Cell Structure and Function shape and high level of organization.

It is important for cell movement and

cell division (mitosis).
 
CYTOSKELETON (“steel girders”)
Organelles and Their Functions
The cytoskeleton makes up the internal framework, like the steel girders that
are the framework for buildings in a city that gives each cell its distinctive
In this lab you will look at the eukaryotic cells of plants and animals.
shape and high level of organization. It is important for cell movement and
Eukaryotic cells are distinguished from the more primitive prokaryotic cells
cell division (mitosis).
by the presence of 1) cytoplasmic membranous organelles, 2) a nuclear
membrane (i.e. a true nucleus), and 3) chromosomal proteins.  In this lab we
will focus primarily on organelles, their functions within the cell and how CYTOPLASM (“lawns and parks”)
they differ between plant and animal cells.
Cytoplasm is a semi-fluid substance (think gelatin) found inside the cell. The
Think of the cell as a microscopic city. Like a real city it requires many cytoplasm encases, cushions and protects the internal organelles. It is the cell
services to keep it clean and running smoothly. Think of some of the services landscape found in any space where organelles are not and therefore is
a real city needs: traffic control, waste disposal, and authority figure just to much like the lawns and parks of our city.
name a few. Like our imagined city a cell needs the same services. Organelles
are the “workers” that provide these services. The following is a list
GOLGI APPARATUS (“post office”)
describing the various functions of some common organelles.

Like a post office, the golgi apparatus is used for shipping those goods
 The NUCLEUS (“mayor of city hall”)
created by the ER and ribosomes to the rest of cell.

The nucleus houses the majority of genetic material of a cell. The nucleus is
MITOCHONDRIA (“energy plant”)
the “brain” of the cell and controls all activity within the cell. Using DNA as a
blueprint
Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells and is the site of
cellular respiration. Through this process that will be covered in the
(like the blueprints of a city) the nucleus directs the production of proteins. 
Photosynthesis and Respiration lab ATP is created which is used for energy
You will learn about this process in the DNA Transcription and Translation
by the cell.
lab.

LYSOSOMES (“waste disposal and recycling”)

RIBOSOMES (“lumber or brick yard”)

The lysosomes are digestive sacs that can break down macromolecules in the
The ribosomes carry out manual labor in the form of protein synthesis for the
cell using the process of hydrolysis. The digestion is carried out with
nucleus. They bring together all the raw ingredients such as RNA (copies of
lysosomal enzymes found in the lysosome. Like waste disposal in a city,
the original DNA blueprints) and amino acids to assemble proteins. The
lysosomes help keep excessive or bulky macromolecules from building up in
proteins created are essential to cell and organismal function.  Think of
the cell.
proteins as machinery for cell functions much like electricity and plumbing
are essential in a real city.  For example, enzymes are a type of protein
without which life could not exist. VACUOLES and VESICLES (“warehouses, water towers or garbage dumps”)

The ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (“highways and road systems”) Think of these membrane sacs that have a variety of functions as
containment units for anything in excess in a city. They can hold many
substances from organic molecules to simple excess water. Plant cells have a
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Smooth ER and Rough
central vacuole that is important in maintaining plant turgidity. You can read
ER. This extensive network makes up approximately one half of all
more about this phenomenon in the Biological Membranes Lab.
membranous tissue of the cell and is the site of membrane and protein
synthesis. The ER system is much like a road system along which industry can
be found. Goods are manufactured and shipped to needed areas via the road            
system. Rough ER is named for the presence of ribosomes along its
membrane and is the source of proteins. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is
responsible for lipid synthesis and processes a variety of metabolic processes
such as drug detoxification.
The Plasma Membrane—A Cell's Protective Coat

CELL MEMBRANE (“City Border”) and CELL WALL (“City Wall”)

The outer lining of a eukaryotic cell is called the plasma membrane. This
membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding
Cell membranes are found in animal cells whereas cell walls are found in
environment and is made mostly from a double layer of proteins and lipids,
plant cells. Cell walls and membranes have similar functions. Like a city
fat-like molecules. Embedded within this membrane are a variety of other
perimeter, cell membranes surround the cell and have the ability to regulate
molecules that act as channels and pumps, moving different molecules into
entrance and exit of substances, thereby maintaining internal balance. These
and out of the cell. A form of plasma membrane is also found in prokaryotes,
membranes also protect the inner cell from outside forces. Cell walls, as the
but in this organism it is usually referred to as the cell membrane.
city analogy implies, are much stronger than cell membranes and protect
cells from lysing (exploding) in extremely hypotonic (diluted) solutions. You
will learn more about these concepts in the Biological Membranes lab.

