major challenge. The Government has
undertaken a number of steps to popularise
FP adoption including incentives for adopting
small families norms. The use of mass media
particularly TV has been found helpful to
popularise the message of FP.
Recapitulation
The growth of population depends upon
fertility, mortality, and migration. The
population of India has been growing very
fast. This pressure is creating a variety of
problems related to the production of food,
unemployment, health facilities, and civic
amenities. The challenge is to provide support
to a very large population with limited
resources. High population density leads to
crowding which has negative effect on mental
health and pattern of social interaction. The
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. India has sufficient resources to support
its population. T/F
2. Population growth adversely affects the
quality of life of the people. T/F
3. The presence of large number of people
in limited space leads to the feeling of
crowding. T/F
4. High populations density is unrelated
to task performance. T/F
5. Early marriage and illiteracy are
negatively related to the adoption of
family planning. T/F
6. The adoption of family planning
depends on effective communication.
T/F
density were undertaken in animal
laboratories. These studies showed negative
physiological and behavioural effects. The
density has two components: Number of people
in a given space, and the amount of space
available per person. Studies show that
crowding leads to negative feelings, stress,
anxiety, and the invasion of space.
Psychology and Social Problems
Control of population growth requires
successful adoption of family planning
methods. Such measures were not adopted
by people whole-heartedly for reasons like:
high rate of child mortality, lack of economic
security, and misconceptions about the use
of contraceptive methods. Various methods
of persuasion are being used to promote
family planning.
IMPACT OF MEDIA AND
COMMUNICATION REVOLUTION
The media is considered as a powerful force
in the modern life. It is shaping our life in an
unprecedented manner. Media not only
presents the reality to us but also constructs
it. Through the cognitive input and offerings
of lifelike experiences, the media performs
many functions such as information,
education, recreation, representation, reality
construction, and organising everyday
activities. The media changes beliefs and
shapes our perceptions in many important
ways.
The world of the media is diverse and
comes in different modes including print,
audio-visual, and electronic (e.g., Radio, TV,
News Papers, Magazines, Internet). All of them
are changing our beliefs, attitudes, feelings,
and behaviours by selectively emphasising
certain aspects of life and making them
salient. Today, the fast, effective, and large
coverage of information flow across the world
has made this world shrink to a global village.
India has been able to keep pace with the
advances in the media and communication
technology.
Today TV has become an important and
integral part of the life of the people. Time
and space are being redefined by the
communication technology. The rapidly
shrinking world and shrinking time scale offer
a new level of connectivity that was earlier
unthinkable. We monitor our activities in
today’s fast moving world and organise them
very effectively. The media is providing
legitimacy and authenticity to the elements
of reality of every day life. The printed words
and the life like reality presented by the TV
provide information that help people to plan
213
their actions. The children, adults and the
aged all are under its impact, though, the
nature of impact varies. The children are
showing greatest impact of the electronic
media like TV. The influence of media,
particularly, the depiction of aggression,
violence and sex, has become a very
important social issue. Studies on children
indicate that the more violent the content of
the child’s TV viewing, the more aggressive
the child becomes. There have been
experimental studies, which suggest that
viewing violence promotes aggressive
behaviour. The experiments suggest that
prolonged viewing of violence has two effects:
(1) It desensitises the people towards cruelty,
and (2) distorts their perception of the reality.
Viewing others performing an antisocial act
can loosen the viewer’s inhibition or
restraints. The media portrayals evoke
imitation in the viewers.
Some Consequences of
Communication Revolution
The changes in communication technology
have wide-ranging consequences for human
life. Let us examine some of its major
consequences.
Education : The TV has opened the possibility
of distance education. The lectures are aired
on the TV and are accessible to a very large
number of students in different regions. The
role of media in educating people formally as
well as informally is significant. The TV is also
used to reach to the villages in remote areas
and for educating the people about
agriculture and family planning. The
computer aided audio-visual aids (e.g.,
compact disk, power point presentation)
make the mode of communication very
effective. The search and retrieval of
information from anywhere in the world has
become possible through the Internet. All
these modern achievements of science and
technology are fast changing the educational
scenario.
Redefining Human Motivation : The media
has brought about many changes that are
taking place in the psyche of the people. The
information and access to a large variety of
products and consumer goods are made
214
possible by the media. It has promoted
consumerism, generating new needs, and
awareness about multiple products. Cut-
throat competition is another outcome of
advertising. Advertising and the use of models
have influenced even the emotional lives of
the people. The models, actors, and actresses
in cinema become role models, and have a
powerful impact on the life goals, interests,
and attitudes of the younger generation.
Reorganisation of Social Life : The
developments in communication technology
have revolutionised the life of the people. The
Internet is used to advertise, send e-mails,
watch movies, read novels, do shopping,
booking ticket for travel, do banking, apply
for jobs, perform the office job from home or
any place, and chat with people. This has
produced tremendous impact and regulated
the interaction pattern among the people. The
timings of work, socialising, and leisure
activities are being redefined. Unfortunately,
while interaction and connectivity have
expanded across the globe, the quality of
interaction with neighbours and the
community has gone down.
Increase in Public Awareness : The
electronic media has accelerated the process
of dissemination of information. It has
increased the level of awareness of the people.
The public opinion is mediated by the flow of
information from the media. The electronic
media is effectively being used to promote the
participation of the people in politics, sports
and many social issues.
Reorganisation of Work : The advances in
the communication technology have
implications for the structure of
organisations, record keeping, confidentiality
of information, filing and paper work,
transparency, and hierarchical structure.
With the help of Internet, cell phone, people
may not be required to attend office from 9
a.m. to 5 p.m. Through the internet people
can work from home or any place where they
are located. The bureaucratic structure is
changing because the information can be kept
in computers and can be accessed,
transferred, modified, and used for a variety
of purposes with unprecedented speed and
accuracy. This new technology, however, is
Introduction to Psychology
not free from problems. The users of computer
are familiar with viruses, and hacking.
Creating websites and using them for legal
and illegal purposes are not without
problems. The laws regulating the use of cyber
space are also not well defined.
Recapitulation
In contemporary life, the media is increasingly
assuming a significant role. They are defining
and organising our personal and social
experiences. The social reality is now mediated
by the media. Media is changing the meaning
of time and space and bringing the world more
and more closer.
The impact of the media and
communication revolution is seen on different
aspects of life. Children are most vulnerable
to TV and exposure to violence on TV has
many negative effects. The advances in
communication technology are useful for
educational expansion. Human aspirations,
patterns of social interactions, and work
experiences are being influenced by the media
and the new communication technology.
LEARNING CHECKS VI
1. Media is substituting the first hand
direct experience. T/F
2. Communication revolution has increased
the distances across the globe. T/F
3. Communication technology has enhanced
the connectivity across the people. T/F
4. Children are not able to discriminate the
reality and its representation. T/F
5. The media exposure is promoting
consumerism. T/F
URBANISATION
Urbanisation refers to the process of increase
in the number of points at which population
concentrates and a growth in the size of these
concentrations. With urbanisation, people
shift from agrarian occupation to industrial
and service occupations. The migration of
people from the villages is the main cause of
urbanisation. People migrate from villages to
cities in search of greater and more attractive
Psychology and Social Problems 215

ACTIVITY 10.7

Electronic Media and its Messages

During free time, watch the TV carefully in the morning or in the evening, for an hour. While
watching the TV note down the following information.

Name of the Programme Contents of Messages Conveyed Target Population

1. ________________________ _________________________________ ________________________
2. ________________________ _________________________________ ________________________
3. ________________________ _________________________________ ________________________
4. ________________________ _________________________________ ________________________

After collecting, the above data try to find out what are the motivational implications of these
messages.
Discuss the findings with your teacher and classmates.

economic options. The urban centres,
however, pose various challenges for the
inhabitants and for governance.
The references to two different types of
habitations i.e., the grama and the nagar
have a long tradition in India. In ancient,
India Panini has referred to them. A city
was populated by traders and industrial
workers with adequate amenities of life. The
village stood for simplicity and
accommodated village craftsmen and
agriculturists. The urban settlements in
India have undergone basic changes over
the centuries. Today a city represents a
relatively large, dense, and permanent
settlement of socially heterogeneous
individuals.
The cities differ from the villages in many
respects. As cities happen to be the place for
transacting business, politics, administration,
medical, transportation, commercial and
educational, activities, they have become the
centres of power. The life in cities is fast and
very demanding. The cities are growing in size
and adjunct rural areas are being acquired
and made part of cities. Town and urban
planning has become a major responsibility
of the Government.
Majority of the people who had migrated
from villages now live in the cities as tenants.
The studies of various cities in India show
that social institutions like marriage, kinship,
family, caste, religion, etc., present a mixed
picture. They have elements of continuity as
well as change. Some important features of
urban life are as follows.
1. The face-to-face interaction is being
substituted by indirect and mediated
interaction.
2. The interpersonal relationships are
becoming formal, contractual, planned,
and calculated. The spontaneity is being
replaced by sophistication and rationality.
3. The friendship circle of the urban people
is based more on the professional
relationship than kinship.
4. The urban people have an acute sense of
time. They work under tremendous
pressure of time and therefore, work on a
fast pace.
5. The type of kitchen, food habits, and
general organisation of home provide a
different structure of home.
6. Consumerism and market orientation are
the keys of urbanisation.
Problems with Urbanisation
Urbanisation has led to many problems that
destabilise the life of the people. Most of the
cities in India are facing various kinds of
problems. These problems are caused by the
continued migration of population from the
216
villages, the technological changes, and the
mode of transportation. Some of the major
problems are stated below.
The Growth of Slums : A slum is an area
characterised by overcrowding, unsanitary
conditions, or absence of facilities or
amenities, which endanger the health, safety,
and morals of its inhabitants. Most of the
Indian cities are showing a rapid growth of
slums. Disease, crime and drug addiction are
very common in these slums.
Housing Problems : Housing in the city is a
persistent problem. To keep pace with the
housing needs of the people is a major
challenge. Multi-storeyed accommodations
are increasing. The high-rise buildings have
their own problems.
Crowding and Depersonalisation: Crowding
is a difficult problem faced in the cities. Some
houses are overcrowded. Crowding results in
competition, and high infant mortality.
Bystander apathy is very common. The city
dwellers do not want to get involved. You often
must have read in news where people are
murdered while others merely stand by
and watch.
Maintenance of City : With the burden of
growing population the basic infrastructure
of many cities is crumbling down. The streets
are choked with traffic. There is mixed and
incompatible land use. Growing deterioration
in public utilities, municipal services, and
community facilities (e.g., drinking water,
sewage, waste disposal etc) mark the life of
the majority of the Indian cities.
Law and Order : Crimes of various types (e.g.,
corruption, murders, immoral trafficking, use
of drugs etc.) are on the increase in the cities.
The mounting social conflicts lead to
demonstrations, rallies, and at times fights
that creates a law and order problem.
Transportation and Traffic : Public
transportation system is a top priority since
people have to commute long distances to
earn their livelihood. Personal transport is not
available to majority of the people. The
number of automobiles multiplies, so does
the pollution, and traffic jam disrupts life of
people. All these adversely affect the mental
and physical health of the people.
Introduction to Psychology
The Challenge
Maintenance of the cities and arresting
their deterioration require long-term
planning, people’s participation, huge
investment, and political will. These will be
of little help if the necessary changes in
attitude and behaviour do not take place.
The cooperation of people with government
machinery is necessary. This kind of
awareness is gradually emerging and new
towns and colonies are being established
with sufficient planning keeping in view the
needs of residents and ecological balance.
It is gratifying that preserving green space
and creating community facilities is getting
the attention in the new towns.
ACTIVITY 10.8
Psychology and the Advantages of
Urban Life
Meet three persons who have undergone the
experiences of urban life for at least five
years. Ask them to list the problems and
advantages they have experienced.
Analyse the answers and prepare an
account of urban life.
Discuss your results with the classmates
and teacher.
Recapitulation
Urbanisation involves increase in the
concentration of population and change in the
occupational structure. It is caused mainly by
the migration of population from villages. Urban
centres and villages differ in terms of social
structure, social density, housing pattern,
transport, and institutional structure.
The life in cities is becoming more
impersonal, fast, and technology dependent.
The pattern of formal social interaction,
professional friendship, concern for time,
organisation of home environment and use of
gadgets distinguish urban life from rural life.
Urbanisation has resulted in the growth of
slums, housing problems, crowding, law
and order and transportation problems.
Maintaining cities and providing the necessary
support is becoming a major challenge.
Psychology and Social Problems 217

LEARNING CHECKS VII Key Terms

l Majority of the urban population is Poverty, Social Disadvantage, Nation,
engaged in industrial and service Density, Crowding, Urbanisation,
occupation. T/F Deprivation, Gender, Sex, Identity, Social
Problem, Non-violence,
l City involves socially homogenous and
temporary settlements. T/F
l The pace of urban life is becoming more
and more stressful. T/F
l The behaviour of urban people is less
rational and sophisticated than their
counterparts. T/F
l Consumerism is in greater strength in
the urban people. T/F
l Crowding and bystander apathy is low
in cities than rural areas. T/F

