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ESL Lab Manual1
ESL Lab Manual1
ESL Lab Manual1
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
INTRODUCTION OF MATLAB
Theory:-
Typical uses include Math and computation Algorithm development, Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user
interface building MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an
array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical
computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction
of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as
C or Fortran.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to
provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK
projects. Today, MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries,
embedding the state of the art in software for matrix computation.
Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural
networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others. The MATLAB system
consists of five main parts : Desktop Tools and Development Environment. This is the set
of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools
are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a
command history, an editor and debugger, a code analyzer and other reports, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path. The Command
Window is one of the main tools you use to enter data, run MATLAB functions and other
M-files, and display results. The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library, This is a vast
collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine,
cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse,
matrix eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms. The MATLAB
Language, This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features.
Graphics MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on your MATLAB applications. The MATLAB External Interfaces/API, This
is a library that allows you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with MATLAB.
It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
\ Left division
^ Power
' Complex conjugate transpose
( ) Specify evaluation order
The MATLAB commands you will encounter in this exercise are as follows:
Elementary Functions
cos exp
imag real
Data Analysis
Sum
Two-Dimensional Graphics
axis grid
legend plot
stairs stem
title xlabel ylabel
clf subplot
sawtooth square
CONCLUSION:------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
Aim: Program to generate various Continuous time and Discrete Time signals
Theory:
Generation of Sequences:-
The purpose of this section is to familiarize you with the basic commands in MATLAB
for signal generation and for plotting the generated signal. MATLAB has been designed
to operate on data stored as vectors or matrices. For our purposes, sequences will be
stored as vectors. Therefore, all signals are limited to being causal and of finite length.
The steps to follow to execute the programs listed in this book depend on the platform
being used to run the MATLAB.
Another very useful class of discrete-time signals is the real sinusoidal sequence of the
form of
2) Exponential Signals
Another basic discrete-time sequence is the exponential sequence. Such a sequence can
be generated using the MATLAB operators. ^ and exp.
3) Unit Sample
Unit sample signal is having Amplitude equal to 1 at n=0 only & it is zero elsewhere.
A unit sample sequence u[n] of length N can be generated using the MATLAB command
This signal is having amplitude equal to 1 at n≥ 0 & it is zero for negative values of n.
A unit sample sequence ud[n] of length N and delayed by M samples, where M < N, can
be generated using the MATLAB command
Likewise, a unit step sequence s[n] of length N can be generated using the MATLAB
command
s = [ones (1, N)];
5) Ramp Signal
This signal is represented as r (n).
The Functional representation of ramp signal is as given below.
If w tends to zero the ramp becomes a step signal. This relationship is important because
we cannot differentiate a step signal because it is discontinuous. However, the ramp
signal is continuous and therefore differentiable.
Conclusion:---------------------------------
Program:
1)
%$$$$$$$$ Generation of a sine sequence $$$$$$$$$$
n = 0:40;
f = 0.1;
phase = 0;
A = 1.5;
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(n,x);
axis([0 40 -2 2]);
grid;
title('DT sine Sequence');
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
Output: 1)
CTSinusoidalSequence
2
Amplitude
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Timeindexn
DTSinusoidalSequence
2
Amplitude
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
T
imeindexn
2)
%$$$$$$$$$$ Generation of a Cosine sequence $$$$$$$$$
n = 0:40;
f = 0.1;
phase = 0;
A = 1.5;
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(n,x);
axis([0 40 -2 2]);
grid;
title('DT Cosine Sequence');
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
Output: 2)
C
TCosineSequence
2
Amplitude
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Timeindexn
D
TCosineSequence
2
Amplitude
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
T
imeindexn
3)
%%%%%%%%%%% Generation of Ramp signal %%%%%%%%%%%%%
% ---------Input the Variables -----------------
a=input('Enter any number=');
N= input('Type in length of sequence=');
n= 0:N;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(n,x);
title('CT Ramp Sequence');
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(n,x);
title('DT Ramp Sequence');
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
Output: 3)
C
TRam
pSe
que
nce
4
0
Amplitude
3
0
2
0
1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
T
imeindexn
D
TRampSe que
nce
4
0
Amplitude
3
0
2
0
1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tim
eind
exn
4)
% ****** Generation of a Unit Impulse Sequence *******
clf;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(n,u);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('DT Unit Impulse Sequence');
axis([-10 20 0 1.2]);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(n,u);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('CT Unit Impulse Sequence');
axis([-10 20 0 1.2]);
Output: 4)
D
TUn
its
amp
leS
eq
uen
ce
Amplitude
0
.5
0
-1
0 -5 0 5 1
0 1
5 2
0
Tim
ein
dexn
C
TUn
itS
amp
leSeq
uenc
e
Amplitude
0
.5
0
-1
0 -5 0 5 1
0 1
5 2
0
T
im
ein
dexn
5)
% ****** Generation of a Unit Step Sequence *******
clf;
% !!!!!!!! Generate a vector from -10 to 20 !!!!!!!!!!
