In this section we will consider a number of BJT

circuits and perform the DC circuit analysis. For

those circuits with an active mode BJT, we’ll assume
that VBE = 0.7V (npn) or V EB = 0.7V (pnp). Example
N12.1 (text example 5.4). Compute the node
voltages and currents in the circuit below assuming ß
= 100.

If the BJT is in the active mode, Vbe = 0.7V then

With Ic Iae = then

Consequently, using KVL

Vc=10-IeRc= 10-0.99*10-3>-4.7*103=5.3V Finally,

using KCL IB+IC=IE,or IB=IE-IC=1-0.99=0.01mA
Now we’ll check to see if these values mean the BJT
is in the active mode (as assumed).
• VCB = 5.3-4 =1.3 V. This is greater than zero,
which means the CBJ is reversed biased.
• VBE =0.7 V. This is greater than zero, which means
the EBJ is forward biased. Because the CBJ is
reversed biased and the EBJ is forward biased, the
BJT is operating in the active mode. Note that in the
text, they show a technique for analyzing such
circuits right on the circuit diagram in .

Example N12.2 (text example 5.5). Repeat the

previous example but with VB =6 V. Assuming the
BJT is operating in the active mode:

From the last calculation 2.57 C Vc = 2.57VÞ VCB = 3.43 V.

Consequently, the BJT is not in the active mode
because the CBJ is forward biased. A better
assumption is the transistor is operating in the
saturation mode. We’ll talk more about this later. For
now, suffice it to say that in the saturation mode VCE|
sat »0.2 V (see Section 5.3.4). Assuming this and
reanalyzing the circuit:
Notice that

This ratio is often called forced ß . Observe that it’s

not equal to 100, as this ratio would be if the
transistor were operating in the active mode (see
Section 5.3.4). Example N12.3 (text example 5.7).
Compute the node voltages and currents in the
circuit below assuming ß = 100. To begin, we’ll
assume the pnp transistor is operating in the active
mode.

Now check if the BJT is in the active mode:

• EBJ? Forward biased.
• CBJ? Reversed biased.
So the BJT is in the active mode, as originally
assumed. Example N12.4 (text exercise D5.25).
Determine the largest RC that can be used in the
circuit below so that the BJT remains in the active
mode. (This circuit is very similar to the one in the
previous example.)

We’ll begin by assuming the BJT is operating in the

active mode. In the active mode, the CBJ needs to
be reversed biased. The lowest voltage across this
junction for operation in the active mode is
VCB=0 ⇒VC=VB=0V
Therefore, by KVL
-10+R CIc=0
or

This value of RC and smaller is required for the BJT

to operate in the active mode. Example N12.5 (text
example 5.10). Determine the node voltages and
currents in the circuit shown below. Assume the BJT
is operating in the active mode with ß=100 .
First, we’ll use Thévenin’s theorem to simplify the
base circuit

The Thévenin equivalent resistance and voltage are

then

Using this Thévenin equivalent for the base circuit,

the overall circuit is then

To find the emitter current, we’ll apply KVL over the

loop shown giving 5=33.3*103.IB+0.7+3,000.IEThe
quantity of interest is IB. With CB IC= Iß B=and
IC =IaE for a BJT in the active mode, we find

Using this in the KVL equation

5-0.7=[33.3*103+3,000(ß+1)]Ib
With ß=100 then solving this equation we find

Next, by KCL

The node voltages are then

Lastly, let’s check if the BJT is operating in the active

mode.
• BE B E VBE= VB- VE = 4.57 -3.87 =0.7 V This is 0.7
V originally assumed for a forward biased EBJ.
• VBC= VB -V C=4.57 -8.6=-4.03 V. This is less than
zero, which means the CBJ is reversed biased.
Therefore the BJT is operating in the active mode, as
originally assumed.

One very useful application of the transistor is an

amplifier of time varying signals. Consider the
“conceptual BJT amplifier” circuit shown below:
The DC voltages provide the biasing. The input signal
is vbe and the output signal is vc. We will assume
the transistor is biased so that VC is greater than VB
by an amount that llows for sufficient “signal swing”
at the collector, but the transistor remains in the
active mode at all times. That is, the transistor does
not become saturated or cutoff during the cycle.
From the circuit above, the total base-to-emitter
voltage is

Correspondingly, the collector current is

or using (5.53) ic=Ice

For small vbe such that Vbe<<2VVr (i.e., the small-
signal approximation), then (3) can be approximated
by

This is a familiar result: We saw something very

similar with small signals and diodes back in Lecture
4.The time varying current in (4)

Can be written as ic=gwVbe

is defined as the transistor small-signal
transconductance. Its units are Siemens. Note that
gmIc.
Significance of the BJT Small-Signal
Transconductance
What is the physical significance of gm? First, gm is
the slope of the iC-vBE characteristic curve at the Q
point:

Consider the plot shown in Fig.

with ic= Ise from (2), the right-hand side of (8)

becomes

therefore
as we defined in (6). Observe that:
• The small-signal vbe assumption restricts the
operation of the BJT to nearly linear portions of the
iC-vBE characteristic curve.
• From (6), the BJT behaves as a voltage controlled
current source for small signals: The small-signal be
v controls the small-signal ic
Signal Voltage Gain
Second, gm has an important relationship to the
signal voltage gain in this circuit. Using KVL in Fig.
5.48a, the total collector voltage is

where VC is the DC voltage at the collector. So from

(11), the AC signal at the collector is Vc=-IcRc This
result is negative, which means this circuit operates
as an inverting amplifier for small, time varying
signals. From (6), c mbe ic= gm vbe = . Using this
result in (12) gives Vc=-gmVbeRc=-(gmRc)vbe
Consequently, the small-signal AC voltage gain Av is

In a broad sense, we can see that this transistor

circuit can act an amplifier of the time varying input
signal, provided this input voltage remains small
enough.

gm is a very important amplifier parameter since the

voltage gain in (14) is directly proportional to gm.
BJTs have a relatively large gm compared to field
effect transistors, which we will consider in the next
chapter. Consequently, BJTs have better voltage gain
in such circuits.

Our next objective is to develop small-signal circuit

models for the BJT. We’ll focus on the npn variant in
this lecture. Recall that we did this for the diode back
in

In order to develop theseBJT_Small-signal models,

there are two small-signal resistances that we must
first determine. These are:

1. r p: the small-signal, active mode input resistance

between
the base and emitter, as “seen looking into the
base.” 2. re: the small-signal, active mode output
resistance between the base and emitter, as “seen
looking into the emitter.” These resistances are NOT
the same. Why? Because the transistor is not a
reciprocal device. Like a diode, the behavior of the
BJT in the circuit changes if we interchange the
terminals.
Determine r p
Assuming the transistor in this circuit
is operating in the active mode, then

The AC small-signal equivalent circuit from

Notice the “AC ground” in the circuit. This is an

extremely important concept. Since the voltage at
this terminal is held constant at VCC, there is no
time variation of the voltage. Consequently, we can
set this terminal to be an “AC ground” in the small-
signal circuit. For AC grounds, we “kill” the DC
sources at that terminal: short circuit voltage
sources and open circuit current sources. So, from
the small-signal equivalent circuit above:

we see that
Hence, using (2) in (3)

This r p is the BJT active mode small-signal input

resistance of
the BJT between the base and the emitter as seen
looking into the base terminal. (Similar to a Thévenin
resistance, this statement means we are fictitiously
separating the source from the base of the BJT and
observing the input resistance, as indicated by the
dashed line in Fig. 2.)
Determine re
We’ll determine re following a similar procedure as
for r p, but beginning with

The AC component of iE in (5) is

or with IE =I c|c ,

As indicated in Fig. 1 above, re is theBJT_Small-

signal resistance between the emitter and base seen
looking into the emitter:
Mathematically, this is stated as

Assuming an ideal signal voltage source, then e be

ve=-vbe and

Using (7) in this equation we find

But from (5.87)

Therefore, using this last result in (10) gives

This is the BJT active mode small-signal resistance

between the base and emitter seen looking into the
emitter. It can be shown that Rz=(b+1)re[ed] It is quite apparent
from this equation that e r r p . . This result is not unexpected because the active mode BJT

is a non-reciprocal device, as mentioned on page 1 of these notes.

BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

We are now in a position to construct the equivalent active mode, small-signal circuit

models for the BJT. There are two families of such circuits:

1. Hybrid- p model

2. T model.

Both are equally valid models, but choosing one over the other sometimes leads to simpler

analysis of certain circuits.

Hybrid- p Model

Version A.
Let’s verify that this circuit incorporates all of the necessarysmall-signal characteristics of

the BJT: ib= vbe|rp as required by (3). ic= gm vbe as required by (5.86), which we saw in

the last lecture. ib+ ic= ie as required by KCL.

We can also show from these relationships that ie= vbe| re.

Version B. We can construct a second equivalent circuit by using

Hence, using this result the second hybrid- p model is

T Model

The hybrid- p model is definitely the most popular small-signal model for the BJT. The

alternative is the T model, which is useful in certain situations. The T model also has two

versions:

Version A.

Version B.
The small-signal models for pnp BJTs are identically the same as those shown here for the

npn transistors. It is important to note that there is no change in any polarities (voltage or

current) for the pnp models relative to the npn models. Again, these small-signal models

are identically the same.

