Photochromic Glass

Diagram a (strong light source):

In diagram ‘a’ you will notice that

the structure of the sub-
microscopic particles of silver-
halide that are affected by strong
light are in a miss-aligned state. In
this state, the transmitted light is
deflected and the photochromic
glass would appear to darken
(opaque).

Diagram b (weak light source):

In the second diagram you will
notice that the structure of the sub-
microscopic particles of silver-
halide that are affected by a weak
light source are in an aligned state.
In this state, light is allowed to
transmit past the sub-microscopic
particles of silver-halide and the
photochromic glass would appear
transparent.
 Photochromic Glass
Write a brief description of the following Photochromic Glass concepts:
• Sub-microscopic particles of silver-halide
Sub-microscopic particles of silver-halide is the compound that is impregnated into
photochromic glass that allows it to take up the photochromic principle.
• Aligned and miss-aligned states
Structures within the silver-halide particles either align or miss-align themselves depending upon
the strength of light that affects the contact surface. In the miss-aligned state light will be
prevented from passing through the photochromic glass, the aligned state will allow light to pass
through.
• Opaque and transparent glass
Opaque glass appears dark because the amount of light penetrating through the surface area is
low. Transparent glass will allow light to transmit through its surface area, therefore, it will
appear clear.

Answer the following questions relating to Photochromic Glass technology.

1. Give two applications for the use of photochromic glass
Answer: Photochromic glass may be used in situations that require light to be filtered such as in;
i) welding shields and goggles
ii) sunglasses
2. How has the advent of photochromic glass reduced the incidence of welders ‘flash eye’?
Answer: Welding and brazing applications that produce extreme levels of ultraviolet light may now
be safely undertaken with the use of photocromic glass that darkens instantaneously once the
light strikes the surface. Incidences of damage to the welder’s cornea has subsequently
been greatly reduced.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)
LCD Technology

• A LCD consists of three plates of glass, sealed around

the perimeter. The middle plate consists of a layer of
liquid crystal fluid.
• Transparent, conductive electrodes are deposited on
the surface of the back of the front glass plate. The
electrodes define individual fields in which the special
symbols of the display are held.
• On an LCD wrist watch there are seven individually
activated fields. When aligned together these
individual fields form the figure ‘8’.
• When a voltage is applied to individual segments on
the front plate the LC’s in the middle plate behind that
segment react by positioning themselves in a manner
that block light from passing through them making
them appear dark against the silver screen of the back
polarising plate.
• Removing the voltage from the front plate segments
has the effect of altering the alignment of the crystals
so that light may now pass through them, making them
appear clear.
• Therefore, as a voltage is either applied to or removed
from the individual segment electrodes on the front
plate, the LC’s behind these segments on the middle
plate either darken or lighten.
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
Answer the following questions relating to the Liquid Crystal Display topic:

• Write a brief explanation of the three individual plates found in a standard LCD wrist watch.
Front Plate: The front plate holds the eight individual electrode segments. On a wrist watch these
individual segments lighten or darken and in doing so provide the image of the
numbers from 0 to 9.
Middle Plate: The middle plate consists of a layer of liquid crystal. The crystals within this layer react to any
voltage that may be applied to the individual electrode segments found on the front layer.
Back Plate: The back plate of an LCD is referred to as the ‘polarising’ plate. It is silver in colour and
provides the background upon which the darkened segments of the individual electrodes on the
front plate may be read.
• Give three applications for LCD technology.
i) wrist watch
ii) computer screens
iii) television screens
• Explain why LCD technology is so energy efficient.
LCDs are optically passive displays (they do not produce light). As a result, LCDs require almost no power to
operate. Many LCD calculators can operate from the power of a solar cell, others can operate for years from
small button cell batteries.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)
• Briefly describe the purpose of the electrode segments on the front plate of a wrist
watch.
The individual segment electrodes have a role to play in affecting the LC behind them.
The application or removal of an electrical current on a segment either darkens or
lightens that segment by altering the alignment of the crystals behind it, thereby creating
a figure. In the case of a wrist watch the segment electrode formation takes up the shape
of a number ‘8’ in a seven segment display. When these seven individual segments
darken or lighten they may form the numbers from 0 to 9.