SUMMARY

l Social problems are those conditions which are considered by a large section of
population as a problem. However, there are some problems, which are not explicitly
considered as problems because people are not aware of them. They are latent problems
(e.g., overcrowding, environmental pollution).
l As an emerging developing country, India is experiencing a large number of social
problems. Some are primary while others are secondary and tertiary because they
emanate from the primary problem.
l Poverty is a primary social problem. It is defined and measured in different ways
leading to different numbers of people below poverty line. The experience of poverty
occur when people lack or do not have access to resources. Social disadvantage stands
for deprivations linked with membership of specific groups. Poverty may be relative or
absolute. The causes of poverty have been identified in the poor, the culture of poor
people, or the broader social structure.
l In general, poverty and related phenomena make people vulnerable. Psychological
researches have indicated that poverty arrests the developmental potential.
Comparisons of socially disadvantaged and advantaged groups indicate that the former
show low level of performance on learning, perceptual and cognitive tasks. Their
motivation and aspiration level is at a lower level. There are few who against all odds
survive and grow. Such invulnerable people are found because of extra motivation,
presence of a role model or support.
l Being a central problem removal of poverty has received priority and a number of
programmes in terms of asset provision, legal protection, and protective reservation
have been launched. In addition, community based interventions; NGO’s efforts and
psychological intervention have been undertaken. The problem of poverty persists
and more vigorous attack on poverty at the individual and the structural levels
is required.
218 Introduction to Psychology

l National integration is emerging as a serious social problem before the Indian society.
While freedom struggle articulated a common goal for the whole nation, the experiences
in the last five decades indicate increasing degree of social tension in different parts
of the country. Being a country with diversities in language, customs, and religion etc.
it is important to respect and reciprocate the distinct identities. Increasing
interdependence and dialogue across groups, promoting inter faith communication,
and parental education can help to enhance mutual cooperation and national integration.
Tolerance, dialogue, and non-violence need to be stressed in social life.
l Discrimination against women presents a major challenge. The gender roles are socially
created and sustained. The domain of women has been restricted to home and
dependent on the male members. Lack of education and exposure, traditional customs
and the dependence on males has hindered their growth. The legal provisions,
institutional support, and special programmes initiated by the government are trying
to uplift the status of women.
l Population growth has become a key issue before the planners and policy makers of
India. Inability to control the growing population impairs the economic growth. The
problems of unemployment, the degradation of environment and the poor infrastructure
to support law and order, the inadequate health and other facilities are to a large
extent due to the high rate of population growth. The misconceptions about family
planning–measures, economic insecurity, and the high rate of child mortality are the
major causes for non-adoption of family planning measures. A more effective
communication and motivational mechanism need to be used to control population
growth.
l The media and communication revolution are drastically changing our world. We know
about and interact with our world through the audio visual, electronic, and print media.
The media is shaping the minds and habits of the people by providing selective exposure
to certain kinds of information and experiences. The life style, including the work
habits and leisure time activities are now shaped by the media. The exposure to the
media sensitises us in relation to certain kinds of events. Thus, viewing violence is
often linked with the increase in violence in real life. The media also informs us about
values, politics, culture, etc., and shape our choices in related matters. The
communication revolution has made communication faster, easier, and accurate. The
new gadgets are making interaction and connectivity across the globe very effective.
l The expansion of urbanisation is changing the shape of our society, particularly its
economy, spatial organisation, and social institutions. The move from the agrarian or
rural mode of life towards the urban mode of life is a major event. While the notions of
the village and the city have ancient roots in India, modern cities are the consequence
of industrialisation. Most of the Indian cities are becoming heterogeneous entities where
the people from different regions and social backgrounds live. Their occupations are
more important. Housing, transport, life style, and patterns of social interactions in the
urban areas are different from what we find in the rural area. With the growth in the
size, cities are facing a variety of problems such as the growth of slums, healthy
housing, deteriorating law and order, crowding and traffic.
Psychology and Social Problems 219

Review Questions

1. How do you define a social problem?

2. What are the psychological consequences of poverty?
3. How does poverty affect the development of the individual and the society?
4. What are the challenges for national integration?
5. What are the causes and manifestations of gender discrimination?
6. What is the impact of media and communication revolution on social life?
7. Explain the various dimensions of population explosion?
8. What are the effects of urbanisation?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T
II : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. F, 6. T, 7. T
III : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. F, 6. T
IV : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6.F
V : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. T
VI : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T
VII : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T, 6. F
220 Introduction to Psychology

SKILLS NEEDED FOR AN

11 EFFECTIVE PSYCHOLOGIST

THIS CHAPTER COVERS CONTENTS

Ä Introduction to the domains of
psychological applications
Ä The challenges in developing as a
psychologist
Ä Learning about some of the important
skills for becoming a psychologist
Ä Awareness about counseling,
psychological testing, interviewing and
communication skills
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä understand the need to develop skills
among psychologists
Ä describe some major domains in which
professional preparation is required, and
Ä appreciate basic aspects of the skills of
counseling, psychological testing
interviewing and communication.
Introduction
Developing as a Psychologist
What is counseling ?
The Stages of counseling Process
Characteristics and Skills of an Effective
Counselor
Case Study (BOX 11.1)
Ethics of Counseling
Testing Skills: Applying Psychological Tests
Guidelines for Test Selection (11.2)
Communication Skills
Interviewing Skills
(Organising Rehabilitation Services for
Physically, Mentally and Socially Challenged
BOX 11.3).
(Empathy and Self Discipline BOX 11.4).

Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist 221

INTRODUCTION

People often keep telling others that “I know your psychology”. If you are facing
a personal problem, many of your acquaintances will comment that it is a
psychological problem. On the other hand, psychology as a discipline claims
expertise in handling psychological problems. As a scientific enterprise psychology
has developed theories in many areas and as professional psychologists do
meaningful things in day-to-day life with the available psychological knowledge.
Such activities require development of certain skills. You have learnt about
methods that are used to produce psychological knowledge in Class XI textbook.
You have also learnt about the application of psychological knowledge in day-to-
day life constitutes an important goal of psychology. Today a large number of
psychologists are working in different settings such as, business houses,
consultancy concerns, hospitals, schools, agencies of market-research, defence
establishments and a variety of non-governmental organisations (NGOs). They
are playing different roles and carrying out various kinds of responsibilities. The
applications of psychological principles and research findings to solve everyday
problems at individual and institutional levels are substantially increasing.

The specialised fields of psychology like industrial/organisational, cognitive,

developmental, clinical, consumer, counseling, educational, school, health,
aviation, forensic, environment, community, and military provide diverse
opportunities to apply psychological knowledge. In all these areas, the basic
responsibility of psychologists is to do something to help people and improve
their quality of life. However, dealing with people is quite challenging. Becoming
an effective psychologist requires that one should not only have theoretical
understanding but must have the requisite skills and competencies. Like other
disciplines, the careers of psychologists in different areas demand specialised
professional training. While you are not mature enough to become a professional
psychologist right now, it will be useful to have some idea about the preparation
required for becoming a good psychologist. This chapter has the modest goal of
helping you understand the process of becoming a psychologist as well as to
know about some specific skills important to the work of psychologists. To this
end four skills namely counseling, psychological testing, communicating and
interviewing are described.
222
DEVELOPING AS A PSYCHOLOGIST
Anybody can think and pretend that he/she
is a psychologist. People do talk about “IQ”,
“inferiority complex”, “identity crisis”, “mental
blocks”, “lie detectors”, and so many other
terms during everyday conversations.
Generally, people pick up these terms from
popular writings and media and may not be
entirely wrong in their understandings. Naïve
use of this kind of amateurish psychology,
however, may misfire.
Asking certain relevant queries like, the
professional training, educational
background, and institutional affiliations of
the claimant can give a pretty good basis for
distinguishing the pseudo psychologists from
psychologists. What is more crucial is the
professional training required to become an
accomplished psychologist both as a
researcher as well as practitioner. The
researcher take the problems to the level of
scientific research in laboratory and other
controlled setting. Only then do they arrive
at dependable generalisations that can be
used. Others, as noted earlier operate in the
hussel-bussel of life and use the professional
knowledge for problem solving in different
spheres. We need both types of psychologists.
Let us try to understand those qualities,
which are needed to become an effective
psychologist.
Who is an Effective Psychologist?
Becoming an effective psychologist shall
require a fine blend of knowledge, skills,
motivation and values. In the capacity of a
researcher a psychologist is primarily
concerned with contributing to the growth of
knowledge in a given field. As a professional
practitioner (e.g., counselor, clinical
psychologist, school psychologist, child
psychologist, personnel manager, human
relations (HR) consultant), a psychologist has
to use the knowledge and skills to deliver the
required services to individuals and
institutions. As has been pointed out earlier
the specific demands of various roles that a
psychologist may like to play need specialised
training and experience. In the present
context, however, it will suffice to draw
Introduction to Psychology
attention to certain basic and general aspects
of the process of becoming a psychologist.
Keeping this in view, some of the qualities of
psychologists are described below.
1. Competence : Psychologists provide only
those services and use only those techniques
for which they are qualified in terms of
education, training, or experience. Therefore
as a psychologist, you are expected to
maintain high standards of work and
recognise the boundaries of your
competencies and limitations of expertise.
2. Scientific Temper : As you are aware
scientific work is based on the premise of
objective pursuit of public and verifiable
knowledge. This requires that a psychologist
must maintain integrity and objectivity. He
or she should remain neutral and remain
unbiased, honest, and fair in conduct.
3. Responsibility : Psychologists have
responsibility to uphold the professional
standards of conduct and obligations. They
have to accept appropriate responsibility for
their behaviour, and adapt their methods to
suit the needs of diverse groups. Also, they
need to be aware of the obligations to the
community and society in which they live. As
professional psychologists, you have to serve
the best interests of your patients, clients, or
other recipients of the services.
4. Respect for People’s Right and Dignity:
Psychologists must accord respect to the
fundamental rights, dignity, and worth of the
people with whom they interact. As a
psychologist, you need to respect the rights
of the participants and clients to privacy,
confidentiality, self-determination, and
autonomy (Refer to ethical guidelines given
in Chapter 2 of class XI textbook).
Psychologists should be aware of cultural and
individual differences and try to eliminate the
effect of such biases.
5. Concern for Others’ Welfare : It is the
duty of psychologists to contribute to the
welfare of those with whom they interact
professionally. For instance, they need to take
care of the welfare of their patients or
clients, co-workers, employees, students.
Psychologists should not exploit or mislead
other people during or beyond the span of
professional relationship. They must share
egalitarian values.
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
6. Interpersonal Sensitivity : Human
behaviours usually occur in social settings
and the cultural context provides meaning to
it (see Chapter 4 of class XI textbook).
Therefore, meaning of any verbal or non-
verbal behaviour is embedded in its socio-
cultural context. A good psychologist is able
to attend to the nuances. He or she needs to
be sensitive enough to the interactions that
take place between individuals.
7. Openness to Ideas : You must have
noticed that there are many theoretical
perspectives in psychology. Also, you must
have seen that people differ widely with respect
to their ideas and views. A psychologist must
appreciate this diversity and need not be rigid
in his or her approach or attitude. He/she
should be open to diverse ideas.
8. Ability to Observe : In order to deal
effectively with others a psychologist should
be a keen observer. He/she must register and
attend to the behaviours and events that take
place in any situation. A skilful observer alone
can identify the problems and prepare
relevant interventions.
Thus, to have a successful career as a
psychologist, you need to posses theoretical
knowledge of the contents of psychology,
skills, and motivation. The theoretical
knowledge one may acquire by understanding
the theories and principles of human
behaviour. But we also learn by doing
(practical knowledge). There are many skills
required of a psychologist including
helping, counseling, research, testing,
communicating, and so on. The knowledge
and skills needed by a psychologist are of
general and specific types. Some basic
knowledge and skills are applicable
everywhere as some are specific to a
particular context. While the details of all the
relevant skills are beyond the scope of this
chapter a brief description of the major skills,
namely counseling, testing, communicating
and interviewing is being given below. It will
help you to appreciate the kind of skills that
professional psychologists must possess.
Recapitulation
Psychologists have to play various roles to
meet diverse demands. To deliver services to
223
individuals and institutions requires
specialised training and experience. Some
qualities of good psychologist are :
competence, scientific temper, responsibility,
respect for people’s right and dignity, concern
for others welfare, interpersonal sensitivity,
openness to ideas and ability to observe. The
theoretical and practical knowledge of the
contents of psychology, skills, motivation, and
values are also important to become an
effective psychologist.
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. Becoming an effective psychologist
requires the theoretical understanding
of tools, methods and theories. T/F
2. Integrity and objectivity are important
for becoming an effective psychologist.
T/F
3. There are no definite professional
standards of conduct for psychologists.
T/F
4. A good psychologist maintains the
privacy and confidentiality of their
clients. T/F
5. Observation is not an important skill
for an effective psychologist. T/F
WHAT IS COUNSELING?
Counseling refers to the helping
relationship that includes someone
seeking help and someone willing to give
help. The help giver is capable of or trained
for helping and works in a setting that
permits help to be given and received.
Thus, counseling is an interactive process
characterised by a unique relationship between
Counselor (help giver) and client (help receiver)
that leads to change in the client’s overt
behaviour (e.g., action, coping skills, decision-
making skills, relationship skills), beliefs (e.g.,
ways of thinking about oneself, others, and the
world), and level of emotional distress.
Becoming a Counselor requires professional
training under supervision of a competent and
experienced Counselor.
224
People often carry many misconceptions
about counseling. It is often confused with
many related activities, such as giving
information, advice, interviewing, selecting
people for jobs etc. which appear similar to
counseling, but are not counseling. In real
life, counseling is done as a systematic
intervention in the life of a person who is
willing to seek help. Some of the major
elements of counseling are as follows :
l It is a voluntary process in which a
Counselor responds to the feelings,
thoughts, and actions of the clients.
l It requires acceptance of the client’s
perceptions and feelings.
l The setting of counseling maintains
confidentiality and privacy.
l A Counselor does not use coercion to
obtain information from the client.
l A Counselor focuses attention on the
specific problem of the clients.
l Counselors and clients both exchange
verbal and non-verbal messages during
the process of counseling. It is, therefore
important to be aware of and be sensitive
to the kind of messages present.
In counseling, both the client and
Counselor spend significant time, effort and
money. Therefore, for counseling to be
effective, the client and Counselor both need
to know that they are moving in the same
direction i.e. their goals converge. The feeling
of progress will occur if the client begins to
relate or behave efficiently during the process
of counseling. Similarly, a Counselor feels
rewarded because his or her efforts at helping
the client have been productive and
therapeutic. The important gains of
counseling for clients are given below.
Owning the Problems : It means that client
is able to accept the responsibility for his or
her problems. Often clients come for
counseling and blame people or
environmental factors for their problems.
Owning the problem is often the first step
towards solving them.
Developing Understanding of Problems :
Once the client develops some sense of
responsibility of the problem he/she is able
to develop understanding and get an insight
into the problems. This helps them to perceive
Introduction to Psychology
reality more clearly and gain control over their
reactions to the problem.
Acquiring New Behaviours and Actions : In
addition to developing greater understanding
of the issues, the client also needs to acquire
more effective ways of behaving in the
situation. To avoid repeating their ineffective
behaviour patterns clients should develop
new ways of behaving, responding, and
interacting in situations or with others.
Developing Effective Relationships : Most
of the people (clients) who seek help from
Counselor, do not have effective or satisfying
relationships. Social support from family,
friends, peers, and community members is
essential for clients in order to develop
meaningful relationships with others. The
client-Counselor relationship during
counseling is often the first step towards
developing a meaningful relationship with
others.
The Stages of Counseling Process
Counseling process is guided by the
theoretical orientation held by the Counselor.
However, discussing those variations is
beyond the scope of this chapter. Therefore,
the stages common to most of the counseling
techniques are described below. In actual
practice, a Counselor gets training in
specialised techniques under the supervision
of a senior practicing Counselor. There are
three progressive stages in the counseling
process. It begins with establishment of
contact between Counselor and the client.
Then the Counselor endeavours to
understand the client’s needs and desires.
Finally, the goals and the ways of achieving
those goals must be identified. Let us examine
these stages in some more detail.
(a) Initial Disclosure : At the beginning the
Counselor and the client do not know one
another well. Therefore, establishing rapport
becomes the first task. While coming to the
Counselor the client experiences two types
of feelings: “I know I need help” and “I wish
I were not here”. The Counselor’s task is to
allay the client’s fear and encourage self-
disclosure. Without honest self-disclosure by
the client, counseling is an empty enterprise.
At the outset of counseling, attending
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist 225