n = -10:20;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(n,u);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('DT Unit step Sequence');
axis([-10 20 0 1.2]);
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(n,u);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('CT Unit step Sequence');
axis([-10 20 0 1.2]);
Output: 4)
D
TUnit stepS
equence
1
Amplitude
0.5
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Timeindexn
C
TUnit stepSequence
1
Amplitude
0.5
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
T
imeindexn
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS
Theory:
Following Operations we can perform on the signal.
1) Amplitude Scaling
2) Time Scaling
3) Folding/Reflection
4) Shifting
1) Amplitude Scaling:-
Consider x (t) as an original signal and y (t) as the amplitude scaling signal with;
2) Time Scaling:
Time scaling compresses and expands a signal by multiplying the time variable by some
amount. If that amount is greater than one, the signal becomes narrower and the operation
is called compression, while if the amount is less than one, the signal becomes wider and
is called dilation. It often takes people quite a while to get comfortable with these
operations, as people's intuition is often for the multiplication by an amount greater than
one to dilate and less than one to compress.
Consider f (t) as an original signal and y (t) as the time scaling signal with;
y (t) = f (at); a is a real constant
3) Time Reversal:
A natural question to consider when learning about time scaling is: What happens when
the time variable is multiplied by a negative number? The answer to this is time reversal.
This operation is the reversal of the time axis, or flipping the signal over the y-axis.
Consider x (t) as an original signal and y (t) as the time reversal signal.Hence;
y (t) = x(-t)
4) Time Shifting:
Time shifting is, as the name suggests, the shifting of a signal in time. This is done by
adding or subtracting the amount of the shift to the time variable in the function.
Subtracting a fixed amount from the time variable will shift the signal to the right (delay)
that amount, while adding to the time variable will shift the signal to the left (advance).
Consider x (t) as an original signal and y (t) as the time shifting signal. It can then be
written as:
y (t) = x(t-to)
where to is a constant.
Program: 1)
%@@@@@@ SCALING - AMPLITUDE SCALING @@@@@@@@
%@@@@@@ y(n) = A*x(n) @@@@@@@@
n = -5:5;
subplot (2,1,1);
stem (n,x);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Unit Sample Sequence');
Output: 2)
0
.8
0
.6
Am
0
.4
0
.2
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
T
imein
de
xn
A
mplitud
esca
le
d s
ig
na
l
4
plitude
2
Am
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
T
im
ein
de
xn
Program: 2)
clf;
clc;
n= 0:20;
n1=0:40;
t=0.1*pi*n;
t1=0.1*pi*n1;
x=2*sin(t);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(n,x);
axis([0 20 -1 1]);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
Title('Original Signal');
grid;
Output: 2)
Enter scaling factor a>1 2
Enter scaling factor a<1 0.5
O rig in a l S ig n a l
1
Amplitude
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tim e
C o m p re s s e d S ig n a l
1
Amplitude
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tim e
E x p a n d e d S ig n a l
1
Amplitude
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tim e
Program: 3)
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(n,u);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Unit Sample Sequence');
subplot(2,1,2);
x=fliplr(u);
stem(n,x);
xlabel('Time index n');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Folded signal');
Output: 3)
U
nitS
amp
leS
equ
ence
1
0
.8
Amplitude
0
.6
0
.4
0
.2
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Timein
d e
xn
F
o ld
edsig
nal
1
Amplitude
0
.5
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
T
imein
dexn
Program:4)
Output: 4)
O rig in a l S ig n a l
4
A m plitude
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
T im e
D e la y e d s ig n a l
4
A m plitude
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T im e
A d va n c e d s ig n a l
4
A m plitude
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
T im e
CONCLUSION:--------
This module will look at two signal operations, time shifting and time scaling. signal
operations are operations on the time variable of the signal. These operations are very
common components to real-world systems and, as such, should be understood
thoroughly when learning about signals and systems.
