Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basic Note On Syllogism
Basic Note On Syllogism
In Logic, any statement is termed as the Proposition. Thus, a Proposition is a statement expressing certain relation
between two or more terms, analogous to a sentence in grammar.
The Proposition consists of three parts:
1. Subject: The Subject is that about which something is said.
2. Predicate: The Predicate is the part of the Proposition denoting that which is affirmed or denied about the subject.
3. Copula: The Copula is that part of the Proposition which denotes the relation between the Subject and the Predicate.
x
Immediate Inferences-
(i) SomeYs are Xs—True
(ii) Some Ys are not Xs - Uncertain, because there is another equally probable case fulfilling the Universal
Affirmative proposition as shown below:
XY
In this case, X and Y are co-incidental circles. We see that the first inference still stands valid since the fact is that is
that some Ys have to be Xs in all cases without exception. But the second inference is uncertain since it is true in one
case and false in the second case, as shown by the two diagrams. Thus 'Some Ys are not Xs' is a possibility, but not a
certainty.
2. Universal Negative Proposition (denoted by E): It distributes both the Subject and the Predicate i.e., an entire class
of predicate term is denied to the entire he subject term.
This proposition takes the form--
No X is a Y OR No Xs are Ys.
The Venn diagram for this proposition would be two mutually exclusive circles thus:
Y
X
LR: Syllogism Page 2
Immediate Inference-
(i) No Y is an X - True, obviously.
3. Particular Affirmative Proposition (denoted by E): It distributes neither the subject nor the Predicate. e.g.
Some Xs are Ys
The Venn diagram shows two intersecting circles-
Y
X
Immediate Inferences-
(i) Some Ys are Xs – True, since it follows obviously
(ii) Some Xs are not Ys - Uncertain
(iii) Some Ys are not Xs - Uncertain because there might be another case fulfilling the condition of the Particular
Affirmative proposition as shown below:
Now this diagram also fulfills the condition, Some Xs are Ys, but in this case it is not correct to say that some Ys
are Xs (unlike the first case). Therefore this inference again, is a possibility but not a certainty.
4. Particular Negative Proposition (denoted by O): It distributes only the Predicate. e.g.,
Some animals are not wild.
Here the subject term 'some animals' is used only for a part of its class and hence is undistributed while the predicate
term 'wild' is denied in entirety to the subject term and hence is distributed.
Immediate Inferences –
There are no immediate inferences for a Particular Negative. The reasons are given below:
Unlike the last Particular Affirmative proposition, the exclusion of a part of X from Y does not in any way give us any
information about the rest of the Xs. So we cannot ever say anything for certain about the rest of the Xs. Therefore, for
a Particular Negative proposition, there are no immediate inferences OR, in other words, all immediate inferences are
uncertain. This is amply borne out by the three possible diagrams for the Particular Negative shown below. The
shaded portion in each is that part of X that is not Y.
X
Y
X Y
Y
X
In each of the above cases, the diagrams fulfill the condition that there are some Xs that are not Ys. In Diagram 1,
even the rest of the Xs are not Ys. Equally possible is Diagram 2, where the rest of the Xs are Ys, as in Diagram 3,
where all Ys are Xs. Thus, no immediate inference, because none of the three are certainties.
LR: Syllogism Page 3
SPECIAL CASES
There are some propositions that structurally do not seen to conform to the four types described above and indeed, are
the cause of a lot of confusion among students. They are delineated below with explanations that prove that the are just
variants of the four basic types.
2. Only Xs are Ys
This means the same as
All Ys are Xs
This is a Universal Affirmative proposition. If we take an example-
Only graduates are MBAs
we find that what it means is that all MBAs are graduates. This is also borne out by drawing a diagram for the same:
GRA
MBA
Therefore students are advised to change the premise to a Universal Affirmative to facilitate problem solving.
SYLLOGISM: In Logic, we are required to deal with a particular type, termed as Syllogism. Aristotle introduced it.
In Syllogism, a conclusion has to be drawn from two propositions, referred to as the Premises.
Example: 1. All lotus are flowers
2. All flowers are beautiful.
3. All lotus are beautiful.
Clearly, the propositions 1 and 2 are the Premises and the proposition 3, which follows from the first two propositions, is
called the Conclusion.
Term: In Logic, a TERM is a word or a combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject or predicate of a
proposition.
Syllogism is concerned with three terms:
1. Major Term: It is the predicate of the conclusion and is denoted by P (first letter of 'Predicate.)
2. Minor Term: It is the subject of the conclusion and is denoted by S (first letter of 'Subject').
3. Middle Term: It is the term common to both the premises and is denoted by M (first letter of 'Middle').
LR: Syllogism Page 4
Note that the middle term does not occur in the conclusion.
Example: Premises: 1. All dogs are animals.
2. Tiger is a dog.
Conclusion: Tiger is an animal.
Here, 'animal' is the predicate of the conclusion and so, it is the Major Term, P.
Tiger' is the subject of the conclusion and so, it is the Minor Term, S.
'Dog' is the term common to both the premises and so, it is the Middle Term, M.
Major and Minor Premise: Of the two premises, the major premise is that in which the middle term is the subject and the
minor premise is that in which the middle term is the predicate.
3. The middle term (M) should be distributed at least once in the premises. Otherwise, the conclusion cannot
follow.
For the middle term to be distributed in a premise,
(i) M must be the Subject if premise is an A proposition.
(ii) M must be Subject or Predicate if premise is an E proposition.
(iii) M must be Predicate if premise is an O proposition.
Note that in an I proposition, which distributes neither the Subject nor the Predicate, the middle term cannot be
distributed.
Example: Statements: 1. All fans are watches.
2.Some watches are black.
Conclusions: 1. All watches are fans.
2. Some fans are black.
In the premises, the middle term is 'watches'. Clearly, it is not distributed in a first premise which is an A proposition as it
does not form its subject. Also, it is not distributed in the second premise which is an I proposition. Since the middle term
is not distributed at least once in the premises, so no conclusion follows.
4. No conclusion follows
(a) if both the premises are particular
Example: Statements: 1. Some books are pens.
2. Some pens are erasers.
Conclusions: 1. All books are erasers.
2. Some erasers are books.
Since both the premises are particular, no conclusion follows.
(b) if both the premises are negative
Example: Statements: 1. No flower is mango.
2. No mango is cherry.
Conclusions: 1. No flower is cherry.
2 2. Some cherries are mangoes.
3 Since both the premises are negative, neither conclusion follows.
4
LR: Syllogism Page 5
(c) if the minor premise is particular and the minor premise is negative
Example: Statements: 1. Some dogs are bulls.
2. No tigers are dogs.
Conclusions: 1. No dogs are tigers.
2. Some bulls are tigers.
Here the first premise containing the middle term 'dogs' as the Subject is the major premise and the second premise
containing the middle term 'dogs' as the Predicate is the minor premise. Since the major premise is particular and the minor
premise is negative, so no conclusion follows.