Professional Documents
Culture Documents
New Developments in Biotechnology - Book
New Developments in Biotechnology - Book
May 1988
NTIS order #PB88-214101
Recommended Citation:
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, New Developments in Biotechnology-
Field-Testing Engineered Organisms: Genetic and Ecological Issues, OTA-BA-350 (Wash-
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1988).
In gathering information for this study, OTA staff made site visits to the research
facilities or proposed field test sites of seven companies developing engineered organ-
isms for environmental applications or doing similar research. The site visits were made
to California, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Missouri, Hawaii, and Wisconsin. Staff also at-
tended and participated in numerous professional meetings devoted to scientific aspects
of the issue.
OTA was assisted in preparing this study by a panel of advisors and reviewers selected
for their expertise and diverse points of view on the issues covered in the assessment.
Advisory panelists and reviewers were drawn from industry, academia, medicine, profes-
sional societies, environmental organizations, public interest groups, and Federal agen-
cies. Written comments were received from 140 individuals on successive drafts of the
report.
OTA gratefully acknowledges the contribution of each of these individuals. As with
all OTA reports, the responsibility for content is OTA’s alone.
u JOHN H. GIBBONS
Director
,,.
Ill
New Developments in Biotechnology
Advisory Panel
Bernadine P. Healy, Panel Chair
The Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Cleveland, OH
Timothy B. Atkeson Richard Krasnow
Steptoe & Johnson Institute for International Education
Washington, DC Washington, DC
David Blumenthal Sheldon Krimsky
Brigham and Women’s Hospital Corporation Tufts University
Boston, MA Medford, MA
Hon. Edmund G. Brown, Jr. William E. Marshall
Reavis & McGrath Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.
Los Angeles, CA Johnston, IA
Nancy L. Buc Ronald L. Meeusen
Weil, Gotshal & Manges Rohm and Haas Co.
Washington, DC Spring House, PA
Mark F. Cantley Robert B. Nicholas
Concertation Unit for Biotechnology in Europe Nash, Railsback & Plesser
Brussels, Belgium Washington, DC
Alexander M. Capron Eric J. Stanbridge
University of Southern California University of California, Irvine
Los Angeles, CA Irvine, CA
Jerry D. Caulder James M. Tiedje
Mycogen Corp. Michigan State University
San Diego, CA East Lansing, MI
Lawrence I. Gilbert Kunio Toriyama
The University of North Carolina ZEN-NOH
Chapel Hill, NC Tokyo, Japan
Conrad A. Istock Pablo D.T. Valenzuela
The University of Arizona Chiron Corp.
Tucson, AZ Emeryville, CA
Edward L. Korwek Thomas E. Wagner
Hogan and Hartson Ohio University
Washington, DC Athens, OH
Tsune Kosuge
University of California, Davis
Davis, CA
NOTE: OTAappreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the advisory panel
members. The panel does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full
responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents.
iv
Field-Testing Engineered Organisms
OTA Project Staff
Roger C. Herdman, Assistant Director, OTA Health and Life Sciences Division
Support Staff
Sharon Kay Oatman, Administrative Assistant
Linda S. Rayford, Secretary/Word Processing Specialist
Barbara V. Ketchum, Clerical Assistant
Contractors
Linda Starke, Editor, Washington, DC
Stephanie L. Forbes, Editor, Bowie, MD
David A. Andow, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
John M. Boyle, Louis Harris and Associates, Inc., Washington, DC
William A. Check, Medical & Scientific Communications, Atlanta, GA
Ellen W. Chu, Scientific & Technical Editing, Kirkland, WA
David C. Coleman, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
C.N. Dahm, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
Andrew P. Dobson, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY
James R. Gosz, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
Fred Gould, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
Susan S. Hirano, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
Robert E. Hodson, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
Conrad A. Istock, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
Kathleen H. Keeler, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE
D. Matthew Knain, Louis Harris and Associates, Inc., Washington, DC
Richard E. Lenski, University of California, Irvine, CA
Bruce R. Levin, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
Simon A. Levin, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
Adrianne Massey, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
Elliott A. Norse, Washington, DC
Stuart L. Pimm, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN
Frances E. Sharples, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN
S.S. Snapp, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
P.S. Teng, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
Christen D. Upper, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
Gabor Vali, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY
NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the workshop participants. The
workshop participants do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility
for the report and the accuracy of its contents.
vi
Contents
Page
Chapter I: Summary, Policy Issues, and Options for Congressional Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 3: The Regulatory Regime and the Role of Public Perception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 4: Genetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Chapter 5: Ecological Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 6: Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................109
Appendix A: Pending and Potential Environmental Applications of Genetically
Engineered Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...125
Appendix B: List of Contractor Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....134
Appendix C: Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............135
Appendix D: Glossary of Acronyms and Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............143
vii
Chapter 1
“The greatest service which can be rendered any country is, to add a useful plant
to its culture.”
Thomas Jefferson
“The Papers of Thomas Jefferson”
(Accession No. 39161),
Library of Congress, 1800
“one must learn by doing the thing, for although you think you know it you have
no certainty until you try.”
Sophocles
496(?)-406 BCE
CONTENTS
Page
Anticipated Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
● 5
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * $ * * . ....**.** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •~*~.
● ● ●
5
Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..******.*.**** .. **.***. 6
Micro-organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Role of Public Perception and the Regulatory Regime. . . . . . . . 8
The Effects of Public Perception . . . . . .~. ... .~. ..~... 8
The Existing Regulatory Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Genetic Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
What Researchers Know About Gene Transfer . . . . . . . 11
Predicting Potential Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Monitoring Gene Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inhibiting Gene Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ecological Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Genetically Engineered Organisms and Exotic Species . . 17
Potential Impact on Populations or Communities . . . . . . 18
Potential Impact on Ecosystem Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+....... . . . . . 22
Must All Planned Introductions Be Reviewed? . . . . . . . . 22
Micro-organisms v. Macro-organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Implications for Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Policy Issues and Options for Congressional Action . . . . . . 25
Box
Box Page
A. The Pressure: Antibiotic Genes in Bacteria. . . . 14
Figure
Figure Page
I-1. The Nitrogen Cycle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table Page
l-1. Some Representative Pending and Potential Environmental Applications of
Genetically Engineered Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
l-2. Agencies Responsible for Approval of Commercial
Biotechnology Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
l-3. Jurisdiction for Review of Planned Introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
l-4. Comparison of Exotic Species and Genetically Engineered Organisms . . . . . . 17
Chapter 1
The development in the 1970s of techniques for concern about the safety of planned introductions.
splicing fragments of DNA from different organ- Although there is some consensus in the scien-
isms (recombinant DNA technology) opened up tific community that the likelihood of unique or
a new science of genetic engineering and a new serious problems from planned introductions is
industry, “molecular” biotechnology. The roots of quite low, this opinion is not held unanimously.
this new industry lie in practices of animal hus- Some scientists cite the beneficial introduction of
bandry, agriculture, and fermentation that extend thousands of species of naturally occurring mi-
back for thousands of years. To these ancient prac- crobes, plants, and animals that have not adversely
tices modern biotechnology adds not only recom- affected the environment. Other scientists point
binant DNA and cell culture, but also a host of out that a small fraction of such introductions have
applications using living organisms to make com- become pests, and suggest that genetic modifica-
mercial products. These techniques promise to tions that permit engineered organisms to live in
reshape many fields; they are now revolutioniz- habitats new to them may, in some cases, present
ing the pharmaceutical industry and medical diag- similar risks. There is also concern among some
nosis and treatment. scientists that the genetic information newly ad-
ded to existing species may sometimes produce
Commercial biotechnology is advancing into
undesirable changes in their ecological relation-
areas that depend on the introduction of geneti-
ships with other species, or, in rare cases, be
cally engineered organisms into the environment.
directly transmitted to other species.
These applications could improve old tools or pro-
duce new ones for many fields, including agri- The potential benefits of new biotechnologies
culture, forestry, toxic waste cleanup, mining, en- have been widely reported. Thus, this report fo-
hanced oil and mineral recovery, and others. In cuses primarily on questions raised by the critics:
some cases, such as pest control or toxic waste How do environmental risks from planned intro-
management, successful development of biotech - ductions of genetically engineered organisms com-
nological tools could reduce or phase out depen- pare to those encountered in the past in agricul-
dence on older, more hazardous chemical tech- ture and commerce? How accurately can scientists
nologies. It is widely expected that the application predict the consequences of planned introduc-
of such biological approaches to many human tions? What genetic and ecological effects are pos-
activities will prove more benign to the environ- sible or likely? What scientific and social issues
ment than traditional technologies. need to be considered in developing risk assess-
ment and mangement procedures? Does the in-
Planned introductions of genetically engineered
troduction of genetically engineered organisms
organisms into the environment, often called de-
require new regulatory procedures to protect
liberate release, are not, however, without poten-
environmental and public health?
tial risks, Virtually any organism deliberately in-
troduced into a new environment has a small but It is important to recognize several conditions
real chance of surviving and multiplying. In some that limit generally (though not absolutely) the dis-
small subset of such cases, an undesirable conse- cussions and conclusions contained in this study:
quence might follow. The complexity of even sim- ● Time Scale: This study focuses on the near,
ple ecosystems makes the precise prediction of
or foreseeable future, generally within about
such events, and of their consequences, difficult.
the next 5 years.
This element of uncertainty has led some sci- ● Subject Matten The issues discussed pertain
entists, public officials, and private citizens to voice to small-scale field trials more often than to
3
4
large-scale, commercial applications. The de- such completed reviews increases one may ex-
gree to which these issues are relevant to pect some generalizable conclusions about the
large-scale, commercial applications should safety of different types of introductions, This
be revealed by the results of small-scale field should enable a consequent streamlining of the
tests. review process. And although almost any cate-
● Definition: In this study, the term “geneti- gory proposed for exemption from review can be
cally engineered organism” is used most often shown wanting through a hypothetical scenario,
to mean an organism to which genetic mate- it is reasonable to expect that, with experience,
rial has been added or deleted via recombi- broader categories will emerge for which less rig-
nant DNA techniques. This usage is not, how- orous levels of review could be defended. Cate-
ever, absolute, since some regulatory agencies gories that could be examined now, at least for
(e.g., EPA) presently define the term more abbreviated review, include:
broadly. Some of the genetic or ecological is- ● organisms that could be produced with pre-
sues discussed in the study might also apply
viously existing methods (e.g., mutagenesis
to organisms produced by means not involv-
and selection) which, if they were, would not
ing recombinant DNA in the strict sense, such
be regulated under existing law;
as cell fusion. ● an organism substantially identical to one that
It is possible that new types of planned intro- has already been reviewed and approved for
ductions not now under development, or the field testing;
greater scale of some commercial applications, ● organisms not containing any genetic mate-
might introduce questions or concerns in addi- rial from a potential pathogen; or
tion to those examined in this study. ● organisms whose DNA contains nothing new
but marker sequences in non-coding regions.
Foremost among OTA’s conclusions is that
there are reasons to continue to be cautious, Regulatory agencies can and should move
but there is no cause for alarm. Significant areas promptly to establish at least provisional catego-
of uncertainty exist, particularly in the realms of ries for different levels of review. They should
microbial ecology and population dynamics. Wide- act subsequently to modify and streamline these
spread environmental or ecological problems do as experience indicates. This will sometimes be
not now seem likely, however, though they could a contentious exercise, but the stakes, in terms
emerge in the future. If events develop other than of economic potential and environmental protec-
as planned with a particular introduction, it seems tion, are sufficient that there can be no substi-
more likely that the introduced organisms might tute for common sense leavened by caution and
become prematurely extinct, and consequently appropriate flexibility. To guarantee essential pub-
fail to perform as desired. While increased sup- lic confidence, this also means that such decisions
port for relevant research, both fundamental and must be accountable, attributable to specific reg-
applied, will reduce uncertainties, some ques- ulatory bodies, and sustainable by defensible and
tions can be answered only with practical ex- public reasoning.
perience.
With adequate review none of the small-scale
Even though the range and complexity of ap- field tests proposed or probable within the
plications of new biotechnologies means that the next several years are likely to result in an
type of general models used for evaluating the environmental problem that would be wide-
risks from chemicals cannot be transferred eas- spread or difficult to control. Indeed, green-
ily, adequate review of planned introductions house or microcosm studies are such inadequate
is now possible. A review process that involves predictors of field performance that in many cases
critical study of planned introductions by experts realistic small-scale field tests are likely to be
with relevant knowledge and experience offers the only way potential risks from commercial
confidence of being able to anticipate and pre- scale uses of genetically engineered organisms
vent most potential problems. As the number of can be evaluated. Assuming such small-scale field
5
tests fail to identify areas of significant concern, dreamed of precision and speed. In evaluating the
there would be no scientific reason not to seek potential risks associated with these new technol-
further experience with field tests or applications ogies, the appropriate question is not “How can
on a larger scale. we reduce the potential risks to zero?” but "what
are the relative risks of the new technologies
It is important to note that modifying organisms compared with the risks of the technologies
for specific human ends is not new; selective with which they will compete?” Furthermore,
breeders of plants and animals have been trans- What are the risks posed by over regulating,
ferring genes for millennia, often creating forms or failing to develop fully the new technol-
through centuries of selection that differ from ogies? How do we weigh costs and benefits?
their original stocks more than the forms pro- How much review is enough? In most cases the
duced by recombinant DNA methods. One of the new potential risks will be qualitatively similar
distinguishing characteristics of the new technol- to the old risks. Sometimes they will be quantita-
ogies is that they allow scientists to do many of tively less. The potential benefits to be derived
the same things as before with previously un- are often substantial.
ANTICIPATED APPLICATIONS
Pending and potential environmental applica- with which they can be studied) have been trans-
tions of genetically engineered organisms span an formed to resist crown gall disease (Agracetus,
enormous range—enormous in terms of engi- Middleton, WI). Researchers at Monsanto and at
neered organisms, the diverse environments into Washington University (St. Louis, MO) have also
which they will be introduced, and the functions “vaccinated” tobacco and tomato plants against
they are intended to perform (see table 1-1 and tobacco mosaic virus by inserting a single virus
app. A). gene into the plant genome. Similar results with
the alfalfa mosaic virus suggest that the same
Many pending or imminent introductions in- technique may protect many plants against virus-
volve minor genetic alterations to modify an ex-
caused diseases.
isting function in an existing organism. Most in-
volve the activity of the product (protein) of a sin-
gle structural gene, More than a dozen small-scale Pest resistance is another promising area. The
field tests have already taken place. Applications delta-endotoxin gene of the well known and much
for others are pending or anticipated in the near used bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT), which
future, encodes a toxin effective against certain caterpil-
lars, has been inserted into tobacco and tomato
Plants plants.
To decrease crop losses due to weeds, genes Investigators are pursuing many other applica-
have been introduced into several plant species tions, including drought or saline resistant plants.
to confer resistance or tolerance to certain her- Recombinant DNA and cell fusion techniques are
bicides, including glyphosate (Calgene, Davis, CA; being used to create new crop varieties, improve
Monsanto, St. Louis, MO), sulfonylurea (Du Pont, the nutritional qualities of some species, and in-
Wilmington, DE), and atrazine (Ciba-Geigy, Greens- crease algal production of substances used in the
boro, NC). Depending on the particular herbicide, food industry. Future endeavors might include en-
this practice could increase or decrease pollution hancing the ability of certain algae to sequester
hazards by stimulating changes in patterns of her-
heavy metals from seawater, and introducing
bicide use. genes encoding compounds that protect seeds
Plants have also been engineered better to re- against insects. Such engineered seed protection
sist disease. Tobacco plants (valuable for the ease could improve long-term storage of certain crops.
6
MICRO-ORGANISMS PLANTS
Bacteria as pesticides. “ice-minus” bacteria to reduce Herbicide resistance or tolerance to:
frost damage to agricultural crops. Glyphosate
Bacteria carrying Bacillus thuringiensis toxin to reduce Atrazine
t loss of corn crops to black cutworm. Sulfonyiurea (chlorosulfuron and sulfometuron)
Mycorrhizal fungi to increase plant growth rates by im- imidazolinone
proving efficiency of root uptake of nutrients. Bromoxynil
Plant symbionts. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria to increase Phosphinotricin
nitrogen available to plants, and decrease need for fer- Disease resistance to:
tilizers, Crown gall disease (tobacco)
Toxic waste disposal. Bacteria engineered to enhance Tobacco mosaic virus (and related viruses)
their existing abilities to degrade compounds found in Potato leaf roll virus
sludge in waste treatment plants. Pest resistance
Bacteria engineered to enhance their abilities to degrade BT-toxin-protected crops, including tobacco (principally
compounds in landfills, dumps, runoff deposits, and as research tool) and tomato.
contaminated soils. Seeds with enhanced anti-feedant content to reduce
Heavy metal recovery. Engineered enhancements possi- losses to insects while in storage.
ble to several species of bacteria now used to recover Enhanced tolerance to environmental factors, including:
metals from low-grade ores (e.g., copper and cobalt). Salt
Pollution control. Possible increased utility of bacteria in Drought
purifying water supplies of phosphorus, ammonia, and Temperature
other compounds. Heavy metals
Viruses as pesticides. insect viruses with narrowed host Nitrogen-fixation enhancements
specificity or increased virulence against specific Nonlegumes enhanced to fix nitrogen, independent of
agricultural insect pests, including cabbage looper, association with symbiotic bacteria.
pine beauty moth, cutworms, and other pests. Engineered marine algae
Myxoma virus modified so as to restore its virulence Algae enhanced to increase production of such
against rabbits (which became resistant during early bi- compounds as B-carotene and agar, or to enhance
ocontrol efforts in Australia). ability to sequester heavy metals (e.g., gold and
Viruses as vaccines. Vaccines against human diseases cobalt) from seawater.
including: Forestry
—hepatitis A and B Trees engineered to be resistant to disease or
—polio herbicides, to grow faster, or to be more tolerant to
—herpes simplex (oral and genital) environmental stresses.
—malaria
—acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ANIMALS
—rabies Livestock and poultry
—respiratory syncitial virus Livestock species engineered to enhance weight gain
or growth rates, reproductive performance, disease
Vaccines against animal diseases including: resistance, or coat characteristics.
—swine pseudorabies Livestock animals engineered to function as producers
—swine rotavirus for pharmaceutical drugs, especially of mammalian
—vesicular stomatitis (cattle) compounds that require post-synthesis modifications
–foot and mouth disease (cattle) in the cell.
—bovine rotavirus Fish
—rabies (cattle, other mammals) Triploid salmon produced by heat shock for use as
—sheep foot rot game fish in lakes and streams.
—infectious bronchitis virus (chickens) Fish with enhanced growth rates, cold tolerance, or
—avian erythroblastosis disease resistance for use in aquaculture.
—sindbis virus (sheep, cattle, chickens) Triploid grass carp for use as aquatic weed control
Muitivalent vaccines. Vaccines possible for antigenically agents,
complex diseases such as:
—malaria
—sleeping sickness
—schistosomiasis
SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1988.
?
one case researchers hope the transformed bac- Inc. (Cambridge, MA) is preparing to field test a
teria, adapted to live on the surfaces of the roots variety of a naturally occurring bacterium with
of corn plants, will help reduce corn crop losses enhanced nitrogen-fixing ability. It is likely that
to insect larvae. In another, the transformed bac- the more ambitious goal of transferring nitrogen-
teria are killed and treated to produce a particle fixing capacity directly to plants is many years
containing BT toxin that can then be applied as from realization.
a topical insecticide. Other bacteria are being engi- Viruses, especially those that affect insects, have
neered to degrade specific toxic compounds found potential as pesticides as well as vaccines for both
in industrial waste or sludge. Many bacteria can animals and humans. Recent efforts have been
break down toxic compounds naturally, and there
directed toward engineering vaccinia viruses to
is the potential of enhancing their ability to con- produce vaccines for hepatitis B, herpes simplex,
sume petroleum, solvents, benzene derivatives, influenza, and hookworm as well as vaccines
or halogenated hydrocarbons like polychlorinated
against such animal diseases as rabies, vesicular
biphenyls, polybrominated biphenyls, or dioxin, stomatitis (a disease of cattle), and others. These
although these applications are likely to be some
are usually produced by using recombinant DNA
years away. methods to separate the virus genes that will evoke
One important application that has received a immune responses in the infected organisms from
great deal of research attention is enhancing or the genes encoding the proteins responsible for
transferring the capacity to make atmospheric ni- disease. When the latter are removed, a number
trogen biologically usable, or to “fix” nitrogen. If of the problems historically associated with at-
managed well, this holds significant potential for tenuated or live virus vaccines in common use
reducing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer re- today are eliminated. Multivalent vaccines, which
quired in agriculture, thus reducing the costs and could be effective against several diseases at once
the problems associated with nitrate contamina- or against complex diseases, are also being de-
tion of runoff water. BioTechnica International, veloped.
though people are concerned about the morality Table 1-2.—Agencies Responsible for Approval of
and safety of genetic engineering, they believe that Commercial Biotechnology Products
research should continue. Most say they believe Biotechnology
-. .products Responsible agencies
the benefits will ultimately justify the risks. In- Foods/food additives . . . . . . . . . . . FDA, * FSISa
deed, the public claims to be willing to accept rela- Human drugs, medical devices,
tively high probabilities of risk to the environment and biologics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FDA
Animal drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FDA
(provided oversight is sufficient) in exchange for Animal biologics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APHIS
the benefits that might accrue from environmental Other contained uses . . . . . . . . . . EPA
C a b
applications of genetically engineered organisms. Plants and animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . APHIS, FSIS, F D A
Pesticide micro-organisms
released in the environment , EPA, d APHIS C
Other uses (micro-organisms):
The Existing Regulatory Framework Intergeneric combination . . . . . EPA,d A P H I S C
Intrageneric combination:
Shortly after recombinant DNA technology ap- Pathogenic source organism
peared and began to be more widely used during 1. Agricultural use . . . . . . . APHIS
2. Nonagricultural use . . . . EPA,d A P H I S C
the 1970s, concerns were raised about its safety. Nonpathogenic source
In an unprecedented move, scientists developing organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA Report
the new techniques met in 1975 at the Asilomar Nonengineered pathogens:
Conference Center (Pacific Grove, CA), and agreed 1. Agricultural use . . . . . APHIS
2. Nonagricultural use . . EPA, d A P H I S C
to control stringently their own research until the Nonengineered
safety of the new technology could be assured. nonpathogens . . . . . . . . . . . EPA Report
In 1976, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) is- ● Designates lead agency where jurisdictions may overlap,
aFSIS, Food Safety end Inspection Service, under the Assistant Secretary Of Agri-
sued the first formal guidelines for recombinant culture for Marketing and Inspection Services, is responsible for food use.
relation to a
bFDA IS irrvolvetj when in food use.
DNA research. As research continued, and as sci- CApHIS An/real and plant Heeith Inspection Service, is involved when the micro-
organism is plant pest, animal pathogen, or regulated article requiring a permit.
entists learned more about the safety of geneti- dEpA requirement WiII only apply to environmental release under a “significant
cally engineered organisms, initial fears proved new use rule” that EPA intends to propose.
excessive, the guidelines were repeatedly revised, SOURCE: 51 Fed. Reg. 23339.
Several problems—virtually none of them new efits of existing technologies against the
or unique to biotechnology-face regulators, par- potential risks and likely benefits of new tech-
ticularly in the area of planned introductions of nologies.
genetically engineered organisms: ● Jurisdiction of Federal Agencies Regulat-
● Scope: Should regulation be product-based, ing Biotechnology: Potential conflicts be-
or is there a foundation for basing it on the tween overlapping jurisdictions of Federal
processes used in producing the products? agencies should be prevented from interfer-
● Definitions: Common definitions of critical ing with appropriate regulation.
terms such as deliberate release into the envi- ● Role of State and Local Governments: Lo-
ronment, and pathogen, need to be estab- cal zoning and environmental statutes are im-
lished. portant determinants of policy that may af-
● Risk Assessment and Management: Deci- fect future tests and applications.
sion makers must perform a complex balanc- ● Public Perception: Whatever the scientific
ing act—weighing the known risks and ben- and regulatory judgments, public perception
11
will strongly affect the conduct of field tests and others (discussed in ch. 3). As of May 1988,
and the final outcome of commercial appli- it had been in use for 23 months, and will soon
cations of biotechnology. need to be formally evaluated to determine if there
are problems it does not cover adequately.
The Coordinated Framework appears to provide
means for dealing with most of these problems
GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS
The planned introduction of genetically engi- lated species; it is common in many groups
neered organisms that can survive and multiply of plants.
raises a variety of genetical questions, many of ● Transformation: the incorporation by bac-
which are relevant only if there is a reasonable teria of DNA fragments from the immediate
probability that the introduced organisms could environment.
have a deleterious impact on the environment or ● Plasmids: circles of DNA that are separate
public health. The likelihood of such a conse- and replicate independently from the chro-
quence depends on the nature of the organism mosome within cells. Some are self-mobiliz-
and on the new genetic information it carries. It able, and can transmit themselves between
also depends on whether the new genetic mate- compatible cells. Others require the assistance
rial in the altered organism remains where it was of mobile plasmids to be transferred.
inserted, performing as designed, or is transferred ● Viruses nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) packaged
to a new location in a nontarget organism, possi- in a protective protein coat (unlike plasmids).
bly performing in an unanticipated manner. It may To reproduce, a virus must infect a cell and
therefore be important to consider, where such take over the host cell’s metabolic machinery.
occurrence is plausible, the probability that novel Viruses can transfer genetic material between
genetic material will spread beyond the engi- species via “transduction” (see glossary),
neered organisms at the release site. The migra- ● Transposons (Transposable Elements) and
tion of genetic material from one organism to Insertion Sequences: DNA sequences car-
another by means other than germ cells is called rying one or more genes, and flanked by in-
horizontal transfer. In bacteria, horizontal trans- sertion sequences—short DNA fragments that
fer is the transmission of genetic information from are able move to different places within the
one contemporaneous bacterial cell to another by cell on the same or a different DNA molecule.
whatever means.
What are the potential outcomes of such trans- Some of these mechanisms are shared by sev-
fer? Are they beneficial, harmful, or of no conse- eral classes of organisms, while others are unique
quence? How can the movement of genetic mate- to particular groups. Gene transfer is more likely
rial be observed? What techniques or constraints in some groups of bacteria, and less easy to con-
can limit the frequency or mitigate any potentially trol or predict than hybridization in plants or ani-
adverse consequences of gene transfer? Special mals. Except where indicated, the following dis-
considerations exist for each set of organisms. cussion of gene transfer is more relevant to
bacteria than to higher organisms.
What Researchers Know Much of what investigators know about gene
About Gene Transfer transfer comes from laboratory experience. Gene
transfer between bacteria, for example, is well
Gene transfer between species takes place via studied among laboratory populations. Although
a limited number of means, including:
the frequency of transfer may be relatively low,
● Hybridization: also known as sexual out- rapid reproduction and large populations mean
crossing, in plants and animals. In animals this that genes can be transmitted into some bacterial
is generally impossible except with closely re - populations quite rapidly, if coupled with the
12
appropriate selection pressures. Among insects, Some observers maintain that if it is known that
evolutionary evidence indicates transfer can oc- the gene in question will not move about, the po-
cur via transposable elements and viruses, but tential consequences of gene transfer should not
how often is not known. Similarly, it seems that be a concern. Others argue that if the modified
some horizontal transmission between disparate organism or gene will cause no problems if it does
mammalian families may have taken place in the spread, then estimating the probability of trans-
past, but little evidence exists for transfer in re- fer is unnecessary. Both issues must be addressed
cent times or at appreciable frequencies. Gene for a balanced evaluation of the potential conse-
transfer among plants by mechanisms other than quences of a proposed introduction experiment.
hybridization has not been well studied, and if A very low probability of transfer multiplied by
it occurs in nature it seems to be quite rare. a moderate probability of hazard if transfer oc-
curs produces a different situation than if both
The systems of genetic transfer that have been
probabilities are very low. Of course, a significant
studied were chosen largely for their amenabil-
ity to laboratory research. They represent only probability of benefit could also offset all or part
of any potential risk.
a small sample of what actually occurs in nature.
It is clear that with a few exceptions (i.e., between Other observers argue that it should be assumed
some closely related animal or insect species, be- that any introduced genetic material will eventu-
tween many higher plants, and between some bac- ally be transmitted to nontarget species, and that
terial species), significant natural obstacles any consequences should be anticipated. Predict-
block most gene flow between species. It is log- ing the consequences and evaluating the risks of
ical to assume, and data support the conclusion, deliberate release requires information about in-
that natural populations of bacteria (generally less trinsic and extrinsic factors influencing the mag-
dense than laboratory populations) experience nitude, frequency, and stability of gene transfer.
lower rates of gene transfer than do laboratory At a minimum, an analysis of the magnitude
populations. Questions that remain include: of gene transfer in those cases where it might
be important must address two questions:
● How extensively do gene transfer mecha-
nisms observed in the laboratory operate in How frequently is the genetic material
nature? likely to be transferred to nontarget organ-
● What are the genetic and environmental con- isms, especially in comparison to natural back-
ditions under which novel information could ground rates?
be incorporated into a foreign genome and What is the degree of genetic relationship
subsequently expressed? between the original organism and the non-
● How do populations of organisms limit incur- target species?
sion of new genetic material?