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
Theory:
The response of a discrete-time system to a unit sample sequence {δ[n]} is called the unit
sample response or, simply, the impulse response, and denoted as {h[n]}.
Correspondingly, the response of a discrete-time system to a unit step sequence {μ[n]},
denoted as {s[n]}, is its unit step response or, simply the step response.
……………………………(1)
which can be alternately written as
…………………………….(2)
by a simple change of variables. The sum in Eqs. (1) and (2) is called the convolution
sum of the sequences x[n] and h[n], and is represented compactly as:
…………………………….(3)
where the notation denotes the convolution sum.
Convolution
The convolution operation of Eq. (3) is implemented in MATLAB by the command conv,
provided the two sequences to be convolved are of finite length. For example, the output
sequence of an FIR system can be computed by convolving its impulse response with a
given finite-length input sequence. The following MATLAB program illustrates this
approach.
Program:
%!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Linear Convolution !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
clc;
clear all;
close all;
y = conv(x,h);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(x);
ylabel('Amplitude ');
xlabel('fig.(a) n----->');
title('First sequence');
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(h);
ylabel('Amplitude ');
xlabel('fig.(b) n----->');
title('Second sequence');
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(y);
ylabel('Amplitude ');
xlabel('fig.(c) n----->');
title('Convolution of two sequences');
disp('The resultant signal is');
disp(y);
Output:
F irs t s e q u e n c e
4
Amplitude
0
1 1.5 2 2 .5 3 3.5 4
fig . (a ) n ----->
S ec ond s equenc e
2
Amplitude
0
1 1.5 2 2 .5 3 3.5 4
fig . (b ) n ----->
C o n vo lu t io n o f t w o s e q u e n c e s
20
Amplitude
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
fig . (c ) n ----->
Conclusion:----------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
SAMPLING THEOREM
Theory:
Sampling Theorem – Let ga(t) be a bandlimited signal with Ga(jΩ) = 0 for |Ω| >Ωm.
Then ga(t) is uniquely determined by its samples ga(nT), n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , i
Where
Given {g[n]} = {ga(nT)}, we can recover ga(t) exactly by generating an impulse train
gp(t) of the form
and then passing gp(t) through an ideal lowpass filter Hr(jΩ) with a gain T and a cutoff
frequency Ωc greater than Ωm and less than ΩT − Ωm, that is,
The highest frequency Ωm contained in ga(t) is usually called the Nyquist frequency as it
determines the minimum sampling frequency ΩT > 2Ωm that must be used to fully
recover ga(t) from its sampled version. The frequency 2Ωm is called the Nyquist rate. If
the sampling rate is higher than the Nyquist rate, it is called oversampling . On the other
hand, if the sampling rate is lower than the Nyquist rate, it is called undersampling.
Finally, if the sampling rate is exactly equal to the Nyquist rate, it is called critical
sampling.
Program:
Output:
C o n t in u o u s - t im e s ig n a l x a ( t )
1
A m p litud e
0
-1
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 1
T im e , m s e c
C o n t in u o u s -t im e s ig n a l x a (t )s a m p le d a t T = 0 . 1
1
A m p litud e
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
T im e in d e x n
C o n t in u o u s -t im e s ig n a l x a (t )s a m p le d a t T 1 = 0 .0 1
1
A m p litud e
-1
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
T im e in d e x n
C o n t in u o u s -t im e s ig n a l x a (t )s a m p le d a t T 2 = 0 . 2
1
A m p litud e
-1
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3 3 .5 4 4 .5 5
T im e in d e x n
Conclusion:-----------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
Components:-
Theory :-
The 555 timer configured for monostable operation is shown in the figure.
Pin1: Ground. All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin2: Trigger. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger
pulse applied to this pin. The output is low if the voltage at this pin is greater than 2/3
VCC. When a negative going pulse of amplitude greater than 1/3 VCC is applied to this pin,
comparator 2 output goes low, which inturn switches the output of the timer high. The
output remains high as long as the trigger terminal is held at a low voltage.
Pin3: Output. There are two ways by which a load can be connected to the output
terminal: either between pin 3 and ground or between pin3 and supply voltage +VCC.