We will now consider three examples in this lecture

of BJTs used as linear amplifiers. Here are the steps
to follow when solving small-signal transistor
amplifier problems:
1. Determine the Q point of the BJT using DC
analysis. Compute IC.
2. Calculate the small-signal model parameters for
the BJT:

3. Rewrite the small-signal circuit: short out DC

sources and open DC current sources. Use the small-
signal model for the BJT.
4. Analyze the small-signal circuit for the desired
quantities such as voltage, small-signal voltage gain,
etc.
Example N15.1 (text example 5.14). Determine the
small-signal AC voltage gain for the circuit below,
assuming ß = 100 and the output voltage taken at
the collector terminal.

The first step in the solution is to determine the Q

point through DC analysis. By superposition, we’ll
force 0 i v = for this analysis. Assuming the BJT is in
the active mode, the results of the DC analysis are:

We see that the CBJ is reversed biased so this npn

BJT is in the active mode because of this and the EBJ
is forward biased. Next, we determine the BJT small-
signal model parameters for the hybrid- p model:

Now, we insert a small-signal equivalent model of

the BJT into the circuit of Fig. 5.53(a) after shorting
the DC voltage sources (VBB and VCC). This gives
the small-signal equivalent circuit:
Notice the AC ground at RC. This is an “AC ground”
because the voltage at this node does not vary with
time. For the purposes of the AC signal analysis, we
can set this node to an AC ground. (As a side note,
in the lab power supplies have a finite internal
resistance. This Thévenin equivalent resistance must
be included in the AC circuit for analysis purposes.)
Next, we perform the small-signal analysis referring
to Fig. 5.53c. At the input

while at the output

vo=-Rcie=-RcgmVbe
Substituting for vbe from (4) gives

Therefore, the small-signal AC voltage gain, Av, is

For this particular problem

The negative sign indicates this is an inverting

amplifier: the AC output signal is inverted with
respect to the input AC signal.
Example N15.2 (text example 5.15). Repeat the
analysis of the previous example but with a
triangular input waveform of small amplitude.
In the text, vip =0.8 V, is the peak amplitude of the
triangularinput voltage (= Vi in the text). Then from
(4) above (and the fact that there are only resistors
in the circuit)
which is less that 10 mV. This is fairly small with
respect to 2 VT = 50mV so we’ll go ahead and use
the small-signal analysis and models. Sketches of
the total voltages and currents from this circuit are
shown

A few things to take special notice:

• In Fig. 5.54c, vBE has a DC part and an AC part (see
Fig.5.54a) that is “riding” on the former. Notice the
enlarged vertical scale in Fig. 5.54c
• In Fig. 5.54d, ic is in-phase with the input voltage.
• In Fig. 5.54e, vc= Vc -icRc is 180° out-of-phase with
the input. As vi ,Ic . Þ vc. We can see how the AC
ground works here.
Example N15.3 (text example 5.16). Determine the
small-signal AC voltage gain for the BJT amplifier
circuit shown in

The two capacitors in this circuit serve as DC blocks.

They have a large enough C so that Xc=0 . at the
operating frequency. With these capacitors, the DC
bias is unchanged by the source or load
attachments. We call this “capacitively coupled”
input and output. As always, we first determine the
DC bias. We’ll assume the BJT is in the active mode
and that ß = 100: From this result

From this result

Ic=0.92mAÞvc=-10+Icrc=-5.4V
Next, we construct the small-signal equivalent circuit
and analyze the circuit to determine the voltage
gain. We’ll use the T model, though the hybrid- p
model would work as well.
Notice the two AC grounds in this circuit: one at RE
and the other at RC. Also notice this is the first
small-signal model of the pnp transistor we have
used. The small-signal model of the pnp transistor is
exactly the same as that for the npn with no change
in the polarities of the currents or voltages. This can
be a little confusing. Here, for example, ie is a
negative quantity. Using (3) for the small-signal
equivalent model of the BJT

From the small-signal AC circuit:

• v0=-a ieRc
• Because the base is grounded, Ie=-Vi|reTherefore,

Notice that this small-signal voltage gain is a positive

quantity. The reason for this is the input is tied to
the emitter. (Note that this positive gain did not
occur just because this is a pnp BJT.) Now, with a =
0.99 then from (10)

Lastly, for linear operation of this amplifier, veb mV.

With Veb=-Vithen Vi@10 mV for linear operation of
the amplifier, which implies that v0@1.8V A sketch of
the output from this small-signal amplifier is shown
in Fig. 5.57 for a sinusoidal input voltage:

We’re assuming the output remains linear and the

BJT in the active mode at all times for the entire
voltage swing in vC. If this input voltage were set to
a larger value, this would no longer be the case and
the BJT would first encounter nonlinear behavior and
eventually saturate. Both of these effects would
distort the output voltage and it would no longer be
an amplified copy of the input voltage.