Intrinsic Factors
understood before proceeding with planned in- tions will determine whether an engineered
troduction experiments. Reviewers should be sen- gene or organism will persist in a population,
sitive to the possible expression of novel proper- be expressed, or increase in frequency after
ties of the host organism. introduction. Strong selection for a particu-
lar trait-e.g., the presence of an antibiotic—
Because a vector can shuttle genetic material increases the frequency of a gene or genes
between organisms, familiarity with its host range coding for that trait. Selection pressures vary
and behavior is critical. Some vectors transfer with each application and depend on the gene
genetic material by themselves, but some require involved, how it is regulated and expressed
outside help. It is important to establish whether in the host, and its interaction with the envi-
the new gene is mobile or immobile in its new ronment. While it can be expected that many
host cell. Last, the whole construct of the in= introductions will be selected against, or at
troduced gene, new host, and vector material
best be selectively neutral, those introductions
needs to be considered. The intracellular con-
favored by selection are likely to be most suc-
figuration of the new gene in the host organ-
cessful.
ism—where it finally resides in host DNA—is
a prime determinant of its potential for move-
ment to new hosts. Monitoring Gene Transfer
Convenient, economical, and effective methods
Extrinsic Factors
of tracking engineered organisms or the engi-
Extrinsic factors are imposed by the environ- neered gene(s) they contain are being developed.
ment. The environment where the engineered These can be divided broadly into selective and
organism will be released should be analyzed along biochemical methods.
with other environments the organism could en- Selective tracking methods work by marking
counter. Factors to be considered include: the host chromosome with antibiotic resistance
● Receptivity of Habitat: Will the engineered genes or nutritional markers that confer a com-
host survive to do its job and reproduce once petitive advantage under specific conditions.
introduced? Natural variation in crucial envi- When exposed to selection pressure exerted by
ronmental factors is great. Soil systems, and the antibiotic, for example, organisms carrying
other natural habitats, may not be sufficiently the resistance gene survive and can be easily de-
fertile to support the addition of large num- tected,
bers of engineered organisms. Engineered Such markers must be carefully screened, how-
bacteria will often beat a selective disadvan- ever, because those that confer an unintended
tage when competing with natural popu- competitive advantage-or that mutate to confer
lations. resistance to a whole family of antibiotics-could
● Potential Nontarget Recipients: The most
lead to problems (see box A). On the other hand,
likely nontarget recipients of engineered resistance genes are already present in many nat-
genetic material are genetically similar organ- urally occurring soil micro-organisms (a valuable
isms; the probability of transfer declines with source of new antibiotics), and antibiotic resistance
decreasing similarity or relatedness. If the markers have long been used in studies of root
engineered gene is already present in the re- ecology with no apparent ill effects.
cipient environment, concern about transfer
beyond the intended host is reduced. When using nutritional markers the host chro-
● Density: The higher the densities of engi- mosome can be marked with a metabolic gene
neered organisms and potential nontarget re- (e.g., one coding for the production of an enzyme)
cipients, the more likely gene transfer is, al- not normally found in that organism, Monsanto
though in the absence of selection pressure researchers have produced such a system with
it will have no consequence. their insertion of genes for metabolizing the sugar
● Selection Pressure: Environmental condi- lactose into the soil bacterium they are studying.
14
As with antibiotic resistance gene markers, how- DNA vectors even when the most active plant vec-
ever, this may not always reveal if or how widely tors are used. Nor is gene transfer a concern in
the engineered gene or construct may have trav- organisms engineered by gene deletion, though
eled to other organisms. The movement of genes other traits may then be important.
does not always correspond completely to the
Reducing or eliminating the use of mobile plas-
movements of the original host organism. To track
the engineered gene itself, a selectable marker mids and transposons could also help minimize
gene must remain where it is inserted, close to horizontal transfer. A disarmed transposon with
its engineered gene could no longer separate and
the gene to be tracked; the two would most likely
be transferred together (depending on how closely move independently from the chromosome where
they were linked), making it possible to locate the it was inserted. This approach of “crippling the
engineered gene by selecting for and isolating any vector” has been successfully used in transferring
cells with the marker gene. the gene for Bacillus thuringiensis toxin into
another common bacterium, Pseudomonas fluor-
Biochemical methods often rely on gene probes escens; it has also been used to make an immo-
made with recombinant DNA techniques. A gene bile vector for insect genetic engineering.
probe is a segment of DNA whose nucleic acid
sequence is complementary to the gene of inter- In another approach, an EPA research group
est, or to a portion of it. The probe is labeled with is working to construct a “suicide” bacterium de-
radioactivity or marked with a dye that can be signed to persist in the environment only as long
easily detected in the laboratory. A gene probe as it is needed. The bacterium contains a plasmid
will track a gene even if it is separated from a carrying a gene that functions only in the pres-
tightly linked selection marker or in an organism ence of the toxic substance the bacterium is de-
that cannot itself be cultured. But to quantify gene signed to clean up; when the toxic substance is
transfer would require general tests of all mi- no longer available, the plasmid self-destructs.
crobes or DNA in the release environment; proc- The technique is intended to destroy the plasmid
essing large numbers of samples would be diffi- DNA before it can transfer to another host. How-
cult and expensive. ever, if the host bacterium were killed before the
plasmid were degraded, and the plasmid remained
intact with its inserted gene, the plasmid DNA
Inhibiting Gene Transfer
could theoretically reinfect another host. But main-
As with detection and tracking, techniques to taining this assembly costs the cell energy, and
prevent or reduce horizontal gene transfer are any natural mutation that inactivated the system
not yet well developed. Researchers can either would be favored by natural selection.
choose or modify the host and/or the vector so As advances in nucleotide chemistry make other
that introduced organisms have a low probabil-
techniques possible, new ways of immobilizing
ity of persisting in the environment, of transfer-
vectors and creating restricted and escape-proof
ring genetic material, or both. Specific choices and hosts are being explored. Fundamental research
modifications will depend on the characteristics might be most productive if directed toward in-
of the organisms involved and the purpose for
creasing understanding of the ecology of differ-
which they are engineered.
ent traits. Meanwhile, the genetic implications of
Whereas gene transfer may be a legitimate con- introducing any particular organism into the envi-
cern in planned introductions of some bacteria, ronment are best considered on an individual
it is unlikely to be a general concern with plant basis.
ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The major ecological concern over planned tial for unforeseen or long-term consequences.
introductions of genetically engineered organ- Although there are enough uncertainties that
isms into the environment stems from the poten- introductions should be approached with cau-
16
tion, a large body of reassuring data, derived nity, the consequence seems most likely to be a
chiefly from agriculture, supports the conclu- transitory disturbance of plant or animal commu-
sion that with the appropriate regulatory over- nity structure, evidenced by fluctuation in num-
sight, the field tests and introductions planned bers or relative abundance.
or probable in the near future are not likely
The worst possible ecological impact a
to result in serious ecological problems.
planned introduction could have would be to
The results of most planned introductions are disrupt a fundamental ecosystem process, e.g.,
likely to be either beneficial, as planned, or neu- the cycling of a mineral or nutrient, or the flow
tral. If only because most planned introductions of energy in an ecosystem; such disruptions
are likely to be agricultural, any negative conse- are not, however, among the credible conse-
quences would most likely involve an agricultural quences of any introduction that seems likely
problem, one that might be controlled or mitigated within the next several years. The high degree
by crop rotation, introduction of new crop strains, of functional redundancy among species (particu-
or other agronomic practice. In those rare circum- larly microbes) involved with such processes (e.g.,
stances of a negative impact on a natural commu - nutrient cycles or energy flow) and the resilience
and buffering in natural ecosystems are persua-
sive arguments against the likelihood of such con-
sequences.
Although predicting ecological consequences of
planned introductions is complex, researchers and
regulators are addressing the questions raised by
such introductions. Five criteria have been laid
out for evaluating the likelihood of environmental
impact:
1. Potential for Negative Effects If it is known
that a recombinant organism will have no neg-
ative effects, there is no cause for concern. urally occurring counterparts in only one or a few
But predicting ecological effects, their prob- genes. Scientists already have a great deal of ex-
ability, and assessing whether they are nega- perience with introductions of new agricultural
tive or positive is not always straightforward. crops or cultivars that differ from previously ex-
2. Survival: If a genetically engineered organ- isting varieties by a small number of genes. And
ism does not survive, it is unlikely to have while one or a few genes can have a major im-
any ecological impact. It is also unlikely to ful- pact on such things as host range or pathogenic-
fill the purpose for which it was engineered ity, they more often do not. The USDA’s Plant
(unless brief survival was all that was re- protection Office has recorded over 500,000 in-
quired). troductions since 1898, mostly from outside the
3. Reproduction: Some applications require United States, including large numbers of plants,
not only survival of the recombinant organ- insects, and microbes. Although the proportion
ism but its reproduction and maintenance. that has actually become established is not known,
Increasing numbers could, in some settings, there have been occasional negative consequences,
increase the possibility of unforeseen conse- sometimes severe or far-reaching. Few, however,
quences. have been lasting, and fundamental ecosystem
4. Transfer of Genetic Information: Even if processes and ecological relationships remain in-
the engineered organism itself dies out, its tact. Serious consequences have almost invaria-
environmental effects could continue if the bly been associated with introduced exotics. Ta-
crucial genetic material were favored by selec- ble 1-4 summarizes some of the major differences
tion and transferred to and functioned in a between planned introductions of genetically engi-
native species, as described in the preceding neered organisms and exotics.
section.
Most ecologists agree that successful introduc-
5. Transportation or Dissemination of the
tions of exotic species, almost by definition, usu-
Engineered Organism: A recombinant or-
ally exert some effect, even though only a small
ganism that moves into nontarget environ-
fraction of all introductions actually result in the
ments in sufficient numbers could interact
establishment and maintenance of a breeding pop-
in unforeseen ways with other populations
ulation. Data for insects suggest that perhaps 41
or members of other communities.
percent of the species successfully introduced in
Genetically Engineered Organisms
and Exotic Species Table 1-4.—Comparison of Exotic Species and
Genetically Engineered Organisms
Although there is much disagreement, some sci-
entists hold that the historical experience pre- Exotic organisma Engineered organismb
sented by introduced exotic species, though im- No. of genes introduced 4,000 to >20,000 1 to 10
perfect, offers some useful examples of potential Evolutionary tuning All genes have Organism has several
problems to guard against in the planned intro- evolved to work genes it may never
together in a have had before.
duction of genetically engineered organisms. single package These genes will
often impose a
Every environment contains organisms that cost or burden
have originated and evolved elsewhere and ar- that will make the
rived in their new habitats either independently organism less able
or with human assistance, These are called ex- to compete with
those not carrying
otics. Some lessons can certainly be learned from the new genes,
experience with exotics, but important differences Relationship of Foreign Familiar, with
exist between them and most genetically engi- organism to receiving possible exception
environment of new genes
neered organisms.
a’ ‘Exotic organism’IS used here to mean one not previously found m the habitat
b“Englneered organism’” IS used here 10 mean a sllghtly modlfled (usually, but nof always by
Most engineered organisms being studied with recombinant DNA techruques) form of an organism already present In the habitat
planned introduction in mind will differ from nat- SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment 1988
18
BT toxin genes were added gained protection from will exert lower selection pressures on the insect
predation by caterpillars. populations, slowing their evolution of resistance.
Yet they would still offer enough protection to
The simple presence of large quantities of BT
preempt the growth of swarms of herbivorous
toxin in the environment is not worrisome because
insects that cause the most crop damage. This ap-
it is not toxic to humans or animals, and it decom-
proach is based on a strong theoretical and ex-
poses in a relatively short time. Produced inside
perimental foundation, and is well within the ca-
crop plant tissues, however, BT toxin is protected
pability of existing technologies.
from environmental degradation, thus extending
its persistence as it provides season-long pest con- Insect Communities
trol. However, this might introduce a problem of
a different kind: such an approach also lengthens Because they inflict so much damage on agri-
the time that less susceptible individuals (e.g., late cultural products, insect communities have be-
larvae and adults) of the target species may be come the target of recombinant plants, micro-
exposed to the toxin, and thus subjected to selec- organisms, and insect predators engineered to
tive forces that can be expected to lead to evolu- check them. Two representative examples are the
tion of resistance in those populations. bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescent, which has
been altered to enable corn to resist the black cut-
How severe this potential problem might be is
worm, and a class of viruses that parasitizes cer-
unclear. BT accounts for only a minor portion of
tain pests.
total pesticide use. While forestry and home gar-
den use has increased in recent years, its market The black cutworm feeds on the roots of corn
share in agricultural use has declined, losing plants, causing significant corn crop losses. It is
ground to such promising new compounds as syn- vulnerable to BT toxin. Monsanto scientists have
thetic pyrethroids. But if the evolution of resis- used a special vehicle called a transposable ele-
tance to BT is judged to present more than just ment to insert the gene for BT toxin into Pseudo-
a problem for product longevity, evolutionary bi- monas fluorescent, which lives among corn roots,
ology offers several possible solutions. The transposable element has been altered to
make it unlikely that the inserted gene can move
Because resistance will most quickly evolve in beyond its insertion point or leave its Pseudo-
pest populations if the toxin is chronically present,
monas host. Preliminary tests suggest that the bac-
distribution of the toxin could be strictly limited
teria do not move beyond the roots they colonize
to the times and places it is needed. This could
initially, nor are they likely to persist in a field
be done by limiting the expression of the BT toxin
from season to season.
gene to those plant tissues that pest insects habitu-
ally forage on, or by inserting regulatory gene se- Baculoviruses, rod-shaped viruses that are spe-
quences that would induce expression of the BT cific pathogens to one or a few closely related in-
gene only in response to tissue damage caused sect species, are being developed to target insect
by the target pest. With progress in understand- pests, including the cabbage looper and pine saw-
ing gene regulation in plants, such measures may in the United Kingdom. Initial tests involved
fly
organisms to increase the amount of nitrogen they Several different studies suggest, however, that
fix (discussed later in this chapter), and inoculat- even under a long chain of worst-case assump-
ing plants with altered bacteria to enable them tions (many of which contradict known facts) the
to resist frost damage. alteration of climatic patterns through large-scale
agricultural applications of ice minus bacteria is
The introduction of ice-minus bacteria has been not likely, Many of these assumptions, however,
a source of some controversy among the lay pub- could benefit from being tested by further re-
lic (see ch. 3). The cell membrane of some bacte- search,
ria contains a protein encoded by a single gene
that acts as an efficient nucleus for the formation Potential Impact on Ecosystem
of ice crystals on the surfaces of plant leaves or Processes
blossoms where the bacteria live. Without such
a nucleus, ice crystals do not form until about 9 ‘F Ecosystems are enormously complex and, as a
below freezing. Crop losses to frost damage in the rule, not well understood. Associations of plants,
United States average about $1.6 billion per year. animals, and micro-organisms interact with one
Scientists reasoned that removing the ice-nucleat- another and with their physical environment so
ing gene from the bacteria and using them to col- as to regulate the flow of energy through the sys-
onize crop plants could confer a measure of frost tem and the cycling of nutrients within it. The
resistance on the host plants and eliminate at least major force driving these processes is capture of
a portion of the annual crop loss. the sun’s energy by photosynthetic plants and its
storage in biologically accessible carbon. Carbon
Small-scale field tests of this ice-minus system and all other substances vital to living things cir-
present little risk: Ice-minus mutants are present culate within ecosystems in biogeochemical cy-
in natural bacterial populations. The different cles. Any major perturbation of these cycles could
strains produced by geneticists have precise not only affect living organisms but might disrupt
genetic alterations, unlike natural ice-minus bac- the functioning of ecosystem processes. Much evi-
teria, in which any of thousands of genetic changes dence, however, suggests that major perturbation
can produce the ice-minus trait. Nevertheless, is unlikely.
some observers of these fieldtests have been con- All organisms require water, carbon, nitrogen,
cerned about a possible worst-case scenario, al- oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur; carbon and ni-
beit one that could only apply to large-scale uses trogen are required in the largest amounts, and
of ice-minus bacteria. are usually “rate-limiting.” When the biologically
available quantity of any of these substances sets
Natural precipitation depends on ice nuclei for
1 an upper limit on the living tissue (biomass) that
I ice or water droplets to condense around and
can be assembled from it and other components,
grow big enough to fall as snow or rain. Terres-
that substance is said to be limiting. When car-
trial and marine plant material turn out to be more
bon is limiting, as it often is, it puts an absolute
effective than dust particles as ice nuclei, and bac-
upper limit on the biomass a habitat can support.
teria growing on plant material may account for
Plants are the primary carbon producers (fixers)
a portion of this difference. If ice-minus bacteria
in most ecosystems, and decomposes such as in-
were widely applied in agriculture, some claim,
sects, nematodes, bacteria, and fungi are the ma-
the atmospheric reservoir of ice nuclei might grow jor movers of carbon once it has entered an eco-
smaller, changing local or perhaps even global
system.
weather patterns. Some possible support for this
argument comes from Africa’s Sahel desert, where The nitrogen cycle (see figure l-l) is equally im-
overgrazing has reduced already sparse vegeta- portant, for plants require nitrogen to grow. Al-
tion. In this scenario, the reduction in ice nuclei though elemental nitrogen is not limiting-indeed,
due to overgrazing may have contributed, in turn, it makes up nearly 80 percent of the atmosphere
to decreasing precipitation, further reducing vege- by volume–biologically accessible forms of it are.
tation. Nitrogen fixation, a complex process that trans-
21
The nitrogen cycle: processes in terrestrial and aquatic systems. The microbially mediated processes include mineralization,
vitrification, denitrification, immobilization, and N-fixation.
SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S8.
forms gaseous nitrogen into biologically accessi- tions of genetically engineered organisms be
ble forms, is thus crucial to life on earth. The most ing considered now or likely in the near
important nitrogen fixers are rhizobial bacteria, future.
those that live closely associated with the roots
of certain plants, particularly legumes. Nitrogen Fixation
Given the complexity of ecosystem associations, Increasing the availability of nitrogen to eco-
interactions, and processes, it is not surprising nomically important plants, thus increasing pro-
that introducing a genetically engineered organ- duction per unit cost, would clearly benefit agri-
ism into the environment has raised concerns. Per- culure and forestry. But the biochemical
turbations of any of the fundamental processes pathways of nitrogen fixation, which appear to
sketched above might have significant effects. Eco- be similar in all rhizobial bacteria, are controlled
systems, however, by the very complexity that by multigene sequences. Research is under way
makes them difficult to understand, are buffered on these control mechanisms and on transferring
and often resilient in the face of perturbations.
nitrogen fixation genes into plants themselves.
While fundamental disruptions of ecosystems
should be guarded against, historical experi- The symbiosis between nitrogen-fixing bacte-
ence with both accidental and intentional in- ria and their host plants is close. Nearly a cen-
troductions suggests that such risks are not tury of experience with rhizobial inoculants dem-
likely consequences of any planned introduc- onstrates a lack of negative consequences from
22
introductions of such bacteria and makes this a ring microbes with such degradative powers are
safe system to explore with field tests. Indeed, being used increasingly to help cleanup environ-
larger changes to patterns of nitrogen distribu- mental contaminants. On the other hand, intro-
tion and movement in an ecosystem can gener- ducing a microbe engineered to degrade several
ally be achieved by crop rotation than by microbial classes of materials might conceivably lead to a
inoculations. cascade effect—trigger a chain of consequences
arising from chemical similarities between some
Larger effects may be possible, however, if the
toxic wastes and natural compounds. It is most
ability to fix nitrogen is transferred to non-
likely, however, that bacteria will be engineered
leguminous plants. The technical complexity of
to deal with specific compounds, rather than di-
transferring the large number of genes involved
verse classes. However, if bacteria were engi-
(about 17) and ensuring their effective control are
neered to clear up oil spills or grease deposits in
so great that this is not likely within 5 years, and
sewers, their potential to attack valuable resources
maybe not even in 10.
might be of concern. But in most microbial envi-
ronments, carbon is severely limiting, and com-
Microbes and Toxic Waste
petition for it is intense. Competition with natu-
Success in enhancing the ability of certain mi- rally occurring microbial populations would likely
crobes to degrade toxic compounds, including her- be severe for most engineered microbes. The tech-
1 bicides, pesticides, and industrial wastes, could nical difficulty of producing such constructs
make a major contribution toward alleviating to- makes any associated potential problems unlikely
day’s severe toxic waste problem. Naturally occur- in the near future.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Most researchers and policymakers agree that management, on the other hand, is the process
although there is no general methodology for pre- of weighing policy alternatives to select the most
dicting and evaluating the risks of planned intro- appropriate regulatory strategy or action. Risk
ductions, a flexible, mechanism for review of those management depends on the scientific findings
that might pose some risk has, for the time being of risk assessment, but also takes into account
(the next several years), much to recommend it. technical, social, economic, and political concerns.
It offers a high likelihood of anticipating poten- It is influenced by public opinion and requires
tially significant problems that might arise and value judgments: How acceptable are the poten-
of revealing the kinds of planned introductions tial risks of genetically engineered organisms in
that will merit the closest scrutiny as well as those the environment relative to their benefits and the
that might require little or none. Review proce- costs of controlling them?
dures developed for assessing the risks of toxic
chemicals have been proposed as models, but it
is not clear how applicable these are. With many Must All planned Introductions
commercial applications of biotechnology reach- Be Reviewed?
ing the field-test stage, however, regulators need
Some scientists and public officials hold that
clear risk assessment and risk management
without an adequate, general database for risk
guidelines.
assessment of deliberate release experiments,
An important element in approaching the cur- safety can best be ensured by comprehensive sci-
rent regulatory framework for regulating planned entific review of all proposed releases case-by-case.
introductions is to distinguish risk assessment Others believe that some applications pose such
from risk management. Risk assessment is the use negligible risks that comprehensive review of
of scientific data to estimate or predict the effects every proposed field test would be unnecessary
of exposure to hazardous materials or situations; as well as burdensome. It is clear that not all
the process may be qualitative or quantitative. Risk planned introductions offer the same potential for
23
undesirable consequences. It should be possi- plants and animals might well be kept separate
ble now, or become possible in the near future, from reviews of introductions involving microbes.
to sort planned introductions into broad cate- Before assuming that a particular animal or plant
gories for which low, medium, or high levels is safe, however, it is important to ask whether
of review are appropriate. All proposals for field the engineered trait would have any harmful po-
tests will require a certain, minimum level of scru- tential in wild populations, and, if so, whether gene
tiny in order to assign them to one of these three flow to related natural populations is possible. The
levels. What criteria can be used to determine latter will be tightly dependent on whether or not
whether an application is inherently safe? Some the engineered plant or animal is closely related
that are relevant include: to and can hybridize with any weedy or other-
wise problematic species. In addition, animals or
● The engineered organism duplicates the plants that have been altered in a fundamental
phenotype (appearance and function) and metabolic function (e.g., a plant made capable of
community relationships of naturally occur- fixing nitrogen) or are partners in mutualisms (in-
ring organisms or those produced with con- teractions that benefit all species involved) also
ventional methods. require careful scrutiny.
● The engineered organism will not survive and
reproduce after release into the environment. Engineered organisms that are derivatives of
● The engineered genetic material will not be pathogens or pests, differing from the pathogen
transferred to any other organism. or pest by only one or two gene changes or organ-
● The engineered genetic, physiological, and isms engineered to receive from pathogens or
ecological functions will have-no excessive ad- pests those genes that are associated with a de-
verse effects on the environment, or the ef- structive or disease process, constitute categories
fects will be unambiguously positive. likely to require extensive prior review. Most of
As more of the above conditions are met, the these are viruses, bacteria, or fungi whose viru-
level of review might be appropriately reduced. lence can sometimes shift via simple genetic
More specific questions also need to be consid- changes or in which a single gene can determine
ered. Are there certain categories of organism that the difference between a benign and harmful
are safer to release than others? Are there par- form. Such potential pathogens and pests are un-
ticular genetic alterations that pose fewer risks likely to be exempted from review even though
than others? Some that have been suggested for here, too, most genetic changes can be expected
abbreviated review include: not to have effects of this sort. Considerable reas-
suring experience indicates that many pathogenic
● organisms produced by recombinant DNA organisms can be handled and tested safely (e.g.,
techniques that are functionally identical to human and animal vaccines).
organisms that could be produced by other
methods (e.g., mutagenesis and selection, or In another approach, the molecular details of
hybridization) and, if so produced, would not a genetically engineered organism could be exam-
now be subject to regulation; ined to determine whether it could be exempted
● organisms containing no genetic material de- from review. Such an examination should include
rived from any potential pathogen; or but not be limited to these questions:
● any organism identical in function to one that ● Does the introduced organism contain in-
has already been reviewed and approved for serted genetic material from a donor of the
field testing. same genus, or from a different genus? A
Genetically engineered domesticated animals slightly modified organism might be more
and crop plants are widely (though not univer- likely to persist in the environment into which
sally) considered to be relatively safe for release. it was released, leading to greater potential
Given the relative containment of such introduc- for long-term effects. It is also, however, more
tions and the relative ease of controlling them, likely to have occurred naturally.
review of introductions involving agricultural ● Is the alteration an insertion or a deletion of
24
quate should the engineered organisms evolve influence natural and managed ecosystems, how
traits they did not have when released. The poten- to assess its risks and benefits, and how to man-
tial for a population to evolve depends in part age it as a technology, should perhaps be viewed
on the numbers of individuals in that population, as part of the cost of developing the technology,
but most importantly on the selective forces Research areas that need to be stressed include:
involved. Therefore all reviews of planned in-
troductions, particularly those involving mi- ● test systems, such as aquatic and terrestrial
crobes, should carefully scrutinze the selec- laboratory microcosms, where ecological in-
tive forces that will be involved and the likely teractions can be analyzed before actual re-
consequences of selection on the introduced lease—although such tests are not sufficient
organisms. substitutes for field tests, they provide essen-
tial information needed in considering the po-
tential consequences of planned intro-
Implications for Research
ductions;
Some of the controversies surrounding the ini- ● the classification and relationships of organ-
tial attempts to release genetically engineered isms in natural populations (taxonomy and
organisms into the environment have pointed out systematic)) especially the genetic relation-
gaps in knowledge about ecological systems. Cur- ships of colonizing species or those organisms
rent and proposed small-scale field tests will related to candidates for engineering and
undoubtedly begin to fill some of these gaps and planned introductions;
contribute to the development of better risk as- ● natural history of organisms planned for
sessment protocols, but more than this is needed. genetic alteration and release;
Active research cooperation—intellectual, finan- . interactions within natural and managed
cial, and political—is vital. microbial communities (microbial ecology and
population dynamics); and
Taxpayers are investing much to develop sci- . more efficient and convenient monitoring and
ence and technology, but relatively little to develop tracking techniques for use in microbial
means for ensuring the safe and wise application studies;
of such knowledge. Funding for science and tech-
nology, and the resulting research, is very uneven Interdisciplinary programs involving microbi-
across fields, The National Science Foundation and ologists, geneticists, ecologists, evolutionary and
the National Institutes of Health are major sources molecular biologists, epidemiologists, and risk as-
for funding in biological research, but the basic sessors managed by universities, industry, and
knowledge necessary to assess the performance government agencies are critical to developing the
of a technology often remains undeveloped, even scientific foundation for setting adequate risk
as the technology is being refined for use. Re- assessment and risk management policies for bio-
search on the ways in which biotechnology may technology.
tive branch but involve congressional oversight even if there is no clear need for a new regula-
or direction. The order in which options are pre- tory approach, planned introductions of geneti-
sented does not imply their priority. Furthermore, cally engineered organisms could benefit from
the options are not, for the most part, mutually some review at least for the foreseeable future,
exclusive: adopting one does not necessarily pre- even if only to provide public reassurance that
clude adopting others in the same category or field tests of engineered organisms are not un-
within another category. A careful combination duly hazardous.
of options might produce the most desirable Option 2: All proposals to introduce genetically
effects. engineered organisms into the environment
ISSUE: What criteria should be used to review should receive the maximum possible pre-
applications for permission to field test release scrutiny.
planned introductions of genetically engi- The advantage of this approach is that it is most
neered organisms? likely to ensure that potential hazards associated
Scientists do not now agree that there is a clear with field tests of any planned introduction will
scientific need for a review process by different be discovered and eliminated. The disadvantage
mechanisms or according to different criteria for is that very few planned introductions, at least
engineered organisms intended for environmental for the foreseeable future, seem likely to present
introduction than are now being applied to nonen- significant hazards. Substantial resources could
gineered organisms. be committed to unnecessary review; the person-
nel and resources of regulatory agencies would
Option 1: An organism engineered for planned be strained or swamped, and significant impedi-
introduction into the environment should not ments would be placed in the path of research-
require pre-release review simply because it ers attempting to develop products.
was produced via recombinant DNA tech- Option 3: Planned introductions should be re-
niques. viewed on an adaptable, case-by-case basis,
With this approach, planned introductions of according to scientific criteria that are agreed
engineered organisms would not be reviewed upon and consistent, and tailored to the spe-
according to criteria or mechanisms any differ- cific questions posed by particular applications.
ent than would be required for the same intro- Any specific set of criteria is likely to be some-
duction if it did not involve an engineered organ- what contentious. This will be especially true of
ism. A review process organized in accord with any criteria intended to apply to separate
this option would have the advantage of focusing proposals that would be reviewed by different
exclusively on the product and its characteristics, agencies. However, the broad outlines of a regu-
rather than the process used to produce it. This latory approach that should be generalizable are
approach could be most easily adapted to exist- clear: it should be possible to sort all applica-
ing regulatory authorities and the mechanisms tions for permission to field test engineered
through which they are administered. One dis- organisms into broad categories for which
advantage is that some potential problems asso- low, medium, or high levels of prior scrutiny
ciated with engineered organisms are different will be appropriate. Assigning an incoming ap-
than most of the problems existing regulatory au- plication to a level of review must, of course, be
thorities handle, e.g., problems stemming from done on a case-by-case basis. This does not mean
the ability of living organisms to grow, reproduce, that all applications for permission to field test
or transmit genetic material to nontarget species. will require the same level of scrutiny: they should
It is also possible that some engineered organisms not. Nor does it mean that the review of each ap-
will raise significant, new questions that regula- plication should begin de novo, without regard
tors would overlook, absent special review. How- to past experience with engineered organisms or
ever, such problems are not entirely new; some relevant knowledge gleaned from the study of
are familiar, already regulated aspects of existing nonengineered organisms. Such background in-
practices, especially in agriculture. Nevertheless, formation is essential to expeditious review.
2 7
—Product is different in some ways, but gen- This was the original intent of the Coordinated
erally similar to previously existing prod- Framework established by the Administration on
ucts in general use. June 26, 1986 (51 Fed. Reg. 23301). In order for
–Product entails substantial probability of this option to function well, however, effective
new genetic material being transmitted to leadership is needed from a coordinating author-
nontarget organisms in application environ- ity. Under the Coordinated Framework, it was in-
ment or beyond. tended that this role be fulfilled by the Biotechnol-
—product entails significant probability of ogy Science Coordinating Committee (BSCC). As it
altering community into which introduced. is presently constituted, the BSCC lacks the power
● High Review: to impose its decisions upon the regulatory agen-
—Product involves the transfer into a new cies, or to eliminate disparities in approach by
host organism of disease genes derived from different agencies. Criteria for review that have
a pathogenic donor. emerged under this framework to date have not
—Product is a genuine novelty with which been entirely consistent among agencies. In addi-
there is little or no previous experience that tion, basic tasks, such as the adoption of commonly
can serve as a guide to risk assessment and agreed upon definitions for “deliberate release)”
management. have not yet been accomplished.