(i.e., paying careful attention to the clients
words and actions) is very important. The
Counselor demonstrates attending by
posture, facial expression, and eye contact.
In addition, the Counselor must promote
trust in the client by showing empathy
(understanding others experience as
if it were your own), genuineness
(or dependable), unconditional positive
regard (total acceptance of the client as he
or she is) and overtness (i.e, using clear
language to describe the client’s
life situation).
(b) In-depth Exploration : During this stage,
the Counselor brings into the discussion his/
her impressions of the client’s dynamics and
coping behaviours. The Counselor tries to
obtain the client’s response about whether
the counseling process is progressing
satisfactorily and also expresses his/her
opinion about the progress achieved in a few
counseling sessions. This stage frequently
becomes emotionally stressful because the
client repeatedly faces the inadequacy of
habitual behaviours and must learn to give
up the old behaviours for the new learnt
during the counseling process. Also, the
Counselor and client come to a mutually
acceptable assessment and diagnosis of
the problems.
(c) Undertaking Action : This is the stage in
which decision-making takes place and action
is undertaken. The client considers possible
actions and then chooses some of them to
try out. The Counselor gives support for trying
new behaviours and helps the client evaluate
the effectiveness of new behaviours or new
conceptions of reality as they may relate to
the reduction of stress. When the client is
satisfied that the new behaviours or the new
conceptions are working satisfactorily,
counseling ends.
These stages are summarised in Table 11.1.

Table 11.1 Summary of the Stages in the Counseling Process

Disclosure during the In-depth Undertaking

first stage Explorations Action

Client’s 1. Communicating the 1. Building deeper 1. Developing specific

Activities nature of concerns. understanding of the goals for change.
meanings of personal
2. Taking decisions to
concerns.
reach those goals.
2. Clarifying spontaneous 2. Joining with the
3. Carrying out actions
meanings of the concerns Counselor to assess that will accomplish
through disclosure. the major problem(s). those goals.