When the output is low the load current flows through the load connected between pin3
and +VCC into the output terminal and is called sink current. The current through the
grounded load is zero when the output is low. For this reason the load connected between
pin 3 and +VCC is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and
ground is called normally off-load. On the other hand, when the output is high the current
through the load connected between pin 3 and +VCC is zero. The output terminal supplies
current to the normally off load. This current is called source current. The maximum
value of sink or source current is 200mA.
Pin4: Reset. The 555 timer can be reset (disabled) by applying a negative pulse to this
pin. When the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal should be connected to +VCC
to avoid any possibility of false triggering.
Pin5: Control Voltage. An external voltage applied to this terminal changes the threshold
as well as trigger voltage. Thus by imposing a voltage on this pin or by connecting a pot
between this pin and ground, the pulse width of the output waveform can be varied.
When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to ground with a 0.01µF Capacitor to
prevent any noise problems.
Pin6: Threshold. This is the non-inverting input of comparator 1, which monitors the
voltage across the external capacitor. When the voltage at this pin is greater than or equal
to the threshold voltage 2/3 VCC, the output of comparator 1 goes high, which inturn
switches the output of the timer low.
Pin7: Discharge. This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor Q1. When
the output is high Q1 is OFF and acts as an open circuit to external capacitor C connected
across it. On the other hand, when the output is low, Q1 is saturated and acts as a short
circuit, shorting out the external capacitor C to ground.
Pin8: +VCC. The supply voltage of +5V to + 18V is applied to this pin with respect to
ground.
Operation:-
Initially when the circuit is in the stable state i.e , when the output is low, transistor Q1 is
ON and the capacitor C is shorted out to ground. Upon the application of a negative
trigger pulse to pin 2, transistor Q1 is turned OFF, which releases the short circuit across
the external capacitor C and drives the output high. The capacitor C now starts charging
up towards VCC through R. When the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 VCC,
comparator 1’s output switches from low to high, which inturn drives the output to its
low state via the output of the flip-flop. At the same time the output of the flip-flop turns
transistor Q1 ON and hence the capacitor C rapidly discharges through the transistor. The
output of the monostable remains low until a trigger pulse is again applied. Then the
cycle repeats.
The pulse width of the trigger input must be smaller than the expected pulse width of the
output waveform. Also the trigger pulse must be a negative going input signal with
amplitude larger than 1/3 VCC.
Once triggered, the circuit’s output will remain in the high state until the set time, t
elapses. The output will not change its state even if an input trigger is applied again
during this time interval t. The circuit can be reset during the timing cycle by applying
negative pulse to the reset terminal. The output will remain in the low state until a trigger
is again applied.
Procedure:-
Multisim -> Schematic Editor: The circuit diagram is drawn by loading components
from the library. Wiring and proper net assignment has been made. Values are assigned
for relevant components.
Multisim -> Simulator: The circuit is preprocessed. The waveform marker is placed at
the output of the circuit. GND net is set as the reference net. The Transient Analysis
parameters are also set and the Transient Analysis is executed. The output waveform is
observed in the Waveform Viewer.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
Monostable Multivibrator using
IC 555
VCC
5V
VCC
XSC1
R2 A1
1kΩ VCC Ext T rig
+
RST OUT
2 _
1 A B
DIS _ _
+ +
THR
4 R1
TRI
1kΩ
I1 CON
1kHz GND
1A 3 555_VIRTUAL
C2 C1
1uF 1uF
Observation Table:-
Output:-
Conclusion:-----------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
Components:-
Theory:-
The circuit diagram for the astable multivibrator using IC 555 is shown here. The astable
multivibrator generates a square wave, the period of which is determined by the circuit
external to IC 555. The astable multivibrator does not require any external trigger to
change the state of the output. Hence the name free running oscillator. The time during
which the output is either high or low is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor
which are externally connected to the 555 timer.
The above figure shows the 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator. Initially
when the output is high capacitor C starts charging towards Vcc through RA and RB.
However as soon as the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc, comparator1 triggers
the flip-flop and the output switches to low state. Now capacitor C discharges through RB
and the transistor Q1. When voltage across C equals 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2’s output
triggers the flip-flop and the output goes high. Then the cycle repeats.
