1920’s policies – pretty conventional, nothing too aggressive, generally in agreement

with Western democratic power, peace-keeping treaties.

Though they may have taken an externally peace keeping stance, Mussolini was
attempting to rework the unfavourable treaties to give Italy more land and status after
their fate at Versailles
- In 1923, Greek and Albania were having a border dispute, to which Mussolini
responded by sending in Italian delegates to aid in the discussions. On Aug 23,
1923, all Italian representatives, including a general, were killed. Mussolini was
furious with Greece and demanded reparations in the form of 50 million Liras, a
public apology, and the execution of the murderers. The Greeks refused the terms,
so Mussolini consequently invaded the Greek island of Corfu. Mussolini’s order
to occupy the island was purposely drastic in order to show the European powers
that Italy was concerned with its own interests. Eventually under persuasion from
the League of Nations, the Greeks conceded to the terms and Italy withdrew.

- In response so his recent victory, Mussolini then invaded the Yugoslavian city of
Fiume, which was a port on the Mediterranean Sea.

- Mussolini saw Albania as another Balkan-Mediterranean territory that was

rightfully Italy’s. From the beginning of his reign in power, he had begun to
extend Italy’s influence to Albania through politics and economy. In November of
1926, Albania was coerced in to the First Treaty of Tirane with the Italians, which
saw Italy as a protectorate of Albania. One year later (Nov 1927), Albania and
Italy signed the Second Treaty of Tirane, which put the two countries into a
defense alliance; Italy sent men to train Albania’s military and supply them with
arms and also allowed the Italian Navy access to the Vlorë port.
- Italy was a member of the Treaty of Locarno in 1925 and Kellogg-Briand Pact of
1928. These treaties reassured Britain and France of Italy’s generally undisruptive
nature under Mussolini.
- After the invasion of Libya in 1911, Italy had gained control over some coastal
cities and had maintained their occupation since then. By the late ‘20’s Mussolini
wanted to take over all of Libya, as it held key land on the Mediterranean, and he
sent many vicious generals, like Rodolfo Graziani, to lead the attack. In 1931,
Libya’s opposition leader, Omar el Mukhtar, was hanged, and his death ended
their resistance. During their conquering of Libya, Mussolini granted the Italian
generals permission to use torture and concentration camps to experiment as to
which methods were most efficient for future use. In the Italian army’s usage of
torture and racism, they changed how classic colonialism had been.

- These relatively small invasions were not so dynamic that they caused Western
Europe to worry, but were just enough to try to show the world that Italy was
becoming a major and expansionist empire. Overall, during the 1920’s, Italy was
more concerned with domestic policies and securing its position and building up
trust with Britain and France. Mussolini was cautious in his foreign goals due to
dominating democratic powers who were concerned with maintaining a détente
period.
OPVL: Ethiopia Speech >> http://www.dickinson.edu/~rhyne/232/EthiopiaSpeech.html