Providing therapeutic
Counselor’s conditions that will 1. Extending the client’s 1. Helping specify goals
Activities build a trusting and ability to understand and translating goals
working relationship. self and others. into concrete plans for
change.
2. Engaging the client to 2. Re-evaluating
develop a mutually unsuccessful actions
agreeable assessment and rewarding client
of the problem(s). successes.
3. Building a positive
end to Counseling
when the goals are
achieved.
226
Characteristics and Skills of an Effec-
tive Counselor
Though in counseling the client and
Counselor both work together towards the
desired outcomes, it is the Counselor who as
a trained helper ensures that the client
benefits. In order to become an effective
Counselor one must develop the following
qualities.
1. A Counselor should have awareness and
understanding of one’s own self. It means
understanding one’s own needs, feelings,
personal strengths, and limitations. This
would help Counselors to understand
themselves sufficiently and to know exactly
what they are doing, why they are doing it,
which are their problems, and which
problems belong to the client.
2. A Counselor must be in good
psychological health. He or she should not
be distracted by one’s own problems.
Counselors lacking psychological health,
cause greater anxiety in the person who is in
the need of help.
3. It has been found that those who have
greater sensitivity are able to cope better,
understand the client’s verbal and non-verbal
messages and are also able to apply strategy
for each client in a unique fashion. Sensitivity
means that the Counselor is aware of the
client’s strengths, limitations, and coping
style.
4. Open-mindedness in Counselors
suggests freedom from fixed or preconceived
ideas. Open-mindedness does not mean that
Counselors are amoral or have no personal
values or beliefs. Open-minded Counselors
are aware of their beliefs or values but are
able to distinguish them from those of their
clients. They do not push clients to follow a
particular belief or value system.
BOX 11.1 CASE STUDY
The case study is useful for the study of an
individual client. It helps in understanding and
describing the personality and behaviour of the
individual, specifically selected for the study, who
is popularly known as a ‘case’.
A case study consists of observations of a single
individual or a group of individuals. The
observations are reported in detail so that the
Introduction to Psychology
5. Counselors maintain objectivity in their
dealings with the clients. It requires the
Counselor to be aware of his own biases while
dealing with the problems of clients. A related
quality is that of genuineness. A Counselor
has to be sincere and must not mislead or
present facades to clients.
6. The Counselor must have respect for the
client. He or she must view the client as a
worthwhile person and treat him/her with
warmth and dignity.
7. The Counselor must have
attentiveness. It may be verbal or non-
verbal. Verbal attentiveness involves what is
expressed to the client and the way it is
expressed. Allowing clients to complete their
sentences is one way of showing verbal
attentiveness. Use of short verbal encouragers
like ‘Ya!’, ‘I see’, ‘Go on’, ‘Mm-mm’ and so forth
are ways of demonstrating verbal
attentiveness. It is also important to learn to
alter voice and change the volume, pitch and
speed depending on the client’s reactions and
situations. Non-verbal attentiveness includes
eye contact, head nods, facial expression
(smile, frown), body posture and distance.
These cues should be adapted according to
the needs of the situation and the client.
8. Empathy involves sensitivity to the client’s
problems and being able to see things, the way
the client does. It involves perceiving and
communicating. Perceiving is an intense
process of active listening by the Counselor.
On the other hand, in communicating the
Counselor says something that tells the client
that his or her meanings and feelings are
understood. Cultural sensitivity and the
knowledge of cultures different from the
Counselor’s own are important to the effective
use of empathy. In order to know more about
empathy you are encouraged to study Box 11.3.
description captures as much as possible of the
unique characteristics of the individual and his or
her situation. Inferences usually are drawn about
factors in one’s past, present or anticipated in the
future that are likely to account for current
behaviour. As you can see, these inferences are
subjective evaluations or interpretations. They
contd...
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
should be distinguished from more objective
measures such as standardised tests or
questionnaire or direct observation of behaviour. To
overcome these problems, various measures can
also be administered, including self-report
inventories, observations arising from audio or video
tape recordings, overt behavioural assessment, and
so on.
The value of case study is that it serves as a
source of ideas and hypotheses about behaviour,
allows the study of rare individual/phenomenon
ETHICS OF COUNSELING
It is important for Counselor to have
knowledge about the ethical issues involved
in the profession of counseling. They have
legal implications too. Some of the principles
are given below. It may be noted that many
of them also apply to psychologists engaged
in other fields as well.
Confidentiality : Counselors are ethically
obliged to keep the information of the client
confidential. This means that a Counselor
should not talk to anyone about the client’s
problems without prior permission from the
client. Any recording of relevant information
should be done only after obtaining
permission from the client.
Professional Disclosure : A Counselor must
represent his or her professional
qualifications and experiences correctly to the
client. This information should contain
Counselor’s background, training and
qualifications, fee (if any), and the area of
specialisation.
Professional Relationships : Counselors
need to respect and protect their clients. This
means that Counselors should not engage in
any other kind of relationship with client that
could doubt the Counselor’s objectivity
and judgment and interfere with the
therapeutic process.
Referral and Termination : Counselors must
also protect their clients while making referral
or termination of counseling process. These
situations must be handled with sensitivity.
The Counselor while referring should give the
name of competent and qualified Counselors
and not of ill-reputed counselors. Counselors
should discuss with the client the termination
227
that may provide a counter instance to an accepted
belief about personality and behaviour, and offers
permissive appeal and motivational value that may
foster research.
However, there are distinct limitations of the
case study. Results from a case study can be
reinterpreted in so many ways that specific
conclusions cannot be drawn without ambiguity. It
is also subject to the researchers’ bias. Further,
generalising from an individual case to people in
general is tenuous.
of counseling much in advance to the actual
termination.
ACTIVITY 11.1
Understanding the Role of a Counselor
l Think of yourself as a client. Imagine the
problems you have had to grapple with or
are struggling with now. Then consider
yourself dealing with these problems with
a Counselor. Now write down simple
sentences in response to the following
questions.
(a) What would I want to get out of seeing a
Counselor?
(b) What would I want the Counselor to be
like?
(c) How would I want to be treated ?
Discuss your statements with your classmates
and teacher.
Recapitulation
Counseling is a helping relationship, which
involves responding to the thoughts, feelings
and actions of clients by a trained Counselor.
Counseling proceeds through three main
stages : initial disclosure, in-depth
exploration, and undertaking action. In order
to become an effective Counselor one must
develop qualities such as : awareness and
understanding of one’s own self, good
psychological health, open-mindedness,
sensitivity, objectivity respect, for others
attentiveness and empathy. Counselor should
have knowledge about the ethical issues such
as confidentiality, professional disclosure,
professional relationship and referral
and termination.
228
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Counseling is a process of giving advice
or help a person in need. T/F
2. Counseling can be given by a person
good in communication. T/F
3. The first most crucial aspect of
counseling process is to make the client
accept and own the problem. T/F
4. Good psychological health is a
prerequisite for effective counseling on
the part of the counselor. T/F
5. Counselor must be aware of his or her
own motives, needs, and attitudes
while giving help. T/F
6. Referral is a not a part of counseling
process. T/F
TESTING SKILLS:
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Use of tests is one of the very widely used
domain of psychological skills. Tests of
various kinds (e.g., ability, achievement,
interest, aptitude, personality) are used in
many areas of research and application. As a
tool to assess psychological properties, it is
used in industrial, social, clinical, educational
and other fields. You have already learned
about the nature and types of tests in relation
to the analyses of intelligence and personality.
Also, some information about tests was given
in the Chapter 2 of class XI textbook. So, the
types and characteristics of tests are not
discussed. Here our concern is to understand
the important considerations and skills that
one should be equipped with for proper use
of psychological tests.
The broad guidelines in testing are as
follows : (1) The use of psychological tests
needs to be controlled because of its value in
the process of decision-making. (2) The
person who uses a test should be a qualified
examiner because choice of test, its
administration, and scoring and
interpretation of test scores need theoretical
knowledge as well as professional skills.
(3) For the tests to serve the purpose
evaluation of its technical merits (e.g., validity,
reliability, standardisation, difficulty level,
norms) should be taken care of. (4) Training
Introduction to Psychology
is needed to administer and interpret the
test results.
Let us try to examine some of the details
of the process of test-administration.
Examiner’s Role : The psychologist
responsible for testing, popularly known as
examiner, is required to follow test
instructions precisely. He or she must have
thorough familiarity with the standard
instructions of the test to be used. Careful
control of testing conditions also need to be
maintained. One should not permit
unsupervised or inadequately supervised use
of tests unless they are designed, intended
and validated for self-administration and/or
scoring. Prior to test administration,
conditions that produce most favourable test
results are made known to the person who is
being tested called as examinee.
Interpretation of test scores requires
understanding of the test, the test takers and
the testing condition (e.g., temporary
emotional/physical state). This is important
because a psychological test is used as a
source of information in reaching certain
practical decisions (e.g., employment,
promotion). The test users and examiner may
be different. Communication about the test
before test administration may help to dispel
any mystery that may have become associated
with the process of testing.
Test Security : The examiners maintain the
integrity and security of tests consistent with
legal and contractual obligations. They do not
appropriate, reproduce or modify published
tests or parts thereof without acknowledgment
and permission from the publisher.
Preparation for Test Administration :
Examiners must make advance preparation
for the testing session. This is important
because uniformity of procedure is helpful in
interpreting test scores. Thus, one should
memorise the instructions and have thorough
familiarity with specific testing procedures.
It is advisable that demonstration and
practice sessions should be undertaken
before actual test administration.
The testing condition should be free from
noise, and have adequate lighting, ventilation,
and seating facility. These are small things
but may influence test results. “Testing in
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
progress” this sign should be put on the door
of the room in which testing is going on. In
recent years computer has been introduced
to help psychological testing. Many tests are
now also available online. The paper-pencil
tests and computer-administrable tests
require different kinds of preparation.
Introducing the Test : The rapport need to
be established while administering the test.
This is an effort to arouse the interest of
examinees in testing, elicit their cooperation,
encouraging them to respond in a manner
appropriate. It helps to enhance their
concentration. They are motivated for putting
in best effort while appearing for the test.
Appropriate rapport helps motivating the
examinees and relieving their anxiety.
The process of testing has to take into
account the specific characteristics of groups
if they are different from the standardisation
group. Also testing young children poses
many problems. They show shyness with
strangers, high distractibility and
negativitism. Friendly, cheerful, and relaxed
way of test administration will help them do
the job well. One has to reassure the child
and use brief test periods. The test
administrator must have flexibility of
procedure without compromising the basic
aspects of test.
To summarise the conduct of test one has
to focus on the following aspects.
Testing Procedure : This should take into
consideration the seating arrangement,
distribution of answer sheets and test
booklets, following the directions for giving
the test, ensuring that all examines have
understood the instructions, accurate timing
and recording of significant events observed
during testing.
Scoring of Tests : The scoring can be done
manually by hand or by machine. Scoring
errors such as errors in counting answers,
following instructions, using scoring guides
etc. need to be guarded against in hand
scoring procedure. Electronic scoring
machines are used for accurate and quick
scoring especially for large scale testing
programmes.
After the test has been scored, it is
essential that the requisite information is
recorded for each testee. Proper recording
229
facilitates the reporting of test information to
teachers, parents and others.
Interpretation of Test Scores : It is
important and essential that the test scores
are properly interpreted and the test, testee
and test-situations are understood in the right
perspective. It is important for the examiner
to understand that the results may be
influenced by factors such as : physical and
emotional condition of the testee at the time
of taking the test, errors in administering or
scoring of the test, and validity, reliability and
norms of the test.
As discussed above administering tests
requires careful preparation before hand and
strict adherence to the set procedure during
testing. The main considerations while
preparing for testing and during test
administration are summarised here :
l order and check the materials in advance.
l select a suitable place for testing.
l practise administering the test.
l closely follow the test directions given in
the manual.
l follow the time limits.
l encourage the students to do their best.
l keep a record of any event during the
testing period that might effect the test
scores.
Other Considerations : A test presents an
implied threat to the individual prestige of an
examinee. The examiner must make it clear
that it is in the interest of examinees to get
the correct test results. Examiner variables
like age, sex, ethnicity, personality,
appearance, examiner behaviour and his or
her expectations influence test performance.
Attention should also be paid to test anxiety,
which is often present in many examinees.
Recapitulation
Tests are important tools of assessment used
by psychologists. Proper use of psychological
tests requires the skills of administration,
scoring and interpretation. Test administration
requires advance preparation and suitable
environmental conditions. Rapport building
is important to motivate the examinees to put
in best effort.
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LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Tests are used in the process of
decision making. T/F
2. Test score cannot predict the behaviour
of the person being tested. T/F
3. Rapport need to be established while
administering the test T/F
4. A psychologist is free to reproduce or
modify a published test. T/F
5. Rapport building helps to relieve the
anxiety of the test takers T/F
BOX 11.2 GUIDELINES FOR TEST SELECTION
You should carefully consider various aspects of a
test before selecting it for assessment purpose.
l Type of Information Required : It is
important to define the specific type of information
being sought by the use of a particular test.
Clarifying the type of information needed must
be preceded by the intended use of the results.
l Language of the Test : The test should be
in the language with which the testees are more
comfortable. Also, the test should have been
developed for use in the culture in which it is
proposed to be administered. Particularly, the
examiner should see that test items are not alien to
the people who are supposed to answer them.
l Age Range : The test should have been
constructed for use with the age group of the
respondent.
l Nature of the Items : Please see whether the
items are in verbal or non-verbal form. This is
particularly important for use with illiterate testees.
l Mode of Response : Items in a verbal test
can be closed end type (Yes/no, true/false,
multiple choice) or open-end type (long answer or
essay type). The examiner should select an
appropriate test. Some tests require the testee to
record their answers on the body of test itself. In
other tests test booklet and response sheets are
different. Testees are required to write their
answers on the response sheet only.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
It is said, “to live is to communicate”.
Communication is an art and mastery over it
makes life easier as it solves many of our
problems. No social life can be imagined
without communication. It is a well-known
fact that more than eighty percent of our
Introduction to Psychology
active lifetime is spent in some form of
communication i.e., sending or receiving
messages, with others. Either we are
communicating verbally, non-verbally,
through writing or through other modalities.
It seems reasonable to conclude that one of
the most inhibiting forces to successful life
is the lack of effective communication.
Communication is essential in each and every
domain of life (.e.g family¸ work, friendship,
polities, and academics). If you are excellent
in communication the chances of your
success definitely increase.
l Mode of Administration : Some tests are
only meant for individual administration (one
respondent at a time), while others can be
administered individually and/or in group.
l Time Requirement : Some tests need to be
administered within a specific time period, while
there is no time limit for completion of other tests.
l Reliability of Test : An important
consideration in selection of a test is the reliability
(i.e. stability of test scores over time and internal
consistency of the test). Test manual contains
information about test-retest, split-form, and other
forms of reliabilities. Reliability of a test should be
high for use in assessment.
l Validity of the Test : Another important
characteristics of a test is validity – the test
should measure what it purports to measure. If
you want a test for the assessment of
intelligence, you should be sure that the test
which you have selected only measures
intelligence. Validity is of different types. The
major ones are : Factorial, Construct,
Concurrent and Cross-validation. You should
select a test where sufficiently high degree of
validity co-efficients have been reported.
l Norms : The examiner should ensure that the
norms for appropriate age, sex, etc. are given so that
comparison of the subject’s score with the norms
can be made.
You have already studied certain
aspects of communication process in
Chapter 11 of class XI textbook. Therefore
without going into the details of the model
of communication certain aspects of
communication as a skill are presented
here. As you are aware communication is a
process of transmitting meaning from one
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
person to another person. It is more than
conveying meaning because the meaning
conveyed should also be understood. For
instance, if some one in your class speaks
French and others do not know French, the
person speaking French will not be
understood. Therefore, communication
includes both the transfer as well as
understanding of meaning. The
communication will be effective only when
the sender transmits a thought or an idea
and the receiver gets exactly the same
meaning as the one held by the sender. As
you can recollect each of the components
of communication process (e.g., encoding,
message, channel, decoding, feedback) can
have a source of distortion. For example, if
the sender is unable to consolidate and
organise the message properly there can be
a problem. Similarly, if other factors like,
encoding is not done properly, or reception
is poor it can cause the problem. A skilled
communicator is able to handle such
problems. As a psychologist, you need
to become a good communicator. With
this, in view let us focus on two aspects
of communication i.e., speaking and
listening, which is the core of interpersonal
communication much needed in
professional psychological work. The
process of communication and the factors
influencing it are shown in Figure 11.1.
Non-verbal
cues present Paralanguage
Actual words
used in constituting Communication
the message Channel
SENDER
Sender
Artifacts Noise
Amount of information
Fig.11.1 Factors influencing communication between sender and receiver
231
Effective Speaking
While interacting in face-to-face situations,
communication occurs between two human
beings in a particular context. Therefore, a
good communicator pays attention to the
context as well as to the person with whom
communication is taking place. While doing
so you can benefit a lot by observing the
following tips.
l Use of pronouns like “I”, “we”, “me” is
helpful.
l Organise the thoughts and contents of
communication before speaking.
l Maintain eye contact while speaking to
another person. You should be sensitive
to the body language of the audience. It
provides feedback and a good speaker
gathers strength and accordingly monitors
communication process.
l Use body language appropriately. It has
profound role in enhancing the impact of
communication.
l Use the range of voice quality (e.g, pitch,
volume, intonation) to a fullest possible
way. It helps in demonstrating the
speaker’s involvement.
l Try to ensure that the perspective of
audience and yours own are the same. If
the two are at the same, wave length the
communication will have great impact.
l Select the proper channel of
communication. Today
many options are available