• Explain the principle behind an electrode segments changing colour when a voltage is
applied across its crystals.
When a voltage is applied across a segment of crystals it has the net effect of aligning
them in such a way as they prevent light passing through, making them appear dark.
When the voltage is removed, the crystals re-aligned in such a way as to allow light to
pass through making that segment of LC appear light against the reflective silver back
panel.
Thermo-ceramics
Manufacturing Process of Thermo-ceramics:
• Raw materials are mixed together in a
sintering process
• The powdered alloy is then kiln dried
• The dried powder may then undergo one of
two further processes;
i) the powder may be applied to specific
cutting tools or
ii) the powder may be pressed into usable
block or sheet forms.
• The thermo ceramic in a block / sheet form
or as a powder coating on tools is then
heated in a kiln to temperatures
approaching 1400 degrees Celsius
Benefits of thermo-ceramics:
• They offer extreme hardness in block or
sheet form or as a coating on machine or
tool parts
• They offer stability at high temperatures in
that thermo-ceramics dramatically increase
the melting point temperatures of coated
metals
• An increased resistance to oxidisation
 Thermo-ceramics
Answer the following questions relating to the Thermo-ceramics topic:

• Explain the role that sintering has in the production of thermo-ceramics.

Elements are crushed into a powdered form as one of the first steps in the manufacturing process of
thermo-ceramics. Once this ‘alloy powder’ is formed it is used in ongoing process to manufacture
the thermo-ceramic.
• Offer two processes that the thermo-ceramic may undergo after the alloy powder is kiln dried.
1) The powder may be applied to the edges of specific cutting tools such as;
i) high speed drill bits and
ii) lathe and milling machine tool bits
2) The thermo-ceramic powder may be compressed into either sheet or block form.
• Offer three benefits of thermo-ceramic technology.
i) thermo-ceramics offer high resistance to oxidisation (rust)
ii) when applied to a parent material, thermo-ceramics substantially increase their
heat resistance (up to 1500 Celsius)
iii) the application of thermo-ceramic materials offer the parent material a dramatic
increase in hardness.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
- A shape-memory alloy (SMA) is a mixture of two
or more metals that has the special property of
being able to memorise a certain shape and
return to that shape after it have been deformed.
- A SMA is said to be in its martensite state when it
is at room temperature and it is this state that the
SMA will always remember and endeavour to
return to after deformation.
- A SMA may be deformed when it is in its
martensite state.
- In order to get the SMA to return to its martensite
state after deformation, heat must be applied
whereby the change occurs often within seconds.
- The temperature that must be achieved for this
transformation to occur is referred to as the
‘critical temperature’ and it varies amongst
different SMA.
- When the critical temperature is achieved the SMA
is said to have reached its austenite state.
- The key to an SMA’s ability to change shape is
that its atomic structure will differ depending on
the temperature that it is subjected to and
whether it is in its martensite or austenite state.
- When a SMA is heated to its austenite state the
atoms will be ‘allowed’ to reform back to their
memorised martensite state and the change in
shape occurs.
- A SMA may be stretched up to 8% more than
their original length without permanently
stretching or damaging the material.
 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)
Answer the following questions relating to the Shape Memory Alloy topic:

• Explain the concept of ‘memory’ as it applies to SMA’s as it does to ‘plastic memory’ in the
application of thermoplastics.
After a thermoplastic has been heated and ‘set’, heat may be reapplied which will allow it to return
to its original shape. This principle may be applied to SMA’s. Once the alloy has taken a form and is
set in that shape, heat may be applied and it too (just like thermoplastic) will return to its original,
pre-heated shape.
• Explain the two following principle as they apply to shape memory alloys.
i) Martensite state
The SMA is said to be in its martensite state (and shape) when it is at room temperature and it is the
shape that it is pre-designed to undertake.
ii) Austenite state
Deformation of the SMA may occur while it is in its martensite state at room temperature. To return
the deformed alloy to its original shape heat is applied. Once its ‘critical temperature’ is reached the
alloy will return to its original shape, usually instantaneously and with great force and speed. This
critical temperature where this re-formation takes place is referred to as the alloy’s austenite state.
• Explain the role of the SMA’s crystalline structure in the austenite re-formation phase.
In the martensite state the atomic crystalline structure of the SMA is in a ‘fluid, malleable’ state.
Once deformed, the atomic crystalline structure adopts a much more rigid state where force is stored
in preparation for a return to its original state. Heating the SMA allows this rigid austenite structure
to snap back to its original shape as the atoms return to their martensite state.
• Explain the benefit of producing undergarments such as bras with SMA technology.
The bra has a SMA ‘under-wire’ inserted into the fabric that maintains a shape specific to the user. If
this under-wire is deformed, body heat will allow it to return to its martensite shape.
Photovoltaic Cells
• Negatively charged photons (with free electrons) are
produced by the sun and are harnessed by a
photovoltaic cell to produce electrical power.
• The internal core of the photovoltaic cell consists of
three parts;
i) a positive silicon (p-type) layer with no free
electrons which contains a predominance of positive
charges
ii) a negative silicon (n-type) layer which contains a
predominance of negative charges with free
electrons
iii) a region within the photovoltaic cell where the n-
type and p-type layers meet which is called the pn-
junction and it only allows electrons to move across
it in one direction.
• When negatively charged photons hit the solar cell,
their free electrons attempt to unite with the
positively charged p-type layer.
• If an external conductive path is provided, the free
electrons from the n-type layer will flow through this
alternative path to the p-type layer because they
cannot cross the internal pn-junction.
• The free electron flow provides the current ( I ), and
the cell's electric field causes a voltage ( V ). With
both current and voltage present, power ( P ) is
produced .
 Photovoltaic Cells
Answer the following questions relating to Photovoltaic Cell technology.