The capacitor is periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 Vcc and 1/3 Vcc
respectively. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3 Vcc is equal
to the time the output remains high and is given by
where RA and RB are in ohms and C is in Farads. Similarly the time during which the
capacitor discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc is equal to the time the output is low and is
given by
Procedure:-
Multisim -> Schematic Editor: The circuit diagram is drawn by loading components
from the library. Wiring and proper net assignment has been made. Values are assigned.
For relevant components.
Circuit Diagram:-
VCC
XSC1
5V
VCC
Ext T rig
+
8 U1
_
R1 VCC A B
1 7 DIS
R2 3 6 THR
3.9kΩ
2 TRI
5 CON
C1 2 GND
100nF C2
1 LM555CM
0 0
10nF
Observation Table:-
Output:-
Conclusion:-------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
Theory:-
Oscillator Fundamentals:
Figure 1. is a simple block diagram showing an amplifier and a block representing the
many oscillator phase-shift methods. Regardless of its amplifier, an oscillator must meet
the two Barkhousen conditions for oscillation:
1 - The loop gain must be slightly greater than unity.
2 - The loop phase shift must be 0° or 360°.
To meet these conditions the oscillator circuit must include some form of amplifier, and a
portion of its output must be fed back regenerative to the input. In other words, the
feedback voltage must be positive so it is in phase with the original excitation voltage at
the input. Moreover, the feedback must be sufficient to overcome the losses in the input
circuit (gain equal to or greater than unity). If the gain of the amplifier is less than unity,
the circuit will not oscillate, and if it is significantly greater than unity, the circuit will be
over-driven and produce distorted (non-sinusoidal) waveforms.
RC Oscillators:
Each of the three RC stages in this ladder introduces a 60° phase shift between its input
and output terminals so the sum of those three phase shifts provides the overall 180°
required for oscillation. The phase shift per stage depends on both the frequency of the
input signal and the values of the resistors and capacitors in the network.
The values of the three RC ladder network capacitors C1, C2, and C3 are equal as are the
values of the three resistors R5, R2, and R3. With the component values shown in Fig. 2,
the 180° phase shift occurs at about 1/14 RC or 700 Hz. Because the transistor shifts the
phase of the incoming signal 180°, the circuit also oscillates at about 700 Hz.
At the oscillation frequency, the three-stage ladder network has an attenuation factor of
about 29. The gain of the transistor can be adjusted with trimmer potentiometer R6 in the
emitter circuit to compensate for signal loss and provide the near unity gain required for
generating stable sine waves. To ensure stable oscillation, R6 should be set to obtain a
slightly distorted sine wave output.The amplitude of the output signal can be varied with
trimmer potentiometer R4. Although this simple phase-shift oscillator requires only a
single transistor, it has several drawbacks: poor gain stability and limited tuning range.
Procedure:-
Multisim -> Schematic Editor: The circuit diagram is drawn by loading components
from the library. Wiring and proper net assignment has been made. Values are assigned.
For relevant components.
Circuit Diagram:-
V1
0
6V
7 C5 R5
9 100kΩ
R3
2.2kΩ 47uF
R2
39kΩ C2 C3 C4
1 4 5 6
Q1
100nF 100nF 100nF
XSC1
R1 R4 C1
12kΩ 470Ω 47uF
Output:-
Conclusion:-----------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 09
Theory:-
There are ways to overcome the drawbacks of the phase-shift oscillator, and one of them
is to include a Wien-bridge or network in the oscillator's feedback loop. The concept is
illustrated in the Fig. block diagram. A far more versatile RC oscillator than the phase-
shift oscillator, its operating frequency can be varied easily.
As shown within the dotted box in Fig. A Wien Bridge consists of a series-connected
resistor and capacitor, wired to a parallel- connected resistor and capacitor. The
component values are "balanced" so that R1 equals R2 and C1 equals C2.
The Wien Network is exceptionally sensitive to frequency. That shift is negative (to a
maximum of -90°) at low frequencies, and positive (to a maximum of +90°) at high
frequencies. It is zero a center frequency of 1/6.28RC. At the center frequency, network
attenuation is a factor of 3. As a result, the Wien network will oscillate if a non-inverting,
amplifier with a gain of 3 is connected as shown between the amplifier's output and input
terminals. The output is taken between the output of the amplifier and ground.
Transistor Q1 provides the high input impedance for the output of the Wien network.