–Product entails substantial probability of
Option 3: Provide an interagency group with the
disrupting community into which intro-
power to direct the coordinated development of
duced.
criteria for classifying and reviewing applica-
ISSUE: What administrative mechanisms can tions for permission to field test planned intro-
regulatory agencies use to apply such cri- ductions of genetically engineered organisms.
teria to the review of applications for per-
mission to field test planned introductions This would produce a system similar to that em-
of engineered organisms? bodied in the Biotechnology Science Coordinat-
28
ing Committee and outlined in the Coordinated components, the divisions of molecular bio-
Framework, except that the coordinating body sciences, biotic systems and resources, informa-
would be created by Congress and would have tion science and technology, and others; the Na-
specific powers. Such a body, created by Congress, tional Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
could be composed of the same or different mem- and the National Institute of General Medical Sci-
bers as the BSCC, organized within the Office of ences at NIH; components of the Division of Sci-
Science and Technology Policy, or created else- ence and Education at USDA; and at DOE, the Of -
where. It would have the authority to direct the fice of Health and Environmental Research in the
preparation of review standards to be used by Office of Energy Research.
regulatory agencies according to consistent cri-
teria, and to standardize regulatory approaches Particular value is likely to be derived from
as much as possible among different agencies. It funding earmarked for interdisciplinary studies,
could develop such standards independently or or collaborations between scientists in the vari-
in conjunction with the relevant agencies. ous disciplines important to understanding and
predicting the consequences of environmental
ISSUE: Is research supporting the planned in- perturbations. Emphasis should be given to
troduction of genetically engineered organ- studies focusing on the single most important
isms adequate? factor affecting the fate and consequences of
Option 1: Take no action. planned introductions: natural selection, o r
the selective interactions between competing
A significant amount of research is now funded organisms, and the selective pressures on organ-
by the Federal Government in areas that contrib- isms due to environmental factors. Other prom-
ute to the knowledge base required for sound re- ising areas include basic research in molecular
view and regulation. Principal agencies now spon- and developmental biology, studies of gene regu-
soring or conducting such research are NSF, NIH, lation, microbial ecology, community interactions
USDA, and EPA. Such research will likely continue and processes, and evolutionary and ecological
in the absence of additional, targeted appropria- relationships.
tions. An example of the type of research likely
to be productive is the recent OSTP sponsored The disadvantage of such targeting is that it as-
initiative, jointly funded by NSF, USDA, and DOE, sumes the specific areas where the most impor-
to fund interdisciplinary, fundamental research tant research should be done can be accurately
in several targeted areas of plant science. predicted. The results of research are, by nature,
unpredictable; this may be especially true of the
Option Z: Establish an interagency task force to interdisciplinary research important to planned in-
coordinate interdisciplinary research. troductions. Administrative flexibility and adapt -
Whether or not funding is increased, the differ- ability would therefore be important in any such
ent agencies funding relevant research (NSF, programs, along with the avoidance of undue
USDA, NIH, and DOE) could increase their coordi- specificity in the targeting of funds.
nation in the sponsoring of new research initi-
atives. The recent collaboration between NSF, DOE, Risk assessment and management are vital areas
and USDA in the establishment of an initiative for that will increase in importance with the num-
research in plant science might be an appropri- bers of planned introductions. They lack, how-
ate model. ever, a strong, vocal constituency to argue for in-
creased funds. The primary agency now funding
Option 3: Increase research funding to selected such studies is EPA, and much of the sponsored
target areas. research is applied in nature. Both EPA and NSF
If funding is increased to selected areas, it could could be encouraged to enhance their support for
most profitably be directed to the divisions of fund- basic research relevant to biotechnology research
ing agencies sponsoring most of the relevant re- assessment. In the absence of a strong, organized,
search. These include, at NSF, the Directorate for vocal constituency to help advise on the most
Biological, Behavioral, and Social Sciences, and its effective program, progress might be driven by
29
allocating for risk assessment and management ing for established investigators. Other valuable
research a fixed proportion of the funding desig- programs could include funds for graduate stu-
nated for research in other relevant areas. dent and postdoctoral training.
Public education specific to biotechnology is There is an urgent need for scientists who are
another important area presently lacking a strong neither molecular biologists nor ecologists, but
constituency to argue for improvements. They investigators comfortable with and competent in
could be achieved through actions taken by the the techniques and background knowledge of both
Science Education divisions of both NSF and USDA. areas, able to use whichever tools are appropri-
Specific measures might include brochures and ate to the task. Interdisciplinary training is vitally
pamphlets, newsletters, public conferences and important to the production of such investigators.
debates, yearbooks and annual reports, and ex- Part of the reason there is not more research now
tension service activities. being done to develop methods of predictive ecol-
ogy and risk assessment has to do with historical
Option 4: Increase personnel education and
neglect of these areas by funding agencies, since
training.
recognition of their importance has been slow to
Because they already have similar programs, the emerge, But as funding availability has increased
primary agencies to administer any new training in the recent past there has been a relative short-
programs would logically be NSF, NIH, and USDA. age of investigators applying for or trained to carry
For the near future, the most effective investment out such research.
would be in programs to provide mid-career train-
Chapter 2
Introduction
[quote originally printed here not legible in scanned document]
Page
34
36
36
38
38
. * . . . . . . . * * . . . * * * . * * ” 40
40
Chapter 2
Introduction
This report addresses some of the genetic and the role of public opinion in shaping regulatory
ecological questions raised by the planned intro- policy. It also describes the experiences of a num-
duction of genetically engineered organisms. This ber of the communities in which early field tests
introductory chapter provides a context for the have been proposed, completed, or planned, and
report’s more technical material by recounting recapitulates some relevant results of an OTA-
the historical background of the issue and review- commissioned survey by Louis Harris & Associ-
ing the types of planned introductions either pro- ates (26).
posed by industry or otherwise likely in the near
future. Chapters 4 and 5 summarize and synthesize in-
formation on some of the potential consequences
Of the many consequences of the commercial of planned introductions of genetically engineered
development of biotechnology, the most far- organisms, and the problems that face regulators
-reaching will likely result from environmental ap- in estimating the likelihood of such consequences.
plications of genetically engineered organisms, if Chapter 6 discusses risk assessment issues, iden-
only because their sites of application will often tifying present capabilities and future needs that
be agricultural lands and products. Commonly must be met to improve risk assessment. A num-
called “deliberate release, ” planned introductions ber of technical contract reports were commis-
of these altered organisms may increase agricul- sioned in support of this study; their titles are given
tural productivity, aid in the cleanup of toxic in appendix C.
wastes, enhance the recovery of minerals from
low-grade ores in mining, and provide new appli- The potential benefits of biotechnology in gen-
cations or enhancements of many existing proc- eral, and of planned introductions of genetically
esses. (The term “planned introduction” will gen- engineered organisms in particular, are widely
erally be used in this report; other synonyms recognized and described in other studies (4,14,
include: intentional release, deliberate release, free 15). Some sense of this potential may be gleaned
release, and environmental application.) from appendix A and table 1-1. This report exam-
ines hypothetical negative consequences of such
Some observers, however, warn of the poten- applications. In doing so, OTA seeks to establish
tial for damage through unanticipated conse- whether there are areas of potential concern that
quences of a planned introduction. Although the might be addressed by legislation that would man-
probability of something going awry maybe very date the assessment and management of planned
small in any individual case, the possibility of sub- introductions. Most of the possible negative im-
stantial environmental impact if something should pacts described are more relevant to perturba-
go wrong is not trivial (7,16,19). The world’s ex- tions of natural ecosystems than to perturbations
perience with unanticipated problems related to of the agricultural systems that will host the
the petrochemical and nuclear power industries majority of imminent environmental applications.
plus recent concerns about disruption of global As such, negative impacts are not likely to be com-
processes by acid precipitation (22), increased lev- mon consequences of planned introductions in
els of atmospheric carbon dioxide (2,10,12), and the foreseeable future.
other results of chronic environmental alteration
suggest such cautionary voices should be listened In focusing primarily on questions of potential
to. Yet the real similarities between such analo- risk, this report leaves a number of important is-
gies and biotechnology are scant, and fear should sues unexamined:
not substitute for reasoned discourse on the po-
the economics of research and development
tential costs and benefits of a new technology.
(R&D) of planned introductions of genetically
Chapter 3 outlines the existing mechanism for engineered organisms;
regulating planned introductions, and discusses the economics of different regulatory ap-
33
34
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Agricultural biotechnology can be traced, some modern biotechnology from the early 1970s, when
claim, to the earliest domestication of plants and the tools (restriction enzymes) to move specific
animals in the Middle East, as long as 10,000 years pieces of DNA within and between organisms with
ago (20). Industrial biotechnology is considered precision were discovered. These tools greatly in-
by some to follow the prehistoric development creased researchers’ ability to intervene in the
of wine making, or the development of brewing hereditary processes of plants, animals, and micro-
in the 11th century. Others see biotechnology dat- organisms. Some individuals see this increase as
ing from the discovery of the structure of deoxy- both a quantitative and qualitative change, affect-
ribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1953. Still others date ing not only the amount of intervention possible,
35
but also the kind of effects that can be produced. production of plants that will resist insect pests,
Regardless of the date chosen as the dawn of bio- disease, and drought; make their own fertilizer;
technology, the new genetic engineering tech- or use nutrients or energy more efficiently. They
niques open possibilities unimagined as recently point to microbes altered to protect crops from
as two decades ago. frost damage or insect pests; to metabolize toxic
wastes contaminating soil or sludge; or to extract
The development of modern biotechnology be- rare minerals or compounds more efficiently.
gan, predictably, in research laboratories, where
scientists used the techniques to study the struc- Others point out that we know so little about
ture, function, and organization of genetic mate- how our environment actually functions, of how
rial. As technology improved, it became possible its components interact (or sometimes, even, what
to investigate increasingly precise questions about those components are), that it is difficult if not
the function of physiological systems and the reg- impossible to produce a comprehensive, quantita-
ulation and interactions of biochemical pathways. tive assessment of the potential risks to the envi-
Eventually, work with the powerful new tools ronment from a particular introduction. They dis-
turned naturally to practical applications, giving pute the lowest risk estimates of the strongest
rise to the commercialization of biotechnology, proponents, and claim that the closest analog to
a subject examined in an earlier OTA study (23). experience with deliberately introducing geneti-
cally engineered organisms into the environment
The broad applicability of the new techniques is the introduction of exotic plant or animal spe-
is illustrated in the range of industries affected cies into habitats where they were previously un-
by the emerging biotechnologies. The pharmaceu- known. Although more such introductions have
tical industry felt the earliest large effects, with been beneficial, or neutral, than harmful, the
the newly acquired ability to produce significant European starling, gypsy moth, kudzu, Russian
amounts of such rare or difficult-to-isolate com- thistle (tumbleweed), and cheat grass are well-
pounds as human growth hormone, insulin, and known examples of negative consequences that
compounds to dissolve blood clots. Logical exten- can follow when new species are introduced into
sions of these technologies may result, eventually, environments lacking natural checks. If planned
in the repair of defective genes in living individ- introductions could cause similar problems, then
uals to cure or ameliorate human genetic diseases potential ecological effects must be scrutinized
(24). The use of monoclinal antibodies (a biotech- closely (see ch. 5).
nology which does not involve recombinant DNA)
is expected to revolutionize the diagnosis and treat- An examination of the pending and potential
ment of some forms of cancer. planned introductions of genetically engineered
organisms suggests, however, that in most cases
Areas such as specialty chemicals, food addi- engineered organisms are not new to the envi-
tives, commodity chemicals, food processing, ronment in which they will be used. Almost in-
waste disposal, mining, and energy production will variably, either the same organisms or very close
also experience the effects of biotechnology. relatives already exist in the ecosystem where the
Molecular biology and microelectronics may one proposed application would take place. The ma-
day meet in a powerful fusion and synthesis, jor difference between the existing and introduced
thanks to the new techniques. But agriculture is organisms lies in the addition or alteration of a
the next area likely to feel dramatic impacts from specific gene or set of genes regulating some aspect
biotechnology. Many of these impacts will result of a biochemical pathway.
from the planned introductions of organisms
Instead of likening deliberate release to the
(mainly plants and microbes) genetically modified
to serve precise purposes. introduction of organisms into a new environ-
ment, a more reasonable comparison might be
Some observers of these new applications fore- the entrance of new genes into existing organ-
see the environmental use of organisms tailored isms. There is a long history of selective breed-
to perform a host of functions. They envision the ing in plants, animals, and microbes, much of it
36
carried out with no specific knowledge of the drastically negative. These reassuring points were ‘
mechanisms of heredity or the nature of the also cited in a recent paper by the National Acad -
hereditary material. Selective breeding has pro- emy of Sciences (13). But it remains true that most
duced organisms that have surely changed envi- cases of severe environmental trauma seem to
ronments and ecosystems, but few that are gen- have been the logical consequences of intentional
erally agreed to have been deleterious, much less activities initially felt to have been unrelated to
ruinous. Fewer still have been both runaway and their eventual effects.
from insects, particularly in some developing organisms (indeed, and many crops, as well) will
countries. It would be relatively simple to trans- be restricted to agricultural settings, it will often
fer the capacity for producing such compounds make more sense to consider them “contained”,
to plants that are not naturally able to protect their rather than as introduced into the environment
seeds in this way. Care must be taken, however, in the way that microbes are. Work is also being
that such added compounds do not have nega- done to develop cattle or sheep as ‘(factories” for
tive consequences for the intended consumer, as such substances as human blood factor IX, and
are known with brown sorghum (6). other pharmaceuticals.
In the future, scientists maybe able to alter non-
leguminous plants to enable them to extract usa- In work that may be relevant, researchers in
ble nitrogen from the atmosphere (to ‘(fix” nitro- Michigan and in Washington are developing
gen). However, the technical problems associated strains of fish (salmon) that should live longer and
with transferring this capability are greater than grow larger than average. The procedure involves
those posed by almost any of the other applica- exposing early fish embryos to abnormally high
tions so far mentioned. While most of those ap- temperatures. The ensuing shock causes a pecu-
plications involve a single gene, or at most a small liar chromosomal abnormality (a doubling of one
number of genes, nitrogen fixation involves as of the chromosomal sets, a condition called
many as 17 different structural genes with asso- triploidy) that disrupts the fish’s normal sexual
ciated regulatory elements. To transfer such a development. The results include infertility as well
gene complex from the parent bacterium into a as longevity and increased size. The altered fish
plant and ensure its proper function in the new avoid the usual fate of spawning followed by
genetic background is a challenging task beyond death. Sterile, triploid grass carp are produced
the reach of present techniques. Studies of plant in a similar manner, and being used to control
gene regulation are progressing, however. And some aquatic weeds in Florida. Other research-
the first plants with symbiotic bacteria engineered ers (primarily in foreign countries) are working
to increase their fixation of nitrogen were ready to introduce specific genes into different fish spe-
for testing in 1987, and slated for field tests in cies to increase temperature tolerances or growth
1988. rates. Because fish engineered for increased tol-
erance to such environmental stresses may thrive
Other, more tractable plant applications involve in habitats new to them, some of the precautions
the genetic engineering of marine algae to increase taken to assess the risks of introducing exotic spe-
their production of food additives (carrageenan, cies may apply.
betazarotene, and agar). Someday algae may even
be altered to sequester rare minerals or metals
found dissolved in sea water, providing an intrig- Microbes
uing fusion of the agriculture and mining in-
dustries. Genetically engineered microbes present more
uncertainties and generate more concern and op-
Animals position than engineered plants or animals. Their
small size complicates the task of monitoring and
Because animals are generally larger than mi- tracking dispersed microbes (5). The genetic pro-
crobes, and relatively easy to track, animal appli- miscuity of some microbes also makes horizontal
cations of genetic engineering have met with less transfer of genetic material more likely. And mi-
controversy. Most biotechnology work aimed at crobes are involved inmost fundamental ecologi-
animals is focused on veterinary products for ani- cal processes. But this same involvement, together
mals, such as vaccines, or on hormonal supple- with the ubiquity of microbes, makes them the
ments like bovine somatotropin. Much of the work choice for many environmental applications of ge-
that is directed at altering animal genomes per netically engineered organisms contemplated at
se is geared toward altering farm stock to improve present. An enormous amount of past experi-
reproductive performance, weight gain, disease ence with microbes introduced for biocontrol
resistance, or coat characteristics. Since such or agricultural purposes suggests that most in-
39
in wastewater treatment facilities that must cope reasoned that the gene for this ice-nucleating pro-
with activated sludge. tein could be deleted from the bacteria. These
altered bacteria—virtually identical to bacteria that
“Ice-minus” bacteria, the altered bacteria for can be found in nature-could then replace the
which the first field test permission was requested, normal, ice-nucleation positive (INA +) bacteria
have received the most publicity. These bacteria living on the leaf surfaces of crop plants, thus pro-
are expected to reduce frost damage to crops, a viding some protection to frost-sensitive crops.
problem that costs U.S. agriculture an estimated Collaborative work between these groups of re-
$1.6 billion annually. Ice-minus bacteria differ searchers has produced early systems designed
from unaltered bacteria in that a single gene has
to protect such crop plants as potatoes and straw-
been deleted, one that normally encodes speci- berries. Successful field tests of both were con-
fications for the construction of a protein nor-
ducted in 1987.
mally found in the cell membrane. This protein
acts as a potent nucleator for the formation of An important new marker system called “lac ZY”
ice crystals. In the absence of such a nucleator, is being developed to track engineered microbes
ice does not commonly form until the tempera- in the environment. Researchers from Monsanto
ture drops 5 to 10 “F below freezing. Research- Co. and Clemson University are developing the
ers at the University of California at Berkeley, and system through a collaborative effort (11).
at Advanced Genetic Sciences in nearby Oakland,
SUMMARY
Planned introductions of genetically engineered are difficulties in estimating precisely the poten-
organisms span an enormous range in terms of tial environmental hazards, and in assessing the
the altered organisms, the diverse environments risks and benefits for any particular application.
in which they are to be applied, and the types of But there is also a substantial body of relevant
functions they are intended to perform. There experience that can be used as a guide.
CHAPTER 2 REFERENCES
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cle, AZ: Synergetic Press, Inc., 1986). neering and New Pollution Control Technolo@es
2. Broecker, W. S., “Unpleasant Surprises in the (Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications, 1984).
Greenhouse?” Nature 328:123-6, 1987, 94 Jones, M. G. K., “Plant Genetics: Transformation of
3. Chakrabarty, A.M. (cd.), Biodegradation and De- Cereal Crops by Direct Gene Transfer,” Nature
toxification of Environmental Pollutants (Boca Ra- 317:579-580, 1985.
ton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1982). 10. Mathews, J.T., “Global Climate Change: Toward a
4. Crocomo, O.J., Sharp, W.R., Evans, D.A., et al. (eds.), Greenhouse Policy,” Issues in Science & Technol-
Biotechnology of Plants and Microorganisms (Co- 0~ 3:57-68, 1987.
lumbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1986). 11, Marx, J. L., “Assessing the Risks of Microbial Re-
5. Gillett, J.W. (cd.), Prospects for Physical and Bio- lease,” Science 237:1413-1417, 1987.
Io@”cal Containment of Genetically En@”neered 12. Mintzer, I., “A Matter of Degrees: The Potential for
Organisms (Ithaca, NY: Ecosystems Research Cen- Controlling the Greenhouse Effect,” Research Re-
ter Report 114, March 1987). port #5, World Resources Institute, Washington,
6. Hahn, D. H., Rooney, L.W., and Earp, C. F,, “Tan- DC, April 1987.
nins and Phenols of Sorghum,” Cereal Foods World 13. National Academy of Sciences, Introduction of Re-
29:776-779, 1984. combinant DNA-En#”neered Organisms Into the
7. Halvorson, H.O., Pramer, D., and Rogul, M., En@”- Environment: Key Issues (Washington, DC: Na-
neered Organisms in the Environment: Scientific tional Academy Press, 1987).
Issues (Washington, DC: American Society for 14. National Research Council, Agricultural Biotechnol-
Microbiology, 1985). ogy: Strate@”es for National Competitiveness (Wash-
—
ington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987). ruses andthe Environment, B. Fields, Itl .A. Martin,
15. Olson, S., Biotechnology: ArI lndmtry Comes of Age and D. Kamely (eds. ), Banbury Report No. 22 (JNe\v
(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1986). York, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1985).
16. Panem, S. (cd.), BiotechnoZo~:Implications for Pub- 22. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
Zic Policy (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute, Acid Rain and Transported Air Pollutants: Impli-
1985). cations for Public Policy, OTA-O-204 (Washington,
17. Pimentel, D., Gleniston, C., Fast, S., et al., “Envi- DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1984).
ronmental Risks of Biological Pest Controls, ” Oikos 23. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
42:283-290, 1984. Commercial Biotechnology: An International Anal-
18. Ramos, J. L., Wasserfallen, A., Rose, K., et al., ysis (Elnlsford, NY: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1984).
“Redesigning Metabolic Routes: Manipulation of 24. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
TOL Plasmid Pathway for Catabolism of Alk~lben - Human Gene Therapy, OTA-BP-BA-32 (Jf’ashington,
zoates, ” Science 235(4788):593-596, 1987. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December
19. Regal, P. J., “Models of Genetically Engineered 1984).
Organisms and Their Ecological Impact ,“ EcoZogV 25. U.S. Congress, Office of Technolo&v Assessment,
of Biological Int~asions of North America and Ha- Technology, Public Policy, and the Changing Struc-
waii, H.A. Mooney and J.A. Drake (eds. ) (New York, ture of American Agriculture, OTA-F-285 (Wash-
NY: Springer-Verlag, 1986). ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
20. Stubbe, H., Historuy of Genetics from Prehistoric March 1986).
Times to the Rediscovery of Mendel’s Laivs (Cam- 26. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
bridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972). New Developments in Biotechnology, 2: public Per-
21. Summers, M. D., and Smith, G. E., “Genetic Engineer- ceptions of Biotechnology, OTA-BP-BA-45 (Wash-
ing of the Genome of the Autograph California Nu- ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May
clear Polyhedrosis Virus, ” Genetically Altered Vi- 1987).
. . . $ * . . . * . . . . . ! . @ * * * * . *
---------
Chapter 3
Field tests involving the deliberate release of ge- tion on Economic Trends, led by Jeremy Rifkin,
netically engineered organisms into the environ- which has filed several biotechnology-related le-
ment have resulted in increased public interest gal challenges. Local groups, some in concert with
in and scrutiny of the developing biotechnology the Foundation, have become involved in debat-
industry. The role of government has likewise in- ing the merits of several proposed field tests. Sci-
creased. The United States has developed a Co- entists and their constituent organizations have
ordinated Framework for the Regulation of Bio- also participated in the public discussion. Public
technology (10); the Organization for Economic knowledge and opinion about issues concerning
Cooperation and Development (OECD), represent- science and technology in general and genetic engi-
ing 24 nations, has developed proposals outlining neering and biotechnology in particular are likely
safety considerations for applications of recom- to shape future debate.
binant DNA organisms in industry, agriculture,
This chapter reviews the general public’s per-
and the environment (24); and several European
ceptions as measured by a national survey con-
countries have developed laws or regulations
ducted by Louis Harris and Associates for OTA,
governing genetic engineering (7).
the role of public perception in local communi-
Activists opposed to environmental applications ties where field tests have been proposed, and
of genetically engineered organisms have in- the existing governmental framework for the reg-
creased their visibility at the Federal, State, and ulation of biotechnology.
local levels. Perhaps best known is the Founda-
a fair amount about the subject. However, only in 1)OOO. With lower levels of risk, the degree of
19 percent has heard of any potential risks posed public acceptance increases. But despite a gen-
by products of genetic engineering. A much higher eral public willingness to approve the use of ge-
share (52 percent) believes it to be at least some- netically engineered organisms in the environment
what likely that these products will present some at relatively high levels of risk, a majority says
serious danger to humans or the environment. it would not approve an application if the risk were
In spite of this, a clear majority (66 percent) thinks unknown. Indeed, significantly fewer say they
genetic engineering will bring changes that will would approve if the risk were “unknown but very
improve their quality of life. remote” than would approve if the risk were 1
in 1,000 (45 v. 55 percent) (table 3-2).
The American public is more positively and con-
sistently inclined toward genetic manipulation of If there were no direct risk to humans and only
plants, animals, and microbes than toward human very remote risks to the environment, a majority
cell manipulation. This may in part reflect a sense would approve the planned introduction of ge-
that “we have no business meddling with nature”- netically engineered organisms to produce disease-
a feeling strongly expressed by 26 percent of the resistant crops (73 percent), oil-eating bacteria to
population (table 3-7). clean up spills (73 percent), frost-resistant crops
Not only is there some concern about the moral- (70 percent), more effective pesticides (56 percent),
ity of genetically manipulating organisms, there or larger game fish (53 percent) (table 3-3).
is also concern about the potential risks that may However, this approval is limited. Although a
be posed. Between 52 and 61 percent say they large majority of the public (82 percent) approves
think it is at least somewhat likely that untoward of small-scale experimental tests of genetically
consequences (antibiotic-resistant diseases, human engineered organisms for environmental appli-
birth defects, herbicide-resistant weeds, or endan- cations, 53 percent feel that large-scale experi-
gered food supply) could follow. But fewer than mental tests should not be permitted (table 3-4).
one in five think any of these developments are
very likely (table 3-l). Most Americans also say they would favor or
be indifferent to having genetically altered organ-
People seem willing to accept relatively high isms tested in their community, assuming there
rates of environmental risk in exchange for the was no direct risk to humans and a very remote
potential benefits that might be derived from de- potential risk to the local environment (table 3-4).
liberate release of genetically engineered organ-
isms. A majority (55 percent) would approve an Thus, Americans seem to be pragmatic in judg-
application that would significantly increase agri- ing genetic engineering. They are concerned about
cultural production even if the risk of losing some the morality and the safety of these new develop-
local species of plant or fish were as high as 1 ments, but are willing to greet biotechnology with
Table 3-1 .—Likelihood of Specific Dangers From Use of Genetically Altered Organisms in the Environmenta
Q.: From what you have heard or read, how likely do you think it is that the use of genetically engineered organ-
isms in the environment will (READ ITEM) —very likely, somewhat likely, somewhat unlikely, very unlikely?
Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Not
likely likely unlikely unlikely sure
Create antibiotic-resistant diseases . . . . . . . . . 180/0 43 ”/0 21“!0 7% 11 ”/0
Produce birth defects in humans . . . . . . . . . . . 18 39 24 10 9
Create herbicide resistant weeds . . . . . . . . . . . 15 41 22 11 11
Endanger the food supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 38 29 13 7
Mutate into a deadly disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 33 30 14 10
Change rainfall patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 30 30 16 12
Increase the rate of plant or animal
extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 34 31 15 9
ap8rCent~Q~~ are ~~~~~”t~d as ~~l~hted ~ample estimates The unweighed base from which the sampling variance can be calculated is 1,273.
Table 3.2.-Acceptable Levels of Risk for an Environmental Application of Genetically Engineered Organismsa
Q.: Suppose that a new genetically engineered organism had been developed which would significantly increase
farm production with no direct risk to humans. Would you approve the environmental use of that organism
if the risk of losing some local species of plants or fish was (READ ITEM)?b
Not Not No
Risk level Approve approve
.. sure answer
Unknown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31%0 65% 3% 1 %
1 in 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 51 9 0
1 in 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 37 3 5
1 in 10,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 27 3 5
1 in 100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 21 3 5
1 in 1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 18 2 5
Unknown, but very remote. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 46 9 5
apercentages are preS&ted as Weigtl@d sample estimates. The unweighed base from which the sampling VarianCe can be calculated is 1,273.
bApprovals are cumulative, persons who approved at a risk level were not asked to aPPrOve at lower levels of risk.
CAs a result of a programming error, those who approved at “lJnknown” risk level were not asked about specific risk levels. Those omitted Were recontacted tO complete
the risk section but we were unable to obtain res~onses from 5 Dercent of the samtYe, as a result. Althouah these are treated as “NO answer, ” most of them would
be approvals at the first risk level specified.
SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
Table 3-3.—Attitudes About Environmental Uses of A plurality (40 percent) feels that government
Genetic Engineering Under Remote Risk Conditions a funding for biological research should be in-
creased. Only 10 percent of the public thinks that
Q.: If there was no direct risk to humans and only very
remote risks to the environment, would you approve government funding for biological research should
or disapprove the environmental use of genetical- be cut.
ly engineered organisms designed to produce
(READ ITEM)?
Approve Disapprove Not sure
Table 3.4.—Environmental Release on an
Experimental Basisa
Disease-resistant
crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73% 230/o 4%
Q.: Do you think that environmental applications of ge-
Bacteria to clean oil netically altered organisms to increase agricultur-
spills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 23 4
al productivity or clean up environmental pollutants
Frost resistant crops. . . . 70 27 3
should be permitted on a small scale, experimen-
More effective tal basis, or not?
pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . 56 40 4
Larger game fish . . . . . . . 53 43 4 Yes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82°/0
apercentages are present~ ss weighted sample esrlrnates. The
unweighed base No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......13
from which the sampling variance can be calculated is 1,273. Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........4
SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987. Q.: Do you think that commercial firms should be per-
mitted to apply genetically altered organisms on
a large scale basis, if the risks of environmental
danger are judged to be very small, or not?
optimism if reasonable precautions are taken by Yes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42°/0
No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...53
those developing, applying, and approving the new Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
technologies. Significant groups within the pop- Q.: Suppose your community was selected as the site
ulation do, however, depart from these feelings. to test a genetically altered organism—such as bac-
Nevertheless, a large majority (82 percent) believes teria that protect strawberries from frost—where
there was no direct risk to humans and a very re-
that research into genetic engineering should con- mote potential risk to the local environment. Would
tinue, and support for this research is found in you be strongly in favor, somewhat in favor, some-
all segments of the American public (table 3-5). what opposed, very opposed, or really not care if
it was used in your community?
This research enjoys majority support even Strongly in favor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14°/0
among those who believe human cell manipula- Somewhat in favor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......39
Don’t care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......14
tions are morally wrong (7 I percent), that genetic Somewhat opposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......21
engineering products will present serious risks Strongly opposed , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......11
(73 percent), or that it would be better if we did Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2
percentages are presented ss weighted sample estimates. The unweighed base
not know how to alter cells genetically (63 per- from which the sampling variance can be calculated is 1,273.
cent) (30). SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
48
Table 3-5.—Opinions About Genetic Research governmental agencies, the public has more con-
and Funding fidence in university scientists than in the gov-
Q.: Do you think that research into genetic engineer-
ernment. when asked whose statements they
ing should be continued or should be stopped? would be likely to believe about the safety of a
Continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82°/0 particular application, the majority of Americans
Stopped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......13 say university scientists (86 percent). Public health
Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........5
officials score second (82 percent), environmental
Q: Do you believe that government funding for biologic groups third (71 percent), followed by govern-
research should be increased substantially, in-
creased somewhat, remain about the same, mental agencies (69 percent). In the case of con-
decreased somewhat, or decreased substantially? flicting statements from governmental agencies
Increased substantially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... ... ...11% and environmental groups, 26 percent would fa-
Increased somewhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......29 vor the Federal agency, 63 percent place more
Remain about the same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......43
Decreased somewhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....6 trust in the environmental group, and 11 percent
Decreased substantially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .....4 are undecided or say it would depend on the spe-
Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........7
cific circumstances.