- Origin: Speech given by Mussolini to Italian public in general

- Purpose: Propaganda, garner support for invasion of Ethiopia, excite and persuade
the people
- Value: The source is valuable as it is a primary speech given by Mussolini. He
uses effective propaganda methods to rally support from the Italians. This reminds
the people of how Italy was shunned at the “hateful peace table” in order to
reawaken their bitterness towards Britain and France and therefore their support
for an invasion to recapture the land that they did not get in the Peace Conference.
Mussolini also talks as if they were betrayed by the League of Nations, who
instead of instituting an economic sanction, should in fact be recognizing the land
as rightfully theirs. He makes it seem like Italy should be above the rules of the
League when it comes to foreign policy. His speech is also hypocritical when he
talks about how Italy isn’t going to war to ‘avenge their fallen temples’ and
invading Ethiopia without turning it into a huge European conflict, which it
somewhat becomes. Also, they technically are avenging their fallen temples,
because they had suffered a humiliating defeat in 1896 in which Ethiopia had
blocked Italy’s access to the Red Sea, and were eager to conquer them again,
somewhat like Carthage in the old Roman Empire. When speaking of Ethiopia,
Mussolini uses a divine providence justification, stating that Ethiopia shows no
semblance of a civilization and wonders (aloud) why Britain is so upset at Italy’s
desire to bring culture to them, and implies that it is their right to intervene and
bring civilization to the country. He also speaks as though his present day Italian
empire is one with the Romans, “…And it is against this people to whom
humanity owes some of its greatest conquests,” which we can assume is referring
at least in part, to the ancient Romans’ battles. We see how Mussolini, at the time,
envisioned Italy as a splendid and sovereign state and how he rationalized not just
Ethiopia, but all his Imperialistic invasions.
- Limits: Obviously is a propaganda speech designed to get support from people, so
keeping this in mind, we can’t take everything at face value, but should read it in
a critical way and attempt to analyze the deeper meaning. So, while Mussolini
chooses to state that Italy sacrificed so much in WWI and won glorious victories,
he doesn’t mention that most of the other major powers lost more men and that
Italy only joined the Allies in 1915 after having been allied to Germany and
Austro-Hungary. In a superficial reading, we are not aware of some of the real
reasons behind Mussolini’s rigorous 1930’s foreign policy; though he says that all
conquests are for the betterment of the state, historians have agreed that he in fact
was attempting to divert the public’s attention to his international victories so that
they wouldn’t concentrate on how their domestic lives were doing badly due to
the depression and so that he could restore his own weakening image. Another
factor to take into consideration is that Mussolini was, to some extent, making up
his doctrines of Fascism as he went, so he may have also been trying to enforce
the idea of a successful and far-reaching empire that was founded on Fascist
ideals.
“Mussolini Justifies War against Ethiopia” Dickinson College. 16 December 2005: <<
http://www.dickinson.edu/~rhyne/232/EthiopiaSpeech.html>>

Black Shirts of the revolution! Men and women of all Italy! Italians spread throughout
the world, beyond the mountains and beyond the seas! Hear me!

A solemn hour is about to sound in the history of the fatherland. At this moment twenty
million men occupy the public squares of all Italy.

Never in the history of mankind has there been seen a more gigantic spectacle. Twenty
million men, but one heart, one will, one decision.

Their demonstration must and does show the world that Italy and Fascism constitute a
perfect, absolute, and unalterable identity.

For many months the wheels of destiny have been moving toward their goal under the
impulse of our calm determination. In the latter hours their rhythm has become swifter
and by now cannot be stopped.

It is not only an army that strives toward its objectives but a whole people of 44 million
souls against whom an attempt is being made to consummate the blackest of injustices?
That of depriving us of some small place in the sun.

When in 1915 Italy exposed itself to the risks of war and joined its destiny with that of
the Allies, how much praise there was for our courage and how many promises were
made! But after the common victory to which Italy had made the supreme contribution of
670,000 dead, 400,000 mutilated, and a million wounded, around the hateful peace table
Italy received but a few crumbs from the rich colonial booty gathered by others.

We have been patient for thirteen years, during which the circle of selfishness that
strangles our vitality has become ever tighter. With Ethiopia we have been patient for
forty years! It is time to say enough!

In the League of Nations there is talk of sanctions instead of recognition of our rights.
Until there is proof to the contrary, I shall refuse to believe that the real and generous
people of France can support sanctions against Italy....

Similarly, I refuse to believe that the real people of Great Britain, who have never had
discords with Italy, are prepared to run the risk of hurling Europe along the road to
catastrophe for the sake of defending an African country universally branded as a country
without the slightest shadow of civilization.

We shall face economic sanctions with our discipline, our sobriety, and our spirit of
sacrifice.

Against military sanctions we shall reply with military measures.

To acts of war we shall reply with acts of war.

Let no one think that he can make us yield without a hard struggle.

A people jealous of its honor can use no other language nor can it adopt a different
attitude.

But let it be said once more and in the most categorical manner — and at this moment I
make before you a sacred pledge — that we shall do all that is possible to prevent this
conflict of a colonial character from assuming the nature and scope of a European
conflict. That might be desired by those who seek in a new war to avenge their fallen
temples, but not by us.

Never before as in this historical epoch have the Italian people revealed the quality of its
spirit and the power of its character. And it is against this people to whom humanity owes
some of its greatest conquests and it is against this people of poets, of artists, of heroes, of
saints, of navigators, of emigrants, it is against this people that one dares speak of
sanctions.

Italy, proletarian and fascist, Italy of Vittorio Veneto [Italy’s greatest victory in WWI]
and of the Revolution, arise! Let the cry of your decision fill the heavens; let it be a
comfort the soldiers who wait in Africa, a spur to friends, and a warning to enemies in
every part of the world: a cry of justice, a cry of victory.