CYTOSKELETON (“steel girders”) The Plasma Membrane—A Cell's Protective Coat

The cytoskeleton makes up the internal framework, like the steel girders that The outer lining of a eukaryotic cell is called the plasma membrane. This
are the framework for buildings in a city that gives each cell its distinctive membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding
environment and is made mostly from a double layer of proteins and lipids,
fat-like molecules. Embedded within this membrane are a variety of other
molecules that act as channels and pumps, moving different molecules into
and out of the cell. A form of plasma membrane is also found in prokaryotes,
but in this organism it is usually referred to as the cell membrane.
 The Cytoplasm—A Cell's Inner Space
Inside the cell there is a large fluid-filled space called the cytoplasm,
sometimes called the cytosol. In prokaryotes, this space is relatively free of
compartments. In eukaryotes, the cytosol is the "soup" within which all of
the cell's organelles reside. It is also the home of the cytoskeleton. The
cytosol contains dissolved nutrients, helps break down waste products, and
moves material around the cell through a process called cytoplasmic
streaming. The nucleus often flows with the cytoplasm changing its shape as
it moves. The cytoplasm also contains many salts and is an excellent
conductor of electricity, creating the perfect environment for the mechanics
of the cell. The function of the cytoplasm, and the organelles which reside in
it, are critical for a cell's survival.
Membranes
1. Cell membranes are composed of proteins and lipids. The
membranes of human cells protect them and regulate what goes
in and out of them. Other roles of cell membranes include
allowing motility (movement of the cell's independent parts),
signal transduction and selective receptivity (the ability of cells to
communicate with each other), cell recognition (the ability of cells
to recognize the purpose and type of other cells they come in
contact with) and serving as an anchoring site (a place for proteins
to attach).
Nucleus
2. The nucleus of the human cell stores and organizes our genes
(also known as chromosomes). This essential part of the human
cell also transports regulatory factors, makes ribosomes
(organelles that help produce proteins), uncoils our DNA and
produces messenger ribonucleic acid (also known as mRNA).

The Nucleus—A Cell's Center Microtubules

The nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It
houses the cell's chromosomes and is the place where almost all DNA
replication and RNA synthesis occur. The nucleus is spheroid in shape and
separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear envelope.
The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various
molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its
processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or synthesized, into a
special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus,
where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. In prokaryotes, DNA
processing takes place in the cytoplasm.
 The Ribosome—The Protein Production Machine
Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The ribosome is a
large complex composed of many molecules, including RNAs and proteins,
and is responsible for processing the genetic instructions carried by an
mRNA. The process of converting an mRNA's genetic code into the exact
sequence of amino acids that make up a protein is called translation. Protein
synthesis is extremely important to all cells, and therefore a large number of
ribosomes—sometimes hundreds or even thousands—can be found
throughout a cell.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts—The Power Generators
3. Microtubules are essentially the cytoskeleton of a cell; they give a
cells its shape. They are composed of the globular protein tubulin,
which makes up their protofilaments (tubular structures that help
a cell's components travel). With these protofilaments,
microtubules move organelles such as chromosomes and
mitochondria throughout the cell.
Mitochondria
4. Mitochondria are a cell's source of chemical energy, supplying
them with ATP (adenosine triphosphate). In addition,
mitochondria control the growth, death, signaling and
differentiation of human cells. It is because of this that
mitochondria have become associated with various diseases and
human aging.
Cilia
5. The cilia of a human cell project from the outer membrane. Their
purpose is to provide cells with mobility, allowing them to move
throughout the body. Cilia also move mucus and bodily fluids over
the surface of the cell.

Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers,

shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. As mentioned
earlier, mitochondria contain their own genome that is separate and distinct
from the nuclear genome of a cell. Mitochondria have two functionally
distinct membrane systems separated by a space: the outer membrane,
which surrounds the whole organelle; and the inner membrane, which is
thrown into folds or shelves that project inward. These inward folds are
called cristae. The number and shape of cristae in mitochondria differ,
depending on the tissue and organism in which they are found, and serve to
increase the surface area of the membrane.