~ercentagesare presented as weighted sample estimates.The unweightedbsse
from which the sampling variance can recalculated isl,273.
SOURCE: Officeof Technology Assessment, 19S7.
In summary, the survey found that while the
public is concerned about genetic engineering in
the abstract, most people approve nearly every
Aside from supporting research, the public rec- specific environmental or therapeutic application
ognizes another important government function explored in this poll. The public is sufficiently con-
associated with the development of biotechnol- cerned about potential risks to say that strict reg-
ogy. A plurality (37 percent) says the government ulation is necessary, yet a majority also agree
should decide whether commercial firms should strongly or somewhat that unjustified fears of
be permitted to apply genetically engineered these new technologies have seriously impeded
organisms on a large-scale, commercial basis. the development of valuable new drugs and ther-
Twenty-nine percent claim this decision should apies, and that the risks have been exaggerated
be made by an external, scientific body, while only (table 3-7).
5 percent feel voters, taxpayers, or other com-
munity-based groups should make the decision. As in other areas of science and technology, the
Thirteen percent maintain the company involved public favors the continued development and ap-
should make the decision, and 4 percent find a plication of biotechnology because people believe
role for industrial trade organizations (table 3-6). the benefits will justify the risks. Strict regulation
to avoid unnecessary risk is expected, but some
Despite this relative ranking, which gives the risk is clearly acceptable if sufficient benefit is ex-
highest degree of approval for decisionmaking to pected in return.
Q.: Who should be responsible for deciding whether or not commercial firms should be permitted to apply geneti-
cally altered organisms on a large scale basis--the company that developed the product, an external scientific
body, a government agency, an industrial trade association, or other group?
Party affiliation
Total Voters Republican Independent Democrat
Government agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37% 380/o 380/o 35% 380/o
External scientific body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 31 32 34 25
Company that developed product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 12 12 8 16
Public/voters/taxpayers community . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4 4 4 5
Industrial trade association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 3 4 4
Not sure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 4 5 5
All other mentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
aPerCentaQ~9 are p~esented gg Welghtti sample estimates. The Unweighed base for the total sample from which the sampling variance can be calculated iS 1,273.
Q.: I will now read you a few statements. For each, please tell me whether you agree strongly, agree somewhat,
disagree somewhat or disagree strongly. (READ EACH ITEM)
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
strongly somewhat somewhat strongly Not sure
a. The potential danger from genetically altered cells and
microbes is so great that strict regulations are necessary . . . . 43% 34% 14% 60/0 3%0
b. The risks of genetic engineering have been greatly
exaggerated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 40 27 10 8
c. It would be better if we did not know how to genetically alter
cells at all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 20 34 31 2
d. The unjustified fears of genetic engineering have seriously
impeded the development of valuable new drugs and
therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 38 26 9 8
e. We have no business meddling with nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 20 31 21 2
apercentage~ are Presented as weighted sample estimates. The unweighed sample from which the sampling variance can be calculated is 1,273
from EPA, California State Departments of Health jected the test bacteria into approximately 50 fruit
Services, Food and Agricuhure, AGS, scientists, trees on the rooftop of its headquarters building
the Foundation on Economic Trends, and con- without EPA approval. In March 1986, EPA sus-
cerned members of the public. An ordinance ban- pended the AGS experimental use permit and fined
ning experiments in Monterey County for 45 days the company $20,000 on the grounds that the
was passed by the Supervisors. In February 1986, organism had been released prior to EPA approval
it was learned that AGS had 1 year previously in- and that the company had deliberately made false
51
statements on its application. The fine was later Tulelake, an agricultural town near the Califor-
reduced to $13)000 with an amended complaint nia/Oregon border, was the proposed test site for
that AGS had not provided adequate details about the release of genetically altered P. syringae bac-
the testing method. In April 1986, the Monterey Siskiyou
teria on a small plot of
County supervisors, relying on their zoning au- potatoes. Designed by
thority, passed legislation banning experiments Steven Lindow and Nick-
within the county for a year, olas Panopoulos, plant
pathologists at the Univer-
In December 1986, AGS applied to EPA and the sity of California at Berk-
California Department of Food and Agriculture
eley, the experiment in-
for approval to conduct the field test in San Benito volved identifying the
County or Contra Costa County (both in Califor-
gene responsible for ice
nia). In February 1987, the EPA reissued an experi- nucleation, deleting the
mental use permit to AGS, and the State Depart-
gene, and applying the
ment of Food and Agriculture gave its preliminary altered bacterium to the
approval. In March, after receiving the approval
plants. If successful, the treated potato plants
of the Contra Costa County Board of Supervisors,
might resist frost damage from temperatures as
AGS announced its intention to conduct the field
low as 23 ‘F.
test outside of Brentwood, a town with approxi-
mately 6,000 residents. Opponents filed a legal The proposed environmental release of the ice-
challenge in April, which was dismissed by a minus bacteria was first approved by the National
Sacramento County Superior Court judge. On Institutes of Health (NIH) Recombinant DNA Advi-
April 24, 1987, the field test was carried out, even sory Committee (RAC) in April 1983. In Septem-
though many of the plants were uprooted by van- ber 1983, the Foundation on Economic Trends
dals just hours prior to the test. A second test on joined several other groups and individuals in fil-
17,500 strawberry plants commenced in Decem- ing suit to stop the experiment, The plaintiffs ar-
ber 1987. gued that NIH had violated the administrative re-
quirements of the NEPA, which requires Federal
Local reaction to the AGS proposed field test
officials to prepare an environmental impact state-
differs from the experience of other communi-
ment before approving an action significantly
ties (described later) in several respects. The AGS
affecting the environment. In May 1984, Judge
proposed field test was the first to be approved
John Sirica issued an injunction prohibiting the
by EPA, and the only one to be suspended by EPA. field test, and barring NIH from approving fur-
The proposed test site in Monterey County was ther experiments involving the release of engi-
also in a more populous area than the others (a
neered organisms until it assessed the environ-
situation remedied by the relocation of the pro-
mental impacts of such tests, EPA began review
posed release site). Finally, disclosure in the me-
of the experiment in 1984. In 1986, EPA and the
dia alleging that AGS had conducted a limited envi- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) assumed
ronmental release on its headquarters rooftop regulatory authority, pursuant to the Federal Gov-
opened the company, and the environmental re- ernment’s Coordinated Framework for the Reg-
lease issue generally, to closer public scrutiny.
ulation of Biotechnology.
Local opposition to the proposed field test re-
Tulelake, California ceived increased attention in 1986. In early May,
field test opponents circulated a petition that gar-
“We object to using the Tulelake area as guinea
pigs for an experiment that won’t benefit the area nered 450 signatures. The group, “Concerned
and could cause public refusal of local farm Citizens of Tulelake,” were present at a May 1986
products. ” public meeting, and then appeared before the
Joe Victrene, master, Tulelake Grange, Tulelake City Council and the Siskiyou and Modoc
during public hearing, Jan. 10, 1987. County Board of Supervisors seeking local gov-
.- — .
52
ernmental action against the experiment. On June ulatory approval processes, and both were linked
2, 1986, the Modoc County Board of Supervisors together in many media stories. While both ex-
passed a legally nonbinding resolution opposing periments elicited opposition in their respective
the experiment on the grounds that “the questions communities, in Tulelake it focused to a signifi-
and fears in the minds of the public could have cant degree on a fear that locally grown crops
a serious and immediate adverse effect on the mar- would be boycotted by buyers, damaging the lo-
ket for crops from the area.” cal economy. Although opponents of the Monterey
County and Tulelake field tests went to county
Despite the protest, on May 13, 1986, the EPA
authorities to stop the experiments, opponents of
approved the experiment and issued an experi-
the Tulelake field test also relied on State envi-
mental use permit, saying that the environmental
ronmental law as the basis for their suit in Sacra-
release posed “minimal risk to public health or
mento County Superior Court. In both instances,
the environment.” In July, the scientists announced
experimental plants were vandalized.
that they would proceed with the experiment in
early August. On August 1, opponents of the test
(Californians for Responsible Toxic Management St. Charles County Missouri
and the Foundation on Economic Trends) filed suit
in Sacramento Superior Court against the Univer- “The Monsanto case is the third product to move
through regulatory agencies and is the most con-
sity of California-Berkeley Regents and the Cali- troversial because the bacterium produces a poi-
fornia Department of Food and Agriculture seek- son which will kill some living things, and which
ing an injunction against the experiment until may remain for some time in the soil before
environmental impact studies could be done at dying.”
State level. On August 4, 1986,2 days prior to the Phillip J. Hilts, Washington Post, Apr. 25, 1986.
proposed field test, Sacramento County Superior
Monsanto proposed releasing an engineered
Court Judge A. Richard Backus granted an 18 day microbial pesticide designed to protect the roots
temporary restraining order. Two weeks later, the
of corn plants against black cutworm. Although
University of California agreed to halt the experi-
the company was pre-
ment for 1986.
pared to proceed with the
Local opposition to the Tulelake field test con- release in mid-1984, it held
tinued at a public hearing in January 1987, when off until publication of
several residents, including the president of the proposed Federal guide-
Tulelake Growers Association and the master of lines late in the year. Mon-
Tulelake Grange, voiced opposition to the experi- santo then became the
ment, fearing crops may be boycotted by buyers. first company to seek EPA
On April 29, 1987,3 days after Advanced Genetic approval following pub-
Sciences, Inc. began its field test of Frostban in lication of the Federal Gov-
Contra Costa County, the University of California ernment’s Proposed Coordinated Framework for
scientists planted potato tubers treated with the Regulation of Biotechnology. In April 1986, an EPA
ice-minus bacterium on a half-acre site at a univer- scientific committee recommended that the Mon-
sity field station near Tulelake. On May 26, 1987, santo field test should be allowed to proceed (5).
vandals uprooted approximately half of the plants
Local opposition to the Monsanto experiment
being studied. Earth First!, an environmental
became apparent when the St. Charles City Coun-
group, claimed responsibility for the raid, which
cil passed a resolution in early 1986 opposing the
disrupted attempts to study the yields from the
procedure. This opposition ran counter to the
plants, but not attempts to study how well the
test’s endorsement by the 3-person St. Charles
bacteria established themselves on the plants (1.
County Commission. In March 1986, the Founda-
The Tulelake scenario is similar to that of Mon- tion on Economic Trends petitioned EPA to deny
terey County. Both experiments involved proposed Monsanto’s permit application, citing “unresolved
releases of P. syringae, both followed similar reg- questions regarding the nature and magnitude of
53
the risks and benefits involved in the Monsanto cally successful, it is already a winner from the
proposal.” On May 8, 1986, St. Charles County offi- regulatory point of view .“ The editorial noted that
cials delivered a letter to Monsanto threatening regulatory approval was “by the book, ” and that
to sue if the company proceeded with the field the release site was situated away from roads or
test. The letter cited county code sections pro- people.
hibiting storage or processing of anything con- Unlike the proposed releases of genetically
sidered harmful or potentially harmful to indi- altered organisms in Monterey County, Tulelake,
viduals or the environment and specifying that and St. Charles County, the Agracetus experiment
flood plains must be used for agricultural involved the introduction of a genetically altered
purposes. plant. Local newspaper accounts of the Agrace-
Twelve days later, EPA requested additional in- tus experiment talked of the potential economic
formation in support of Monsanto’s application gain to be realized should crops be made resis-
for an experimental use permit. Results of the ad- tant to crown gall tumors.
ditional tests are pending.
Franklin County, North Carolina
Middleton, Wisconsin
“Ciba-Geigy officials have informed state and lo-
“The Agracetus project has not elicited much cal officials of their plans. ‘I think they have done
protest, however, even from the Foundation on a responsible job, ’ said Earl R. MacCormac, sci-
Economic Trends, a frequent opponent of such ence advisor to Gov. James G. Martin. ‘I feel real
tests. ‘We looked at it and it didn’t raise the kind good about it, ’ added Ronald W. Goswick, chair-
of fundamental questions the other tests did, ’ said man of the Franklin County Board of Commis-
Jeremy Rifkin, the foundation’s president. Mr. Rif- sioners.”
kin said that in general genetically modified plants —Monte Basgall, Raleigh, N.C. News & Observer,
pose less risk than micro-organisms because they June 18, 1986.
can be contained more easily. ’ “
—Andrew Pollock, New York Times, May 30, 1986. The Agricultural Division of Ciba-Geigy Corp.,
Greensboro, NC, proposed conducting a field test
The Agracetus Corp. (a joint venture of Cetus
of a tobacco plant that had been genetically altered
and W.R. Grace) proposed to insert an altered gene
to resist atrazine, a her-
for disease resistance against crown gall tumors Fran~lin bicide used to control
in 200 tobacco plant
weeds in corn, sor-
seedlings. The geneti-
ghum, and other crops.
cally modified plants
Certain crops, including
were planted in a one-
tobacco and soybeans,
twentieth-acre plot in
are susceptible to atra-
Middleton, WI. Tobacco
zinc. These crops can
was the experimental
be injured when planted in some soil types the
plant of choice because
year after a tolerant crop treated with atrazine
it is one of the easiest
was grown there, since residual atrazine persists
plants to engineer ge-
/ in the soil through the period of crop rotation.
netically. Agracetus re-
Dane
ceived approval for the Ciba-Geigy applied to USDA for approval of the
field test from the NIH’s RAC, USDA, and the Wis- field test. The North Carolina Department of Agri-
consin Department of Natural Resources. culture asked that USDA regulate the test because
no State guidelines existed for handling such re-
On May 30, 1986, Agracetus commenced the search.
first authorized planting of a genetically altered
crop. The Wisconsin State Journal noted its ap- USDA approved the field test in July 1986. The
proval for the experiment, stating that “while it North Carolina legislature subsequently approved
remains to be seen if the test will prove scientifi- funding for a study commission to determine
54
56
to 200 lbs. of nitrogen per year. BTI will be very pleased if its strains do twice as well. Secondly, Mother
Nature is full of checks and balances as the nitrogen cycle proves: nitrogen taken from the atmosphere
is ultimately returned to the atmosphere.
13. Won’t higher yielding plants drain more nutrients from the soil? Quite the opposite. Some of the
gathered nitrogen will leak into the soil and will be available to crops grown in rotation with legumes,
That’s why farmers apply less nitrogen fertilizer to corn planted the year after alfalfa or soybeans. Since
BTI’s strains will gather more nitrogen, it is expected that they will leave more nitrogen behind, thus fur-
ther enriching the soil.
14. Can this improved version hurt cattle and eventually humans? Remember, the only alteration to
the rhizobia will be to improve their natural nitrogen-gathering ability. Based on all scientific evidenc
we have, there is nothing to indicate that there could be any adverse effects on cattle or man. The nitroge
gathering process occurs only in the roots which are not harvested. Cattle don’t eat alfalfa roots.
15. Can this new version affect other plants? No. Rhizobia function only in association with leguminous
plants. And, there are certain types of legumes for each rhizobial species. For instance, R. meliloti for al-
falfa, R. japonicum for soybeans, etc. BTI’s changes to R. rneliloti will not cause it to affect any other crop
species.
16. How far can these little creatures travel on their own? Not very far at all. Their entire range of
motility is only about two-tenths of an inch per day, or, about 1 1/2 feet in a 100-day growing season.
17. Can they be blown away by the wind? They live under the soil, so it would take a pretty strong wind
to blow them away. The test site is well shielded from the wind. But the R. meliloti die without moisture
and when exposed to the ultraviolet light of the sun. So, if they were blown away, their chances of survival
would be nil.
18. Suppose a hard rain came along and some of your topsoil washed away with your new strains
and got into some streams and lakes. Could they cause a danger to fish and aquatic plants? It is highly
unlikely that the new strains could survive for any length of time in the water, since water lacks many
of the nutrients Rhizobia need to grow. They aren’t toxic, and the levels of ammonia they produce could
not possibly be high enough to have any adverse effect on aquatic plants.
l9. It sounds safe, but has it been approved by the government? Before the field testing can begin, our
application to field test must be approved by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. In addition, our application will have undergone very close scrutiny by Wiscon-
sin’s Department of Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protection, and by the Department of Natural Re-
sources. It goes without saying that BTI welcomes and appreciates the approval of both the county leaders
and the citizens of Pepin County.
20. With so many crop surpluses being reported, why aim for yield increase? It is true that there are
many crop surpluses in the world today. With this particular field test, we are looking to achieve higher
yield increases in the 15-20 percent range. But the value to farmers comes in gains in productivity. If our
tests prove successful and we market this new product, farmers will be able to produce the same or more
alfalfa on less land at lower unit cost.
21. Once these tests have been ended, will your company pack its bags and move somewhere else?
Not very likely. We have invested a good amount of money in the farm, its rehabilitation, its new buildings,
and in its equipment. Chippewa employees are all residents of Pepin County, and all of our farm purchases
will be made through area merchants whenever possible. We have made the agricultural market a primary
objective for BTI’s growth and development as a leader in the biotechnology field. Pepin County and the
Chippewa Agricultural Station will play a major part in the long range progress and growth of BioTechnica
International, Inc.
SO[lR(:E Bm’It?rhmca Inlernat]onal, 1987
-. ——
58
Unhappiness with the Federal regulatory frame- eral funding, $100,000 for the Argentina field test
work was voiced by Strobel, and by Montana State came from private sources. In January 1987, NIH
University President William Teitz, who in repri- announced that the experiment did not violate NIH
manding Strobel also complained of the “tangled guidelines.
interpretations, definitions, procedures, excep-
tions, inclusions, and classifications that dominate Criticism of the Wistar-PAHO experiment was
today’s biotechnical research. ” voiced editorially by the New York Times (29) and
Los Angeles Times (6) as well as by 134 Argentine
Argentina scientists, who alleged violations of ethical, eco-
logical, and safety rules (16). The director of the
“There is a lesson to be drawn from this which Wistar Institute maintained that media accounts
I wish to pass on to my scientific colleagues: ex- ignored the results of the experiment and that
treme caution is to be observed in conducting co- the vaccine was both efficient and safe; that Wistar
operative programs with organizations and sci- merely provided the vaccine to PAHO, anticipat-
entists who have political motives which intrude ing that the health organization would obtain any
upon even the most straightforward attempts to necessary governmental approvals in Argentina;
conduct scientific research for the benefit of hu-
and that representatives of an Argentine scien-
inanity. ”
—Hilary Koprowski, Director, Wistar Institute tific organization approached Wistar in 1984 pro-
posing to conduct the same trial undertaken by
The Wistar Institute of Philadelphia produced PAHO.
a genetically engineered rabies vaccine, which it
provided to the Pan American Health Organiza-
tion (PAHO) for field testing in Argentina. In July New Zealand
1986, 20 cattle were inoculated at a PAHO agri-
Another overseas test of a genetically engineered
culture station in Azul,
vaccine (Bacteroides nodosus) involved research-
Argentina (approxi-
mately 180 miles south
of Buenos Aires). In Sep-
tember 1986, the Ar-
gentine government
learned of the field test
through a letter written
by an Argentine train-
ee. The government
barred further tests,
claiming that the vac- A Los Angeles Times
Argentina cine posed a health
threat. On November
11, 1986, the New York
Times reported that
Wistar conducted tests the previous summer with-
out obtaining approval from either the Argentine what they intended to
or United States governments. In December 1986, do” (6). In November 1986, the Foundation on Eco-
NIH sought written assurance from Wistar that nomic Trends announced it would ask USDA and
no Federal funds were used to test the rabies vac- other Federal agencies to investigate the New
cine in Argentina. Wistar replied that although Zealand experiment and determine whether any
the rabies vaccine research program received Fed- United States laws were broken.
60
Great Britain ties into the organism, with along-term goal of de-
veloping custom-designed
“A cabbage patch somewhere in Britain is the viral insecticides (2).
unlikely venue for a world first. Since last month,
the patch has been home for a collection of cater- The Oxford researchers
pillars that have been infected with a unique virus consulted with the United
which does not occur naturally. The experiment Kingdom Advisory Com-
may help virologist to engineer safe, artificial mittee on Genetic Manipu-
viruses that kill pests before they can destroy lation; the Nature Con-
crops. ” servancy Council; the
—Steve Conner, New Scientist, Ministry of Agriculture,
Oct. 16, 1986.
Fisheries and Food; and
the Department of the
Researchers at the Institute of Virology in Ox- Environment prior to the
ford conducted the world’s first release of a ge- environmental release. In
netically engineered virus when infected cater- the European Parliament,
pillars were released in September 1986. The virus news of the U.K. experi-
was engineered to contain a genetic marker so it ment was met with dis-
could be tracked. The goal of the experiment was approval by representa-
to evaluate survival and dispersal of the virus in tives of the Green Party,
the environment. If the experiment is successful, who have opposed environmental release of ge-
the researchers plan to introduce other proper- netically altered organisms.
L
.
61
DHHS. Instead, a Biotechnology Science Coordi- Table 3-8.—Agencies Responsible for Approval of
nating Committee (BSCC) was formed “to moni- Commercial Biotechnology Products
tor the changing scene of biotechnology and serve Biotechnology products Responsible agencies
as a means of identifying potential gaps in regula- Foods/food additives . . . . . . . . . . . . FDA*, FSISa
tion in a timely fashion, making appropriate rec- Human drugs, medical devices,
ommendations for either administrative or legis- and biologics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FDA
Animal drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FDA
lative action.” (50 Fed. Reg. 47174). In the same Animal biologics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APHIS
notice, OSTP published an index of laws confer- Other contained uses . . . . . . . . . . . EPA
ring authority that could be used to ensure the Plants and animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . APHIS, b FSIS, = F D AC
Pesticide micro-organisms
safety of biotechnology-related products. Many released in the environment
elements of the Proposed Coordinated Framework All. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA, d APHIS b
were incorporated into the Coordinated Frame- Other uses (micro-organisms):
Intergenetic combination . . . . . . EPA,d APHIS b
work published by OSTP on June 26, 1986 (51 Intrageneric combination:
Fed. Reg. 23301). Pathogenic source organism
1. Agricultural use . . . . . . . . . . . . APHIS
2. Non-agricultural use. . . . . . . . . EPA,d APHIS b
Coordinated Framework for No pathogenic source
organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA Report
Regulation of Biotechnology Nonengineered pathogens:
1. Agricultural use . . . . . . . . . . APHIS
The Coordinated Framework includes separate 2. Non-agricultural use. . . . . . . EPA,d APHIS b
descriptions of the regulatory policies of the Nonengineered nonpathogens . . . . EPA Report
FDA, EPA, Occupational Safety and Health Admin- “Designates lead agency where jurisdictions may overlap; FDA, Food and Drug
Administration.
istration (OSHA), and USDA; and the research aF!jlS, Food Safety and Inspection Service, under the Assistant Secretary of
Agricultural for Marketing and Inspection Services is responsible for food use
policies of NIH, the National Science Foundation bAPHIS, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, is involved when the micro-
(NSF), EPA, and USDA. organism is plant pest, animal pathogen, or regulated article requiring a permit
CFDA is involved when in relation to a food use.
dEpA requirement will Only apply to environmental release under a “Significant
The Coordinated Framework mandates both the new use rule” that EPA intends to propose.
.-
~ z
Table 3-9.—Jurisdiction for Biotechnology tebrate animals, bacteria, fungi, or parasitic plants
Research Proposals or reproductive parts thereof, viruses, or any
organisms similar to or allied with any of the for-
Proposed research Responsible agencies going, or any infectious substances, which can
Contained research, no release in directly or indirectly injure or cause disease or
environment: damage in any plants or parts thereof, or any proc-
a
1. Federally funded. . . . . . . . . . . . Funding agency
2. Non-federally funded . . . . . . . . NIH or S&E voluntary essed, manufactured, or other products of plants”
review, APHISb (7 U.S.C. 150aa(c)).
Foods/food additives, human
drugs, medical devices USDA subsequently issued a final rule on the
biologics, animal drugs:
C
1. Federally funded. . . . . . . . . . . . FDA, NIH guidelines
“introduction of organisms and products altered
and review or produced through genetic engineering which
C
2. Non-federally funded . . . . . . . . FDA, NIH voluntary are plant pests or which there is reason to be-
review
Plants, animals and animal
lieve are plant pests” (52 Fed. Reg. 22891). The
biologics: rule sets forth procedures for obtaining a permit
1. Federally funded. . . . . . . . . . . . Funding agency,a prior to the introduction of organisms and prod-
APHIS!
2. Non-federally funded . . . . . . . . APHIS, S&E
b ucts that present actual or potential plant pest
voluntary review risks. The final rule also mandates State notifica-
Pesticide micro-organisms: tion and review of permits in addition to Federal
Genetically engineered:
d
Intergeneric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA, APHIS, S&E
b review.
voluntary review
d
Pathogenic intrageneric . . . . . . . EPA, APHIS, S&E
b Because many applications of genetically engi-
voluntary review neered organisms in the environment will be agri-
d
Intrageneric nonpathogen . . . . . . . . EPA, S&E voluntary cultural, USDA is placed in a dual role of regulat-
review
Nonengineered:
ing the technology while attempting to fulfill its
Nonindigenous pathogens . . . . . EPA, APHIS
d
statutory mandate “to procure, propagate, and dis-
d
Indigenous pathogens . . . . . . . . . EPA, APHIS tribute among the people new and valuable seeds
Nonindigenous nonpathogen . . . EPA
Other uses (micro-organisms)
and plants” (7 U.S.C. 2201). In addition, instances
released in the environment: are likely to arise where microorganisms that are
Genetically engineered: not intended for agricultural purposes could still
Intergeneric organisms:
1. Federally funded. . . . . . . . . . Funding agency,
a represent a plant pest. The Coordinated Frame-
APHIS, b EPA d work addresses this issue, laying out USDA and
2. Commercially funded. . . . . . EPA, APHIS, S&E EPA jurisdictional agreements whereby both agen-
voluntary review
Intrageneric organisms: cies will “perform independent reviews, focusing
Pathogenic source organism: on independent objectives” (51 Fed. Reg. 233.59).
a
1. Federally funded. . . . . . . . . . . . Funding agency, EPA will review pursuant to TSCA or FIFRA, while
APHIS, b EPA d
b
2. Commercially funding . . . . . . . APHIS, E P A (if non-
d USDA will review pursuant to the plant pest
agricultural use) statute.
Intrageneric combination:
No pathogenic source Table 3-10.–Statutes Applicable to
organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E P A r e p o r t USDA-Regulated Biotechnology
Nonengineered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EPA report, * APHISD
“Designates lead agency where jurisdictions may overlap.
Virus-Serum Toxic Act (21 U.S.C. 151-158)
aReview and approv~ of research protocols conducted by NIH, S&E, or NSF. Federal Plant Pest Act (7 U.S.C. 150aa-150jj)
bEPA jurisdiction for research on a plot greater than 10 acres. Plant Quarantine Act (7 U.S.C. 151-164, 166, 167)
CApHIS issues permits for the importation and domestic shipment of certain
Organic Act (7 U.S.C. 147a)
plants and animals, plant pests and animal pathogens, and for the shipment
or release in the environment of regulated articles. Federal Noxious Weed Act (7 U.S.C. 2801 et seq.)
dEpA reviews federally funded environmental research only when it is for Federal Seed Act (7 U.S.C. 551 et seq.)
commercial purposes. Plant Variety Protection Act (7 U.S.C. 2321 et seq.)
KEY: APHIS: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; EPA: Environmental
Protection Agency; NIH: National Institutes of Health; S&E: United States
Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 601 et seq.)
Department of Agriculture Science and Education. Poultry Products Information Act (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.)
SOURCE: 51 Fed. Reg. 23305. SOURCE: 51 Fed. Reg. 23339.
—
63
OSHA stated that its authority under the Oc- nomic Climate for Research and Product
cupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (29 U.S.C. Development. Excessive regulation will
et seq.) is sufficient to protect employees in the make it difficult for biotechnology-related re-
field of biotechnology, and that no further regu- search projects to move from the controlled
lation is necessary. environment of the laboratory to the field.