• Write a brief description of the role that ‘photons’ play in the production of solar power.
Photons are negatively charged particles that are released by the sun. They possess spare electrons
and it is these spare electrons that are harnessed and utilised by a solar panel in the production of
electricity.
• What phenomenon may cause damage to solar panels?
During periods of solar flaring, the number of photons released by the sun are multiplied
considerably. This bombardment of photons has been known to damage solar panels.
• Explain the role that the ‘pn-junction’ plays in directing the flow of electricity out of the solar panel
to be used as an external power source.
- The pn-junction is a region within the solar cell that acts as an isolating bridge between the
negative and positive layers within the cell.
- The negatively charged photons that are captured by the solar panel and are held in the n-type
layer.
- Because of their negative charge they are drawn to the p-type layer in the cell. However,
because the pn-junction will only allow electrons to flow across it in one direction the electrons
may be channelled on a path that forces them outside the panel as they seek out the positive
layer.
- This free flow of electrons from negative to positive sets up a one directional flow that may
be used outside of the panel in an application that requires the flow of electricity such as in a
light bulb.
Piezo-electric Actuators
The Principle of Piezo-electric Actuation:

• Piezoelectric crystals are found within the piezoelectric actuators.

• These crystals possess a positive or negative electrical charge but

because of their opposite polarities the + and – crystals are separated.

• In their un-poled state the crystals are electrically neutral.

• Each of the positive and negative sites in the crystal form an electric
pole (- or +).

• The two domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned
during poling, a process by which an electric field is applied across the
material.

• When a pressure is applied to the piezoelectric crystals, the un-poled

state of the crystals is disturbed, and this charge in symmetry generates
a voltage across the material.

• Crystals such as tourmaline, quartz, topaz and even those found in cane
sugar are capable of generating an electrical polarization as a
consequence of a mechanical pressure.
Electrorheological and Magnetorheological Fluids
(ER fluids)
The Principles Behind Electrorheological and
Magnetorheological Fluids (ER fluids)

• Electro rheological fluids alter their viscosity

(thickness) in response to an applied voltage or
magnetic field.

• Designs in shock absorbers and hydraulic assisted

steering in motor vehicles have adapted to include
ER fluid technology.

• ER fluids can change their damping parameters in a

thousandth of a second.

• The firmness in ride and steering of a motor vehicle

can be electronically altered by sensors relaying
electrical charges to ER fluids in hydraulic shock
absorbers or steering mechanisms.

• A system of automatic adjustment in steering and

ride can be achieved through the computing system
of the vehicle without driver intervention.
Optical Fibres
Optical Fibre Technology

• Optical fibres make it possible for light to be

transmitted over distances of over 200 klms.

• Fibres can have a diameter of around two nanometres.

The thinnest hollow fibre cores produced by
conventional methods are around 25 nanometres wide.

• One method that has recently been developed is the

guiding of atoms through hollow optical fibres using
dipole light forces to prevent atoms colliding with the
hollow fibre walls. The movement of atoms in this way
will revolutionise fibre optics beyond the simple
transportation of light.

• The high refractive index of the glass wall of the fibre

allows easy flow of light along the tube.