We can use graphical analysis to approximately

analyze the response of simple transistor amplifier
circuits. This technique is primarily useful to develop
physical insight. Consider once again the “conceptual
BJT amplifier” circuit:

Similar to the analytical solution, there are two

primary steps to the graphical solution of such small-
signal amplifiers:
1. DC basis analysis
2. AC small-signal analysis.
DC Bias
The first step in the bias calculations is to determine
IB. This is done with the iB-vBE characteristic curve
and the load line:

Once IB has been determined we can compute IC

knowing that Ic=b IB for a BJT in the active mode.
With this IC value and the iC-vCE characteristic
curve of the transistor, we can determine V We
haven’t yet seen the iC-vCE characteristic curve of
the BJT. This can be measured using the circuit in
Fig. 5.19(a) below. vBEis fixed at some value, then
vCE is swept while measuring iC. The results are
shown below for different values of vBE.

When vCE is very small, iC is nearly zero. This is the

cutoff mode of the BJT. As vCE increases, the CBJ is
forward biased and the BJT is in the saturation
mode. When vCE becomes large enough, the CBJ
becomes reversed biased and the BJT enters the
active mode. The slopes of the lines in Fig. 5.19 in
the active mode are quite exaggerated in this figure.
So, back to the graphical solution. With the
IC=bIB value from Fig. 5.28 and the iC-vCE
characteristic curve of the transistor from Fig. 5.19,
we can determine VCE:

Curve tracers are pieces of equipment that will

measure and display families of iC-vCE characteristic
curves for transistors.
AC Small-Signal Analysis
The first step in the AC small-signal analysis is to
determine ib. This is performed using a slightly
complicated interaction of the input waveform vi, the
subsequent time variation of the load line, and the
iB-vBE characteristic curve of the BJT:

From this comes the small-signal quantities vbe and

ib. With ib known and ic=biB , then we use these
values on the vic characteristic curve to determine
vce:

Cutoff and Saturation

Notice that there are limits on vCE in which the BJT
remains in the active mode:
• Too large ( CC V = ) and the BJT cuts off
• Too small (few tenths of a volt) and the transistor
saturates. These limits are readily apparent if we
reexamine the previous figure of the small-signal
variation:

Because of these limits on vCE, it is important to

choose the Q point properly to all for the desired
swing in the signal voltage (vce).

It is important for the biasing of a transistor

amplifier that it remains largely invariant to fairly
large changes in â and temperature. Proper biasing
doesn’t happen by chance. For example, the npn and
pnp inverter circuits in Laboratory #3 are highly
sensitive to variations in â. That is usually a poor
design (but was done on purpose for the lab, of
course). In this lecture, we will study four BJT
biasing methods:
1. Single power supply
2. Dual power supply
3. Alternate method for common emitter amplifiers
4. Current source.
Single Power Supply Biasing Method
Perhaps the most common method for biasing BJT
amplifier circuits with a single power supply is shown
in
RE is part of this biasing method as well. When used
as an amplifier, the input signal would be
capacitively coupled to the base of the BJT while the
output would be taken (through capacitive coupling)
at the collector or emitter of the transistor,
depending on the specific requirements for the
amplifier. We analyzed a specific example of this
type of circuit in Lecture 12 employing Thévenin’s
theorem to simplify the analysis:

where VBB and RB are given in (5.68) and (5.69) in

the text. Using KVL in the loop shown above
V BB=IBRB +VBE +IE RE With IB= IE|(b+1) then (1)
becomes

Consequently,

We can use (3) to design the biasing circuit so that it

is largely insensitive to variations in b. The question
is then how do we make IE (and hence IC) largely
insensitive to b variations? Examining (3), we
deduce that the answer is to choose

Furthermore, we can design this biasing circuit so

that it is largely insensitive to variations in
temperature. The effects of temperature enter this
circuit because VBE is a relatively strong function of
temperature having a temperature coefficient of -2
mV/°C. (We saw this same behavior with diodes.)
From (3) we can see that if we choose
VBB >>VBE
then we’ll have a biasing circuit design that is largely
insensitive to variations in temperature. So
physically how do these conditions (4) and (5) make
a good biasing circuit?
• Eqn. (4) makes the base voltage largely
independent of â and determined almost solely by R1
and R2. How? Because the current in the divider is
much greater than the base current. The rule of
thumb for “much greater” is that the divider current
should be on the order of IE to IE/10.
• Eqn. (5) ensures that small variations in VBE (from
its nominal 0.7 V) due to temperature changes are
much smaller than VBB.
Additionally, there is an upper limit to VBB because a
higher VBB lowers VCB and affects the small values
of the positive signal swing. The rule of thumb here
is that VBB» VCC|3 and VCB (or VCE) » VCC|3
and .IC RC »VCC|3
Example N17.1. Design the bias circuit below for VCC
= 9 V to provide VCC/3 V across RE and RC, IE = 0.5
mA, and the voltage divider current of 0.2IE, as
shown. Design the circuit for a large b, then find the
actual value obtained for IE with a BJT having
b=100.
For the resistors Reand Rc,Ic RE =VCC /3=3V For
I E =0.5 mA , then RE =6Kb For the voltage divider ,
if this BJT is in the active mode then VBE »0.7V Hence
VB =VBE+VE =0.7+3=3.7V Such that

A large b for a BJT in the active mode implies Ib»0.