Aspects of to make the message
effective, salient and
understandable. Using
audio-visual aids and
multimedia are quite helpful
in creating the impact.
Effective Listening
Generally, people take
RECEIVER ‘listening’ for granted
because they confuse
between hearing and
listening. Hearing is like
receiving sound and does
not necessarily result in
listening whereas listening
involves paying attention to
232
the sender and interpreting and
understanding the message. Apparently, all
of us assume that we are good listeners. That
is not necessarily true. We often fail to attend
to the message given by the speaker. The
following tips are found useful for effective
listening. Do try them while communicating
with others.
1. Make eye contacts with the speaker.
2. Show affirmative head movements at
appropriate places with right facial
expressions.
3. Avoid distracting actions like playing with
pen, looking at watch, etc. while listening.
4. Ask questions for clarification.
5. Use paraphrasing. In other words, restate
the received message in your own words.
6. Avoid interruption while the speaker is
speaking.
7. Make smooth transition between the roles
of speaker and listener.
8. Avoid over talk.
Role of Language in Communication
People use language differently and follow
different patterns of speech in different
settings. In professional circles, language is
used with a lot of jargons and technical usage.
That style makes communication in normal
situations difficult. Therefore, it is important
that we stick to the use of language with
minimum differences in order to make the
communication more effective. A sender
assumes that the words used by him or others
have the same meaning for the receiver. This,
of course, is often incorrect and creates
distortions in communication process.
Non-verbal Communication
As you know, we also communicate through
body language without use of spoken words.
We use various gesture and postures, hand
movements and facial expressions to
communicate an idea or information. This
aspect of communication comes under
body language or paralanguage. It often
accompanies oral language to impress upon
the listener. In order to be effective in non-
verbal communication you may like to attend
to the following suggestions.
l You must remember that face is the
primary site for expressing your feelings
Introduction to Psychology
and emotions. Be careful about your facial
expressions.
l By moving your body, you can express
both specific and general messages and
communicate to others.
l Your voice carries both intentional and
unintentional messages.
l Your appearance helps you establish your
personal identity and style.
l Touch is an important vehicle for
conveying warmth, comfort and
reassurance.
l Like touch, time and space are used to
assert one’s authority. Punctuality or
choosing a space to sit often show your
ability to assert. So, choose these things
carefully.
Communication and Technology
Today technology provides faster and more
efficient equipments for all the aspects of
communication. The availability of word
processors, laser printers, fax machine,
e-mail, voice recognition system have changed
the scenario of communication. The choice
of technology has become very important.
This choice is determined by the expectations
of the audience, time and cost involved,
nature of the message and presentation
requirements. The audience (or the receivers
of the message) often have specific
expectations about the nature of message (or
document) so, in schools, family and business
people want communication through hand
written documents, telephone conversation,
fax etc.
Time is becoming an important
consideration in communication. People want
faster communication. In addition the cost of
communication is equally important. The
nature of message to be communicated (e.g.,
idea, diagram, photograph, tables) also
determines the use of technology. The
requirements of presentation (e.g., personal,
group, large audience) also determine the
technology. For instance, power point
presentations with the help of LCD Projector
makes presentation more effective in
its impact.
Desktop publishing (DTP) and Word
Processing have become core technology.
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
Using software the production of documents
through computer and laser printer have
changed the intime process of publication,
graphics and sounds are also added.
Electronic mail called e-mail,
teleconferences (which involves audio
conferencing and videoconferencing via phone
lines and satellite) have provided connectivity
with people who are scattered across the
country or around the globe.
On the whole, technology is increasing the
flow of information making it easier to
communicate.
ACTIVITY 11.2
Knowing your feelings
The communication involves listening to others’
feelings and emotions. However, before
listening to others, you should be familiar with
your own emotional states. Listed below are
some statements, which describe the different
types of feeling when you feel accepted or
scared in the listening process. Check the
statements that are true for yourself.
When I feel accepted,
l I feel warm inside
l I feel safe
l I feel like sitting back and relaxing
l I feel some of my fears easing away
l I feel at home
l I feel at peace
l I feel my loneliness drifting away
When I feel scared,
l my mouth dries up
l my stomach becomes loose
l there are butterflies in my stomach
l I feel like running away
l I feel the need to talk to someone
l I am unable to concentrate
l I feel very vulnerable
l I sometimes feel like crying
Some General Recommendations for
becoming a Good Communicator
The development of communication skills
require overcoming the barriers that occur
in the process of communication. All the
related problems fall in three main domains,
i.e., creation of message, control of noise and
provision of feedback. Let us learn certain
ways through which many of these problems
can be tackled.
233
Creation of Message : The message should
be created carefully so that it may reach to
the receivers (or audience) without any
distortion. You will need to attend to the
following guidelines.
1. Know about the people who are the targets
of your communication. In order to bring
your audience nearer to you, you need to
know the background and level of
understanding of the audience. This will
help you to understand how the message
will be received and responded to. Also,
try to develop credibility to generate a
relationship of trust.
2. Inform the audience or share with them
about what they should expect. If you tell
the purpose and key point of the message
a framework will be created with which
the communicator and the listener share
common meaning.
3. Structure message in such a way that it
becomes memorable. Using a concrete
and specific language would be useful.
Thus, using words that evoke physical
impressions may be very useful.
4. Try to exclude any information that does
not directly contribute to the purpose of
communication. This will make audience
focused.
5. Try to indicate to the audience the
connection of new information to existing
set of ideas.
6. Try to highlight and summarize the key
points of message. You may use words
and body language to this end.
Reduction of Noise : A message may fail to
yield results if it does not reach to the
audience. For this purpose, you need to do
the following.
1. Try to remove the possible sources of
interference.
2. Choose communication channel and
medium which do not interfere with the
message.
3. Select a method, which is capable of
attracting the attention of audience. If
message is written, it should be made
appealing. If you have to deliver it
orally try to remove the physical barriers.
A quiet location with adequate
lighting and acoustics will make
communication effective.
234
Facilitating Feedback : Providing the
audience, an opportunity to give feedback is
important for effective communication. While
preparing the message, be clear about the
amount of feedback that is needed. Feedback
is usually good but it reduces communicator’s
control over the situation. Feedback may be
made more useful by planning how and when
it should be accepted. Communicator’s
receptivity and frankness is also important.
ACTIVITY 11.3
Understanding Communication
Think of a particular communication experience
you have had recently. Identify the sender,
message, transmission channel, receiver and
feedback.
Recapitulation
Communication is a process of transmitting
meaning from one person to another. To be a
skilled communicator it is important to be
aware of the sources of distortion in the
message. Effective speaking and listening are
arts that need to be practiced. Language as
well as non-verbal cues (gestures, facial
expressions, facial expressions, hand
movements etc. ) are used in communicating
the message. To develop communication skills
requires overcoming the barriers in the
communication process. In particular
creating suitable messages, reducing noise
and provision of feedback are important steps
to remove the barriers to communication.
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Communication helps to transmit
meaning from one person to another.
T/F
2. Eye contact has profound affect in
enhancing the communication. T/F
3. Asking questions shows poor listening.
T/F
4. Use of gestures, postures, hand
movements, facial expressions help in
communication. T/F
5. Feedback is not necessary for effective
communication. T/F
Introduction to Psychology
INTERVIEWING SKILLS
Interviewing is a process of face-to-face
communication and interaction between, at
least, two persons. Some aspects of the
interview process has already been described
in chapter–2 of class XI textbook.
Interview is an important technique to
elicit personal information for several
purposes such as selecting people for a job,
admission, personal problems, research etc.
The worth of interview depends on the
experience and skill of the interviewers.
Interview takes various forms depending
upon what the interviewer is attempting to
discover about the interviewee. In free
interview there is no limit on the area and
field of the subject matter to be asked from
the interviewee. The non-directive interview
is valuable to get more and deep information
about the client. An atmosphere of peace and
confidence is created to facilitate the client to
express the facts of his behaviour, attitudes
conflicts and other problems. Standardised
interview is a technique which helps to reduce
the bias of interviewers. In this the questions
are predetermined and same or similar
questions are uniformly asked to all the
interviewees. A standard condition is set for
all the interviewers.
Stages of Interview
Every interview proceeds through three
stages: the warm Up; the question-and-
answer-session and the close. A brief
description of the stages are given below.
The Warm Up : Of the three stages warm
up is the most important, even though it
may account for only a small fraction of the
time you spend in the interview.
Psychologists say that 50% of interview
decisions are made within the first 60
seconds and the other 25% are made in
another 15 minutes. If you get off to a bad
start, it is extremely difficult to turn around
the interview.
The Question-and-Answer Stage : The
question-and-answer stage consumes the
greatest part of the interview. During this
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
phase interviewer asks questions for which
the interviewee is expected to provide the
answer. While answering one must not limit
to only yes or no answers. One must take a
pause and think before responding to
questions.
The Close : Like the opening, the end of
the interview is also important. In the last
few minutes, you need to evaluate how well
you have done and correct any misconcep-
tions the interviewer might have. You can
generally tell when the interviewer is trying
to conclude the session by watching for ver-
bal and non-verbal cues. The interviewer
may ask you if you have any question, sum
up the discussion, or indicate with gesture
that interview is over. When you get this
signal, respond promptly, but do not rush.
Be sure to thank the interviewer for the
opportunity.
Planning the Interview : Planning an
interview is like planning any other kind of
communication. You begin by stating your
purpose, analysing the other person and
formulating your own ideas. While planning
the interview following things should be kept
in mind.
1. Decide on the purpose and goals of the
interview.
2. Outline your interview based on your goals
and the interview category.
3. Maintain a level of formality.
4. Choose a structured or unstructured
approach.
5. Determine the need of an interviewee,
and gather necessary background
information.
6. Formulate questions as clearly as
possible, and plot their order according
to your purpose and the interviewee’s
needs.
7. Project the outcome of the interview, and
develop a plan for accomplishing the goals.
8. Select a time and site.
9. Inform the interviewee of the nature of the
interview and agenda to be covered.
The purpose of interview and the nature
of interviewees determine the types of
question that are asked. When you plan to
235
conduct the interview, bear in mind that you
have to ask questions 1) to get information,
2) to motivate the interviewee to respond
honestly and appropriately, and 3) to
create good working relationship with the
other person.
Conducting the Interview : Some General
Considerations
The speaking and listening skills serve a
person throughout his or her career. Interview
as you know is a planned conversation with
a predetermined purpose that involves asking
and answering questions. In a typical
interview the interviewer controls the action.
Interview sometimes involves several
interviewers, but more often two people
participate. Although the interviewer guides
the conversation, the interviewee may also
seek to accomplish a purpose, perhaps to
obtain or provide information, to solve a
problem, to create a goodwill, or to persuade
a person a take a action. If the participant
establishes rapport and sticks to the subject
at hand, both sides have a chance of achieving
the objective. You need to keep following
points in mind.
1. Be on time for the interview.
2. Remind the interviewee of the purpose
and the format.
3. Take notes or use tape recorder.
4. Use ears and eyes to pick up verbal and
non-verbal cues.
5. Follow the stated agenda but be willing to
explore the subtopic if some thing comes
up.
6. At the end, restate the interview’s key ideas.
7. Close the interview on an appreciative
note, with thanks to the interviewee for
his/her time, interest and cooperation.
ACTIVITY 11.4
Conducting Interviews
Ask three students of your class to volunteer as
interviewers. Choose a topic on which about
10-15 students will be interviewed. Give 4-5 days
for preparation to the students, both interviewers
and interviewees. The rest of the class can act
as observers. Let each interviewer conduct
interview in the class. Feedback may be provided
by the class members and the teacher.
236
Recapitulation
Interviewing is an technique to elicit
information. It is a process of face-to-face
communication and interaction between,
atleast, two persons. Interview can take
various forms such as free interview, non-
directive interview or structured interview.
The three stages through which an interview
proceeds are : the warm up, the question-
and-answer session and the close.
Establishing rapport is the first step towards
conducting the interview.
BOX 11.3 ORGANISING REHABILITATION SERVICE FOR
PHYSICALLY, MENTALLY AND SOCIALLY CHALLENGED
Everybody is engaged in different kinds of
activities. However, in case of disabled persons
they are disturbed or hampered to varying
degrees. Inability to take part in social, physical
and recreational activities makes such a person
more dependent on the family members and
community. It is, therefore, important to take
certain steps to facilitate the functioning of the
disabled in his/her personal, social and
recreational activities. You have already read
about rehabilitation of mentally ill earlier in
Chapter – VII of this textbook.
Rehabilitation means rebuilding of physical,
mental and social, activities which prepare the
disabled to take their place in the community, and
become a productive member of the community.
Successful planning for organising rehabilitation
services for the disabled require that the following
points be kept in view.
l proper supervision, constant reinforcement
and encouragement should be given.
l persons involved in managing the disabled
should to be caring, tolerant, and devoted to
work.
l understanding of the potentialities and
capabilities of the disabled before involving
in any rehabilitative activity.
l choice should to be given to the disabled in
selection of the activity or task.
l the disabled be respected as an individual.
l disabled people should be allowed to work
independently, after they have learnt how to
do a particular activity or job.
l the disabled persons should be shifted to
work areas in the community to help them lead
independent lives in the society.
In sum, any programme aiming at
rehabilitation of the disabled should focus on re-
integration of the person to active community life.
Introduction to Psychology
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. Interviewing cannot help much to elicit
personal information about the interviewee.
T/F
2. Interview questions should be the kind
that would motivate the interviewee to
respond appropriately. T/F
3. It is not necessary for the interviewee to
have a good start in the interview. T/F
4. Verbal and non-verbal cues can provide
indication about the closure of the
interview. T/F
Cooperation and collaboration of health personnel,
family members, community leaders, employees
and other agencies is indispensable for the
rehabilitative work.
Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)
is a service delivery model for rehabilitation,
equalisation of opportunities and social integration
of people with disabilities. It is implemented
through the combined efforts of disabled people
themselves, their families and communities, and
the health, education, vocational and social
services. Spastics Society of Northern India
(SSNI) since 1979 is actively involved in designing
and developing a model of rehabilitation services
and training courses to meet the needs of the
handicaped people. Some of the initiatives taken
by SSNI are:
l developing a model for community based
rehabilitation of children and young adults
suffering from any disability.
l providing holistic job through vocational
rehabilitation (e.g.self-employment, home
based employment, sheltered employment
and placement in open employment) to the
disabled through its ‘Viswakarma Work
Training Centre”.
l campaigning through print, television and
other media to initiate social action, motivating
the disabled and attracting workers to the field
of rehabilitation,
The training courses of SSNI respond to the
needs of cerebral palsied, and are also suitable
for rehabilitating other kinds of handicapped
people. The courses are structured in a manner,
so that the students are specially trained to work
in rural areas, motivate families and rural
communities, and train families and rural workers
to become their partners in rehabilitating the
disabled people.
Skills Needed for an Effective Psychologist
BOX 11.4 EMPATHY AND SELF DISCIPLINE
Empathy and self-discipline constitute two key
skills that are required in a variety of psychological
applications. As you must have gathered the
psychological applications in all the areas demand
effective mutual understanding between two
human beings. The development of empathy and
self-discipline provide the necessary foundation
for such an understanding. Let us try to examine
these concepts in some detail.
Empathy : It is the ability to understand another
person’s experience as if it is one’s own
experience. While engaging in empathy one enters
the experiential /subjective world of the other
person. Through empathy one makes an effort to
understand or know another person’s internal
mental state including thoughts and feelings.
Thus, empathy enables one person to feel as
another person feels. It is projecting oneself into
another’s situation. Using the available
knowledge, imagination, communication, and
understanding it becomes possible to develop this
capacity to experience how one would feel and
think in other’s place.
Empathy is found very important in the
development of counseling skills. Without going
into the details it may be mentioned that empathy
has three main features as given below :
Empathic rapport : It involves tolerant
acceptance by the counselor of the client’s feelings
and frame of reference.
Experience near-understanding of the
client’s world : It involves understanding what
it is like to have the problems the client has or to
live in the life situation the client lives in.
Communicative attunement : By putting
himself or herself in the shoes of a client the
counselor tries to capture what the client is trying
to consciously communicate at the moment, and
what he or she is experiencing.
Empathy occurs at different levels. Thus,
primary empathy is the level that is usually
Key Terms
Skills, empathy, Informed consent,
Unconditional positive regard, counseling,
counseling interview, Case Study,
Objective, Communication, counseling,
Empathy, Rapport, Client, Counselors.
237
facilitative in the initial disclosure stage of
counseling while advanced level of empathy is
often more appropriate at the in-depth exploration
stage. Empathy involves two major skills i.e.,
perceiving and communicating. Perceiving involves
an intense process of actively listening to the client
for themes, issues, personal constructs, and
emotions. In the communication component of
empathy, the counselor says something that gives
indication to the client that his or her meanings
and feelings have been understood. Primary
empathy is most often communicated through
verbal response, facial expressions and other
nonverbal responses. Advanced empathy is
communicated through verbal responses, in which
the counselor adds the perceptions that were
implied but not directly stated by the client.
Effectively communicated empathy has a number
of desired effects on the efficacy of counseling.
Self Discipline : Human interactions involve
dynamic social interchanges. You must have
experienced in the course of your personal lives
that even a simple act like talking with someone
depends on how you conduct yourself. It can be
facilitated or hindered by mere change in the tone
of voice, gestures, and postures. In most of the
situations a psychologist has to necessarily
interact with another person but he or she has to
constantly remember that the role-demands are
of a different kind. The psychologist has to assume
the role of an impartial, objective, and sensitive
observer. In many professional situations a
psychologist has to act as a facilitator or helper.
In all these contexts enacting the role of a
psychologist will be possible only if the
psychologist has a fair amount of self-control. A
psychologist, therefore, has to exercise a great
deal of control over impulses, expressions,
behaviours, and feelings. This is possible with
training in regulating and monitoring one’s
conduct mindfully.
238 Introduction to Psychology

