Quantum Mechanics Summary

Blackbody Radiation Formula:

8 πh f 3 1
u ( f , T )=
c3 ( e
hf
kB T
−1 )
Photoelectric Effect:

1
E K , max= m e v 2e
2

¿ hf −ϕ

¿eV S

Compton Effect:

h
λ f − λi = (1−cosθ)
mc

Some useful equations:

h de Broglie wavelength
λ=
p

h
¿
mv

p2
EK=
2m

The Bohr atom:

1 1 1 Emitted Wavelengths
λ (
=R 2 − 2
n f ni )
r n =n2 ao Radii of Bohr orbits in H

h2
a o= =0.0529nm Bohr radius
4 π2 k e2

−13.6
En = eV Energy levels of H
n2

Matter Waves:

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 h k2 2π
ω=2 πf , ω ( k )= ∧k=
4 πm λ

ω Phase velocity
v p =fλ =
k

dω d vp Group Velocity
v g= ¿k =v p ¿k +k ¿
dk o
dk k o 0

v p v g=c2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

h
∆ px ∆ x ≥
4π

h
∆ E ∆t≥
4π

Quantum Mechanics in One Dimension:

P ( x ) dx=¿ Ψ (x , t)¿2 dx Born Interpretation

P ( x ) =¿ Ψ ( x , t ) ¿2=Ψ ( x , t)¿ Ψ ( x ,t )
∞

∫ ¿ Ψ ( x ,t ) ¿2 dx =1
−∞

Note:

Ψ ( x , t )¿

This is called the wave function’s conjugate.

Wave function for a free particle:

Plane Wave
Ψ ( x , t )= A e i(kx−ωt )
∞ Wave Packet
Ψ ( x , t )= ∫ a( k)e i(kx−ω (k )t) dk
−∞

Schrödinger Equation for a free particle:

ih ∂ h ¯ ∂2
2
¯¿ (Ψ (x ,t )) =− ¿ (Ψ (x ,t )) ¿¿
∂t 2 m ∂ x2

Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation (TDSE):

h¿¯ ∂2 Ψ
2
− +V ( x ) Ψ =i h¯ ∂ Ψ ¿
2m ∂ x 2 ¿
∂t
¿

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Time Independent Schrödinger Equation (TISE) – to find ψ(x):

h¿¯ d 2 ψ
2
− +V ( x ) ψ (x)=Eψ( x)¿
2m d x 2

Time part – to find ϕ(t):

i h¯ d ϕ
¿ =ϕ ( t) E ¿
dt

∴ Ψ ( x , t ) =ϕ ( t ) ψ ( x )=e−iωt ψ ( x )

Aside:

Stationary State ⇒ ¿ Ψ (x , t)∨¿2 =|ψ (x)|¿

Particle in an Infinite Square Well:

d2ψ 2
2
=−k ψ
dx

2 mE
k 2=
h¿¯ ¿ 2

h¿¯
En =n2 π 2
2

2
¿
2m L

2 nπx
ψn (x )=
√ L
sin( )
L
0<x<L

Particle in an Finite Square Well:

d2ψ 2m
2
=
dx h¿¯ ( U−E ) ψ ( x )¿
2

1 h¯¿
δ= = ¿ δ, Penetration depth
α √ 2 m(U −E)

h¿¯
En ≈ n2 π 2
2

2
¿
2m ( L+ 2 δ )
x<0
ψ ( x ) =A e+αx
x>L
ψ ( x ) =B e−αx
0<x<L
ψ ( x ) =Csin ( kx ) + Dcos(kx )

A=D

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 C α
=
D k

α
cos ( kL )−sin ⁡(kL)
k −α
=
α k
sin ( kL )+ cos ⁡( kL)
k

The Quantum Oscillator:

1
U(x) = m ω2 x 2
2

d2ψ 2m
=
d x2
h¿¯
2
( 12 mω x −E )ψ ( x )¿
2 2

mω −α x
√
2

ψ (x )=4 e ¿
π h¯¿

mω
α=
2 h¯¿ ¿

En = n+( 12 ) h ¯¿ω ¿

h¯¿
A=
√ mω
¿ Amplitude of Oscillation

Expectation Values:
∞
Expected value
⟨ x ⟩= ∫ x∨Ψ ¿2 dx
−∞
Quantum Uncertainty
∆ x= √ ⟨ x 2 ⟩ −⟨ x ⟩ 2
Observables and Operators:

Operator ⟨ Q ⟩= ∫ Ψ ¿ [ Q ] Ψ dx
−∞

Operand

Observable: Symbol Operator

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 Position x x
Momentum
p h¯¿ ∂
¿
i ∂x
Potential Energy U U(x)
Kinetic Energy
K h¿¯ ∂2
2
− ¿
2m ∂ x 2
Hamiltonian
H h¿¯ ∂2
2
− +U (x )¿
2m ∂ x 2
Total Energy
E i h¯ ∂
¿ ¿
∂t

Note:

[ Q2 ] ψ ( x )=[ Q ][ Q ] ψ ( x )
Eigenvalues & Eigenfunctions:

Eigenfunction [Q] Ψ(x,t) = q Ψ(x,t)

Eigenvalue

- A sharp observable Q is when there exists an eigenvalue q, when the operator [Q] acts
on Ψ(x,t).

Commutation Relation:

Say:

[A][B] = [B][A] – Then [A] and [B] is commuting

In general, two operators DO NOT commute:

i.e.

[A][B] ≠ [B][A]

The difference between [A][B] & [B][A] is called a ‘commutator’

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 Quantum Uncertainty

[ A ] [ B ] −[ B ] [ A ]= [ [ A ] , [ B ] ]

Note: the commutator itself is an operator.

Quantum Tunnelling:

The square barrier:

A ei (kx −ωt) +B ei (−kx−ωt ) , for x <0

{
Ψ ( x , t )= C e−αx e−iωt + D e αx e−iωt , for 0< x< L
F ei (kx −ωt) , for x > L

NB:

2m
α=
√ h¿¯ (V −E)
2
¿

Transmission Coefficient (T):

The transmission coefficient is the probability that the particle will penetrate the
barrier.

Ψ ¿Transmitted Ψ Transmitted |F|2

T= = 2
Ψ ¿Incident Ψ Incident | A|

−1
U2
T E = 1+
( ) 1
[ [
4 E ( U−E ) ]
sin h2 (αL)
]
Reflection Coefficient (R):

The reflection coefficient is the probability that the particle will be reflected from the
barrier.

Ψ ¿Reflected Ψ Reflected |B|2

R= =
Ψ ¿Incident Ψ Incident | A|2

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 NB: This holds for all cases:

T+R=1

General Barrier:

T ( E )=exp ¿

Only in the classically forbidden

region, where E<V(x)

Quantum Mechanics in 3D:

Ψ ( x , t ) → Ψ ( r ,t )
2
|Ψ ( x ,t )| d r 3 =Probability of finding the particle within the volume d r 3
3D Version of the TDSE:

ih ∂ h¯ 2
2
¯¿ Ψ ( r , t )= − ¿ ∇ Ψ ( r ,t ) +V (r)Ψ ( r ,t ) ¿¿
∂t 2m

2∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ ≝ 2+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂ y ∂ z

Ψ ( r , t )=ψ ( r ) e iωt

3D Version of the TISE:

h¿¯ 2 2
− ∇ ψ ( r )+V ( r ) ψ ( r )=Eψ ( r ) ¿
2m

Particle in a 3D box:

Inside Box:

x , y , z ∈(0 , L)

V ( r )=0

Outside Box:

V (r )→ ∞

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 In this case ψ(r) is separable, i.e.:

ψ ( r )=ψ 1 (x) ψ 2 ( y) ψ 3 ( z)

The TISE for this problem is:

h¿¯ 2
2
− ∇ ψ ( r )=Eψ ( r ) ¿
2m

Which becomes:

h¿¯ 2
2
− ∇ ψ 1( x)ψ 2 ( y )ψ 3( z)=E ψ 1 (x) ψ 2 ( y )ψ 3 ( z)¿
2m

Which Simplifies to:

2 2 2
h¿¯ 1 ∂ ψ 1 (x ) 1 ∂ ψ 2( y) 1 ∂ ψ 3 ( z)
−
2

(
2m ψ 1(x ) ∂ x2
+
ψ 2( y) ∂ y 2
+
ψ 3 (z ) ∂ z2
=E ¿
)
These can be individually solved, since each come down to constants E 1, E2 & E3.

i. e . E=E1 + E2 + E3

So:

2
h¿¯ 1 ∂ ψ1( x )
−
2

(
2m ψ 1(x ) ∂ x2
=E1 ¿
)
2
h¿¯ 1 ∂ ψ 2( y)
−
2

(
2m ψ 2( y) ∂ y
=E2 ¿
)
2
h¿¯ 1 ∂ ψ 3 (z )
−
2

(
2m ψ 3( z) ∂ z 2
=E 3 ¿
)
These differential equations are of the same form of those for a 1-D infinite square well
problem.