By Ohm’s law

Hence,
RI =90kb-R2 =53K b For the design with b = 100 it
can be shown that IE =0.48 mA. (This is only a -4%
change from 0.5 mA with b= ¥ ;)
Dual Power Supply Biasing Method
When two power supplies are available, a possible
biasing method is

Using KVL around the loop L gives

This is the same result as (3), but with VBB replaced
by VEE. Consequently, the b- and temperature-
invariant design equations for this circuit are the
same as those given earlier in (4) and (5) with VBB
replaced by VEE.
Alternative Biasing for Common Emitter
Amplifiers
This biasing method has a resistor tied from the
collector to the base as

As shown in the text, for IE to be insensitive to b

variations, choose

and for VBE to be insensitive to temperature

variations, choose VCC VBE This latter requirement is
most often very easy to meet!
Biasing with a Current Source
The last BJT amplifier biasing method we’ll consider
is one using a current source.
In this circuit, E I I = . If we are using a “good”
current source, then IE will not depend on â. Very
nice. However, what we’ve done in this approach is
to push the technical problem to the design of a
good current source.
Current Mirror
Simple biasing methods often fail to provide constant
collector currents if the supply voltage or ambient
temperature change.This is a problem with mobile
telephones, for example, where the battery voltage
changes with use and the device operates in a range
of temperatures. There are sophisticated circuits
consisting of tens of evices that can produce “golden
currents” that are supply voltage and temperature
independent. These golden currents are replicated
throughout a device using a current mirror:

There are better and more sophisticated approaches

than this, of course. This is just a simple example. In
this current mirror, Q1 is called a diode-connected
BJT because the collector and base terminals are
connected together. For proper operation of this
circuit, it is very important that the BJTs be
“matched,” meaning they having the same b
characteristic curves, etc. Usually this means that
the BJTs must be fabricated at the same time on the
same substrate. For the analysis of this circuit, we
assume that â is very large and that Q1 and Q2
operate in the active mode. Because of this, we
ignore the base currents in Q1 and Q2. Therefore,
the collector (and emitter) current through Q1 is
approximately equal to IREF. By KVL,

Now, since Q1 and Q2 are matched and they have

the same VBE, then the collector currents must be
the same. This implies that

This current mirror circuit will supply this current I as

long as Q2 operates in the active region: V > VBE-
VEE Notice that the diode-connected Q1 cannot
saturate since thebase and collector terminals are
shorted together. Hence, Q1operates in the active
mode or is simply cutoff.

We will now begin the analysis of the three basic

types of linear BJT small-signal amplifiers:
1. Common emitter (CE)
2. Common base (CB)
3. Common collector (CC),
which is oftentimes called the emitter follower
amplifier. We’ll study the CE amplifier in this lecture
and the next, followed by the CB and CC amplifiers.
The CE amplifier is excited at the base of the BJT
with the output taken at the emitter:
The capacitor CE is called a bypass capacitor. At the
operating frequency, its purpose is to shunt out the
effects of the DC current source from the time
varying signal. In other words, CE sets an AC ground
at this node at the frequency of operation. There are
a number of ways to bias this amplifier, other than
that shown above. What we’re primarily interested in
here is the small-signal characteristics.
Common Emitter Small-Signal Amplifier
Analysis
The small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE
amplifier above is shown below. Because the emitter
is located at an AC ground is the reason this type of
amplifier is called a “common emitter” amplifier.

Notice that we’ve included ro in this small-signal

model. This is the finite output resistance of the BJT.
This accounts for thefinite slope of the characteristic
curves of iC versus vCE mentioned briefly in
where VA is called the Early voltage. Usually ro is
fairly large, on the order of many tens of kb Our
quest in the small-signal analysis of this amplifier is
to determine these quantities: input resistance Rin,
the “overall” small-signal voltage gain GV = vo/ vsig ,
the “partial” small-signal voltage gain v o i Av=
vo v i , the overall small-signal current gain Gi= i0/
I i , the short circuit small-signal current gain is os i
Ais= ias ii ,and the output resistance Rout.
• Input resistance, Rin. Directly from the small-signal
equivalent circuit, we see that Rin= RB || r p
Oftentimes we select RB rp so that i Rin rp Oftentimes
we select RB rp so that r p will often be a few kb,
which means this CE amplifier presents a moderately
large value of input impedance.
• Overall small-signal voltage gain, Gv. By “overall”
voltage gain we mean

which is the actual small-signal voltage gain that

would be realized in the circuit above. At the output
of this circuit
Vo=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||Rl)
while at the input
Substituting (4) into (3) gives an expression for the
overall (i.e., realized) gain of this CE amplifier