SUMMARY

l To become an effective psychologist both as a researcher as well as practitioner requires

professional training. Knowledge of tools, methods and theories has a profound impact
on the expertise of psychologists.
l Qualities of a good psychologist are : competence, scientific temper, responsibility,
respect for people’s right and dignity, concern for others welfare, interpersonal
sensitivity, openness to ideas and ability to observe. Knowledge of the contents of
psychology, skills, motivation and values play an important role in becoming an effective
psychologist.
l Counseling proceeds through three progressive stages : initial disclosure, in-depth
explorations, and commitment to action.
l In order to become a successful psychologist one needs to have certain characteristics
such as : competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for
peoples right and dignity, concern for others welfare and social responsibility.
l Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important
tools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is
required for administration, interpretation and scoring of tests.
l Communication is a process that helps in transmitting meaning from one person to
another. Speaking and listening are central to interpersonal communication.
l Language is important for communication. Its use should be done according to the
characteristics of audience. Non-verbal cues such as gestures, postures, hand
movements are also used to communication ideas.
l Creating a proper message, tackling environmental noise and providing feedback are
ways to reduce distortions and making effective communication.
l Interviewing is a process of face-to-face communication. It proceeds through the stages :
the warm up, the question-and-answer and the close stage.

Review Questions

1. What are the qualities that make an effective psychologist?

2. What is counseling ? State the major elements of counseling?
3. What are the stages of counseling?
4. What are the characteristics of an effective Counselor?
5. What are the main components of test administration?
6. What steps need to be taken to become an effective communicator?
7. What planning is required to conduct an interview?
8. What are the stages through which an interview proceeds?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F
II : 1. F, 2. T, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. F
III : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T
IV : 1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T, 5. F
V : 1. F, 2. T, 3. F, 4. T
 PRACTICALS IN
Some tests have been described here for the
assessment of different aspects of pupil’s
behaviour. It may be noted that these tests are
only suggestive . A number of other tests are
also available. It is suggested that those tests
should also be consulted before finally
selecting a test.
1. I NTELLIGENCE
Standard Progressive Matrices
(Author: J.C. Raven)
This test assesses a person’s intellectual
development. It is a test of a person’s capacity,
at the time of testing, to apprehend meaningless
figures presented for his observation, see the
relations between them, conceive the nature
of the figure by completing each sub-sets of
relations presented, and by doing so develop a
systematic method of reasoning. The test
consists of 60 problems divided into five sets
(A, B, C, D, & E) of 12 problems each. The
problem figures progressively become difficult.
It takes 20 minutes to complete the test. It may
also be used as timed test. The test can be used
individually or in a group.
Draw–a–Man–Test (Author: Pramila Phatak)
The test measures intelligence through
children’s drawings of a human figure. All
children are equally acquainted with the
human form and human body parts and there
are equal opportunities to get experiences with
it. Children are asked to draw a full human
figure. Scoring is based on the weightage points
assigned for major body parts and their
proportions. The test can be administered to a
single child at a time or to a group of children.
There is no time limit but the test usually takes
about 10 to 15 minutes. The test is available
with M/s Anand Agencies, 1433A, Shukrawar,
Pune-411002.
Test of General Mental Ability
(Author: M.C. Joshi)
This is a verbal test of intelligence which
aims at measuring the general mental ability
PSYCHOLOGY
in a limited time period (i.e., 20 minutes). It
contains 100 items of seven different types:
synonyms, antonyms, number series,
classification, best-answers, reasoning, and
analogies. The test can be administered to
group of students from grades 8 to 12. The
test is available with M/s Rupa Psychological
Centre, 19/60-B, Deoriabir, Bhelupura,
Varanasi – 221010.
2. P ERSONALITY
Problem Check List (Authors : M.C. Joshi
& Jagdish Pandey)
The test, available in Hindi, is used for
gathering information about the problems of
adolescents (high school students) and helps
them in expressing their personal problems.
It covers eleven areas related to adolescent
problems. For each area there are 30 items
(total 330 items). All the items are statements
in simple and easy to understand language.
The test is available with M/s National
Psychological Corporation, 4/230, Kacheri
Ghat, Agra – 4.
The Battery of Pre-Adolescent Personal-
ity Test (Authors : Udai Pareek, T.V. Rao,
P. Ramalingaswamy, & B.K. Sharma)
The battery consists of the following tests:
a) Pre-Adolescent Adjustment Scale (PAAS)
(40 items, 15 to 20 minutes)
b) Pre-Adolescent Dependency Scale
(PADS) (10 items, two forms, 10 to 15
minutes)
c) Pre-Adolescent Class Trust Scale (PACTS)
(8 situations, 20 to 35 minutes)
d) Pre-Adolescent Initiative Questionnaire
(PAIQ) (6 situations, 20 to 40 minutes)
e) Pre-Adolescent Activity Level Scale
(PAALS)
f) Pre-Adolescent Level of Aspiration Test
(PALAT) (20 minutes)
The battery can be used for studying the
patterns of adjustment (PAAS), dependency
264
(PADS), classroom trust (PACTS), initiative
(PAIQ), activity (PAALS), and level of
aspiration, and success and failure
orientations (PALAT). The students may
use either of the tests depending upon the
purpose of the study. Scores on all the tests
together yield an index of mental health.
The completion of each test requires
separate time periods. The battery is
available with M/s Rupa Psychological
Centre, B. 19/60 – B, Deoriabir, Bhelupura,
Varanasi – 221001.
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(“The 16 PF”) (Author: R.B. Cattell &
H.W. Eber).
The 16 PF is an objectively-scorable test
devised to give the most complete coverage
of personality possible in a brief time. It is
available in two forms, A and B. It measures
one’s personality in 16 areas (called factors):
Factor A : Reserved vs. Outgoing
Factor B : Less Intelligent vs. More
Intelligent
Factor C : Affected by Feelings vs.
Emotionally Stable
Factor E : Humble vs. Assertive
Factor F : Sober vs. Happy-go-lucky
Factor G : Expedient vs. Conscientious
Factor H : Shy vs. Venturesome
Factor I : Tough-minded vs. Tender-
minded
Factor L : Trusting vs. Suspicious
Factor M : Practical vs. Imaginative
Factor N : Forthright vs. Shrewd
Factor O : Placid vs. Apprehensive
Factor Q1 : Conservative vs.
Experimenting
Factor Q2 : Group-dependent vs. Self-
sufficient
Factor Q3 : Undisciplined Self-conflict
vs. Controlled
Factor Q4 : Relaxed vs. Tense
There are 10 to 13 items for each factor
in the test. Subjects can choose their
response from three alternative answers for
each item. The test can be administered to
Introduction to Psychology
high school/college students, and general
adult literate population. The test is available
in Hindi and English and can be obtained
from M/s The Psycho Centre, G-19, H Block,
Saket, New Delhi – 110017.
3. A PTITUDE
Differential Aptitude Tests for Higher
Secondary Schools (Author: J.M. Ojha)
The Differential Aptitude Test Battery is
in Hindi. It presents a profile of an
individual’s abilities, relative to his own and
to a specific group. The battery consists of 8
tests: Abstract Reasoning, Space Relation,
Numerical Ability, Clerical Speed and
Accuracy, Mechanical Reasoning, Verbal
Reasoning, Language Usage-spelling, and
Language usage-grammar. The time limit
varies from 3 minutes to 35 minutes for
different tasks in the battery. The test can be
obtained from M/s Manasayan, Agarwal
Complex, First Floor, S-524, School Block,
Sakarpur, Main Vikas Marg, New Delhi –
110092.
4. A DJUSTMENT
Adjustment Inventory (Author: H.S.
Asthana)
The Adjustment Inventory has been
devised to serve as a quick screening device
for use with students between ages 14 and
above. Available in Hindi, it attempts to
segregate the poorly-adjusted from those who
are better adjusted. The inventory is in two
forms. The first form contains 42 items of yes/
no type. The inventory is self-administered
and has no fixed time limit. Generally, people
take 30 minutes to complete the test. There
are 40 items in the second form. While, in the
first form ‘yes’ answers are given 1 score and
‘no’ answers as 0, the process is reversed in
the second form. The inventory is available with
M/s Rupa Psychological Centre, B 19/60-B,
Deoriabir, Bhelupura, Varanasi – 221001.
Rosenzweig Picture–Frustration Study
(Children’s Form)–Indian Adaptation
(Authors: Udai Pareek & Saul Rosenzweig)
Practicals in Psychology
It is a controlled projective technique,
primarily intended to measure reactions to
frustrating situations. It contains 24
cartoon – like drawings representing
frustrating situations. One character in the
drawing is shown saying something that
causes frustration to the other person
depicted in the picture. The subject is
required to say or write what the other
person would say in that situation. It can
be administered to children of 4 through
13 years of age, individually or in groups,
in about 20 minutes. The study is available
with M/s Manasayan, Agarwal Complex, First
Floor, S-524, School Block, Sakarpur, Main
Vikas Marg, Delhi – 110092.
5. A TTITUDE
Measurement of Attitude towards NCC Ac-
tivities (Author: B.A.Parikh)
This scale measures student’s attitude
towards NCC training. It contains 22
statements indicating different degrees of
favourableness and unfavourableness
towards NCC training and its activities. The
scale is self-administered and requires about
10 minutes to take the test. The scale is
available with M/s Agra Psychological
Research Cell, Tiwari Kothi, Belanganj, Agra -
282004.
Teacher Attitude Inventory (TAI)
(Author: S.P. Ahluwalia)
This inventory has 90 items and is based
on Likert scale. Each sub-scale has 15
statements pertaining to professional attitudes
of prospective and practising teachers. The six
aspects dealt in the inventory are :
Teaching Profession
Classroom Teaching
Child-centred practices
Educational Process
Pupils
Teachers
The subjects can choose their response
for each item from the 5 alternatives ranging
from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
The TAI is bilingual (English and Hindi)
and is available with M/s National
Psychological Corporation, 4/230, Kacheri
Ghat, Agra-4.
265
6. SELF -C ONCEPT
Self-Concept Questionnaire
(Author: R.K. Saraswat)
Available in English, the test measures
self-concept of adolescents. It is a 48-item
inventory to measure six separate
dimensions of self-concept : Physical, Social,
Intellectual, Moral, Educational, and
Temperamental. It also gives a total score on
self-concept. Each item is provided with five
alternatives. It takes 20 minutes to complete
the test. The test is available with M/s
Psychological Corporation, 4/230 Kacheri
Ghat, Agra-4.
Self-concept Scale
(Author: Mukta Rani Rastogi)
The self concept scale is in English
language. It is a self-administered scale,
which can be administered individually or
in a group. The testee has to respond to fifty-
one statements by marking one out of the five
alternative responses – Strongly agree, Agree,
Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly disagree.
There is no time limit but it takes about 30
minutes to respond to all the items The scale
is available with Agra Psychological Research
Cell, Tiwari Kothi, Belanganj, Agra – 282004.
7. A NXIETY
Sinha W - A Self-Analysis Form
(Anxiety Scale) (Author: Durganand
Sinha)
The test has been designed to elicit self-
ratings on items descriptive of anxiety
reaction to the following areas: (1) health,
appearance, and injury, (2) area of ambition
(success or failure in work, money, and
occupation), (3) family anxieties, (4)
anxieties regarding friendship and love, (5)
social relations and social approval, (6)
worries regarding the future, (7) worries
about civilization, war, and virtue, (8) guilt
and shame, (9) physical and physiological
manifestations, and (10) purely
psychological manifestations. The test
consists of 100 true/false type items.
Checking of time response indicates the
266
anxiety of subjects. The test can be
administered to persons from 19 to 24 years
of age. The administration time for the entire
test is approximately 20 minutes. The test is
available in Hindi and English, with M/s Rupa
Psychological Centre, 19/60-B, Deoriabir,
Bhelupur, Varanasi – 221001.
FORMAT FOR WRITING A PRACTICAL
REPORT (Psychological Testing)
1. Title of the Study (e.g. To study the level
of intelligence of Class X students)
2. Introduction
l Basic Concepts
l Problem and Variables
l Objectives of the Study
3. Method
l Subject
l Name
l Age
l Sex
l Material
l Brief description of the test (name of
the test, author, year, psychometric
properties, etc.)
l Other materials (e.g., stop watch,
screen, etc.)
l Procedure
l Process of test administration, such
as rapport formation, instructions,
Precautions, actual conduct of test
administration.
l Scoring of the test
l Preparation of graph, psychogram, etc.
4. Results and Conclusions
l Describing subject’s scores in terms
of norms and drawing conclusions.
5. Recommendations
l For the testee/organization
6. References
l List the books manual, and materials
consulted on the topic
Introduction to Psychology
FORMAT FOR PREPARING A CASE PROFILE
A format for case presentation covering
following broad aspects is given here. It is
suggested that case be developed in a
narrative format along the following points:
Introduction
A brief introduction of about one or two pages
presenting the nature of the problem, its
incidence, and likely causes and possible
counselling outcomes.
A half page (brief) summary of the case.
Identification Data
Name (may be fictitious)
Diagnosed Problem
Voluntary or Referral (By whom referred -
such as teacher, parent, sibling, etc.).
Case History
l A paragraph giving age, gender, school
attended, class (grade) presently enrolled
in.
l Information about Socio-Economic
Status (SES) consisting of information
about mother/father’s education and
occupation and family income, house
type, number of members in the family,
brothers, sisters (birth order), adjustment
in the family, etc.
l Information about physical health,
physical characteristics (height and
weight), any disability/illness (in the past
and present), etc.
l Any professional help taken (past and
present) giving a brief history of the problem,
attitude towards counselling (indicating
the motivation to seek help etc.).
l Recording signs (what is observed in
terms of facial – expressions, mannerisms,
etc.) and symptoms (what the subject
reports, e.g., fears, worry, tension,
sleeplessness, etc.)
Assessment of Data
Compilation of data collected by use of tests
and other techniques (e.g. signs and
symptoms)
Interpretation of data
Evaluation/Comments
 GLOSSARY