So

ψ ( r )n n n =Asin ( k 1 x ) sin ( k 2 y ) sin ⁡( k 3 z)

1 2 3

Where:

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 n1 π
k 1=
L
n2 π
k 2= n1,n2,n3 ϵ Z>0
L
n3 π
k 3= These are quantum numbers
L
3
2
A= () L
2

Momentum:

p x =h h¯¿π
¿ k 1=n1
¯ ¿¿
L
p y =h h¯¿ π
¿ k 2=n2
¯ ¿¿
L
p z=h h¯¿ π
¯¿ k 3=n3 ¿¿
L

Energy:
E = E1+E2+E3

2 2 2
| p x| | p y| | p z|
E= + +
2 m 2 m 2m
h¯
E=π 2 ¿ 2 ( n21 +n 22+ n23 ) ¿
2

2m L

Degenerate Energy Levels:

When different states (e.g. ψ211, ψ121, ψ121) have the same energy, then this energy level is called
degenerate.

This degeneracy comes from the box being a cube, whereas if any dimension was changed, then
this degeneracy would be removed.

Spherical Coordinates:

Central Force:

This is where the strength of the potential is only dependent on the radial displacement.

i.e.

V(r) = V(r)

For conservative central forces, the energy of the particle is constant.

Angular momentum in QM:

Operator:

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 [ L ] =( [ L x ] , [ L y ] , [ L z ] )

It is impossible to measure two components of the angular momentum simultaneously,

since:

[ [ L x ] , [ L y ] ]=i h¯¿ [ L ] ¿
z

But we can simultaneously measure the size of the angular momentum (|L|) and one
component, since:

2 ∀ i=x , y , z
[ [ L ] , [ L ] ] =0
i

The 3D wave function in spherical coordinates:

ψ ( r )=ψ ( r ,θ , φ )=R ( r ) Θ ( θ ) Φ(φ)

Spherical Harmonics

Laplacian for spherical coordinates:

∂2 2 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂2
∇2 ≝ + +
∂ r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ θ2 (
+cotθ
∂θ
+cose c2
θ
∂ φ2 )
Spherical harmonics:

Θ ( θ ) Φ ( φ )=Y l ,m (θ , φ)
l

TISE for Θ & Φ:

d2Φ
=−m l Φ (φ)
d φ2

d2Θ dΘ 2 2
2
+cot ( θ ) + ml cose c ( θ ) Θ ( θ )=−l(l+1) Θ (θ )
dθ dθ

Note: The solution to the spherical harmonics is the same for ALL central force
problems.

What is ‘l’ and ‘ml’?

L is the orbital quantum number (l ϵ 0, 1, 2, ... , n - 1)

Ml is the magnetic quantum number (ml ϵ {-l, -l+1, ... , 0, ... , l – 1, l}

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 Firstly let’s define the angular momentum operators:

[ Lx ]=ih¯¿ sin(φ) ∂ +cot (θ) cos (φ) ∂

( ∂θ ∂φ )¿
[ L y ]=−i h¯¿ cos (φ) ∂ −cot ( θ) sin(φ) ∂ ¿
( ∂θ ∂ φ)

[ Lz ]=−i h¯¿ ∂ ¿
∂φ

[ L2 ] = [ L x ] 2 + [ L y ] 2 + [ Lz ] 2
So by applying operator ii & iv we get:

[ Lz ] Y l , m ( θ , φ ) =h¯¿ m Y
l l l ,ml
(θ , φ ) ¿

[ L2 ] Y l , m ( θ , φ )=¿ ¿
l

So our eigenvalue for ii & iv implies:

L z=ml h¯¿ ¿

|L|=√ l(l+1)h¯¿ ¿

Now to look at R(r):

The TISE for R(r) is:

−¿ ¿ ¿

This is defined as the ‘Radial Equation’

The Hydrogen (& Hydrogen like) Atom:

Coulomb Potential:

−1 Z e2
V r=
( )
4 π ε0 r

Ψ(r,t) for a hydrogen atom:

Ψ n , l ,m ( r ,t )=R nl (r)Y l ,m (θ , φ) eiωt

l l

Where n = Principle quantum number (n ϵ Z>0)

For an example, the wave function of a Hydrogen atom in the ground state (ψ 100(r)) is:

ψ 100 ( r ) =R 10 ( r ) Y 00 ( θ , φ )

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 −zr
z 32 1
¿( )
a0
2e
ao
∙
2 √π

3 −zr
1 z
¿ ( )e
√ π a0
2 ao

Side Notes:

- Max Planck was convinced that in a black body cavity, the black body radiation was
produced by billions of submicroscopic electric charges (he coined them as resonators).
He further stated that each of these resonators should emit radiation at the same
frequency at which they vibrated at. He also stated that each resonators energy has to be
an integral multiple of ‘hf’.

- Young’s double slit experiment is an experiment where the wave-particle duality of light
and ‘particles’ can be observed. If two slits are made, an interference pattern emerges
showing a wave nature to what is passing through the slits and if one slit is closed this
wave property is destroyed.

The Born interpretation of the experiment is that let Ψ 1 be the wave function for the
‘particle’ to enter through slit one and Ψ2 be the wave function for the ‘particle’ to
enter through slit two. So the probability distribution of where it will land is given
by |Ψ1|2 + |Ψ2|2.

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 - The first picture (a) shows a particle travelling at velocity v 0 and the next picture (b)
shows the ‘wave-packet’ version of the particle. This wave packet is made up from the
superposition of many individual matter waves.

The ‘group velocity’ is the velocity at which the wave packet moves, so vg is the
exact same as the particle’s velocity (v0).

The ‘phase velocity’ is the velocity at which the waves ‘inside’ the wave packet
move. This velocity is generally faster than the group velocity and thus the wave-
packet will disperse over time implying that the localisation of the wave-packet
will become more ‘fuzzy’.

Special Relativity:

Postulates of Special Relativity:

i.) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames that move uniformly
with respect to one another.
ii.) The speed of light in a vacuum is always the same for all observers moving at
constant velocities.

Doppler Effect:

v
f obs =
√ cv ) f
1+(
source

√1−( c )
Note:

- If the source is going away, then fobs < fsource

- If the source is getting closer, then fobs > fsource

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 So pick v to be negative if the object is going away and pick v to be positive if the object
is getting closer.

- Relativistic Doppler shifting can be from either time dilation or the change in radial
distance.

Gamma (γ):

1
γ=
2
v
√ 1− () c

Time Dilation:
Where:
t ' =γt - t’ is time measured in S’
- t is time measured in S

Length Contraction:
Where:
L
L '=
γ - L’ is length measured in S’
- L is length measured in S

Relativistic Mass Increase:

Where:
'
m =γm
- m’ is mass measured in S’
- m is mass measured in S

Lorentz Transformations:

( vxc )
t ' =γ t− 2 S’ is moving away from S at a velocity v

So for S: (x,y,z,t)
x ' =γ ( x−vt)
For S’: (x’,y’,z’,t’)
'
y =y

z ' =z

Velocity Transformations:

u x −v
u'x =
ux v
1− 2
c

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 u y −v
u'y =
ux v
(
γ 1−
c2 )
uz −v
u'x =
ux v
(
γ 1−
c2 )
Space-Time Interval:
2 2 2 2 2
∆ s =( c ∆ t ) −∆ x −∆ y −∆ z

- ∆ s2 >0 is time−like
- ∆ s2 =0 isnull−like
- ∆ s2 <0 is space −like

So if for two events Δs2 > 0 (i.e. time-like) then there has passed enough time for them to have a
cause-effect relationship.

Relativistic Kinematics:

Momentum:

p=γ m0 v

Kinetic Energy:

T =c 2 ( m−m0 )

Momentum to mass relation:

m 20 c 2=m 2 c 2− p2

Energy to Mass relation:

2
E2= ( pc )2 + ( m0 c 2)

Note:

Momentum and energy add as usual, but mass doesn’t.

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