In the usual case that B RB>> rp , then

Recall that rp = ß/gm If it also turned out Rsig>> rp ,

then we see from (6) that Gv would be directly
dependent on b. This is not a favorable condition
since, as we learned when discussing biasing of such
BJT circuits, bita can vary considerably between
transistors. • Partial small-signal voltage gain, Av.
This is only a partial voltage gain since we are
calculating

At the input, vi = Vp while at the output,

V0=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||RL)
Therefore, the partial small-signal voltage gain is

Av=-gm(ro||Rc||RL
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition
Referring to the small-signal equivalent circuit shown
above, we see that

Forming the ratio of these two currents, we find that

the current gain is

or, using (9)

• Short circuit small-signal current gain, Ais. This is

the smallsignal current gain of the amplifier but with
a short circuitedload ( R L = 0):

Equivalently,
A is=G i| R l=0 Using (11) in (13) with R l=0 . gives
A is=-g m(r p||R B)
In the usual case that R B r p then A is »-bita This
result is not unexpected because bita is by definition
the short circuit current gain for the BJT when
operating in the active mode.
• Output resistance Rout. Using the small-signal
equivalent circuit above, we short out the source
vsig =0 which means that vp =0 as well. Therefore,
gm vp = 0, which is an open circuit for a current
source. Consequently,
Rout= Rc|| r o which is generally fairly large.
Summary of CE Amplifier Characteristics
Summary for theCommon_Emitter_Amplifier: Big
voltage and current gains are possible. Input
resistance is moderately large. Output resistance is
fairly large. This last characteristic is often not
desirable. Why? Consider this simple Thévenin
equivalent for the output of a small-signal amplifier:

The output signal voltage provided to this resistive

load is

Now, if Rout<< RL then

This is not a favorable result if this Thévenin

equivalent circuit is for an amplifier because the
output voltage is beingattenuated. Con versely, if
there were a small output resistance such that
Rout<< RL then then (17) becomes
vout vo
which is much more favorable for an amplifier.

We will cover the second of the three families of BJT

amplifiers in this lecture by discussing
theCommon_Base_Amplifier shown in Fig. 5.62a:

The small-signal equivalent circuit for this amplifier is

shown in Fig. 5.62b (ignoring ro):

As before, let’s determine the small-signal AC

characteristics of this amplifier by solving or Rin, Gv,
Gi, Ais, and Rout.
• Input resistance, Rin. From direct inspection of the
smallsignal equivalent circuit, we see that
Rin=re
Since re is often small (on the order of 20 to 30bita),
then Rin of the CB amplifier is very small. Generally
this is not desirable, though in the case of certain
high frequency amplifiers input impedances near 50
bita is very useful (to reduce so-called “mismatch
reflections” at the input).
• Small-signal voltage gain, Gv. We’ll first calculate
the partial voltage gain
At the output,
vo=-aie(Rc||RL
The small-signal emitter current is

Substituting (3) and (4) into (2) gives the partial

voltage gain to be

This is the same gain as for the CE amplifier (without

ro), except the gain here for the CB amplifier is
positive. The overall (from the input to the output)
small-signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

We can equivalently write this voltage gain as

with Av given in (5). By simple voltage division at

the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

Substituting this result and (5) into (7) yields the

final expression for the overall small-signal voltage
gain

Since from (1) Rin= re then Gv simplifies to

If 1 we can interpret this small-signal overall voltage

expression in (10) as the ratio of the total resistance
in the collector lead to the total resistance in the
emitter lead. This gain can be fairly large, though if
Rsig is nearly the same size as the total emitter
resistance the gain will be small. In other words, if
this amplifier is connected to a high output
impedance stage, it will be difficult to realize high
gain.
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition

Using current division at the output of the small-

signal equivalent circuit above

Because ii = -ie this expression gives

• Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a

short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (13) reduces to the
short circuit current gain:

• Output resistance, Rout. Referring to the small-

signal equivalent circuit above and shorting out the
input vsig = 0 Rout= Rc which is the same as the CE
amplifier (when ignoring ro).Summary
Summary of the CB small-signal amplifier:
1. Low input resistance.
2. Gv can be very large, though critically dependent
on Rsig.
3. Ais= á
4. Potentially large output resistance (dependent on
RC). One very important use of the CB amplifier is as
a unity-gain current amplifier, which is also called a
current buffer amplifier. This type of amplifier
accepts an input signal current at a low impedance
level and outputs nearly the same current amplitude,
but at a high output impedance level. Even though
this is a buffer amplifier, there is still power gain.