Adaptation : Structural or functional change
that enhances the organism’s survival
value.
Advertisement : A way of providing information
in a popular way to the target population
about product, goods and services.
Affect : Relatively mild feelings and moods.
Aggression : Behaviour directed toward
intentionally injuring another person who
wishes to avoid such treatment.
Alienation : Lack or loss of relationships to
others.
Amnesia : Total or partial loss of memory
stemming from illness, injury, drug abuse
or other causes.
Anal Stage : The second of Freud’s psychosexual
stages, which occurs during the child’s
second year. Pleasure is focused on the
anus and on retention and expulsion of
feces.
Analytical Psychology : Carl Jung’s theory of
personality. Humans are viewed as
purposive and striving toward self-
actualisation. The unconscious includes a
collective as well as a personal unconscious.
Anorexia nervosa : Disorder involving severe
loss of body weight, accompanied by an
intense fear of gaining weight or becoming
“fat.”
Anxiety : A state of psychic distress
characterised by fear, apprehension, and
physiological arousal.
Anxiety disorders : Disorders in which anxiety
is a central symptom. The disorder is
characterised by feelings of vulnerability,
apprehension, or fear.
Aptitude : One’s special ability or abilities like
music, painting etc.
Aptitude Tests : Tests designed to measure the
ability to acquire new information; used
primarily to predict future performance.
Archetypes : Jung’s term for the contents of
the collective unconscious-images or
symbols expressing the inherited patterns
for the organisation of experience .
Artificial Intelligence : A branch of science that
studies the capacity of computers to
demonstrate performance that, if it were
produced by human beings, would be
described as showing intelligence.
Attitude : A disposition to respond favourably
or unfavourably toward a person, thing,
event, place, idea or situation. It has
cognitive, contative, and affective
components.
Attitude object : The target of an attitude.
Attribution: The process through which we
seek to identify the causes behind others’
behaviour.
Authority : The rights inherent in a position
(e.g. managerial) to give orders and to expect
the orders to be obeyed,
Autism : Pervasive developmental disorder
beginning in infancy involving a wide range
of abnormalities, including deficits in
language, perceptual, and motor
development, defective reality testing, and
social withdrawal.
Aversion therapy : A therapeutic technique that
attempts to reduce the frequency of deviant
behaviour by pairing an aversive stimulus
(e.g. electric shock) with undesired
behaviour.
Avoidance behaviour : Behaviour that avoids
anxiety-producing objects or situations.
Behaviour therapy : Therapy based on the
principles of behaviouristic learning
theories in order to change the maladaptive
behaviour.
Biofeedback : Use of equipment to provide
immediate feedback about the activities of
the autonomic and somatic systems. For
example, giving information about heart
rate or brainwaves to the person in whom
they occur, at the time they occur.
Bystander Effect : The finding that as the
number of bystanders increases, the
likelihood of any one bystander offering help
decreases and more time passes before help
does occur.
Cardinal trait : According to Allport, a single
trait that dominates an individual’s entire
personality.
Causal attribution : The way people attribute
causes to behaviour.
Central traits : Allport’s term for trait that is
less important and pervasive than a cardinal
trait. According to Allport, these are five or
ten traits that best describe an individual’s
personality.
Centralisation : The degree to which decision
making is concentrated at a single point.
Client-centered (Rogerian) therapy : Approach
to therapy developed by Carl Rogers.
268
Emphasises a nonevaluative, accepting
atmosphere conducive to honesty and
concentrates on present relationships and
feelings.
Client-centered therapy : The therapeutic
approach developed by Carl Rogers in which
therapist helps clients to clarify their true
feelings and come to value who they are.
Clinical psychology : A sub-field of psychology
that concentrates on the diagnostic and
treatment of mental and behavioural
disorders.
Cognition : The process of knowing . The
mental activities associated with thought,
decision making, language, and other
higher mental processes.
Cognitive therapies : Forms of therapy focussed
on changing distorted and maladaptive
patterns of thought.
Cognitive triad : The three forms of negative
thinking, encompassing one’s view of one’s
experiences, one’s view of oneself, and one’s
view of the future, that theorist Aaron Beck
says, lead people to feel depressed.
Cohesiveness : All forces (factors) that cause
group members to remain in the group.
Collective unconscious : Inherited portion of
the unconscious, as postulated by Carl Jung.
The unconscious shared by all human
beings.
Community Mental Health Centers : Facilities
for the delivery of mental health services
located in communities where clients live.
Compliance : A form of social influence in which
one or more persons, not holding authority,
accepts direct requests from one or more
others.
Compulsions : A repetitive behaviour a person
feels compelled to engage in despite the fact
that it is senseless.
Conformity : A type of social influence in which
individuals change their attitudes or
behaviour in order to adhere to existing
social norms.
Consistency : The extent to which an individual
responds to a given stimulus or situation in
the same way on different occasions.
Consumer psychology : A sub-field of psychology
that studies the psychological processes
underlying the acquisition, consumption,
and disposition of goods, services, and ideas.
Consumer : An individual or group of people
involved in acquisition, consumption and
disposition of goods, services, and ideas.
Contact Hypothesis : The suggestion that
increased contact between members of
various social groups can be effective in
reducing prejudice between them.
Introduction to Psychology
Controlling : Monitoring activities to ensure
they are being accomplished as planned and
correcting any significant deviations.
Correlation coefficient : A numerical value
that indicates the strength and direction of
the relationship between two or more
variables .
Correlation : The degree to which events or
characteristics vary in relation to each
other.
Counseling interview : An interview whose
purpose is counseling or providing guidance
in the area of personality, vocational choice,
etc.
Counseling : A broad name for a wide variety of
procedures for helping individuals achieve
adjustment, such as the giving of advice,
therapeutic discussion, the administration
and interpretation of tests, and vocational
assistance.
Crowding : A psychological feeling of too little
space, perception of crampedness
Culture-fair test : A test relatively free from
invalidating biases caused by questions
favourable or unfavourable to certain social
classes, cultures, or ethnic groups.
Decision Making : The processes through
which individuals or groups combine and
integrate available information in order to
choose one out of several possible courses
of action.
Defense mechanisms : According to Freud, ways
in which the ego unconsciously tries to cope
with unacceptable id impulses, as in
repression, projection, reaction formation,
sublimation, rationalisation.
Delusions : Irrational beliefs that are held
despite overwhelming evidence to the
contrary.
Depersonalisation disorder : Dissociative
disorder in which there is a loss of the sense
of self.
Depression : A mood disorder in which
individual experiences extreme
unhappiness, lack of energy, and several
related symptoms.
Descriptive statistics : Statistical methods
used to summarize a vast amount of data
in forms that are brief and easy to
understand. (e.g., mean, median, and mode)
Diathesis-stress model : A view that the
interaction of factors such as biological
predesposition combined with life stress may
cause a specific disorder.
Diffusion of Responsibility : Decrease in
individual sense of responsibility for taking
Glossary
action in an emergency because of the
presence of other bystanders; the greater
the number of bystanders, the less likely
each individual is to act.
Discrimination : Negative behaviours directed
towards people who are the object of
prejudice.
Dispersion : The extent to which scores in a
distribution spread out or vary around the
center point. (e.g., standard deviation)
Displacement : Redirecting an impulse toward
a less threatening or safer target; a key
concept in psychoanalytic theory; a defence
mechanism.
Dissociation : A split in consciousness whereby
certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour
operate independently from others.
Distinctiveness : The extent to which an
individual responds in the same manner to
different stimuli or different situations.
Division of labour : Distribution of task and
activities according to the roles and abilities
of the individuals in a given area in the
organisation.
Dyad : A social group consisting of two persons.
Dysthymia : A chronic form of depression that
last for years at a time. A moderately severe
mood disorder, characterised by extended
periods.
Ecology : That branch of biology which deals
with the relations of organisms to their
environment.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) : Commonly
called “shock treatment”. A biological
treatment for unipolar depression in which
electrodes attached to a patient’s head send
an electric current through the brain,
causing a convulsion. It is effective in the
treatment of cases of several depression
that fail to respond to drug therapy.
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) : A cluster of traits
or abilities relating to the emotional side of
life – abilities such as recognising and
managing one’s own emotions, being able
to motivate oneself and restrain one’s
impulses, recognising and managing others’
emotions, and handling interpersonal
relationships in an effective manner.
Empathy : Experiencing other’s emotional
condition as one’s own.
Engineering psychology : A sub-field of
psychology that focuses on the
interrelationship between humans and
machines.
Enuresis : Bed wetting; involuntary discharge
of urine after the age of expected continence
(age five).
269
Environment : Totality of, or any aspect of,
physical and social set-up that surround and
affect an individual organism.
Environmental Psychology : The branch of
psychology that concentrates on the
interaction between the physical world and
human behaviour.
Equity theory : Individuals compare their job
inputs and outcomes with those of others
and then respond to eliminate any
inequities.
Exorcism : Religiously inspired treatment
procedure designed to drive out evil spirits
or forces from a “possessed” person.
Extravert : One of the dimensions of personality
in which interests are directed outwards to
nature and other people rather than inwards
to the thoughts and feelings of self
(introvert).
Factor analysis : Mathematical procedure,
involving correlations, for sorting trait terms
or test responses into clusters or factors; used
in the development of tests designed to
discover basic personality traits. It identifies
items that are homogeneous or internally
consistent and independent of others.
Forced Compliance : A situation in which we
feel compelled to say or do things
inconsistent with our true attitudes.
Formalisation : The degree to which jobs within
the organisation are standardised
F r e e a s s o c i a t i o n : A psychodynamic
technique in which the patient describes
verbally any thought, feeling, or image
that comes to mind, even if it seems
unimportant.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) : A three
step profile of response to stress : (1) Alarm,
a non-specific mobilisation phase that
promotes sympathetic nervous system
activity; (2) Resistance, during which the
organism makes efforts to cope; and (3)
Exhaustion, which occurs if the organism
fails to overcome the threat and depletes
the coping resources.
Gestalt therapy : A humanistic therapy in
which therapists focus on helping
individuals to acknowledge hidden aspects
of their thoughts and feelings.
Global Warming : The probable increase in the
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and
its oceans brought about partly as a result
of various human activities.
Great Person Theory of Leadership : A theory
suggesting that all great leaders share
certain traits that set them apart from most
human beings.
270
Greenhouse Effect : The basis of global warming:
gases released into the atmosphere (carbon
dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbon or
CFC) trap the sun’s heat, turning the earth
into a vast “greenhouse”.
Group : Two or more persons who interact with
one another, have shared goals, are
interdependent, and consider themselves as
members of group .
Group test : A test designed to be administered
to more than one individual at the same
time, in contrast to individual test.
Group therapy: A therapeutic approach in
which a group of people with similar
problems meet together with a therapist and
discuss the problems or concerns of one or
more of the members.
Hallucination : A false perception which has a
compulsive sense of the reality of objects
although relevant and adequate stimuli for
such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal
phenomenon.
Hassles : Annoying minor events of every day
life that cumulatively can affect
psychological well-being
Homeostasis : A state of physiological balance
within the body.
Human resource development : It deals with
the conditions that enable people to get the
best out of them. It ensures that individual’s
potentials are utilised to get higher level of
productivity, profitability and growth of the
organisation.
Humanistic psychology : An approach to
understanding personality that emphasises
self-fulfillment and growth as the prime
motivators of behaviour.
Hypochondriasis : A psychological disorder in
which the individual is dominated by
preoccupation with bodily processes and fear
of presumed diseases despite reassurance
from doctors that no physical illness exists.
Id : According to Freud, the impulsive and
unconscious part of the psyche that operates
through the pleasure principle toward the
gratification of instinctual drives. The id is
conceived as the true unconscious, or the
deepest part of the psyche.
Implosive therapy : A treatment for phobias in
which clients are exposed repeatedly to the
feared object and made to see that such
exposure is harmless.
Impulse : An act performed without delay,
reflection, voluntary direction. In
psychoanalytic terms, an act determined by
the id. (instinctual).
Introduction to Psychology
Individual test : A test that must be given to a
single individual, at a time typically by a
specially trained person. The Binet and
Wechsler intelligence tests are examples
of individual tests.
Industrial/organisational psychology : A sub-
field of psychology that focuses on
relationship between people and work. In
the contemporary context the emphasis has
shifted from industrial psychology to
organisational psychology, which includes
industrial and all other organisations.
Ingroup : The social group to which an
individual perceives herself or himself as
belonging (“us”). The group with which one
identifies. The other groups are outgroups.
Insight therapy : A group of treatment methods