Initially strict regulation of recombinant DNA
Challenges Facing Regulators research, through NIH guidelines, was revised
and relaxed as increased scientific knowledge
The Coordinated Framework noted “that future
revealed the safety of various applications.
scientific developments will lead to further refine-
Decreased regulation of genetically engi-
ments” of the regulations (51 Fed. Reg. at 23303).
neered organisms in the environment may
Several challenges face regulators as they work
also be possible if warranted by scientific de-
with the new Framework:
velopments. If proposed field tests are se-
● Definitions: The Coordinated Framework verely restricted, curtailed, or delayed, re-
provided definitions for “intergeneric organ- searchers may conduct research and product
ism” (i.e. anew organism) and for “pathogen.” development in other countries that are more
The OSTP notice makes clear that “[t]hese defi- hospitable to such technology.
nitions are critical . . . for the regulation of ● Assurance That Regulation of One Type of
biotechnology because they establish the product Does Not Hinder Development of
types of the organisms subject to certain kinds other products: The new Framework pro-
of review” (51 Fed. Reg. 23302). NSF, FDA, vides several Federal agencies with jurisdic-
and USDA announced that certain definitions tion over a wide range of research and prod-
“may be ambiguous” (51 Fed. Reg 44397). In ucts (e.g., food, drugs, pesticides, vaccines,
addition, the BSCC “is attempting to define and medical technologies). Some agencies may
what constitutes ‘release into the environ- regulate this new technology better than
ment’.” Release into the environment, “for the others. Mistakes made in regulating research
time being, will have somewhat varying defi- or products could erode public confidence
nitions for the regulatory and research re- in the entire Coordinated Framework, which
view of the different agencies” (51 Fed. Reg. could in turn lead to inconsistent regulatory
23307). In October 1986, an NIH Committee review of proposed planned introductions of
reviewing allegations surrounding an alleged genetically engineered organisms.
field test of a pseudorabies vaccine noted that ● Jurisdiction of Federal Agencies Regulat-
“we found ambiguities in the NIH Guidelines, ing Biotechnology Agencies need to adjust
both in regard to whether the pseudorabies to the integrated Framework, which estab-
vaccine used in the field test consisted of ‘re- lishes a lead agency for those instances where
combinant DNA molecules,’ and whether the regulatory oversight or review is to be per-
field test constituted ‘deliberate release into formed by more than one agency (see tables
the environment’” (32). 3-8 and 3-9). Environmental concerns, for ex-
● Risk Assessment and Management: The ample, fall under the direct mandate of EPA.
continuing need to protect the environment All Federal agencies, however, must prepare
and public health requires a balancing of the an environmental analysis for major actions
known risks of existing technologies and the significantly affecting the quality of the hu-
potential risks of new technologies against the man environment.
benefits derived from these technologies. Be- ● The Legality Applicability and Scope of
cause the risks involved inmost proposed re- Current Statutes To Regulate the Release
leases of genetically engineered organisms of Genetically Engineered Organisms: The
into the environment cannot be measured Coordinated Framework is predicated on the
precisely, there will be some uncertainty in use of existing statutes (e.g., TSCA and FIFRA)
determiningg the safety of proposed fieldtests. to handle emerging issues in the regulation
● The Need To Promote a Favorable Eco- of biotechnology. The applicability (e.g., use
65
of a conventional chemical statute to regu- approved for general use will feel the weight
late genetically engineered organisms) of such of public opinion. Regardless of the scientific
statutes may be challenged in court, as may judgments by experts who will develop and
the scope and legality of other statutes. In consider these applications, a hostile public
addition, each statute relied upon presents or one unconvinced of the value of these de-
administrative law issues that could result in velopments will give the biotechnology indus-
court cases. try a difficult time in the marketplace. Sev-
Promotion v. Regulation: Two Federal eral proposed field tests have already been
agencies–NIH and USDA—are charged with the targets of protest in some communities,
regulating biotechnology research and devel- although other proposed field tests have met
opment while at the same time having statu- with little or no local opposition.
tory mandates to promote research and prod-
uct development. NIH promotes and funds European and Japanese Regulation
much of the nation’s biomedical research pur-
suant to the Public Health Act, while at the In addition to action in the United States, sev-
same time regulating that research, includ- eral European nations have begun to assess the
ing biotechnology research. USDA is man- need for regulatory review of genetically engi-
dated to procure, propagate, and distribute neered organisms in the environment. Both the
new and valuable seeds and plants; at the European Economic Community (EEC) and sev-
same time, it must regulate and potentially eral member nations have considered regulatory
curtail new products through the application issues over the last few years.
of several statutes designed to eradicate po-
The EEC established a biotechnology steering
tential problems (e.g., plant pests).
committee in February 1984 to coordinate bio-
Consistent Penalties for Violators: Because
technology policies. In 1986, a meeting was held
existing statutes are being used to regulate
by member-state officials to discuss the regula-
biotechnology, varying penalties can result.
tion of releases of genetically engineered organ-
For example, the two statutes relied upon by
isms in the environment (35). In November 1986,
EPA (TSCA and FIFRA) carry different penal-
a commission report highlighted the need for col-
ties. As a result, penalties could merely re-
lective action, and announced that proposals
flect the statute employed, not the actual
would be developed for Community action on “a)
severity of the civil or criminal act.
levels of physical and biological containment, ac-
The Role of State and Local Governments
cident control, and waste management in indus-
in Regulating Biotechnology and Environ-
trial applications, and, b) authorization of planned
mental Release of Genetically Engineered
release of genetically engineered organisms in the
Organisms: State environmental, authority
environment” (8). This initiative occurred as sev-
and county zoning and land use ordinances
eral member states were taking steps to regulate
have played an important role in several pro-
biotechnology:
posed field tests and could play an increas-
ing role in future tests. Several States are con- ● Denmark enacted legislation in 1986 pre-
sidering regulations governing the release of venting the deliberate release of any organ-
genetically engineered organisms in the envi- ism that is the product of recombinant DNA
ronment. Where Federal and State Govern- technology as well as any organism resulting
ments claim subject matter authority over from gene deletion or cell hybridization (23).
such releases, the issue of Federal preemp- The Danish law forbids such experiments un-
tion of State action could arise. less approval is obtained from the environ-
Public perceptions: The environmental ap- ment minister.
plications of genetically engineered organisms ● France in 1987, established a 15-member
will be affected considerably by public opin- panel of scientists, under the jurisdiction of
ion, particularly in communities that host the the Ministry of Agriculture, to review pro-
early field tests. Ultimately, any applications posed deliberate release experiments on a
66
case-by-case basis and to consider the need mental protection oversight is adequate, and
for future regulation. Notification of any in- that stricter regulations are not needed.
tent to use recombinant DNA technology must The Federal Republic of Germany classifies
be made to the Ministry of Research and experiments in four categories; releases of
Higher Education (23). Field tests involving organisms into the environment fall into the
the nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium began prohibited category, although researchers
in March 1987. may apply for an exception. A parliamentary
The Netherlands established an advisory commission was formed in 1984 to study the
committee on recombinant DNA activities to potential scientific, social, and legal implica-
regulate such research. tions of gene technology. The report recom-
The United Kingdom developed voluntary mended a 5-year moratorium on environ-
guidelines published in April 1986 that en- mental releases of genetically altered viruses
courage any person planning a deliberate re- (except for those used as vaccines in human
lease of an engineered organism to contact and veterinary medicine) and of micro-orga-
the Health and Safety Executive (9). Proposed nisms into which genetically foreign genes
regulations would require scientists to notify have been inserted (8).
the Executive of any general intention to con- Japan regulates biotechnology through sev-
duct experiments involving genetic manipu- eral ministries. Pharmaceutical production
lation as well as individual notification forcer- has developed under guidelines developed by
tain high risk experiments (27). the Ministry of Health and Welfare. Regula-
Sweden established a special commission in tion of agricultural biotechnology is expected
1984 to study whether tighter regulations to become more important as the number of
were needed for recombinant DNA research. permits for research and production increase
The advisory committee recommended that (21).
existing occupational health and environ-
ernment, The Coordinated Framework for Regu- termining jurisdiction when regulatory oversight
lation of Biotechnology, published by the White or review is to be performed by more than one
House Office of Science and Technology in 1986, Federal agency; balancing technology promotion
describes a comprehensive Federal regulatory pol- and regulation; establishing consistent penalties
icy to ensure the safety of biotechnology research for violators; resolving potential challenges to the
and products. Several challenges face regulators legality, applicability, and scope of current stat-
as they adjust to the new Framework: defining utes; balancing technology promotion and regu-
key terms; balancing risks and benefits of the new lation; establishing consistent penalties for viola-
technology; maintaining a favorable economic cli- tons; resolving potential jurisdictional conflicts be-
mate for research and product development; as- tween Federal, State, and local governments; and
suring that regulation of one type of product does assessing public opinion.
not hinder development of other products; de-
CHAPTER 3 REFERENCES
1. Anderson, I., New Scientist 14(1563):32, 1987. et al., 637 F. Supp.25 (D.D.C. 1986).
2. Bishop, D., “UK Release of Genetically Marked Vi- 15. Glass, D.J., Director, Patents and Regulatory Affairs,
rus, ” ATature 323(6088):496, 1986. BioTechnica International, Inc., Cambridge, MA,
3. Buhner, B., Program Coordinator, Sierra Club, Cen- persona] communication, Sept. 16, 1987.
tral Mississippi Chapter, Jackson, MS, personal com- 16. Grigera, P. R., et. al, “Wistar’s Export to Argentina, ”
munication, May 6, 1987. Nature 324(6098 ]:610, 1986.
4. Bureau of National Affairs, U.S. Environmental 17. Harlow, R. E., “The EPA and Biotechnology Regula-
Laws (YVashington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs, tion: Coping with Regulatory Uncertainty,” The Yale
1986). Law Journal 95:533, 1986.
5. Carpenter, W. D., Vice President, Technology, Mon- 18. Hyer, W .C., Managing Director, Association of Bio-
santo Agricultural Co., St. Louis, MO, personal com- technology Companies, Washington, DC, personal
munication, June 10, 1987. communication, Mar. 24, 1987.
6. “Cheating at the Outer Edge, ” Los Angeles Times, 19. Hyer, W.C., “On Managing Biotechnology,” iVew
Nov. 14, 1986. York Times, Sept. 28, 1986.
7. Commission of the European Communities, Com- 20. Iles, A., “Public Understanding as a Key to Com-
munication from the Commission to the Council: mercial Success, ” Biotechnology 5(8):856, 1987.
A Community Framework for the Regulation of Bio- 21. McCormick, D., “Japan: Co-ordinated Action,”
technology (Brussels, Nov. 4, 1987). Biotechnology 5(12):1279, December 1987.
8. Committee of Inquiry of the loth Bundestag on the 22. Meeusen, R. L., Manager, Agricultural Biotechnol-
Opportunities and Risks of Gene Technology, Gene ogy, Rohm & Haas Co., Springhouse, PA, personal
Technology: Opportunities and Risks (Bonn, 1987). communication, Apr. 23, 1987.
9. Conzelman, C., and Claveloux D., “Europe Fails To 23. Newmark, P., “Discord and Harmony in Europe, ”
Agree on Biotech Rules)” New Scientist 111(1516): Bio/Technology 5(12):1281, December 1987.
19-20, 1986. 24. Organization for Economic Cooperation and De-
10. Executive Office of the President, Office of Science velopment, “Recommendations of OECD’S Council
and Technology Policy, “Coordinated Framework Concerning Safety Considerations for Applications
for the Regulation of Biotechnology,” Federal Reg- of Recombinant DNA Organisms in Industry, Agri-
ister 51:23301, 1986. culture, and the Environment (Paris, 1986).
11, Executive Office of the President, Office of Science 25. Slovic, P., “Perception of Risk,” Science 236:280-
and Technology Policy, “Proposed Coordinated 285, 1987.
Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology, ” 26. State of California, Interagency Task Force on Bio-
Federal Register 49:50856, 1984. technology, BiotechnoZo~ Permits and Regulations
12. Forster, H., Clerk of the Wisconsin Senate Agricul- (Sacramento, CA, 1986).
ture, Health, and Human Services Committee, per- 27. Stewart, A., “U.K. Revises Rules on Gene Engineer-
sonal communication, July 30, 1987. ing,” The Scientist 1(26):7, Nov. 30, 1987.
13. Foundation on Economic Trends v. Heckler, 587 28. Tangley, L., “New Biology in a New Era, ” Bioscience
F.Supp 753 (D.C. 1984), 756 F.2d 143 (D.C. Cir 1985). 35(5):270, 1985.
14. Foundation on Economic Trends, et al. v. Thomas, 29. “Toying With Genes, and Argentina, ” New York
68
Times, Nov. 12, 1986. search Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules (NIH
30. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Guidelines) in the Conduct of Field Tests of a Pseu -
New Developments in Biotechnology, 2: Public Per- dorabies Vaccine at Baylor College of Medicine
ceptions of Biotechnology-A Background Paper, and/or Texas A&M University,” Oct. 9, 1986.
OTA-BP-BA-45 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government 33. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Printing Office, May 1987). Public Affairs, Environmental News, “EPA Restricts
31. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Further Genetic Experimentation by Montana
National Institutes of Health, Guidelines for Re- Professor,” Aug. 27, 1987.
search Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules, May 34. U.S. News & world Report, Aug. 31, 1987, p. 10.
1986. 35. Whitehead, C., “Controlling the Risk to Health and
32. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Environment From Biotechnology-What Is the
National Institutes of Health, “Report of Commit- European Community Doing?” Trends in Biotech-
tee Established to Review Allegations of Violations nology 5(40):123, 1987.
of National Institutes of Health Guidelines for Re-
Chapter 4
Genetic Considerations
[quote originally printed here not legible in scanned document]
. .
CONTENTS
1
Figure
1 Page
I 4-1. Luminescence From a Tobacco Plant Containing the Firefly Luciferase
Geme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table Page
4-1. -.- G e n e t i c Factors To Evaluate in Planned Introductions . “.* . ....**.*. 72
Chapter 4
Genetic Considerations
The safety questions raised by the planned in- it is the transmission of genetic material from one
troduction of genetically engineered organisms contemporaneous bacterial cell to another, by any
are not unique to such organisms. Yet the intro- of several means. OTA assumes that genetic ma-
duction of these organisms raises some safety terial introduced into a host in which it does not
questions that are quite different from the ques- naturally occur has some finite probability of
tions of physical containment on which previous migrating to a nontarget organism. What is that
discussions of the safety of recombinant DNA re- probability? How can the movement of the genetic
search have focused. And though the intimate in- material be observed? What are the potential con-
terplay between the genes of an organism and sequences of horizontal gene transfer? And what
the environmental parameters that govern the steps can be taken that would limit the frequency
way the genes are expressed makes most separa- or mitigate the potentially adverse consequences
tions of genetic and environmental factors diffi- of horizontal transfer?
cult, such divisions make the issues easier to ex-
An OTA workshop, convened in collaboration
amine. This chapter focuses primarily on genetic
with the National Science Foundation, examined
issues, particularly as they relate to the potential
these and other questions surrounding genetic is-
for movement of engineered genetic material be-
sues in the planned introduction of genetically
yond the intended host. Most genetic factors are
altered organisms. This chapter summarizes some
either important primarily as they relate to this
of the factors that could influence the frequency
potential, or are more clearly relevant in an eco-
of horizontal gene transfer after the planned in-
logical context, and are thus discussed in chapter 5.
troduction of recombinant organisms and exam-
The migration of genetic material, or horizon- ines technologies designed to affect horizontal
tal transfer, is the passage of genetic material transfer. Most of this chapter is relevant primar-
from one organism to another through a mech- ily to microbes and much less relevant to higher
anism not involving specialized reproductive organisms such as plants or animals, unless
cells (i.e., nonsexual gene transfer). In bacteria, specified.
selected for intensive research because of their ● What are the genetic and environmental con-
ease of handling, the likelihood of producing rapid ditions under which novel information could
results, and their accessibility to existing research be incorporated into a foreign genome and
methodologies, their role in horizontal gene trans- subsequently expressed?
fer in nature maybe overestimated. Indeed, many ● Do populations of organisms limit incursion
barriers to gene transfer exist in natural systems. of new genetic material, and if they do, by
Thus, many questions remain to be answered what means?
about gene transfer outside the laboratory, in-
cluding:
● How extensively do the gene transfer mech-
anisms observed in the laboratory operate in
nature?
74
Again, the toxin gene of B. thuringiensis is a good struction that decreases the probability of hori-
example of a gene from an organism with a well- zontal gene transfer.
characterized natural history (l). The naturally
The transfer of a deletion—in this case, essen-
occurring bacterium and derived materials have
tially a missing gene—to a nontarget organism can-
been used for decades. They are now available
not impart a new capability to the recipient in the
in over 410 different products, in 13 formulations
same way that acquiring a novel structural gene
(e.g., powder, pellet, or solution) to apply the toxin can, as in the case of the B. thuringiensis toxin
in garden, agricultural, and forestry settings (6).
gene. So even if the altered genetic material is
In many areas containers of B. thuringiensis spores
transferred beyond the host, it cannot add to the
can be purchased at garden stores. Tons of the
nontarget recipients the ability to produce a new
bacterium have been applied to agricultural and
gene product. Deletions can, however, alter the
forestry lands. Despite intensive searching, sci- relationships of the host species to other organ-
entists have unearthed no evidence to date that
isms with which it interacts, a change that could
either the endotoxin gene has escaped from the
be important under some circumstances.
Bacillus and been expressed in other microbes,
or that the toxin from this strain (var. kurstaki)
has any effect on organisms other than Lepidop- Extrinsic Factors
tera and closely related insects. The extrinsic factors that strongly influence the
likelihood and magnitude of horizontal gene trans-
Vector fer are an integral part of the environment into
which the engineered organism is introduced. The
Vectors are the means by which genetic mate- expression of the trait, the intended environment,
rial is shuttled between organisms. Just as it is and other environments that the engineered
necessary to have a well-characterized host and organisms could encounter must be analyzed for
gene, it is important to use a vector with well un- their possible impact.
derstood characteristics. Important factors include
the vector’s ability independently to initiate or sus- Survival
tain horizontal gene transfer, its need for outside
help to move information, and its degree of mo- A key determinant of potential horizontal trans-
bility or the extent of its host range. fer is the ability of the introduced organism to
establish and reproduce itself in its new habitat,
and to stably express the engineered trait, Un-
Construct
fortunately, little information exists on the poten-
An important factor affecting the probability tial survival, establishment, growth, and subse-
that an inserted gene might move from an altered quent genetic transfer ability of engineered
host to a nontarget organism is the final configu- organisms placed as competitors to indigenous
ration of the new gene in the host—i.e., the DNA organisms in a natural environment (13), though
structure at the site of gene insertion. For instance, most evidence suggests survival is most likely to
inserting a gene into a chromosome minimizes be diminished. Laboratory conditions are artifi-
subsequent gene movement, especially compared cial and differ significantly from those encoun-
with inserting it into a plasmid. The source of the tered by organisms in their native habitat. For ex-
regulatory sequences controlling expression of the ample, the mean generation time for many
inserted material is also important and plays a ma- bacteria in soil is about six months (although this
jor role in limiting the field of potential nontarget figure varies widely for different soil organisms
recipients. and with the season), compared to one hour or
less under laboratory conditions. The time of year
Genetically engineered “ice-minus” bacteria also
and the local qualities of individual introduction
illustrate the importance of construct to the likeli-
sites could also affect survival significantly.
hood of horizontal gene transfer. This bacterium
is created by removing a gene found naturally in In one experiment, naturally occurring P .
Pseudomonas, Erwinia, and other bacteria, a con- fluorescent were isolated from corn roots and
76
given genetic markers to allow them to be detected According to laboratory research with bacterial
at a later time. The organisms were then reinocu- systems, the rate of transmission seems to be
lated onto the corn roots at a moderate density. proportional to the product of the densities of the
During the following growing season it was diffi- donors and recipients.
cult and in some cases impossible to re-isolate the
In the case of micro-organisms, it appears that
marked organisms, Thus, a soil system (and per-
the numbers of naturally occurring nontarget re-
haps other natural habitats) might not contain
cipients in the environment (e.g., in soil or water)
enough nutrients to allow measurable survival of
are low-considerably lower than the concentra-
laboratory-adapted microorganisms. Certainly for
tions necessary for efficient gene transfer in the
genetically engineered micro-organisms (and per-
laboratory. For instance, among organisms that
haps other organisms), the problem will likely be
are well studied, the number of naturally occur-
less one of persistence and gene transfer than of
ring organisms in fertile soil is normally at least
survival to perform the job for which they were
an order of magnitude lower than concentrations
designed.
of bacteria necessary for horizontal transfer in
the laboratory.
t Potential Nontarget Recipients
Density can also be affected by the method used
For horizontal gene transfer to take place, a com-
to introduce an engineered organism. Addition-
patible recipient must be available. The most likely
ally, the timing of the planned introduction can
recipient is an organism genetically similar to the
affect the density of both the engineered organ-
engineered host. The probability of transfer gen-
ism and potential nontarget recipients. But keep-
erally declines as evolutionary relatedness de-
ing introduction densities low to avoid gene trans-
creases. Restriction enzyme systems that degrade
fer may not be consistent with an effective
evolutionarily unrelated “foreign” DNA are com-
introduction, since high initial density and sur-
mon among bacteria.
vival may be required for efficacy.
Information about the natural history of poten-
tial nontarget organisms in the environment, how- Selection Pressure
ever, is scarce—less than for laboratory-engineered
The probability that new genetic material will
organisms. In the case of bacteria for agricultural
persist, be expressed, and increase in frequency
applications, potential microbial recipients in soil
in nontarget populations if transmitted is at least
are of interest. Yet only about 10 percent of the
1 microbial species in soil can even be cultured in as important as the probability of horizontal gene
transfer itself. Selection pressure is the major de-
the laboratory.
terminant. A low probability of positive selection
I
Horizontal transfer of genetic material between —i.e., little likelihood of the persistence of the new
higher organisms is less likely than that between material—is usually the desirable outcome.
simpler ones. However, gene transfer via sexual
Selection pressure is determined by a combi-
recombination among these organisms could be
nation of factors, including the trait encoded by
an important problem. In particular, genetic move-
the engineered gene, the potential recipients, and
ment via natural sexual transfer from crop plants
the value of the trait in the introduction environ-
(e.g., engineered to be herbicide resistant) to re-
ment. Because environmental conditions are gen-
lated weedy species could occur. Such problems
erally harsh and stringent (e.g., inadequate nu-
are neither new nor unique to engineered plants,
trients for growth, and suboptimum temperature
however (see ch. 5), and the processes involved
conditions), selection pressure is crucial. Under
are understood.
usual conditions (i.e., the gene product does not
confer a selective advantage), even a moderate
Density
amount of new DNA assimilated by an indigenous
Important factors affecting the magnitude of soil or water microorganism may impose enough
horizontal gene transfer are the absolute densi- of an energy drain that the organism will be
ties of the introduced and recipient organisms. selected against in competition with others that
77
do not carry additional DNA. However, different problems that can occur when genes are horizon-
introductions will vary with respect to the im- tally transferred, it is important to realize that
portant selection pressures, and they must be intense selection pressure exerted by indiscrimi-
evaluated separately. nate and subtherapeutic antibiotic use, especially
in foreign countries, was probably the overwhelm-
Even a low horizontal transfer rate can estab-
ing cause of this phenomenon. The development
lish the trait in a new species if assisted by strong
of penicillin resistance by gonococcus illustrates
selection pressures. Although some individuals
the power of selection pressure to overcome such
point to the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance
seeming obstacles as low rate of transfer.
in gonococcus as an example of the widespread
the antibiotic resistance marker. So obtaining and Research projects based on the gene probe con-
quantifying cells that are antibiotic-resistant would cept are now being funded by the Environmental
allow the measuring of horizontal gene transfer Protection Agency. The general applicability of
to nontarget species. Another approach avoids the biochemical monitoring appears promising. In the
use of antibiotics and employs a metabolic marker case of soil micro-organisms, extracted DNA must
such as lac, which brings the capacity for metab- be purified sufficiently to meet laboratory condi-
olism of lactose, as a convenient, innocuous, but tions for the test to be accurate. In water applica-
effective tracer gene. The km gene is inserted close tions, enormous volumes of water often must be
to the gene of interest so that it may serve as a processed to obtain test samples.
linked marker.
A related biochemical tracking method uses the
luciferase gene cloned from fireflies. This gene
Biochemical Screening Methods codes for a light-emitting protein, luciferin, and
A different approach to the tracking problem has been inserted into plants and cultured plant
employs gene probes constructed through recom- cells that now “glow in the dark.” Although the
binant DNA technology. A segment of DNA that presence of the luciferase gene can be detected
is complementary to the gene, or DNA sequence, through the probe methods just described, it can
of interest serves as the probe. The segment is also be detected easily through image intensify-
labeled with radioactivity, a specific dye, or other ing video equipment or by contact exposure to
tag that can be easily detected in the laboratory. photographic or x-ray film (see figure 4-1) (11).
A sensitive method, this gene probe technique may
identify both host and nontarget recipients of la- Figure 4-l.— Luminescence From a Tobacco Plant
Containing the Firefly Luciferase Gene
beled material. Similarly precise identification is
also possible with antibody probe analyses derived
from monoclinal antibody technology.
To apply these methods to bacteria or viruses,
the organisms would be isolated from the envi-
ronment and their DNA extracted and tested with
the specific gene or antibody probe. With plants,
leaves and other parts would be obtained and their
DNA extracted and tested with the probe in the
laboratory. By binding to an organism’s DNA, the
probe reveals that the organism carries the gene
of interest. Such probes allow the detection of an
inserted gene regardless of its position in the host’s
or recipient’s genome. In contrast, the selective
screening method just discussed becomes useless
if the inserted gene becomes separated from a
closely linked selection marker.
One disadvantage of the gene probe is that it
provides no means of discriminating between sam-
ples that should be tested and those that should
not. Everything that grows out of a sample (e.g.,
micro-organisms from the soil or a river, or plants
from a wide area) must be screened. Furthermore,
as mentioned earlier, many native micro-orga-
nisms cannot be cultured in the laboratory. Thus,
these probe methods of tracking will probably be
more useful to detect and monitor the presence
of host organisms than to quantify horizontal gene SOURCE: D.W. Ow, K.V. Wood, M. DeLuca, J.R. deWet, D.R. Helinski, and S.H,
transfer. Howell, Science 234:856-859, 1986.
79
Using the firefly gene as a marker could be a fast, the host organism, however, and its utility is there-
easy, and useful method to track genetically engi - fore likely to be limited.
neered organisms. It is very energy-intensive for
natural populations of bacteria that they can be reduce or eliminate the use of mobile transfer ele-
expected to play a significant role in deterring the ments in engineered organisms. Since some vec-
transfer of genes from introduced engineered tors are clearly more mobile than others, using
organisms. In addition, such naturally occurring disarmed versions of these vectors, or avoiding
restriction systems might be adapted to help in- their use entirely, would reduce the probability
hibit transfer of the inserted gene out of the engi- of horizontal gene transfer.
neered host, or otherwise limit its function or per- A disarmed vector (a transposable element) was
sistence. At present, such systems are not well the approach used in the insertion of the toxin
developed, but they hold substantial promise. gene into P. fluorescent. This technique appears
to be successful, and the application to field test
Disarmed or Nonmobile Vectors the organism is pending. Experiments show that
In addition to engineering crippled host organ- it is unlikely that the nonmobile transposon will
isms, more stable vectors— those that would have be excised (7,8).
I little probability of facilitating genetic movement Finally, an EPA research group is attempting
—are being developed. In particular, efforts are to construct a “suicide” bacterium designed to per-
focused on obtaining microbial and viral vectors sist in the environment only as long as it is needed.
that are “escape-proof.” The organism is a bacterium that contains a vec-
The concept of a debilitated host microorganism tor (in this case a plasmid) that will self destruct
in the absence of the toxic substance it has been
(e.g., E. coli K-12) was also applied to the develop-
ment of a vector for that system. Plasmid pBR322 designed to clean up. A better name for this tech-
was isolated and has been used as a vector for nique might be “suicide plasmid,” since the main
transferring engineered genes in the laboratory. purpose is to destroy the vector DNA before it
The plasmid is incapable of self-initiated transfer transfers to another host. Other groups are also
and is also poorly mobilizable. It is therefore con- working on different means to similar ends (4).
sidered safe; it has a low probability of being trans- However, the demonstrated ability of free DNA
ferred to bacteria indigenous to natural habitats, to sometimes maintain its integrity in soil or water
including the human gastrointestinal tract. Simi- creates a potential problem. If the cell were killed
larly crippled vectors have been developed for use before the plasmid had self-destructed, and the
in insects and for mammalian genetic engineering. plasmid with its inserted gene remained intact,
Another precaution suggested by the gonococ- it is possible that the plasmid could enter another
cal resistance example (see box A in ch. 1) is to cell.
I
phenomenon occurs in nature. There appear to public and environment from any unintended con-
be a limited number of gene transfer mechanisms; sequences of introducing altered organisms. Some
research has revealed that different types of introductions merit closer scrutiny than others,
organisms share some mechanisms for genetic. and OTA finds that evaluation of proposed ap-
transfer. Genetic material is not generally thought plications to introduce into the environment
to transfer across large evolutionary distances, genetically engineered organisms which are
however, and there are numerous impediments believed to carry some element of risk should
to gene transfer, even between closely related proceed on an adaptable, case-by-case basis,
species. at least until knowledge has been accumulated
to make more general reviews feasible. With an
For regulators to assess the potential genetic im-
adaptable, case-by-case review of such planned
pact of an engineered application, several factors
introductions, not only the current spectrum of
must be evaluated for their effect on horizontal
genetically engineered organisms, but kinds as yet
gene transfer: intrinsic factors, such as the host
unanticipated should be able to be tested in the
organism, gene, vector, and construct, that are
environment without unreasonable risks. The cur-
elements of the molecular techniques used to cre-
rent range of genetically engineered organisms
ate the engineered organism; and various extrin-
seems to have a low probability of creating prob-
sic factors that are elements of ecology, includ-
lems, particularly via the horizontal transfer of
ing survival, potential nontarget recipients,
genetic information to nontarget recipients. How-
density, and selection pressure. Several methods
ever, this does not mean there are no risks at all.
can now be used not only to monitor survival of
Careful regulation and enforcement can guard
introduced organisms and genes, but also to re-
against potential environmental or public health
duce or prevent horizontal gene transfer.
problems and protect the biotechnology indus-
Generic factors that can serve as a framework try from the backlash and loss of credibility and
for regulation can be described. Technological ad- confidence that a severe problem could pre-
vances exist or are being developed to protect the cipitate.
CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES
1. Aronson, A. I., Beckman, W., and Dum, P., “Baciilus toIntegrate the Bacillus thurin~”ensis 13elta-
Thurin&”ensis and Related Insect Pathogens,” endotoxin Gene Into the Chromosome of Root-col-
Microbiological Reviews 50:1-24, 1986. onizing I%eudomonads, ” Gene 51:91-96, 1987.
2. Dixon, B., En~”neered Organisms in the Environ- 8. Obukowicz, M. G., Perlak, F. J., Kusano-Kretzmer,
ment.- Scientific Issues, Lay Summary (Washington, K., Mayer, et al., ‘(Tn5 Mediated Integration of the
DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1985). Delta -Endotoxin Gene From Bacillus thuringiensis
3. Lindemann, J., Warren, G.J., and Suslow, T.V., “Ice- Into the Chromosome of Root Colonizing Pseu-
Nucleating Bacteria, ” Science 231:536, 1986. domonades,” .Journa) of Bacteriology 168:982-989,
4. Molin, S., Klemm, P., Poulsen, L. K., et al., “Condi- 1986.
tional Suicide System for Containment of Bacteria 9, Odum, E.P., “Biotechnology and the Biosphere)” Sci-
and Plasmids, ” BioTechnolo~ 5:1315-18, 1987. ence 229:1338, 1985.
5. National Academy of Sciences, “Introduction of Re- 10. Omenn, G. S., “Controlled Testing and Monitoring
combinant DNA-Engineered Organisms Into the Methods for Micro-organisms,” The Suitability and
Environment: Key Issues” (Washington, DC: Na- Applicability of Risk Assessment Methods for Envi-
tional Academy Press, 1987). ronmental Applications of Biotechnology, V.T.
6. National Pesticide Information Retrieval Service, Covello, and J.R. Fiksel (eds.) (Washington, DC: Na-
‘(Data Bank Search on Baci]]us thuringiensis Based tional Science Foundation, 1985).