The third, and final, small-signal BJT amplifier we will

consider is the common collector amplifier shown
below:

The small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in

We’ve included ro in this model since it can have an

appreciable effect on the operation of this amplifier.
Notice that ro is connected from the emitter to an AC
ground. We can simplify the AC small-signal analysis
of this circuit by moving the collector-side lead of ro
to the DC ground, as shown in
Similar to the previous BJT amplifiers, we’ll
determine the characteristics of this one by solving
for Rin, Gv, Gi, Ais, and Rout.
• Input resistance, Rin. Looking into the base of the
BJT,

From the circuit above, we see that

Vb=ie(re+r0||RL
Substituting this and 1b=i e/( ß +1) into (1) yields
Rib=( ß +1)(r e+r 0||R L)
This expression for Rib follows the so-called
resistance reflection rule: the input resistance is
( ß+1) times the total resistance in the emitter lead
of the amplifier. (We saw a similar result in Lecture
19 for the CE amplifier with emitter degeneration.)
In the special case when r e<< RL<< r 0 then
R ab ≈ (ß +1)RL
which can potentially be a large value. Referring to
circuit above, the input resistance to the amplifier is

• Small-signal voltage gain, Gv. We’ll first calculate

the partial voltage gain
Beginning at the output,

from which we can directly determine that

The overall (from the input to the output) small-

signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

We can equivalently write this voltage gain as

with Av given in (8). By simple voltage division at

the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

Substituting this result into (10) yields an expression

for the overall small-signal voltage gain

We can observe directly that each of the two factors

in this expression are less than one, so this overall
small-signal voltage gain is less than unity. In the
special instance that r0<< RL then (12) simplifies to
and if RB >>( ß+1)( re+RL) then this further
simplifies to

We see from this expression that under the above

two assumptions and a third
RL>>re+ Rsig (ß + 1) , the smallsignal voltage gain
is less than but approximately equal to one. This
means that

Because of this result, the common collector

amplifier is also called an emitter follower amplifier.
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition

Using current division at the output of the small-

signal equivalent circuit above

while using current division at the input

Substituting this into (17) gives

from which we find that

• Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a

short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (21) reduces to the
short circuit current gain:

In the case that RB >>( ß + 1)(re+RL)=( ß + 1)re, as

was used earlier, then Ais≈ ß + 1 which can be very
large. So even though the amplifier has a voltage
gain less than one (and approaching one in certain
circumstances), it has a very large small-signal
current gain. Overall, the amplifier does provide
power gain to the AC signal.
• Output resistance, Rout. With vsig = 0 in the
small-signal equivalent circuit, we’re left with

It is a bit difficult to determine Rout directly from

this circuit because of the dependent current source.
The trick here is to apply a signal source vx and then
determine ix. The output resistance is computed
from the ratio of these quantities as

Applying KVL from the output through the input of

this circuit gives

Using KCL at the output

Substituting (26) into (25)

Forming the ratio of vx and ix in (27) gives

Summary
Summary of the CC (emitter follower) small-signal
amplifier:
1. High input resistance.
2. Gv less than one, and can be close to one.
3. Ais can be large.
4. Low output resistance.These characteristics mean
that the emitter follower amplifier is highly suited as
a voltage buffer amplifier.
The BJT amplifiers we have examined so far are all
low frequency amplifiers. For large valued DC
blocking capacitors and for frequencies of tens to
hundreds of kHz, the simple smallsignal models we
used will work well. As the frequency increases,
though, there are multiple sources of effects that will
limit the performance of these amplifiers including:
1. Internal capacitances of th BJT. These are due to
charge storage effects at and near the two pn
junctions.
2. Parasitic effects. These are due to packaging and
transistor construction that create additional
capacitances, lead inductances, and resistances.
Additionally, the performance of many BJT amplifiers
we’ve already examined will be sharply curtailed by
DC blocking capacitors that have finite value (i.e.,
less than infinity). For these reasons, all real
transistor amplifiers operate effectively only over a
limited (but hopefully large) range of signal
frequencies. Referring to Fig. 5.71(b), our analysis of
small-signal BJT amplifiers up to this point has
focused on the “Midband” frequency region. This
frequency band is bounded by the frequencies fL and
fH, which are the -3-dB gain frequencies, or half-
power frequencies.
The roll off in gain near fL and lower is due to effects
of the DC blocking capacitors CC1 and CC2, and the
bypass capacitor CE. It’s not possible to eliminate
this effect, though fL can be moved about by
choosing different values for these capacitors.
Butlarge capacitors take up lots of space and can be
expensive. The primary focus of this lecture,
however, is the origin of the roll off in gain
xperienced at higher frequencies near fH and
higher.
Capacitance of pn Junctions
There are basically two types of capacitances
associated with pn junctions:
1. Junction capacitance. This is related to the space
charge that exists in the depletion region of the pn
junction.
2. Diffusion capacitance, or charge storage
capacitance. This is a new phenomenon we haven’t
yet considered in this course. The junction
capacitance effect was briefly mentioned earlier in
this course in Lecture 4. The width of the depletion
region will change depending on the applied voltage
and whether the junction is reversed or forward
biased:

The time-varying E due to the space charge in the

depletion region is a so-called displacement current
that can be modeled by a junction capacitance. The
second basic type of capacitance, diffusion
capacitance, is associated with pn junctions that are
forward biased.