that focuses on developing a client’s self-
understanding (insight).
Intellectualisation : The tendency to deal with
emotional conflicts in a detached,
intellectual, and controlled manner. The
analysis of a problem in purely intellectual
terms and feelings and emotions are
ignored.
Intelligence : Psychologists have found it
difficult to precisely define intelligence.
There are many definitions of intelligence,
however, some of the aspects of intelligence
could be abstracted as: (1) The ability to meet
and adapt to novel situations quickly and
effectively. (2) The ability to utilise abstract
concepts effectively, (3) The ability to grasp
relationships and learn quickly. All these
three aspects of intelligence include
reasoning, imagination, insight, judgement
and adaptability as the mental processes .
Intelligence quotient (IQ) : An index of child’s
mental development computed by dividing
a child’s mental age MA by the child’s
chronological age, (CA) and multiplying by
100 ( to eliminate the decimal point).
MA
IQ = × 100
CA
Intelligence test : Test used for establishing a
subject’s level of intellectual capability.
Introvert : One of the dimensions of personality
in which interests are directed inwards,
rather than outwards (extravert)
Job analysis : An evaluation of activities and
tasks that must be performed on a job and
the knowledge, skills and abilities that is
necessary to perform them.
Latency Period : In Freud’s theory of
psychosexual stages, the period between the
phallic stage and the mature genital stage
Glossary
(period from age 4 or 5 to about 12) during
which interest in sex is sublimated.
Leadership : The process through which one
member of a groups (its leader) influences
other group members toward attainment of
shared goal. It includes the exercise of
authority to control, guide, and direct of the
conduct of others.
Libido : Freud introduced this term. In Freud’s
treatment libido was quite simply a direct
or indirect sexual expression.
Life space : According to Lewin, life space (LS)
is the totality of all possible events that
influence the individual. It is a function of
person (p) and environment (E).
Lifestyle : In the context of health psychology,
the overall pattern of decisions and
behaviours that determine health and
quality of life.
Likert Scale : A type of attitude scale on which
the subject is asked to indicate his degree of
agreement or disagreement with stated
attitudes on a five point scale, varying from
strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Maladaptive (abnormal) behaviour : The
inability of the individual to develop patterns
of behaviour necessary for success in his
environment.
Mean : The arithmetic average of a set of
scores. A measure of central tendency.
Median: The number that falls in the exact
middle of a distribution of scores arranged
from highest to lowest. It is also a measure
of central tendency.
Meditation : A technique of turning one’s
concentration inward and achieving an
altered state of consciousness.
Mental age (MA) : Level of mental development
expressed in units of chronological age for
which the mental age is judged normal.
Mental retardation : A general term meaning
any degree of mental deficiency. Now, the
term mentally challenged is generally used.
Minority influence : Influence exhibited by a
minority on the majority of a group.
Mode : The most frequent score in a distribution
. Another measure of central tendency.
Modeling : A process of learning in which an
individual acquires responses by observing
and imitating others.
Mood : A mild, usually transitory, emotion.
Mood disorder : Disorder affecting one’s
emotional state, including depression and
bipolar disorder.
Narcissistic personality disorder : Personality
disorder characterised by grandiosity, an
exaggerated sense of self-importance, and
preoccupation with being admired.
271
Neurosis : A mental disorder milder than
psychosis, characterised by : (a) incomplete
insight into the nature of the difficulty; (b)
conflicts; (c) anxiety; (d) partial impairment
of personality; (e) often, the presence of
phobias.
Noise : An unwanted sound, one that brings
about a negative affective response.
Normal Distribution Curve : A symmetrical,
bell-shaped frequency distribution. Most
scores are found near the middle, and fewer
and fewer occur toward the extremes. Many
psychological characteristics are distributed
in this manner.
Normal distribution : A frequency distribution
showing a normal curve, with tendency for
most members of a population to cluster
around a central point with respect to a
given trait, with the rest spreading out to
the two extremes.
Normative influence : Influence groups exert
because members are afraid of the
consequences of violating the group’s
expectations.
Obedience : Behaviour which is characterised
by conformity with commands given by
person in authority.
Obsessions : Recurrent and persistent
thoughts, impulses, or images that a person
experiences, often irrational in nature
which may be accompanied by a compulsion
to carry out an act.
Organisation A consciously coordinated social
unit, composed of two or more people, that
functions on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal or set of goals,
Panic: A sudden overpowering fear.
Paranoid personality disorder : Personality
disorder characterized by pervasive
suspiciousness, distrust, envy, jealousy and
stubborn behaviour.
Performance test : A test in which the role of
language is minimised, the task requiring
overt motor responses other than verbal.
Personal space : The small area around an
individual considered to belong to him and
whose invasion is experienced as
threatening or unpleasant.
Personality : The dynamic organisation within
the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristic
behaviour and thought.
Phallic stage : Third of Freud’s psychosexual
stages (at about age five ) when pleasure is
focused on the genitals and both males and
females experience the “Oedipus complex”.
272
Phlegmatic : Describes one of the four
temperaments of Hippocrates’ typology.
Phlegmatic persons are supposedly calm and
listless due to an excess of phlegm.
Phobia : A strong, persistent, and irrational fear
of some specific object or situation that
presents little or no actual danger to a
person.
Planning : A process that includes defining
goals, establishing strategy, and developing
plans to coordinate activities.
Practical Intelligence : Intelligence useful in
solving everyday problems.
Predisposition : Increased likelihood that a
person will develop certain symptoms under
given stress or other conditions.
Prejudice : An attitude, either positive or
negative (usually negative) formulated in
advance of sufficient evidence and held with
emotional tenacity.
Primary group : Group in which each member
is personally known to each of the other
member, and which the members at least
on occasion, meet face-to-face
Projection : Defense mechanism, the process
of unwittingly attributing one’s own traits,
attitudes, or subjective processes to others.
Prosocial Behaviour : Action that benefit others
but have no obvious benefits for the person
carrying them out, and which sometimes
could be a risk for the prosocial person.
Proximity : The principle of gestalt psychology
that stimuli close together tend to be
perceived as a group.
Psychodynamic approach : Approach that
strives for explanation of behaviour in terms
of motives, or drives.
Psychopathology : A systhematic investigation
of morbid mental condition. The branch of
psychology concerned with the investigation
of mental disorders and other abnormal
phenomena .
Psychopathy : A condition involving the
features of anti-social personality disorder
plus the traits of lack of empathy, inflated
self-appraisal, and glib and superficial
charm.
Psychotherapy : The use of any psychological
technique in the treatment of mental
disorder or maladjustment .
Random sampling : A technique of sampling
in which every member of the population
has an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
Range : The difference between the highest and
lowest scores in a distribution of scores. A
measure of dispersion.
Introduction to Psychology
Rational-emotive therapy (RET) : A
therapeutic system developed by Albert Ellis.
It seeks to replace irrational, problem
provoking outlooks with more realistic ones.
Rationalisation : A defense mechanism that
occurs when one attempts to explain failure
or short comings by attributing them to more
acceptable causes.
Recategorisation : Shifts in the boundary
between an individual’s ingroup (“us”) and
various outgroups (“them”), causing persons
formerly viewed as outgroup members now
to be seen as belonging to the ingroup.
Reference group : A group to which a particular
person compares himself or herself. The
comparison might be in terms of rewards,
or attitudes, or beauty, and so on.
Regression : A defense mechanism that
involves a return to behaviours
characteristic of an earlier stage in life. The
term is also used in statistics, in which
with the help of correlation prediction is
made.
Relaxation training : A procedure in which
clients are taught to release all the tension
in their bodies .
Repression : A defense mechanism by which
people push unacceptable, anxiety-
provoking thoughts and impulses into the
unconscious to avoid confronting them
directly.
Resistance : In psycho analysis, attempts by
the patient to block treatment.
Role play: A therapeutic technique in which
client is instructed to perform role assigned
to him by the therapist.
Sample : A selected part which is
representative of the whole (population) .
Sanguine temprament: Describes one of the
four temperaments of Hippocrates’ typology,
a very ancient classification of personality
characterised by warmth, ardour, and
hopefulness or optimism.
Schizophrenia : A group of psychotic reactions
characterised by the breakdown of
integrated personality functioning,
withdrawal from reality, emotional blunting
and distortion, and disturbances in thought
and behaviour.
Self-actualisation : According to Maslow’s view,
the highest motive of human behaviour, the
motive to realise oneself fully as a person.
The tendency to develop one’s talents and
capacities.
Self-efficacy : Bandura’s term for the
individual’s beliefs about his or her own
effectiveness; the expectation that one can
successfully conduct the action required.
Glossary
Self-esteem : Refers to the individual’s personal
judgement of his or her own worth; one’s
attitude toward oneself along a positive-
negative dimension.
Self-instruction : Talking to oneself to control
one’s behaviour; an aspect of some types of
self-control training.
Self-monitoring : Systematic self-observation
and recording of progress in a behaviour
change program.
Self-Serving Bias : The tendency to attribute
our positive outcomes to internal causes but
negative outcomes or events to external
causes.
Shaping : Teaching a desired response by
reinforcing the series of successive steps
which lead to learned response.
Shared environmental influences : The effects
of family environment, which are common
to all members of the household.
Social Cognition : The processes through which
we notice, interpret, remember, and later
use social information. It helps in making
sense of other people and ourselves.
Social facilitation : The tendency for people’s
performance to improve in the presence of
others.
Social Identity : A person’s definition of who
he or she is; includes personal attributes
(self-concept) along with membership in
various groups.
Somatoform disorders : Conditions involving
physical complaints or disabilities occurring
in the absence of any identifiable organic
cause.
Standard deviation : A measure of variability
or dispersion showing average extent to
which all the scores in a particular set vary
from each other and the mean.
Statistics : Mathematical procedures used to
describe data and draw inferences from
sample.
Stereotypes : A preconceived idea of what
numbers of a particular group are like.
Stress : The process that occurs in response to
events that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt,
our physical or psychological functioning.
Stressors : Events or situations in our
environment that cause stress.
Sublimation : A defense mechanism in which
socially unacceptable impulses are
expressed in socially acceptable form of
behaviour.
Surface traits : R.B. Cattell’s term for clusters
of observable trait elements (responses) that
seem to go together. Factor analysis of the
correlations reveals source traits.
273
Syndrome : Group or pattern of symptoms that
occur to gather in a disorder and represent
the typical picture of the disorder.
Systematic desensitisation : A form of
behavioural therapy in which phobic client
learn to induce a relaxed state and then
exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia.
Temperament traits : R.B. Cattell’s term for
traits that determine emotional reactivity.
Territoriality : An arrangement found in some
species in which members of the species
(typically males) defend an area of land
against incursions from males of the same
species (or other species that feed on the
same resources).
Token Economy : Forms of behavior therapy
based on operant conditioning, in which
hospitalized patients earn tokens they can
exchange for valued rewards when they
behave in ways the hospital staff consider
to be desirable.
Tragedy of the commons : A situation, like the
prisoners’ dilemma, in which the most
rational response from each individual will
not produce the best outcome for a group of
people. (Also called n-prisoners’ dilemma, or
social trap, or social dilemma)
Training : Training is systematic acquisition
of skills, rules, concepts and attitude that
results in improved performance on the job.
Trait : A relatively persistent and consistent
behaviour pattern manifested in a wide
range of circumstances.
Transference : Strong positive or negative
feelings toward the therapist on the part of
individual undergoing psycho-analysis.
Transformational Leaders : Leaders who exert
profound effects on their followers and
establish special types of relationships with
them.
Typology : Ways of categorising individuals into
discrete categories or types, e.g.Type A
personality.
Unconditional Positive Regard : In Rogers’s
theory, communicating to others that they
will be respected or loved regardless of what
they say or do.
Unconscious : In psychoanalytic theory,
characterising any activity or mental
structure of which a person is not aware.
Verbal test : Test in which a subject’s ability to
understand and use words and concepts is
important in making the required responses.
Work Motivation : Motivation to perform and
complete various tasks.
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l Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. H. (1997). Psychology. Prentice – Hall, Inc

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l Gerow, J. R. (1997). Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley Longman,

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l Gleitman, H. (1996). Basic Psychology. W.W.Norton & Company.

l Lahey, B. B. (1998). Psychology – An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill.

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l McMahon, J. W., McMahon, F. B., & Romano, T (1995). Psychology and You.
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l Messer, D., & Miller, S. (1999). Exploring developmental psychology: From

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