Pesticide Products, ” personal communication from 11. Ow, D. W,, Wood, K. V., DeLuca, M., et al., “Tran-
James White to L.V. Giddings, OTA, Apr. 16, 1987. sient and Stable Expression of the Firefly Lucifer-
7. Obukowicz, M. G., Perlak, F. J., Bolten, S. L., et al., ase Gene in Plant Cells and Transgenic Plants, ” Sci-
“IS050L as a Non-self Transposable Vector Used ence 234:856-859, 1986.
82
12. Shaw, P.D., “Plasmid Ecology, ’’l%nt-A4icrobe Inter- 14. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
actions—Molecular and Genetic Perspectives, T. Commercial Biotechnology: An International Anal-
Kosuge and E. W. Nester (eds.) (New York, NY: Mac- ysis (Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1984).
Millan Publishing Co., 1986). 15. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
13. Stotzky, G., and Babich, H., “Fate of Genetically- Impacts of Applied Genetics: Micro ~rganisms,
Engineered Microbes in Natural Environments,’’Re- Plants, and Am”mals, OTA-HR-132 (Washington, DC:
combinant DNA Technical Bulletin 7(4):163-188, U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1981).
1984.
Chapter 5
Ecological Considerations
In 1987, a report by the National Academy of occurred, however, they might be felt at any
Sciences stated “an urgent need for the scientific level—from the local population, through the com-
community to provide guidance to both investi- munity and ecosystem, to fundamental ecologi-
gators and regulators in evaluating planned in- cal processes —although the probability of such
troductions of modified organisms from an eco- disruptions decreases as their severity increases.
logical perspective” (39). This chapter incorporates A number of ecological questions are explored in
such a perspective and focuses on a number of this chapter, including the relevance of experi-
ecological issues relevant to the planned introduc- ence with introduced exotic organisms, the types
tion of genetically engineered organisms into the of disruptions to natural populations that could
environment. take place, and the potential for effects on eco-
system processes of energy flow and nutrient cy-
The major concern associated with planned in- cling. Review of the data bearing on these ques-
troductions stems from the potential for problem- tions suggests that there is some reason to be
atic ecological effects that are unintended or un-
cautious, but no cause for alarm at the pros-
foreseen. With appropriate regulatory oversight, pects of planned introductions of genetically
such effects are unlikely to follow from any engineered organisms into the environment.
planned introductions in the near future. If they
85
— -——_—
86
attention and may inadvertently be excluded from turbed. Most ecologists agree that successful in-
the total of successful introductions. The economic troductions, while representing only a small por-
significance of those introductions that were noted tion of the total usually have some effect on
is further broken down in table 5-1. communities in the” host environment.
One-fifth of the introductions studied had some Introductions into natural systems are most
beneficial impact; another fifth had no significant often successful where the host system has been
impact. Two-fifths (41 percent) of the successful previously disturbed (i.e., by human action or nat-
introductions were of insects that turned out to ural catastrophe such as volcanic eruption, severe
be minor pests. About one in five introductions storms, or floods) or is a “simple” or “disharmonic”
had severe, negative consequences (17 percent). system such as those found on oceanic islands.
The majority of these negative effects were un- Introductions with the most serious consequences
expected, because no such impacts were known usually involve host systems or organisms that
in the introduced species home ranges; the new meet one or more of the following criteria (45):
environment apparently lacked constraints that ● Environments lacking potential preda=
operated in the original areas, If more had been
I tors, natural competitors, or similar checks
known about the life histories of these insects,
are vulnerable to disruption. Known exam-
the kind of effects that followed their introduc-
ples of such disruption include herbivores
tion to the new environment might have been an-
ticipated. (e.g., goats) introduced to islands, or gener-
alist organisms that feed or prey from high
I
One review of the history of plant and animal positions in a food chain, and are thus un-
introductions (57) concluded that in nearly 80 per- likely to be checked by predation themselves
cent of the cases examined (678 of 854), introduced (e.g., mongooses, rats, or cats).
species had “no effect whatsoever on species in ● Ecological generalists, or species that can
the resident community, or on the structure and exploit a variety of resources for differing re-
function of the community.” Other, more critical quirements during their life cycles, are par-
reviews of the same primary data dispute this con- ticularly capable of invading and colonizing.
clusion, attributing it to a peculiar interpretation Examples include organisms that can produce
and a restricted reading of the data (16,23). Al- offspring by laying eggs in many different
though debate continues, the ecological literature substances, and predators or parasites that
is replete with examples of communities perturbed can prey upon or parasitize a variety of prey
by introductions, or of introductions invading and or hosts.
I
further disrupting environments previously dis- ● Disturbed communities, or relatively “sim-
I ple” or genetically homogeneous communi-
ties, are especially vulnerable to any invad-
Table 5-1 .—Economic Significance of Insect Species ing species that might exploit available
Introduced to the United States, 1640-1977 resources more effectively.
Estimated total native insect fauna. . ..104,000 species These principles were abstracted from studies
Total insect introductions of natural systems. Although they illustrate situ-
(1 percent of native fauna) . . . . . . . . . 1,379
ations that are most likely to result in problems,
Beneficial introductions:
Deliberate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
and therefore to be avoided where possible, their
Accidental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 applicability to the majority of planned introduc-
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 (20.80/o) tions is quite limited.
Economically unimportant introductions 290 (21.030/o)
Introductions of Agrcultural
Minor pests introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 (41.04°/0)
Important pests introduced: Varieties
Expected to be pests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 (5.80/o)
Not expected to be pests . . . . . . . . . . 156 (11.310/0) Most of the introductions of genetically engi-
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 (17.1 1 0/0) neered organisms planned for the foreseeable fu-
SOURCE. R I Sailer. “Our Immiarant Insect Fauna.” ESA Bu//etin 24:3-11, 1978. ture are intended for agricultural settings. In such
87
I
POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON POPULATION OR COMMUNITY
i STRUCTURE OR INTERACTIONS
t
I
Much of the concern over planned introductions reached it only at low levels); and
of genetically engineered organisms stems from 4. genuine novelties.
the difficulty of predicting reliably the conse-
Slightly modified’ forms of indigenous organisms
quences of any particular ecological perturbation.
have a relatively high (but still low) probability
In all cases, the ability to predict depends on the
of competing effectively with natives and thus of
degree to which the organisms and the initial con-
perturbing populations of closely related or con-
ditions involved are understood, and in some cases specific individuals. Most deliberate releases for
this is considerable. But the complexity of eco-
the foreseeable future are likely to be of this sort.
system processes and the numbers of different
Despite some exceptions, it remains true that the
species even in simple systems means that there majority of mutations or genetic changes are
will always be uncertainties. Nevertheless, labora- more likely to have negative than positive con-
tory studies, greenhouse and small scale fieldtests, sequences for the competitive abilities of engi-
and historical experience all suggest it is possible
neered organism& Thus researchers working to
to anticipate the likely consequences of introduc-
produce organisms for planned introductions are
tions planned for the near future (over the next
, generally more concerned about the problems of
5 years).
enhancing the competitive abilities of engineered
The potential ecological impacts most likely to organisms so that they will survive to perform
be noticed early involve effects on indigenous their intended functions. When genetic changes
organisms. Such effects are more likely to be seen are directly aimed at enhancing competitive or
at the population or community level than at the survival abilities the review process should ex-
level of ecosystem process. Engineered organisms plicitly recognize this, analyze the selective forces
that might cause such effects may be grouped into involved, and review the potential implications.
four categories (29):
Organisms existing naturally in the target envi-
1. slightly modified forms of native organisms; ronment, if they require continual supplemental
2. organisms existing naturally in the target envi- support, are even less likely to cause negative ef-
ronment but requiring continual supplemen- fects. The need for continual supplementation pro-
tal support; vides an effective means of control: stop the sup-
3. organisms that exist naturally elsewhere in plementation, and growth or function of the
the environment, but that previously have not introduced organism ceases. It would be logical
reached the target environment (or have for planned introductions of this sort to be most
89
common in agricultural settings, but few are an- sides. Fortunately, few planned introductions en-
ticipated. Researchers and farmers are trying to visioned in the near future fall into such disputed
minimize the need for continual replenishment categories and it is broadly agreed that, for the
(e.g., fertilizers for crop plants), not increase it. foreseeable future, most engineered organisms
This desire is one of the factors that has driven will not be truly novel.
agriculture to exploit biotechnology, in the hope A clearer picture of the potentially negative con-
that products can be engineered to be easily man-
sequences most likely from planned introductions
aged and self-sustaining once introduced. The can be gained from a review of the types of intro-
need for continual supplementation might be ex- ductions anticipated indifferent categories of com-
ploited, however, to help control certain applica-
munities.
tions. But it must be realized that natural selec-
tion would be continually operating in ways that
would decrease the effectiveness of this type of Plant Communities
control, favoring genetic variants free of the im-
posed limitation. The largest number of modifications to plants
planned for introduction in the foreseeable fu-
The introduction of organisms that exist natu-
ture involves the insertion of genes to provide her-
rally elsewhere, but that have not previously
bicide resistance. Most of the major companies
reached the target environment, presents the
working in agricultural biotechnology are mount-
highest probability of disrupting a community or
ing efforts in this direction, studying crops for
constellation of species in a given area. This cate-
which herbicides are useful in restricting com-
gory bears the most similarity to the introduction
petition from weeds. Such crops include tobacco
of exotics, and is most likely to result in what have
(more valuable, however, as a well understood
been called “cascade effects” (discussed in the sec-
and malleable experimental system than as an end
tion on insect communities). And although most
product for agricultural use in and of itself), toma-
introductions do not result in such severe effects,
toes, corn, rape, soybeans, and cotton.
dramatic and far-reaching disruptions of commu-
nity structure can take place. Especially here, Introducing herbicide resistance genes into
though, perspective is important. Although some plants may bring ecological as well as economic
planned introductions are indeed intended to al- benefits by increasing the use of safer herbicides
low growth in environments new to the organism, and allowing their more precise administration.
appropriate regulatory oversight should minimize Success could lead to significant increases in mar-
risks. One example of a beneficial introduction ket share for particular herbicides, some of which,
of this kind would be specific insect predators as however, are associated with significant environ-
biocontrol measures aimed at severe pests. In the mental disadvantages.
past, biocontrol introductions that have been pre-
Most of the herbicides to which resistance is
ceded by critical review have often been remark-
being engineered (e.g., glyphosate or sulfonylurea)
ably successful, with negative consequences rare,
are environmentally “soft’’ -in other words, they
but sometimes substantial (25,44).
are not highly toxic to humans or vertebrates. In
The effects of genuine novelties are the most many cases they affect only plants, since their tar-
difficult to predict because directly relevant ex- get sites are metabolic pathways unique to plants.
perience is lacking. One of the chief problems here Some of these herbicides degrade within days or
is the lack of agreement on what would consti- weeks to benign end products such as carbon di-
tute a genuine novelty. Some contend that insert- oxide and water. Work is also being done on in-
ing a gene into an organism that would thus ob- ducing resistance to longer lasting, or more toxic,
tain an entirely new function or property, as for herbicides, such as atrazine. Successful research
example, Monsanto’s Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) in such programs might well lead to increased use
toxin containing pseudomonas, would constitute of some herbicides with less desirable character-
a novelty. There is no general agreement on this, istics. The particular cost/benefit estimates will
however, worthy arguments being raised by both vary with each herbicide and its qualities. Con-
63-220 0 - 88 - 4 : QL 3
93
sideration of such factors might be more appro- formulations since the first product was licensed
priate in reviews for product licensing than in the in 1962 (66). As indicated in chapter 4, it is pres-
regulation of field tests, but could be included at ently available in 13 different formulations (e.g.,
any stage. powder or soluble concentrate) in over 410 differ-
ent registered products. Total quantities that have
The major concern with herbicide resistance
been administered are in the hundreds of thou-
genes is that they might spread into related, weedy
sands of tons, with ill effects on humans, ver-
species, most likely through sexual reproduction
tebrates, or nontarget organisms virtually un-
(10). The potential drawbacks are obvious: World- known. (For one of the rare citations of a human
wide economic losses to weeds are still measured
problem associated with BT use, see (47).)
in billions of dollars per year. While this is a greater
problem outside the United States, it is neither Yet there is still some reason for concern. Large-
a new problem nor one unique to genetically engi- scale applications of toxin+ obtaining plants or
neered plants. In many cases such existing prob- novel microbial delivery vehicles might promote
lems are managed by rotating either crops or her- the evolution of insect resistance to this currently
bicides. safe and effective agent by increasing the distri-
bution and persistence of the toxin in the envi-
Researchers are also trying to insert pest resis-
ronment. Delta-endotoxin is extremely effective
tance genes directly into plants, which could re-
against its target organisms. Evolutionary biolo-
duce the need for pesticides. Several companies
gists would say it exerts a strong selection pres-
are pursuing such applications, but the principles
sure. This means that given persistent exposure
are exemplified by the efforts of Rohm & Haas.
to the toxin, particularly in sublethal concentra-
Successful field tests have already taken place (see
tions, target organisms could be expected even-
ch. 3 and app. A) with tobacco plants engineered
tually to evolve tolerance or resistance to delta-
to carry the delta-endotoxin gene from BT.
endotoxin through natural selection.
Different varieties of the toxin (derived from
Because the toxin is so unstable, and sporadi-
different strains of B. thuringiensis) are poison-
cally used, it generally does not persist long
ous to the larvae of some herbivorous insects, pri-
enough for resistance to evolve. The BT toxin is
marily certain Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies)
a biodegradable protein, sensitive to temperature,
and Coleoptera (beetles). The toxin’s action de-
moisture, and especially to ultraviolet (UV) light,
pends on fundamental biochemical characteris- which causes its rapid decomposition. Biotechnol-
tics (pH, membrane permeability, etc.) of the lar-
ogy could change this by packaging the toxin in
val digestive tract in these insects. As the larvae
new vehicles (e.g., the Mycogen product; see app.
mature, and their digestive tracts develop, they
A) placing it in new locations (e.g., inside host plant
become less sensitive to the toxin. Young larvae
tissues, as in the Rohm & Haas product) or both
are most sensitive.
(e.g., the Monsanto product) where it would be
The field test showed that the delta-endotoxin protected from degradation. The toxin could per-
gene is expressed in engineered tobacco plants. sist in the environment long enough to allow nat-
The toxin produced in plant tissues conferred es- ural selection to produce resistant insects. This
sentially complete protection against predation by scenario is supported by at least one report of
the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. This cater- evolved resistance to BT toxin (34), in which seeds
pillar is a common agricultural pest on a variety stored in silos are dusted with BT. In this setting,
of crops, and several companies are working on where the toxin is protected from UV degrada-
protecting different crop species by this or a sim- tion, resistance in the insect pest has been ob-
ilar technique. served to evolve rapidly, and in more than one
instance.
There appears to be little, if any, cause to be
alarmed at the direct consequences of this com- This problem is less one of product safety, how-
pound being present in large quantities in the envi- ever, than of useful product life. The declining
ronment. The BT toxin has been used in various agricultural market for BT in recent years, as it
91
has been replaced by promising new compounds variation (at least in the genes controlling pest
like the synthetic pyrethroids, makes it unlikely defenses) of the host population would likely lead
that loss of BT as an agricultural pesticide would to a slower adaptive response in the pest.
lead to an increased reliance on older, more dan-
Increasing genetic variation in agricultural pop-
gerous chemical pesticides. But a consideration
ulations could be accomplished by mixing geneti-
of possible responses to a potential problem such
cally pest-resistant strains of crop plants with
as this is illustrative.
strains not so protected. Modeling studies show
Because the evolution of resistance is a prod- that as simple a change as planting a mixture of
uct of selection pressure created by the chronic 50 percent resistant and 50 percent unprotected
presence of the toxin, either when or where it seed in place of 100 percent resistant seed would
is not needed (e.g., in roots or stems, in addition substantially extend the time it takes for the pest
to the leaves that are eaten), the problem might to mount an adaptive response (32). The same prin-
be solved by limiting toxin distribution to the times ciple also applies to other host/pathogen relation-
and places it is really needed. One way to do this ships, such as wheat/rust or corn/blight, or in-
would be to limit the expression of the BT gene tegrated pest management in general. Indeed, the
to only the tissues subject to damage by herbivor- relationship could be extended to planting crops
ous insects. The system could be refined further that vary with respect to their tolerance to envi-
by making gene expression inducible, so that toxin ronmental factors (drought, cold) in areas where
production in the plant tissues is triggered by dam- wide annual fluctuations in these parameters oc-
age caused by herbivorous insects (27). This strat- cur. The net effect could well be an increase in
egy would require the insertion of precisely con- crop yields or productivity, although most often
trolled regulatory sequences along with the BT there is a trade-off between yield and the degree
toxin gene, an approach that is beyond the reach of resistance or tolerance. Just as complex com-
of current techniques. But with increased under- munities seem best to resist the perturbing effects
standing of the mechanisms of gene regulation, of introduced species (17), so might genetically
it may be possible in the near future (21). complex agricultural systems better resist many
types of potential environmental challenge.
A second approach, while not so obvious, em-
ploys tactics that can be used effectively and im- Other types of genetic modifications to plants,
mediately, though the logistics of this approach such as altering photosynthetic pathways to in-
may complicate existing methods of planting and crease efficiency and production rates, or modi-
harvesting somewhat. It draws upon studies in fying seed components to resist insect predation
game theory of evolutionary stable strategies and loss during storage, may well have environ-
(12,13,14,58). Some biologists who have studied mental effects of an unforeseen nature. But much
the relationships between pathogens or pests and larger changes in photosynthetic rates or biomass
their hosts feel that pathogens or pests may adapt productivity can be achieved more easily by plant-
more quickly to the defenses of agricultural crops ing different crops, something that takes place
than to those of hosts in the natural environment constantly without review for potential environ-
(1,32). The key seems to lie in the differences in mental impacts. It hardly seems logical, therefore,
genetic variation in the two populations. Varia- to review engineered plants for such an effect
tion is higher in natural than in agricultural pop- when traditional agricultural crops are not sub-
ulations, because the latter often involve huge jected to such review.
areas of genetically homogeneous host plants. The
selection pressures in agricultural systems are Insect Communities
more often even and continual, in marked con-
trast to the spatial, temporal, and other variables A great deal of research in genetically altered
that complicate selection pressures in the natu- plants and microbes focuses on ways to combat
ral environment. These even, continual selection insect pests—a major destroyer of both field and
pressures are much easier to adapt to. Thus, any- stored crops. Relatively little work is presently be-
thing that could be done to increase the genetic ing done with insects per se. Some plant modifi-
92
cations for controlling insects were discussed in specific for different pests, including the cabbage
the preceding section. This section describes two looper (a moth larva) and the pine sawfly, both
representative modifications to insect-targeted mi- of which threaten agriculture and forestry in the
crobes: those intended to reduce crop losses to United Kingdom.
the black cutworm, and modifications to viruses During 1986, researchers at the Institute of
that parasitize certain insect species. Virology in Oxford concluded a preliminary field
Significant corn crop losses each year are at- test of a cabbage-looper virus. To track the re-
tributable to one pest species—the black cutworm. leased virus, the researchers inserted specific,
This lepidopteran larva feeds on the roots of corn marker DNA sequences into the engineered organ-
plants. To combat this pest, researchers are ex- ism. Similar tests are planned for a virus specific
ploiting both its sensitivity to the delta-endotoxin for the pine sawfly.
from B. thuringiensis and its narrow host range
Scientists hope that learning more about the
of corn roots. Their work involves engineered ver- genetics of host specificity in such viruses will en-
sions of the common bacterium Pseudomonas able them to target viruses precisely to specific
fluorescent.
pests. But the difficulties of tracking a virus in
Some strains of P. fluorescent live in the rhizo- the environment, the possibilities for dispersal,
sphere formed by the interaction between corn the ability of viruses to remain infective for long
roots and associated filamentous fungi. Scientists periods, and the possibility of mutations disrupting
at Monsanto have used a specific transposable ele- the host range of released forms must be consid-
ment, Tn5, to insert the delta-endotoxin gene into ered before wholesale applications are under-
the chromosome of this bacterium. This transpos- taken. When asked about the degree of risk at-
able element is not common in nature (6,41). Mon- tending such work, one researcher responded,
santo scientists have disarmed it in two inde- My guess is no problem, but there are a vari-
pendent ways to make further movement after ety of constructs possible, and some could have
insertion unlikely (41). In addition, frameshift mu- broader effects than desired . . . One can con-
tations were inserted to further decrease the pos- sider many scenarios. In the worst case (also the
sibility of horizontal gene transfer due to rever- most improbable), the situation could not be cor-
sion or complementation. rected (36).
Greenhouse tests suggest that if corn seeds are One of the least predictable effects of environ-
coated with the altered Pseudomonas, the bac- mental alterations has been termed the “cascade
terium will colonize the emerging roots upon ger- effect .“ Such effects are not likely to be common
mination. Preliminary results also indicate that consequences of planned introductions, and quite
the engineered bacteria do not disperse signifi- unlikely to be associated with small-scale fieldtests.
cantly beyond the rhizosphere habitat in which But they are known to have been associated with
they are naturally found, nor do they seem to per- some large-scale environmental activities in the
sist beyond the end of the corn growing season. past, so a brief description is in order. The term
All these factors, coupled with the known, safe ‘(cascade effect” describes a community disrup-
record of the BT toxin, suggest that this environ- tion in which a perturbation in numbers (or even
mental application is safe enough to be field tested loss) of one species triggers reverberations
on a small scale. Such a test would measure sur- throughout the community, These effects could
vival, dispersal, and efficacy under realistic field alter predator/prey relationships or significantly
conditions, and could be expected to provide use- change community structure even if ecosystem
ful lessons for other microbial applications. processes themselves are not altered.
Another early microbial application aimed at in- Cascade effects can be both surprising and coun-
sect pests uses the host specificity of a class of terintuitive. One example can be found in the case
viruses known as baculoviruses. These have rela- of a World Health Organization program to control
tively narrow host ranges, usually one or a few insect pests. The program used large-scale appli-
closely related insect species. Different viruses are cations of DDT in Borneo to kill house flies. The
93
local lizard population, however, could not dis- altered to prevent plant damage by herbivorous
tinguish between flies that died of natural causes, insects (as just discussed), protect crops from frost
and were safe to eat, and those that succumbed damage, increase nitrogen available to plants, and,
to the spraying program, and therefore were not. eventually, to degrade toxic wastes (covered later
Large numbers of geckos ate the flies and died, in this chapter). These introductions may take
as did cats that ate the poisoned geckos. The re- place either in limited agricultural settings or in
duction in the cat population allowed rat num- broadcast environmental applications.
bers to rise, Stored food supplies suffered, and
The greater concern over planned microbial in-
the increased numbers of rats brought an increase
troductions has less to do with a higher probabil-
in the numbers of rat pest species. The result: an ity of risk than with greater uncertainty about
outbreak of bubonic plague, a public health prob-
some factors in microbial ecology and the require-
lem that would not normally be expected to re-
ments of monitoring or tracking that are pecu-
sult from a program of insect eradication (30. liar to microbes. Extensive experience with past
Although such chains of events are almost microbial introductions does not suggest that po-
wholly irrelevant to considerations of field-test tential problems are worse than those associated
safety, they should be kept in mind when the large- with plants or animals. But few of the microbes
scale applications that will follow are contem- living in soils can be cultured in the lab, and little
plated. It should also be noted that the negative is known about them or their relationships be-
consequences of the house-fly eradication pro- yond the broad outlines of morphology and appar-
gram resulted from an accumulation in the food ent function. Microbial ecologists do know, how-
chain of an enduring, toxic compound. Wide- ever, that there is a high degree of functional
spread applications of genetically engineered redundancy among members of microbial com-
organisms are generally expected to reduce reli- munities, a redundancy that should act to miti-
ance on compounds of this sort. Also, most other gate any general consequences of perturbing a
examples of cascade effects involve perturbations particular microbial population, although some
of natural, not agricultural systems. Great care limited communities (e.g., degraders of lignin) may
must be taken in extrapolating from nature to the be less protected by such redundancy. Further-
artificial environments found in agriculture. more, a substantial literature suggests that micro-
Nevertheless, large-scale applications of insecti- bial systems are resilient in the face of perturba-
cides have sometimes increased the numbers of tions, and that it is often difficult to produce a
insect pests when beneficial insects are eliminated measurable impact, even by design, on such pop-
along with the pests (35). ulations.
Examples of cascade effects resulting from use Developing environmental applications with mi-
of a chemical pesticide bear little relation to the crobes affords certain advantages over working
problems most likely with planned introductions with plants or animals. Enormous populations
of genetically engineered organisms. They do, (numbering in the billions) can be studied over
however, illustrate that complex relationships gov- hundreds of generations on a rapid time scale.
ern the interplay of organisms in ecosystems— On the other hand, microbes present some unique
relationships that might not be comprehended problems. They are microscopic, and the tech-
with cursory review, and that are not always im- niques for tracking their movements, distribution,
mediately apparent. and numbers are often more involved, or more
tedious and expensive, than for plants or animals.
Microbial Communities Microbes, particularly those in soil, can be dif-
ficult to detect. The most sensitive available tech-
Although some concern is raised over possible niques for sampling populations, based on detect-
consequences of introducing engineered animals ing microbial DNA, are difficult or impossible to
or plants, greater public apprehension is associ- apply if the DNA to be tested is taken from fewer
ated with possible uses of engineered microbes than a thousand cells, Smaller numbers—as low
(ch. 3). Planned applications include microbes as 100 cells per cubic centimeter—may be assayed
94
microbes are not intractable, and a great deal of Advanced Genetic Sciences Researcher Julianne
relevant historical experience can be studied. Lindemann spraying “ice-minus” bacteria on strawberry
plants in test plot on April 24, 1987. Protective clothing
Genetic alterations to microbes for specific envi- was required by the California Department of Health
ronmental purposes are many and various. This Services. Note reporters and onlookers in immediate
background where coffee and donuts were
section outlines two not covered elsewhere in this consumed without hesitation.
report. The first—the application of “ice-minus”
bacteria to crop plants to protect against frost
damage–involves what was one of the more con- out such nuclei, water does not generally freeze
tentious of the early applications for permission at 32 “F. Rather, it supercools to between 5 and
to field test, though for reasons other than the 100 below the “normal” freezing point before the
scientific questions involved (see ch. 3). The sec- formation of ice crystals begins to take place.
ond, involving the inoculation of crops with en-
Agricultural losses to frost damage each year
hanced nitrogen-fixing bacteria, has been less con-
are variable but significant. Some estimates place
troversial.
the average annual loss at $1.6 billion in the United
The technical details of the ice-minus application States, and $14 billion worldwide (15). Most of this
are simple. Some bacteria contain, as a compo- loss results from frosts that take place near har-
nent of the cellular membrane, a protein encoded vest time, or near flower-budding time in spring.
by a single gene in the bacterial chromosome. This Part of it might be avoidable if some protection
protein can act as an efficient nucleus for the for- could be provided against snap frosts, as opposed
mation of ice crystals on the surfaces of plant to hard freezes, because hard freezes are uncom-
leaves or blossoms where the bacteria live. With- mon during the growing seasons of most crops.
95
tential for such consequences from other strate- inoculations with different varieties of nitrogen-
gies for reducing or eliminating INA + bacteria fixing bacteria suggests that far-reaching or neg-
in agriculture, such as the use of chemical bac- ative environmental consequences are quite un-
tericide. Several significant uncertainties in these likely, though this question is explored in more
analyses could be resolved, however, by further detail later in this chapter.
research and experimental studies.
Some individuals believe other approaches to
In another planned introduction of engineered nitrogen fixation may lead even more quickly to
microbes, rhizobial bacteria are being studied in practical improvements. This feeling stems partly
an effort to increase nitrogen fixation in soil, and from the fact that nitrogen fixation is an energy-
thus to decrease reliance on costly fertilizers. Sci- intensive process. Sufficient energy may not be
entists at BioTechnica International (Cambridge, available under most conditions to sustain ap-
MA) have engineered a strain of Rhizobium preciable increases in nitrogen fixation by micro-
meliloti, symbiotic on alfalfa roots, to increase its organisms residing on or around root surfaces.
production of nitrogen. This has been accom- It is also true that bacteria that are good modula-
plished by increasing the number of promoter se- tors or colonizers of roots also tend not to be the
quences that regulate the activity of genes involved most efficient fixers of nitrogen, though there is
in nitrogen fixation metabolism, Greenhouse tests tremendous variation among naturally existing
suggest possible increases of available nitrogen strains.
as high as 17 percent, and though field tests were
originally planned for 1987, they were later post- Improving the energy efficiency of these bac-
poned until 1988. A long history of agricultural teria is, of course, one object of research. But re-
I
I
i
97
search efforts might profitably be invested in im- hormonal system. The fish fail to mature sexu-
proving the ability of nitrogen-fixing microbes to ally and remain sterile throughout their lives. This
withstand the stresses encountered in their frees them from the normal cycle of growth, matu-
rhizobial environments and in the processes of ration, sexual reproduction (spawning), and death
storage and agricultural inoculation, Most bacte- that usually limits their lifespan. Because these
ria now marketed as inoculants fare poorly un- fish fail to spawn and die, they are expected to
der these conditions, especially in the tropics, with continue to live and grow, eventually reaching rec-
the result that most attempted inoculations de- ord sizes.
liver only a small fraction of the intended microbes
Salmonid fish are among the top predators in
to the application site. Research in these areas whatever community they inhabit. So initially it
might dramatically improve the success of inocu-
may appear that the planned introduction of these
lation techniques while effectively exploiting the
fish would violate a cardinal principle mentioned
existing reservoir of variation among naturally earlier: Do not introduce polyphagous species, par-
occurring rhizobial bacteria in different environ-
ticularly if they occupy a high position in a food
ments (2,3). chain (45). But these fisheries are already man-
aged by humans. Even under generous assump-
Aquatic Communities tions about the survival of released fingerlings,
the resulting adults are unlikely to number more
Work on altering aquatic community species is
than several hundred among stocked populations
being pursued in a number of areas. Potentially that number in the millions (33). Furthermore, the
fruitful lines of investigation involve fisheries bi- same property that causes these fish to reach such
ology and aquiculture. At least two different re- large sizes prevents them from reproducing. It
search groups are exploring methods to enhance is impossible that any environment will ever con-
the production of “trophy” salmon in the Great tain these fish except through planned stocking.