In this state, current will flow across the junction, of

course. Because of the current source in Fig. 3.49
and the voltage dropV, holes are injected a cross the
junction into the n region while electrons are injected
across the junction into the p region.

The concentrations of these electrons and holes

decrease in value away from the junction, as shown
in Fig. 3.50, due to recombination effects.
The important point here is that these concentrations
of charges create an electric field across the pn
junction that will vary with time when a signal source
is connected to this device. This electric field is
directed from the n to p region, and the overall effect
can be modeled by what is called the charge storage
capacitance, or diffusion capacitance.
To summarize, the capacitive effects of a reversed
biased pn junction are described by the junction
capacitance while those of a forward biased pn
junction are described by both a junction and a
diffusion capacitance. In the latter case, though, the
diffusion capacitance usually dominates.
BJT High Frequency Small-Signal Model
The active mode BJT has one forward biased pn
junction (the EBJ) and one reversed biased pn
junction (the CBJ). In the case of an npn BJT the
capacitances associated with the pn junctions in the
device are labe ed as:

As we just discussed, there is a junction capacitance

associated with the reversed biased CBJ, which is
labeled C ì as shown above. There will be a junction
capacitance, Cje, associated with the forward biased
EBJ as well as a diffusion capacitance abeled Cde.
These latter tw o capacitances appear in parallel and
so can be combined as Typically C ì ranges from a
fraction of pF to a few pF while C ð ranges from a
few pF to tens of pF, which is dominated by Cde.
With these capacitances, the high frequency small-
signal model of the BJT becomes

Note the use of the V ð notation in this small-signal

model. Your textbook has switched to sinusoidal
steady state notation for this high frequency
discussion. The high frequency small-signal model in
Fig. 5.67 also includes the resistance rx, which is
mostly important at high frequencies. It’s there to
approximately model the resistance of the base
region from the terminal to a point somewhere
directly below the emitter:

C ì is sometimes referred to as Cob (or Cobo) in

datasheets. This designation reflects the fact that C ì
can be the output resistance when the BJT is used as
a common base amplifier. The values of these small-
signal circuit model elements may or may not be
available in a datasheet for your transistor. For
example, from the Motorola P2N2222A datasheet:

Actually, we would expect these capacitances to vary

with the voltage across the respective pn junction. In
the following figure from the Motorola P2N2222A
datasheet, we see the dependence of “Ceb” (= C
ð ?) and “Ccb” (= C ì) for a range of junction
voltages. (Perhaps t he labeled voltage for Ceb
should be “forward voltage”?)

Unity-Gain Bandwidth
An important high frequency characteristic of
transistors that is usually specified is the unity-gain
bandwidth, fT. This is defined as the frequency at
which the short-circuit current gain

has decreased to a value of one. A test circuit for

this measurement would look something like:

The small-signal high frequency model of this test

circuit is:

Applying KCL at the collector terminal provides an

equation for the short-circuit collector current
At the input terminal B’

Substituting (4) into (3) gives

Using the definition of hfe from (2) we find from this

last equation that

It turns out that C ì is typically quite small and for

the purposes of determining the unity-gain
bandwidth, gm is | | j Cì . for the frequencies of
interest here. In other words, the frequency at which
ùC ì is important relative to gm is much higher than
what is of interest here. Consequently, from (5)

We can recognize this frequency response of hfe in

(6) as that for a single pole low pass circuit:

β 0=gmrπ in this plot is the low frequency value of |

hfe|, as we’ve used in the past [see eqn. (5.93)],
while the 3-dB frequency of | hfe| is given by
The frequency at which hfe in (6) declines to a value
of 1 is denoted by ùT, which we can determine from
(6) to be

such that

Therefore

This unity-gain frequency fT (or bandwidth) is often

specified on transistor datasheets. On page 8, for
example, f r =300 MHz for the Motorola P2N2222A.
Using (9), this fT can be used to determine C π +
C π for a particular DC bias current.
Lastly, the high frequency, hybrid-ð, small-signal
model of Fig.5.67 is fairly accurate up to frequencies
of about 0.2 fT.
Furthermore, at frequencies above 5f β to 10 f β ,
the effects of r ðare small compared to the
impedance effects of C ð. Above that, rx becomes
the only resistive part of the input impedance at high
frequencies. Consequently, rx is a very important
element of the small-signal model at these high
frequencies, but much less so atlow frequencies.