Trimmer potentiometer R5 will set the oscillator's gain over a limited range. With the
component values shown, the Wien bridge oscillator will oscillate at about 1 KHz.
Trimmer R5 should be adjusted so that the sinewave output signal is just slightly
distorted to achieve its maximum stability.
Procedure:-
Multisim -> Schematic Editor: The circuit diagram is drawn by loading components
from the library. Wiring and proper net assignment has been made. Values are assigned.
For relevant components.
Circuit Diagram:-
V1 10
9V R2 R3
R1 4.7kΩ 39kΩ R4
27kΩ C5 4.7kΩ
4 5
XSC1
1
1uF
Q1
Q2 C3 Ext Trig
+
33pF _
A B
+ _ + _
2N3904
2N3904 3
8
9
2 R5
1kΩ 90%
C1 6 C2
Key=A R7 R8 R9
10uF 33pF
R6 22kΩ 3kΩ 4.7kΩ
1kΩ
Output:-
Conclusion:--------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
MOSFET AS A SWITCH
Theory:-
The N-channel, Enhancement-mode MOSFET operates using a positive input voltage and
has an extremely high input resistance (almost infinite) making it possible to interface
with nearly any logic gate or driver capable of producing a positive output. Also, due to
this very high input (gate) resistance we can parallel together many different MOSFET's
until we achieve the current handling limit required. While connecting together various
MOSFET's may enable us to switch high current or high voltage loads, doing so becomes
expensive and impractical in both components and circuit board space. To overcome this
problem Power Field Effect Transistors or Power FET's where developed.
By applying a suitable drive voltage to the gate of an FET the resistance of the drain-
source channel can be varied from an "OFF-resistance" of many hundreds of kΩ's,
effectively an open circuit, to an "ON-resistance" of less than 1Ω, effectively a short
circuit. We can also drive the MOSFET to turn "ON" fast or slow, or to pass high
currents or low currents. This ability to turn the power MOSFET "ON" and "OFF" allows
the device to be used as a very efficient switch with switching speeds much faster than
standard bipolar junction transistors.
Procedure:-
MOSFET AS A SWITCH
VDD
5V
VDD
XSC1
2 A
_
B
_
+ +
Q2
BS170
1
V2
R1
1MHz 1MΩ
5V
0
Output:-
Conclusion:--------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
Theory:-
Tool Box:
Control Panel:-
EAGLE Files
The following table lists the most important file types that can
be edited with EAGLE:
PROCEDURE:-
These messages inform you that the power pins are connected
to other signals than expected. The power pins were named
VSS or VDD in the library but are connected to GND and
+5V. In our case this has been done on purpose. Click on one
of the message entries and EAGLE will show where the
reason for the problem is located in the schematic. Both
warnings don't cause any problems and could be avoided by
changing
the names of the power pins in the library definition. But you
could also Approve these warnings. The messages are now
shown in the Approved branch, no longer in the Warnings
branch of the menu.
Please note that the ERC can only discover possible error
sources. It is up to you to properly interpret the ERC
messages!
Component Placement:-
Select MOVE, the biggest IC somewhere in its center and
move the cursor inside the board outlines. The component
and the airwires remain attached to the cursor. Press the right
mouse button if you want to rotate the component & fix the
position of the component. Place all of the components using
the MOVE command.
Board Changes:-
Once you have completed the routing of the board you can
make changes, e.g. you can:
1) press move and arrange wire segments and components
with MOVE and SPLIT ,
2) use the RIPUP command to change routed tracks to
airwires,
3) use DELETE to erase signals (only without
Forward&Back annotation),
4) replace package variants with CHANGE PACKAGE (also
PACKAGE)
5) modify the Design Rules (for example, Restring settings),
Autorouter:-
If you would like to see a small demo of the Autorouter, click
the icon for the AUTO command in the command toolbar.
Choose a finer Routing Grid (default 50 mil), if necessary and
press OK. It should be finished in no time at all, provided the
placement is not too bad (watch the status bar). If it is taking
too long, interrupt the Autorouter by
clicking the stop sign icon. Confirm the question Interrupt?
with press Yes.
Conclusion:------------------------------
Circuit Diagram:-
1)
LAYOUT:-
2) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
LAYOUT:-
3) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
LAYOUT:-
4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
LAYOUT:-
5) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
LAYOUT:-