Lakes region and the Pacific Northwest (see app. Careful monitoring of the fish’s release and growth
A). Under a flexible definition of biotechnology, rates should help to avoid or correct serious un-
this research may qualify for consideration in this anticipated effects.
report, or it may not be considered to differ sig-
nificantly from past fisheries practice. Other work with aquatic communities focuses
on marine algae, to enhance the rates at which
The technique used to try to produce the tro-
they produce substances useful in food prepara-
phy salmon is called “heat shock.” During an early,
tion, such as carrageenan or agar (see app. A).
sensitive stage of embryonic development, salmon
Some aquatic algae have also been considered as
eggs are briefly subjected to unusually high tem-
potential agents to extract toxic compounds or
peratures (38 degrees Celsius): temperatures high
heavy metals from aqueous solution (59). It might
enough to disrupt some metabolic processes, but
even be possible to exploit algae for mining or
not so high as to kill the developing fish embryo.
mineral recovery operations. But most of these
This environmental insult disrupts normal cell di-
applications involve aquatic plants that function
vision, causing a spontaneous doubling of the chro-
in their environments as primary producers. Ge-
mosomal number in each cell of the developing
netic alterations to improve or adjust their rates
embryo.
of activity could well affect other members of
Chromosomal doubling triggers a series of phys- aquatic communities. Such possible effects are dis-
iological effects, starting with a disruption of the cussed in the following section.
processes of organisms and the geological proc- the immediate mechanism by which nutrients cy-
esses by which minerals are derived, distributed, cle and energy flows through an ecosystem.
and moved in the physical world. For example, The major factors driving ecosystem processes
the availability of minerals liberated from rocks are the production of energy and the conversion
is affected by living things (especially plants or
of carbon into biological forms by photosynthe-
microbes) as they influence rates of erosion. sis, or carbon fixation. Where carbon is rate-
As a way of reducing this daunting complexity limiting, it places an absolute upper limit on the
to manageable proportions, some ecologists de- biomass a system can support. Under such cir-
vote more study to the distribution and movement cumstances, competition for carbon is intense, as
of a small number of vital elements and minerals for example among soil microbes. Plants produce
than to the activities and attributes of living crea- most of the biologically accessible forms of carbon.
tures. The most important of these vital elements Decomposers-organisms that degrade plant
are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur. material—play the major role in moving carbon
These elements are “rate-limiting.” In other words, from one reservoir into another (e.g., from one
the amount of these elements in biologically acces- plant, through decay, into another). Most decom-
sible forms determines the total tissue of living poses are invertebrates (insects, nematodes, and
organisms (biomass) that can be assembled in the so on) or microbes (bacteria and fungi), living pri-
ecosystem. (Phosphorous and sulfur are covered marily near the soil surface in what is termed the
in detail in 9,22.) Carbon and nitrogen are dis- “litter layer” of detritus that accumulates from
cussed in this section. above, or just below, in the topsoil. Larger herbi-
Ecosystem processes are the vehicles by which vores, or vertebrates, play a smaller role, usually
these rate-limiting elements and their different assisted by an intestinal flora of symbiotic mi-
molecular forms move, or cycle in ecosystems. crobes.
The two major ecosystem processes are nutri- Physical parameters, such as climate, soil qual-
ent cycles and energy flow. These processes can ity, and available moisture, affect the distribution
be, and sometimes are, considered separately. This of both plants and decomposes. As a result, a
report will consider them together, and deal with range of ecosystems—different communities of
them primarily in the language of mineral or nu- plants and decomposes, associated with particu-
trient cycles. lar ecological qualities–has evolved. Table 5-3 il-
lustrates several different terrestrial ecosystems
Every time an element is altered from one and presents data indicating the patterns of car-
molecular form to another, or exchanged between
bon storage and movement in them.
different organisms, some chemical bonds are bro-
ken and others formed. Each of these actions ei- Nitrogen is the nutrient most often cited as rate-
ther consumes or liberates energy. The integra- limiting in terrestrial ecosystems. Although one
tion of countless individual events of this sort is form of nitrogen makes up nearly 80 percent of
the atmosphere, biologically accessible forms are (legumes), often in small granules or nodules at-
more limited. tached to the roots. In essence, they deliver fixed
nitrogen directly to the host plant. The biochemi-
The nitrogen cycle—illustrated in figure 5-l— cal pathway resulting in nitrogen fixation is large,
is the most complex major nutrient cycle because complex, and energetically expensive to operate,
the element can exist in so many qualitatively involving at least 17 different structural genes,
different molecular forms, Abiotic factors and the with associated regulatory sequences. This genetic
actions of living things influence the production
package exists in similar form in all rhizobial bac-
and persistence of these forms.
teria, an evolutionary conservation suggesting that
While plants can absorb gaseous nitrogen or ni- the pathway is quite important to the bacteria.
trogen dissolved in water through their roots, mi- Scientists trying to enhance nitrogen fixation face
crobes provide the major pathway for nitrogen the formidable task of improving the performance
incorporation into living material. Specifically, of a genetic sequence that has been refined by
rhizobial bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fix- natural selection for billions of years. Neverthe-
ation in agriculture. These microbes live in very less, researchers are making the attempt, even
close association with the roots of certain plants trying to transfer the complex of nitrogen fixa-
immobilization
sedimentation
inorganic)
The nitrogen cycle: processes in terrestrial and aquatic systems. The microbially mediated processes include mineralization,
vitrification, denitrification, immobilization, and N-fixation.
SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1988.
100
tion genes into plants to enable them to produce f) Increased aquatic vitrification and
their own nitrogen without relying on associated denitrification rates and gaseous emis-
bacteria. sions to the atmosphere.
Some data suggest such consequences are not
If the nitrogen-fixing abilities of rhizobial bac-
purely hypothetical, that under very special con-
teria were enhanced in such a way as to make
ditions they might actually be likely (63). Gener-
the resultant increase in available nitrogen gen-
ally, however, such a concatenation of conse-
eral throughout the host environment, rather than
restricted to the host plant per se, a variety of quences rests on a series of assumptions. For most
of them to occur, the introduced rhizobia would
environmental consequences might result. The po-
have to move beyond agricultural lands. They
tential consequences of such a successful appli-
would then have to successfully nodulate, or col-
cation are listed here (22), in order of decreasing
onize, wild plants, and provide substantially more
probability.
nitrogen to those wild plants than is already pro-
I.a) Increased leaf and shoot production in vided by native rhizobia, This also requires that
target plants the host specificity of the introduced rhizobia
b) Decreased root growth and biomass would have to change genetically so they could
c) Increased decomposition rates in some infect the wild plants, and the introduced bacte-
systems ria would have to be successful in modulating the
d) Increased ammonification and vitrifica- native plants in competition with native bacteria.
tion in soil As cited above, considerable literature and experi-
e) Increased competition on nonnitrogen- ence demonstrates the remote likelihood of each
fixing plants and alteration of plant com- of these assumptions; to achieve all of them at
munity structure, with reverberations once, the probability is exponentially less likely.
throughout the associated ecological com- Indeed, a review of these assumptions and poten-
munity tial events leads many experts on nitrogen fixa-
2. a) Decreased decomposition rates in some tion to believe it would be difficult to conceive
systems of a planned introduction less likely to have neg-
b) Increased potential for other element ative consequences than introducing engineered
limitations, especially if 2a results varieties of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
c) Altered chemical exchange capacities and Ecosystem processes reflect the sum total of the
pH shifts actions of all living things in the system. Individ-
3. a) Decreased mycorrhizal associations (de- uals concerned about planned introductions of
pendent on 2b) genetically engineered organisms fear applications
b) Shift from carbon-based plant defense to that might affect such fundamental processes as
nitrogen-based defense (or from immobile nitrogen or phosphorous cycles. And although
to mobile defense compounds) basic changes to an ecosystem process would be
c) Altered foliage tissue palatability and her- difficult to accomplish, it might be easier to af-
bivory (dependent on 3b) fect changes in rates of flow of some components
d) Increased terrestrial denitrification rates through a portion of the process. By the time such
and increased emissions of Nitrogen gases effects were noticed, however, a community might
(dependent on 1d and 2c) already have been substantially altered. Accord-
4. a) Increased leaching loss of nitrate ing to two researchers in this field,
b) Increased eutrophication of drainage
water . . . the quality of an environment can change
c) Increased algal production in receiving markedly with no significant change in gross
measures of the rates of processes. Fish produc-
waters tion in two lakes may be the same (as lbs./year)
d) Increased carbon enrichment of aquatic when one produces mostly rainbow trout and the
sediments other mostly carp, but no human would say that
e) Increased anaerobic conditions in aquatic the two lakes are therefore indistinguishable with
habitats regard to fish (9).
101
Attempts to detect such changes in ecosystems posers may also be more vulnerable to perturba-
have led to the study of so-called indicator spe- tions than most microbial communities, because
cies, species more sensitive than other organisms the decomposition of lignin and cellulose (the
to environmental changes (40). structural components that make up from 50 to
90 percent of the biomass of higher plants) is car-
The use of indicator species requires the iden-
ried out by a relatively narrow range of micro-
tification of species that are particularly sensitive
organisms. A disruption of the population dy-
to the environmental parameter of interest—for
namics of one species of decompose, in a limited
example, the presence of toxic compounds or the
community of decomposes made up of only a
abundance of specific nutrients. Indicator species
small number of species, could conceivably have
can give early warning of an impending change,
a significant impact on the community.
allowing preemptive measures to be taken. With-
out such early warnings and preemptive action, In contrast, many other microbially mediated
the task of restoring a disrupted ecosystem is dif- processes are carried out by the members of much
ficult, expensive, and slow, if even possible (38). larger, more diverse, and therefore more buf-
fered, microbial communities. Indeed, no exist-
A better understanding of community relation-
ing evidence indicates that populations even of
ships should make indicator species increasingly
microbial degraders are subject to cascade effects
useful, especially in risk assessment and manage-
following perturbation. Such scenarios are purely
ment. Nevertheless, any planned introduction that
speculative. In fact, some researchers in this area
is likely to alter a fundamental ecosystem proc-
feel the introduction of engineered microbes to
ess should undergo careful scrutiny. None are
help in the degradation of organic pollutants is
planned in the foreseeable future.
sufficiently distant that it need play no role in cur-
Possibly of eventual concern, however, are ap- rent deliberations over the safety of planned in-
plications intended to correct existing serious, gen- troductions, although similar introductions of
erally recognized environmental problems, such naturally occurring organisms are not at all un-
as the presence of toxic chemicals. Naturally occur- common.
ring microbes exist that can degrade many differ- Finally, it is important to keep the possible con-
ent, complex, toxic compounds—herbicides and
sequences of planned introductions of genetically
pesticides, industrial solvents, wood preservatives,
engineered organisms in perspective. As one
plasticizers, dyes, etc. (22,26). Biotechnology re-
group of ecologists has concluded, “Our analyses
searchers are trying to enhance these natural
and remarks to this point may give the impres-
degradative abilities in some microbes and intro-
sion that we are against the release of any geneti-
duce them into others. Success in such efforts
cally altered organisms into the environment, This
could help significantly in decreasing the toxic
is not our view. In fact, we are enthusiastic about
waste problem that promises to be so difficult and
the prospects offered by biotechnological solutions
expensive to resolve (61).
to environmental problems ranging from in-
Cascade effects might be triggered by the struc- creased productivity of agricultural systems, to
tural similarities between naturally occurring the control of pests and pathogens, and the
plant materials and some of the complex organic removal of many chemical toxins from the earth’s
compounds found among toxic wastes. If degrad- soils and waters. We further expect that many,
ers were engineered and introduced without suffi- if not most, environmental applications of biotech-
cient constraints upon their specificity, they could nology can be made into safe and productive ven-
function as ecological generalists, breaking one tures” (28). Risk assessment and management,
of the foremost rules for introducing organisms discussed in chapter 6, are crucial to that under-
into new environments. Communities of decom- taking.
102
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41. Obukowicz, M. G., Perlak, F.J., Kusano-Kretzmer, sonal Changes and Terrestrial Sources of Atmos-
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(cd.), contract report prepared for the Office of ment of the Impact of Large-Scale Applications of
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105
Mueller-Dombois, D., and Matson, P. A., “Biologi- Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
cal Invasion by Mtiyrica fa.va Alters Ecosystem De- personal communications, December 1986 through
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65. White, G., Plant Introduction Officer, Agricultural pathological Society, 1985).
Page ,
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.116
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Table Page
6-1. Types of U.S. Environmental protection Agency Biotechnology Risk
Assessment Projects *****.**,**
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Chapter 6
Risk Assessment
During the 1970s, public concern about the ef- ment recently have become the subject of debate.
fects of technology on the environment and hu- Some scientists perceive some risks associated
man health heightened. As mounting scientific evi- with intentionally introducing these organisms as
dence confirmed that many chemical substances unique. Others believe introducing recombinant
produced adverse effects (both acute and chronic) organisms is no different (and probably safer, be-
on humans and the environment, the government cause scientists constructed them with precision)
established programs to control potential hazards. than introducing nonrecombinant organisms,
protocols and procedures—methods for the assess- which has occurred for millennia.
ment of risks—were developed to enable regula-
Are there unique risks in environmental appli-
tors to evaluate potential hazardous substances.
cations of genetically engineered products? Is ad-
(See ch. 3 for discussion of the regulatory regime
ditional information needed to assess the risks ac-
and public perceptions of these issues. )
curately? Can existing assessment methods (e.g.,
Risk assessment of recombinant DNA technol- for other biological risks, or for chemical risks)
ogy is not new, nor-is risk assessment of biologi- be applied to the planned introductions of genet-
cal products. Nevertheless, questions concerning ically engineered organisms? Are there areas
risk assessment of planned introductions of ge- where available baseline data are sufficient?
neticall y engineered organisms into the environ-
109
110
maintain clear conceptual distinction between the tific underpinnings of risk assessment. T h e
two processes (33). role of the Federal Government in managing the
risks associated with the environmental release
The domains of risk assessment and risk man-
of genetically engineered organisms, an issue pres-
agement of environmental applications of geneti-
ently being analyzed by the General Accounting
cally engineered organisms are often blurred in
Office (15), is beyond the scope of this report. This
debates on this controversy. This chapter fo-
chapter also does not assess the various domains
cuses on risk assessment and, more specifi-
of risk management-e.g., the economic and social
cally, on the first step in the process of risk
benefits that could be derived from planned in-
assessment: “risk identification.” To a lesser
troductions of genetically engineered organisms.
extent, issues of risk management are consid-
ered when those issues derive from the scien-
netically engineered organisms must be developed of uncertainty, the overall risk (14,47).
and refined. To date, the methods and models pro-
posed for risk assessment of biotechnology have At present, standardized protocols do not exist
been derived principally from those developed for for predicting either the kinds of risks or the mag-
nitudes that could be associated with planned in-
chemicals released into the environment (13,14,
troductions of genetically engineered organisms
16,17,45).
into the environment. Chemical fate models, epi-
Some aspects of chemical and physical risk demiological models, and effects models to assess
assessment lend themselves well to evaluating aspects of environmental applications are useful,
risks associated with living organisms, particularly but not complete. Nevertheless, risk assessment
containment and mitigation (17). Other aspects of is not an impossible task and conducting a flex-
the models do not apply well to living organisms, ible, case by-case, science-based risk assess-
which reproduce and are subject to selection pres- ment (19,36,40) develops and enhances the risk
sure, or die out (45). Generally the risk assessment assessment structure Small-scale, experimen-
process for planned introductions involves: tal field testing will enhance significantly both
the basic scientific database and the ability to
● risk identification—identifies the potential modify existing risk assessment models Some
risk, designating its source, mechanism of ac- argue, however, that developing an adequate
tion, and potential adverse consequences; assessment structure requires substantial new re-
● risk-source characterization-character- sources beyond those currently obligated for test-
izes the potential sources of risk, describing ing and evaluating chemical and other inert haz-
types, amounts, timing, and probabilities of ardous substances (16). In either case, risk
harmful events; assessment raises questions and illustrates data
● exposure assessment-considers exposure requirements that must be addressed. The impli-
risks, estimating intensity, frequency, and du- cations that many of these questions have for a
ration of exposure to the risk agent; national research agenda are discussed at the end
● dose-response assessment–analyzes the of this chapter.
111
rently accepted agricultural practices that differ be tested carefully to ensure that they are eco-
only by the method used to generate a product logically equivalent to existing partners.
not presently regulated might be unduly burden-
Nevertheless, despite the reservations of some,
some. Likewise, applications that are qualitatively
introductions of genetically engineered crop plants
identical to previously approved products, e.g.,
or domestic animals are strong candidates for an
a new ice-minus bacteria application, pose no un-
abbreviated review process in the near future.
examined risk and should probably be subject to
less review or be exempt.
A priori exclusion from review is problematic Pathogens and Pests
for many scientists. On the other hand, many sci-
Pathogens or pests used for genetically engi-
entists argue that applications should be assessed
neered products slated for environmental release
and classified on the basis of certain criteria, and
have the potential to affect the environment ad-
categories requiring different levels of review be versely. The degree of risk associated with im-
developed (23,32). This section examines risk
porting any genes from pathogens to nonpatho-
assessment and review considerations for some
gens is also of concern. A distinction, however,
types of environmental applications.
can be made between the genes of a pathogen
that are involved in the disease process and those
Crop Plants and Domesticated that direct basic structural or metabolic functions.
Animals While some would argue that any genes used from
such organisms pose problems, others point out
Genetically engineered crop plants and domes-
that general genes of structure and metabolism
ticated animals appear to be the most likely can-
are not special in pathogens.
didates for the category of minimal risk applica-
tions for planned introductions. Two important Pathogenicity is known to involve a number of
questions should be considered, however, before genes that must be intact and operate in a con-
assuming that either type of release is wholly safe: certed and coordinated fashion in pathogens
(12,39). The kind of review that relatives of patho-
● Do the engineered crop plants or domesti-
genic species should be subject to is a topic of much
cated animals have relatives that occupy sim-
discussion. There are two kinds of relatives of
ilar ecological niches and are problematic as
pathogenic organisms: avirulent strains that dif-
weed plants or feral or pest animals? fer from the pathogen by only one or a few genes,
● Are the engineered organisms toxic to non-
and nonpathogenic relatives that contain none of
target species?
the disease-causing genes. The effect of genetic
In addition, altering a fundamental metabolic change on these two types of relatives has differ-
process in plants or animals (e.g, plants engineered ent potential for undesirable consequences. Non-
to fix nitrogen or mobilize a novel insoluble nu- pathogenic relatives probably have little realistic
trient) could require special scrutiny. Changing chance of acquiring all of the characteristics nec-
metabolic processes can perturb critical energy essary to become pathogenic (39). That is, because
and nutrient cycles. For example, augmenting nu- pathogenicity usually requires the concerted ac-
trient flows might increase freshwater pollution tion of several genes, a change in one gene would
(see ch. 5). not be likely to convert a nonpathogen to a path-
ogen. Thus, nonpathogenic relatives could require
Finally, changes in mutualistic species of crop
less review than pathogenic organisms if all other
plants or domesticated animals should probably
criteria are equal.
be carefully examined. Mutualisms-complex in-
teractions in which both species benefit, such as On the other hand, genetic changes can readily
pollination by insects–are important to ecosys- convert some avirulent relatives to virulent path-
tem function (6). Introductions of genetically engi- ogens (30,39). In these cases, the relatives are
neered species that interact as mutualists should avirulent forms of the disease causing species and
773
differ from the pathogen by only one or two tors, such applications could receive a review
changes. For example, changes in virulence have less rigorous than one using a pathogen. Fi-
been described for viral and fungal pathogens. nally, although the release of any form of patho-
Temperate viruses that infect bacteria can become genic organism as a biological control agent is likely
virulent with genetic changes at only one or a few to generate controversy, this is an area where a
loci (29). Certain fungal pathogens of plants can mathematical and genetic framework exists for
evolve (in response to selection pressure) virulence examining the properties of a pathogen before
characteristics against new cultivatable varieties release (2)3,22). Furthermore, there is extensive
within a few years after the new cultivars have experience with biocontrol agents, especially in
been widely planted (50). Finally, avirulent strains the use of soil-borne plant pathogens (42).
of a pathogen can recombine within an organism
during an infection to produce lethal recom-
binant. Recent experiments demonstrated that Molecular Construction of the
two avirulent herpes simplex virus type 1 strains Organism
could interact in vivo to produce virulent recom-
A different approach that could be used to dis-
binant resulting in a lethal infection in mice (21).
tinguish applications requiring different levels of
Changing a pathogen’s environment or intro- review examines the molecular details of the
ducing it into a new one could potentially affect altered organism’s genetic construction. Such an
virulence expression or host range—thus argu- examination could include, but not be limited to:
ing against exempting from review proposed re- ● whether the genetically engineered organism
leases using pathogens, pests, or avirulent rela-
has been constructed using genetic material
tives. Artificial and disturbed environments, in
from the same genus (intrageneric) or differ-
particular, seem likely settings for such shifts in
ent genera (intergeneric);
expressed virulence of a pathogen. Legionella ● whether the alteration of the released organ-
pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaire’s
ism involves the insertion or deletion of
disease, for example, occurs in natural freshwater
genetic material; and
habitats, but can also adapt to life in cooling towers ● whether the alteration of the released organ-
and other nonnatural aquatic environments from
ism involves regulatory (not structural or cod-
which it has easier access to humans (43). Simi-
ing) sequences.
larly, Endothia parasitic (chestnut blight) is an
opportunistic fungal pathogen of several tree spe-
Because applications involving genetically engi-
cies, In its native Asia, the fungus causes little dam-
neered micro-organisms have generated much of
age, because forest trees have evolved resistance
the controversy in this area of biotechnology, con-
genes (25). Since its accidental introduction into
siderations of these criteria will focus on such ap-
North America, the fungus has virtually eliminated
plications.
the American chestnut tree throughout its geo-
graphic range in the Appalachian mountains be-
cause these trees previously had not been pressed Intrageneric and Intergeneric
by natural selection to evolve resistance. Constructions
Thus, the use of pathogens and some related Taxonomic groupings are in a perpetual state
avirulent species in environmental applications of flux, with the classification of organisms into
could pose special problems. Such releases are species, genera, and sometimes even higher tax-
not likely candidates for exemption from review. onomic categories often changing as scientists
However, applications transferring general learn more about the phylogeny of all organisms.
genes (genes not involved in causing disease) New molecular techniques have changed prior
from pathogens to nonpathogens do not pre- interpretations of evolutionary relationships—
sent pathogen-specific problems. In the ab- sometimes radically so. Such realignment is true
sence of evidence indicating special risk fac- for all organisms, including micro-organisms.
114
The degree of relatedness of the genetic mate- plications could be assumed safe and entirely ex-
rial used in genetically engineered organisms has empt from review. Nevertheless, some review
generated considerable debate. Are intrageneric requirements are less pertinent to this type of
organisms so similar to those that already exist molecular construction than for those involving
in nature that laboratory derived intrageneric con- acquisition of new characteristics, and so a modi-
structions can be exempt from review? Or are the fied review process could be appropriate.
risks of intrageneric and intergeneric construc-
tions similar, so that they should be reviewed in Regulatory Genes
a similar manner?
Regulatory genes control when and how much
Because the prospects for competition leading
structural gene product a cell makes. The levels
to extinction can be greater for closely related spe-
of gene product can affect the expression of indi-
cies than for distantly related ones (9), some pro-
vidual characteristics, as well as the overall de-
pose that slightly modified organisms should re- velopment, structure, function, and vigor of an
ceive special scrutiny. Others argue that the organism.
designation of genera in microorganisms, and in
bacteria in particular, is often arbitrary and the Because gene dosage and timing are important
concern about any single case should not be on to an organism’s development, gene alterations
taxonomic grounds per se, but rather on the abil- in regulatory sequences are important to changes
ity or inability to cause harm (12). in structure and function (from an evolutionary
and ecological standpoint) (5,20). In one example
Intrageneric and perhaps even intraspecific ge- of tetracycline resistance in the bacterium E. coli,
netically engineered organisms might be expected
changes in a regulatory gene result in a 50-fold
to be less affected by any fitness disadvantage aris- difference in the level of resistance to the antibi-
ing from changes in the natural balances between otic (11). Such changes can also affect the organ-
the genetic components of individuals in any pop- ism’s ability to survive and reproduce in competi-
ulation. Hence, they would be more likely to per- tion with related or neighboring organisms (31).
sist in the environment than intergeneric recom-
binant. Persistence of intergeneric recombinant, Regulatory gene changes in recombinant organ-
on the other hand, could be less of an issue than isms could conceivably not only produce differ-
for intrageneric recombinant (27). If persistence ent patterns of gene expression, but also enhance
is an important criterion, then taxonomic factors persistence in the environment. On the other
should be considered. hand, changes in regulatory sequences that alter
the metabolic regulation of an organism can re-
Gene Deletions duce the organism’s fitness (and thus survivabil-
ity or persistence).
The deletion of an existing gene from an organ-
ism is more likely to arise spontaneously in na- A pertinent argument has been made that less
ture than the de novo acquisition of a new char- concern should be focused on the regulatory gene
acteristic. This class of molecular alterations than on the trait whose expression is controlled—
probably poses the least risk for adverse con- some traits being beneficial, while others have the
sequences resulting from survival and repro- potential for harm (19). The situations just de-
duction after release of the engineered organ- scribed illustrate this point. Thus, developing a
isms. Other considerations, however, such as the strategy to review regulatory gene changes based
potential for adverse genetic, physiological, and on the trait controlled, rather than on the molecu-
ecological consequences of the particular appli- lar construction of the application, might be
cation would have to be assessed before such ap- prudent.
115
Some of the equipment set up for monitoring survival and dispersal of ice minus bacteria in
Advanced Genetic Sciences’ first field test.
116
them to proliferate and spread more rapidly time examining the structure of communities, it
through the environment than larger organisms. is still rarely possible to anticipate all the ramifi-
Microorganisms are also harder to retrieve and cations of introducing or removing a seemingly
exterminate. innocuous species. Chapter 5 discusses cascade
effects in microbial communities and among
Competition macro-organisms.
Competitive interactions between newly intro-
duced engineered organisms—either micro- or Genetic Impacts
macro-organisms-and native organisms are cru- In addition to considering different ecological
cial components of ecological impact assessment. impacts based on the size of the released organ-
Competition occurs if the released and indigenous ism, important genetic questions should be ex-
organisms limit each other’s abundance in the amined:
environment without consuming each other. Com-
petition with alien organisms can result in ex- ● can the organisms exchange genetic informa-
tinction of native taxa (9,28)53). Among plants, tion through sexual mechanisms;
competition-based local extinction appears rela- ● can the organisms exchange genes between
tively common (52). Are genetically engineered species via nonsexual mechanisms (e.g.,
micro-organisms better able than macro-organ- viruses or plasmids, see ch. 4); and
isms to compete with natives? ● does either mechanism carry greater risk of
- . \\
damental scientific database needed for appropri- relationships of natural populations (espe-
ate risk strategies. NSF supports projects in sev- cially nontarget microorganisms) should be
eral key areas, including microbial ecology, the emphasized.
ecology of genes and plasmids, evolutionary biol- ● Natural History. -collecting data on the life
ogy, and systematic. Additionally, NSF has issued histories of organisms intended for planned
a program solicitation to establish Biological Fa- introductions and the organisms with which
cilities Centers and Biological Research Centers they interact is critical, especially for those
(35), one of which is to be devoted to biotechnol- with potentially harmful impacts.
ogy risk assessment (24). ● Ecology.—the complex interactions of mi-
crobes, plants, and animals need to be better
Finally, NSF, USDA, and the U.S. Department
understood so that improved predictive ca-
of Energy have undertaken a joint initiative for
pabilities can be developed. Crop ecology, in
plant science centers beginning in fiscal year 1988
particular, is important because agricultural
(34). Successful initiatives might involve examin- uses will be the majority of early applications.
ing responsible application of genetic engineer- ● Test Systems. —aquatic and terrestrial lab-
ing to avoid undesirable environmental effects or
oratory microcosms and mesocosms look
clarifying ecological processes in agroecosystems promising for analyzing ecological processes
and (34).
prior to planned introduction. They need fur-
ther development and refinement.
Research Needs For the Future
However, although increased investment in
Several permits for small-scale field tests of envi-
specific research areas is critical, the para-
ronmental applications of biotechnology are in the
mount need is to develop interdisciplinary re-
regulatory approval process or have been been
search programs in order to support biotech-
approved and conducted (see ch. 3 and app. A).
nology risk assessment. Research in such
While the information and data gained from these
programs should be thoroughly integrated, from
experiments will be valuable in designing future
hypothesis generation to experimentation and
risk assessment and risk management protocols,
interpretation of results. Active research coopera-
an expansion of basic scientific research to gather
tion among microbiologists, geneticists, ecologists,
data critical to risk assessment is also necessary.
molecular biologists, evolutionary biologists, plant
Billions of dollars are being invested throughout
pathologists, entomologists, agronomists, and epi-
U.S. industrial sectors to comply with various envi-
demiologists should be encouraged. The scientific
ronmental standards, but comparatively little is
data gained through such collaborations would
being invested specifically to improve the scien-
improve significantly the ability to assess biotech-
tific basis for the standards (8). An improvement
nology risks (37,38)41). Nevertheless, uncertain-
in risk assessment would be a major step in en-
ties and questions in risk assessment of planned
suring that compliance money is well spent (8).
introductions will continue to exist. No amount
Important areas of research include:
of research funding can answer all questions;
● Taxonomy and Systematics.—gathering tough risk management decisions that weigh ben-
data on the classification and evolutionary efits against risks will need to be made.
Risk assessment, a process distinct from risk ent levels of review. In either case, future experi-
management, uses scientific data to estimate the ence with the impact of various types of genetically
effects of exposure to hazardous materials or modified organisms on environmental processes
other situations. Derived from a factual base, it should result in a safe, streamlined review proc-
can be qualitative or quantitative, Risk manage- ess for some applications, or a lifting of the re-
ment, on the other hand, weighs policy alterna- quirement for review.
tives to select the most appropriate regulatory
strategy or action, This process depends on the Categories that could be considered for abbre-
scientific findings of risk assessment, as well as viated review include: crop plants and domesticated
the role of the public. It involves the integration animals, and organisms involving nondisease-
of scientific, social, economic, technical, and po- associated genes or gene deletions. Applications
litical concerns. A key to improving the current in which the genetically engineered product is sub-
situation is to distinguish between those aspects stantially identical in its properties to naturally
of the process that are scientific (risk assessment) occurring genetic variants; that could be produced
and those that are matters of policy decisions (risk with previously existing methods and without be-
management). ing subject to regulation under existing law; that
are already available and approved for field test-
Although risk assessment of recombinant DNA ing; or that contain no new genetic material ex-
technology is not a new issue, the specific appli- cept marker sequences in noncoding regions prob-
cation of risk assessment to planned introductions ably could warrant abbreviated review or possibly
of genetically engineered organisms has become even exemption.
a matter of debate. Methods developed in the pre-
vious decade for chemical risk assessment have Ecological, genetic, and evolutionary impacts
been suggested as models for assessment of risks that could result from planned introductions of
that might result from the planned introduction micro-organisms or macro-organisms are impor-
of engineered organisms. To date, however, ge- tant in assessing risks of an introduction. In gen-
neric risk assessment protocols to analyze the eral, existing knowledge of macro-organisms
impacts of genetically engineered organisms (plants or animals) exceeds information available
have not been widely agreed upon. for micro-organisms (bacteria, algae, fungi, or
Experiences with historical agriculture ap- viruses), so less scrutiny might be required to yield
plications are pertinent and provide parallel an evaluation of the risks associated with the re-
scientific information for many potential ap- lease of a macro-organism.
plications. Small-scale, experimental field test-
Controversies surrounding the initial applica-
ing is necessary to improve baseline data for
tions to release genetically engineered organisms
risk assessment.
into the environment have illuminated areas
At present, some scientists argue that the ex- where fundamental knowledge of many systems
pectation of safety can best be met by a scientific is currently lacking. In particular, active research
review of proposed releases of genetically engi- cooperation among microbiologists, geneticists,
neered organisms into the environment on an agricultural scientists, plant pathologists, entomol-
adaptable, case-by-case basis, and that at this time ogists, agronomists, ecologists, and evolutionary
a priori exclusion of any application from review biologists should be encouraged. Interdiscipli-
is problematic. Other scientists hold that a rigid nary research is critical to developing ade-
case-by-case approach could paralyze advances quate risk assessment and risk management
in planned introductions of genetically engineered for planned introductions of genetically engi-
organisms, and that a proper balance between reg- neered organisms. To dispel speculation, in-
ulation and safety would involve each organism creasing the general knowledge base about organ-
being assessed and classified (on the basis of sci- isms intended for environmental applications is
entific criteria) into categories requiring differ- paramount.
121
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Appendixes
Appendix A
The information contained in this appendix is dated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
grouped according to the organism receiving the trans- caused delay. The first field test began on April 24,
ferred genetic material, or, in the case of deletions, 1987, near Brentwood, in Contra Costa County, CA.
the organism from which genetic material is deleted. The bacteria were topically applied to 2,400 straw-
Within any given entry, pending applications (those berry plants to test the degree of frost resistance con-
at or near the field test stage) are described first. In ferred upon strawberry plants in the 0.2-acre plot, as
some cases, material on likely or possible applications well as to monitor such risk assessment parameters
follows. This information was compiled from publicly as survival and dispersal. The manipulations involved
available materials, and was last updated in early 1988. do not impart any new genetic information; rather,
they delete existing information. Comparable strains
of bacteria occur naturally, the results of random mu-
tation. Potential for ultimate survival or spread of test
Microbes strains has been judged low. There is no likelihood of
Bacteria novel characters being transmitted to nontarget spe-
cies. EPA announced approval of the application for
Killed Bacteria as pesticide (Mycogen, San Diego, an experimental use permit in February 1987.
CA).—Mycogen scientists cloned the delta-endotoxin A similar experiment was first proposed in 1982 by
gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) and inserted it Steven Lindow and Nickolas Panopoulos of the Univer-
into a strain of Pseudomonas via plasmid-mediated sity of California at Berkeley to delete the gene for the
transformation. The Pseudomonas is cultured to pro- ice-nucleation protein from strains of P. syringae and
duce large amounts of the delta-endotoxin, a protein Erwinia herbicola and field test them for increased
that is toxic to lepidoptera larvae. The bacteria are then frost resistance of host plant substrates (especially
killed, their cell walls fixed, and the resulting ‘poison potato plants). EPA and the Recombinant DNA Advi-
capsule’ is administered as a topical insecticide. Using sory Committee of the National Institutes of Health both
the killed and fixed bacteria as a delivery vehicle in- approved the proposal. Local opposition and legal chal-
creases the longevity of the toxin in the environment. lenges by the Foundation on Economic Trends made
In other applications the protein is rapidly degraded a Fall 1986 test impossible. The field test commenced
by sunlight and other environmental action. Using on 29 April 1987, near Tulelake, CA, with the planting
killed bacteria also eliminates most containment prob- in a half-acre plot of 2,000 inoculated tubers and 2,000
lems. Small-scale field trials were conducted in test controls.
plots near Orlando, FL. "Ice plus” (Snomax Technologies, Oakland, CA).–
Toa Gosei Chemical, in Japan, has an active research Naturally occurring strains of spray-dried P. syringae
program aimed at producing similar killed BT agents. (produced by Kodak Bioproducts Division for AGS),
They are screening natural strains of B. thuringiensis containing high concentrations of the ice-nucleation
to identify varieties that will target specific pests (e.g., protein, are mixed with water and sprayed from snow-
diamond back moth, fabricius, etc.) and cloning the making guns at ski resorts. This procedure is from 20
toxin genes into Escherichia coli and B. subtilis to en- to 80 percent more efficient than water alone, and has
hance production (37). been tested on ski slopes in Colorado, Michigan, Min-
“Ice Minus” (Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS), Oak- nesota, New York, and Vermont. The 1986-87 season
land, CA).–AGS researchers have produced strains of saw large-scale use in a number of resorts (a major
Pseudomonas syringae and P. fluorescent from which delay until recently has been in production facility
the gene for the ice-nucleation protein has been availability and capacity. Use has been approved 011
deleted. AGS had hoped to field test in early 1986, but U.S. Forest Service lands. It is also possible that the
legal challenges, local opposition, and controversy over bacterium might be used in a variety of ice-making
unauthorized facilities for pathogenicity tests man- applications in the Arctic.
125
126
AGS claims they have also developed a recombinant- Agent Orange), trichloroethylene (a solvent that is the
DNA form of the bacterium that is up to 1,000 times most common ground water contaminant), and pen-
as effective as the wild-type strain. There are no im- tachlorophenol (PCP, a common wood-treatment
mediate plans to use this in any environmental appli- chemical).
cations. Many naturally occurring bacteria have the ability
Engineered Microbial Pesticide (Monsanto, St. to degrade a variety of chemicals found in toxic waste.
Louis, MO).—Monsanto scientists have cloned the delta- These abilities could be enhanced both by classical
endotoxin gene from B. thuringiensis and used trans- selection and genetic engineering. Species of Achro-
posable elements to install it in the chromosomes of mobacter are able to degrade carbofuran, a pesticide
strains of P. fluorescent, a microbe that colonizes the against corn rootworm and other crop pests. Flavobac-
surfaces of corn plant roots. In its host, the inserted terium species are known to degrade coumaphos, a
gene is expressed and the gene product retains its tox- pesticide used against livestock pests. An atrazine re-
icity. Monsanto plans to inoculate seed corn with the sistance gene has been isolated from cyanobacteria,
engineered bacteria in the hope that they will colo- or blue-green algae. Such bacteria maybe engineered
nize the roots of the developing plant. The insectici- for environmental cleanup programs, such as degrad-
dal activity of the protein toxin should then protect ing toxic material remaining in storage tanks where
the plant from the corn-root cutworm. Monsanto’s pro- farmers dump pesticide or herbicide wastes,
posed field test would involve planting 27,000 coated The EPA lab at Gulf Breeze has developed a “suicide”
seeds on a l-acre test plot for each of two consecutive plasmid to ensure that a gene encoding a 3-chloroben-
years. zoic acid-degrading enzyme will be destroyed when
While data on the behavior of transposable elements it has served its purpose. The plasmid contains four
in other systems (notably Drosophila) suggest caution elements: the gene for the degradative enzyme, a pro-
is warranted, potential problems associated with hori- moter, a methylase gene, and a restriction enzyme-
zontal gene transmission seem to have been preempted encoding gene. In the presence of 3-chlorobenzoic acid,
in this case. Monsanto scientists inserted the delta- the promoter induces production of both the degrada -
endotoxin gene into the Pseudomonas chromosome tive enzyme and the methylase, which protects the
with a disarmed transposable element-one from degradative gene from the action of the restriction en-
which the transposase gene (necessary for element mo- zyme. When the acid has been completely degraded,
bility) was deleted. Insertion was affected with the aid methylase production is suppressed, and the restric-
of a “helper” transposable element, from which one tion enzyme digests the degradative gene. Scientists
of the long terminal repeats necessary for insertion believe this type of scheme should be applicable to
was deleted (25,26,27). many other metabolic pathways, though there are no
Monsanto has submitted to EPA a proposal for an imminent plans to field test such microbes.
Experimental Use Permit for field testing. EPA has Toxic Waste Disposal or Heavy Metal Recovery
asked for data from additional toxicity protocols, which (Mining). -Bacteria might be engineered to enhance
are now being performed. their abilities to extract or concentrate heavy metal
Toxic Waste Disposal.-Bacteria maybe engineered contaminants from land fills or mine tailings. The bac-
to enhance or receive capabilities to metabolize or se- teria would promote the efficient recovery of minerals,
quester specific toxic wastes, including polychlorinated minimize existing pollution, and leave reclaimed land
biphenyls (PCBS)) polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), di- usable for agriculture. A number of existing mining
oxin, oil spills, phenol, pesticides, herbicides, and heavy operations use bacteria to aid in the recovery proc-
metals. A host of bacteria capable of metabolizing ess, such as cobalt extraction with Thiobacillus fer-
different substrates are known (17). One such bac- rooxidans. Other potential targets include lead, cad-
terium is a strain of Pseudomonas (developed by mium, and copper,
Ananda Chakrabarty) that has been given the capabil- Researchers at the EPA laboratory in Gulf Breeze,
ity (Plasmid-qmediated) to metabolize several compon- FL, are developing bacterial strains resistant to mer-
ents of crude oil. This may enhance the possibilities cury, with the intention of using them to reduce pollu-
to control oil spills biologically. It differs from estab- tion problems in mercury contaminated environments.
lished techniques by combining several different car- It may also be possible to alter some species of algae
bon degradative pathways into one organism. Exist- to enhance or impart toxic waste disposal ability (see
ing methods generally use a mixture of naturally section on Plants: Engineered Algae),
occurring bacteria each with the capacity to metabo- Pollution Control.-Phosphorus removal, ammonia
lize a different crude ail component, EPA researchers oxidation, and flocculation are three significant prob-
in Gulf Breeze, FL, have developed systems capable lems facing municipal water purification systems. Bac-
of degrading jet fuel, 2)4,5-T (the active ingredient in teria could be engineered to aid each of these tasks.
127
Miscellaneous—Ecogen (Princeton, NJ) is using both A similar test to measure viral persistence in a given
classical and biotechnological approaches to develop ecosystem involved a baculovirus (Autographa califor-
a variety of novel pesticides. “Plasmid curing” has nica nuclear polyhedrosis virus) pathogenic to cater-
produced some new BT toxin vehicles, and recombi- pillars of the mottled willow moth, Spodoptera exigua.
nant DNA techniques are being used to investigate po- This test was carried out by Institute of Virology sci-
tential pesticide uses of B. subtilis toxin genes. entists at an undisclosed United Kingdom site during
After normal drilling operations, as much as 50 per- the summer of 1986 (3), In both cases, the scientists
cent of the oil may remain in wells, due to capillary anticipate inserting genes to increase the virulence of
forces and chemical adhesion (8). Engineered bacte- the viral pathogen. The gene for the BT delta-endotoxin
ria may help extract that remaining oil. is a likely candidate.
Microbes may be tapped to aid in biomass energy Genetics Institute (Cambridge, MA) is pursuing re-
production, as with yeast engineered to enhance their search aimed at inserting an insect toxin gene into a
ability (generally in contained facilities) to produce nuclear polyhedrosis virus. The engineered virus is
ethanol for fuel. Scientists at the University of Florida targeted at A. californica, an alfalfa pest, as well as
and elsewhere are currently studying this possibility. Heliothis species, pests of various crop plants includ-
Bacteria may also be engineered to enhance their ing cotton, soybeans, and rice. Similar work on related
function in food production processes (28). viruses is under way at Tottori University, in Japan.
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Viruses Organization (CSIRO) researchers in Australia are ex-
ploring genetic engineering techniques as a means of
Viruses as Pesticides.—By manipulating the orga- restoring the virulence of the myxoma virus. Origi-
nization and expression of baculovirus genomes, re- nally introduced to control pest populations of intro-
searchers hope to increase baculovirus utility as pes- duced rabbits, attenuated forms of the initially viru-
ticides with specific applications. Commenting on lent virus evolved at the same time rabbits developed
potential risks, one researcher has said ‘(My guess is increased resistance. Although the original virus
no problem but there are a variety of constructs pos- devasted rabbit populations, the subsequent coevolu-
sible, and some could have broader effects than de- tion between host and pathogen has led rabbit num-
sired. . . . One can consider many scenarios. In the bers to once again increase. Scientists are attempting
worst case (also the most improbable) the situation to add a bacterial toxin to the viral genome to increase
could not be corrected. . . . In the course of our studies its potency (42).
already we have developed what we consider im- Viruses in Engineered Vaccines.--On 23 July 1986,
proved methods of assessing risks of genetically engi- the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced
neering viral pesticide products. . . . Our methods of approval of “Recombivax HB”, ” a genetically engi-
assessing viral gene expression in nontarget hosts are neered vaccine for hepatitis B, a disease carried by
extremely sensitive” (19). work is being done in this as many as 200 million people worldwide, 700,000 in
area by at least three academic groups (in Florida, the United States alone. Based on the hepatitis B cell
Texas, and Georgia) and two commercial companies surface antigen, the vaccine was developed by Chiron
(Genetics Institute, Cambridge, MA, and MicroGeneSys, (Emeryville, CA) and marketed by Merck & Co. It has
West Haven, CT). been shown to produce the same high level of immu-
Researchers at the Institute of Virology in Oxford, nity in clinical trials as Merck’s blood-plasma-based vac-
England, are pursuing several similar applications. The cine, but without the potential worries associated with
first involves a baculovirus that is pathogenic to the contamination of donated blood by the AIDS (acquired
pine beauty moth, Panolis flammea, a pest of lodge- immunodeficiency syndrome) virus. Several Japanese
pole pine (and other species), especially in northern groups are working on an engineered hepatitis B vac-
Scotland. Field tested viruses contain special marker cine, as are researchers at the Pasteur Institute, Paris;
nucleotide sequences, to aid in tracking distribution at Merck, Sharp, & Dohme in West Germany; and at
and dispersal. Although approval has been obtained Smith Kline Biological, Belgium (29).
from the appropriate regulatory bodies (the Advisory A cooperative group at the Japan Polio Research In-
Committee on Genetic Manipulation of the Health and stitute and the University of Tokyo Medical School has
Safety Executive, and the Forestry Commission) as well recently announced the construction of an attenuated
as the Nature Conservancy Council, delays made test- polio virus vaccine that retains high immunogenicity.
ing impossible in 1986. Field tests took place during Additional competitors are emerging (40). Japanese re-
1987. (British regulation is largely voluntary, and some- search is also focussed on engineered herpes simplex
what more flexible than at present in the United States.) viruses as vaccines against several human diseases.
128
Chiron is also working on the development of vac- Scientists at Baylor University and at Texas A&M
cines against hepatitis A, AIDS, malaria, and oral and field tested a vaccine for swine pseudorabies in 1984.
genital herpes. In October 1986, Chiron announced An investigation by the National Institutes of Health’s
a joint venture (the Biocine Company) with Ciba-Geigy (NIH) Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee found
to produce genetically engineered vaccines. the researchers remiss for not having consulted the
Researchers at the National Institute of Allergy and local Institutional Biosafety Committees, and concluded
Infectious Disease (NIAID) and elsewhere have inserted that ambiguities in the NIH guidelines contributed to
into the vaccinia virus (used originally for smallpox confusion in the case. The vaccine was developed by
vaccinations) genes responsible for antigen production Novagene, Inc. (Houston) and is now commercially
in a number of diseases—herpes simplex, influenza, available through TechAmerica Group, Inc. (Omaha,
hepatitis B, rabies, and respiratory syncitial virus, all NB).
in humans; and vesicular stomatitis in cattle, horses, In 1986, researchers from Oregon State University,
and pigs. Vaccinia virus is particularly valuable as a at the invitation of collaborators in New Zealand, field
vector because it needs no refrigeration; it is cheap, tested an engineered vaccinia virus in that country.
easy to administer, has a large capacity for foreign The research was designed to study immunogenicity,
DNA; and it has proved safe and effective in over 200 pathogenicity, and transmissibility of a model vaccinia
years of use. An early case of inadvertent release in- virus in sheep, calves, and chickens. The engineered
volved the accidental vaccination of laboratory re- vaccine contained structural genes for proteins from
searchers during a test in mice of a vaccine for vesicu- sindbis virus, a single-stranded RNA virus (31). The re-
lar stomatitis (13). searchers found the tests successful.
A vaccine for malaria is being pursued by several Scientists from the Wistar Institute (Philadelphia) de-
research programs, including groups at New York veloped, and collaborators from the Pan American
University, Chiron, NIAID (working with vaccinia sys- Health Organization field tested, an engineered vac-
tems), and a collaborative effort by Smith, Kline & cinia virus vaccine against rabies in Argentina in 1986
French and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Re- (see ch. 3).
search. Preliminary human trials began on 17 March Vaccines (especially those using vaccinia virus) may
1986, with a vaccine developed by the latter. Early be engineered to carry simultaneously the antigenic
reports of results were disappointing. determinants for a series of diseases, related or not
Peter J. Hotez and colleagues at Rockefeller Univer- (20,30). These vaccines must be monitored carefully,
sity are developing a vaccine against hookworm, two to avoid the possibility of recombination producing
species of which (Necator americanus and Ancy- newly virulent viral forms (12).
clostoma duodenale) cause a substantial public health In the face of antigenically complex systems, such
problem worldwide. The antigenic determinant for the as malaria or sleeping sickness, engineered multiva-
vaccine is the histolytic proteolytic enzyme (HP), which lent vaccines may be the only way to provide general
attaches the hookworm to the wall of the small intes- protection. Work is under way to produce such engi-
tine. Synthetic antigen in the vaccine stimulates the neered vaccines (4 I), but estimates place successful
host to produce antibodies to the enzyme. Research- completion 10 or more years in the future. However,
ers used phage lambda gt11 to clone the gene for HP preliminary successes with previously refractory dis-
necessary for large-scale production. eases, such as schistosomiasis (27), may mean that sin-
Australian scientists at CSIRO, working with Biotech- gle antigen approaches might be fruitful against sys-
nology Australia and Arthur Webster, two Australian tems once thought amenable only to multivalent
biotechnology companies, have developed a vaccine vaccines.
for sheep foot rot, caused by Bacteroides nodosus. The
gene from this bacterium, encoding the production of
the cell surface filaments crucial to infection, was trans- Plants
ferred to P. aeruginosa. Inoculating sheep with the Herbicide Resistance
altered P. aeruginosa bacterium stimulates the desired
immune response. Glyphosate. —Scientists at Calgene (Davis, CA) have
Different groups in the European Economic Com- inserted the aroA gene from Sahnonella typhimurium
munity are pursuing engineered vaccines for the into tobacco to confer tolerance to the herbicide
chicken pathogen, infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), foot glyphosate (e.g., Monsanto’s Roundup”). A disarmed
and mouth disease, bovine and swine rotavirus, bo- plasmid from Agrobacterium rhizogenes served as the
vine leukemia, avian erythroblastosis, swine pseudora - vector (7). While this gene transfer imparts a new char-
bies, and rabies. acteristic to strains of an existing plant species, the
129
chance that these characteristics might spread seem in corn. Approaches based on cell culture and selec-
to be very low, if not zero. The U.S. Department of tive breeding are closest to commercialization.
Agriculture (USDA) approved Calgene’s applications Calgene (Davis, CA) scientists have isolated a gene
to field test the altered tobacco plants. conferring tolerance to bromoxynil, a herbicide made
Calgene has patented the aroA gene under the name by Rhone-Poulenc Agrochimie, France. Several strat-
GlyphoTol and plans to file applications soon to test egies are being explored to introduce the gene into
similarly transformed tomato and cotton plants. Corn, sunflower plant cells and other plant tissues. USDA
soybean, rape, and some trees are targets of similar has approved field tests scheduled for 1988 of tobacco
efforts. Calgene has also been working on transform- plants engineered to be tolerant of this herbicide.
ing oil rape (Brassica napus) with a bacterial antibiotic In January 1987, scientists at Plant Genetic Systems,
resistance gene. Belgium, reported the genetic engineering of tomatoes,
Researchers at Monsanto have used the Ti plasmid potatoes, and tobacco plants “totally resistant” to the
from A. tumefaciens to insert genes for glyphosate re- broad spectrum herbicide “Basta@, ” produced by
sistance into tobacco, tomato, and petunia cells from Hoechst AG, Frankfurt am Main, West Germany. The
which resistant plants have been regenerated (34). Field active ingredient in the herbicide, phosphinotricin, in-
tests were conducted in the summer of 1987. hibits the plant enzyme glutamine synthetase. Phos-
Atrazine (Ciba-Geigy).-The herbicide atrazine, man- phinotricin can be inactivated by acetylation. The gene
ufactured primarily by Ciba-Geigy and marketed as for an acetylating enzyme has been isolated from a
AAtrex, is degraded very slowly in the environment. strain of streptomyces and inserted into target plants,
An effective herbicide, annual sales of AAtrex amount protecting them from doses of Basta as high as 10
to nearly $250 million, making it the second best sell- times those used normally for weed killing (23).
ing herbicide after Roundup@. Atrazine is commonly
used on corn, which is naturally resistant. But because Disease Resistance
it persists in soil, it can contaminate runoff and re-
duce yields in sensitive crops that are planted in rota- Crown Gall Resistant Tobacco (Agracetus, Middle-
tion with atrazine-treated corn, a problem termed ton, WI).—Agracetus scientists used a disarmed Ti plas -
“carry-over.” Several crops are likely candidates for mid to transform tobacco with a gene conferring re-
the induction of atrazine resistance. According to one sistance to crown gall disease. NIH approved the
estimate, atrazine resistance in the prominent varieties company’s application for small-scale field testing in
of soybeans would allow sales of the herbicide to dou- 1986, and USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection
ble or triple (2 I). Field tests of engineered atrazine re- Service (APHIS) reviewed the same proposal and cer-
sistance in tobacco were carried out by Ciba-Geigy in tified it as involving “no plant pest risk. ” Field testing
North Carolina in 1986. began on 30 May 1986, in Middletown, WI. Agracetus
The gene for atrazine resistance was transferred by is pursuing similar ends in corn and soybeans.
cross-breeding from bird’s rape (Brassica campestris) Agracetus scientists have also transformed cotton
to oil rape, or canola (B. napus), which was field tested plants (Gossypium hirsutum) with an antibiotic resis-
on 30,000 acres in Canada in 1984. tance gene coding for neomycin phosphotransferase
Sulfonylurea (Du Pont).-Genes for resistance or tol- (38).
erance to the sulfonylureas, such as chlorsulfuron Engineered Viral Cross Protection (Monsanto/
(Glean, used on grains, especially wheat and barley) Washington University St. Louis, MO).—Researchers
and Oust @ (a broad spectrum herbicide), are the tar- at Washington University, in collaboration With Mon -
gets of research aimed at producing transgenic plants. santo, have engineered cross protection against TMV
Soil residues of these herbicides can damage crops in tobacco plants. Resistance to TMV infection was con-
grown in rotation, such as sunflowers or soybeans. ferred by inserting the TMV coat protein gene into
Engineering resistance into rotation crops would pro- the tobacco plant genome via the Ti plasmid from A.
tect them and expand the market for these herbicides. tumefaciens (l). Similar results have been achieved
Work on this possibility has so far involved the pro- with tomato mosaic virus and alfalfa mosaic virus, sug-
duction of plants transformed with resistance genes gesting that many plants can be engineered to produce
introduced into tobacco cells produced in tissue cul- viral disease resistance. A field test of tomatoes engi-
ture. Du Pont, collaborating with Northrup King, field neered to be resistant to tobacco mosaic virus was ap-
tested resistant tobacco in 1987. proved by USDA and begun on a one-third-acre plot
Miscellaneous.—Researchers at Molecular Genetics near Jerseville, IL, on 2 June 1987.
(Minnetonka, MN) are pursuing the induction of resis- Miscellaneous (Rothamstead Experimental Station,
tance to imidazolinone (made by American Cyanamid) Harpenden, United Kingdom) .-Researchers have used
130
cell fusion to produce a potato variety resistant to the crease problems of deforestation and erosion due to
potato leaf roll virus. The parental strains are a do- overexploitation (in the Sonora, Great Basin, Negev,
mestic potato and a wild, South American potato. Bri- and Sahel, for example).
tain’s Advisory Committee on Genetic Manipulation ap-
proved a field test for the summer of 1987. Also Nitrogen Fixation Enhancements
approved were field tests to be carried out at the Plant
Breeding Institute (Cambridge) of potatoes carrying The promise of using genetic engineering techniques
two added bacterial enzymes, as models for possible to enhance the nitrogen fixation in some plants, and
future improvement efforts. to bestow it on others, has been highly publicized, Sym-
biotic bacteria in nodules on the roots of nitrogen-fixing
Pest Resistance plants extract gaseous nitrogen from the atmosphere
and convert it to chemical forms accessible to plants.
BT Toxin Protected Crops. -In 1985, the Belgian The biochemical pathways in bacteria that perform
company Plant Genetic Systems acheived the first in- this function usually involve 16 or 17 structural genes
troduction of the delta-endotoxin gene from B. thurin- and their associated regulatory sequences, usually re-
giensis into a plant. ferred to as the nif (nitrogen fixing) genes.
Rohm & Haas, collaborating with Plant Genetic Sys- BioTechnica International (Cambridge, MA) has pro-
tems, has since used the Ti plasmid to insert the delta- duced two potentially commercial strains of Rhizobium
endotoxin gene into tobacco plants, providing protec- meliloti, a bacterium that forms nodular colonies on
tion primarily against the tobacco hornworm, Man- the roots of alfalfa plants. The strains have been engi-
duca sexta. Field testing was successfully completed neered to enhance their nitrogen-fixing ability through
in 1986 in Dade County, FL, and Bolivar County, MS. the insertion, via disarmed plasmid vectors, of addi-
Hybrid seed is expected to reach the market in the tional copies of their own regulatory genes. The com-
1990s. pany hopes that 1988 field tests will demonstrate a
Monsanto researchers have recently used the Ti plas- 15- to 20-percent increase in nitrogen-fixing ability.
mid from A. tumefaciens to insert the BT toxin gene British scientists at the Rothamstead Experimental
into tomato plants, to provide protection against lepi- Station have inserted a marker sequence into a strain
dopterous pests. Field tests were carried out in the of Rhizobium for a summer 1987 field test to monitor
summer of 1987 (11). the extent of gene transfer between rhizobial strains
Miscellaneous.—Plant geneticists in England (a col- in soil.
laboration between Agricultural Genetics Company Much of the research aimed at imparting nitrogen-
and the Plant Breeding Institute, both in Cambridge) fixing ability to plants that do not have it naturally is
have used A. tumefaciens vectors to insert into tobacco focused on transferring the nif genes into the plant.
plants a gene coding for a protein that is a natural in- Formidable technical problems are involved in trans-
hibitor of insect trypsin, a digestive enzyme. The spec- ferring so much genetic material and ensuring its
trum of insect resistance thus conferred is much proper expression. Substantial progress with this more
broader than that of BT-toxin-based applications (24). generally applicable approach may be 5 to 10 years
Seeds might be engineered to produce or increase their away.
natural production of other “antifeedants,” such as
canavanine, thus reducing losses of stored seeds or Engineered Algae
grain to insect pests.
Other researchers at the Plant Breeding Institute Donald Cheney and colleagues (Northeastern Univer-
have begun 1987-88 field tests of potatoes into which sity, Boston, MA) are using protoplasm fusion techniques
a kanamycin resistance gene has been inserted, with to tailor marine algae (especially Dunaliel/a salina) to
an A. tumefaciens-derived vector, to aid in risk assess- increase the efficiency of production of beta-carotene,
ment and agronomic studies of transgenic forms of agar, and other algal byproducts, and George Melville
a well established cultivar. (Australian National University, Canberra, and West-
farmers Algal Biotechnology Pty., Ltd., Perth) are using
Tolerance to Environmental Factors recombinant DNA techniques to achieve the same goal.
Michael T. Henzl and Benjamin Greene, at New Mex-
Plants can be engineered to increase their tolerances ico State University, have described the ability of the
to such limiting environmental factors as salinity, common alga, Chlorella vulgaris, to sequester gold. Sim-
drought, or sensitivity to heavy metal toxicity. This arti- ilar abilities to sequester other heavy metals are known
ficial expansion of ecological niches could be exploited in other alga (36). Genetic manipulation may one day
to bring marginal lands into agricultural use or to de- be able to enhance such abilities.
131
Animals Poultry
Miscellaneous 15. Maclean, N., Penman, D., and Zhu, A., “Introduc-
tion of Novel Genes in Fish, ” Biotechnology
Genetic engineering techniques hold promise for 5(3):257-261, 1987.
altering insect pests to serve as tools in pest control 16. Mathews, B. E., “50-Pound Kings for Michigan?”
or eradication. Sterile male blowflies can be produced Michigan Out@f-Doors May 1986.
by mutagenesis and selection, These altered flies, ex- 17. McCormick, D., “One Bug’s Meat. . ..“Bio!Technol-
pected to help eradicate the pests, were field tested O@ 3:429-435, 1985.
over 1985-86 on Flinders Island, Australia, by a group 18. Miller, C., “Growth Hormone Genes Bring Super-
of Australian scientists (22). Efforts to control tephritid pigs and Supersheep Closer to Market,” Genetic
pests with engineered medflies are under way at the Engineering News 7(5):7, 1987.
University of Hawaii. 19. Miller, L. K., University of Georgia faculty member,
personal communication, 1985.
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nolo~ 5(1):13-19, 1987. Root-Colonizing Strains of Pseudomonades Using
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7. Comai, L., Facciotti, D., Hiatt, W. R., et al., “Expres- Endotoxin Gene from Bacillus Thurin&”ensis into
sion in Plants of a Mutant AroA Gene From the Chromosome of Root-Colonizing Pseudomon-
SahnoneMi Typhimurium Confers Tolerance to ades,” Journal of Bacteriology 168(2):982-989, 1986.
Glyphosate, ” Nature 317:741-744, 1985. 27. Obukowicz, M. G., Perlak, F. J., Bolten, S. L., et al.,
8. Donaldson, E. C., and Grula, E. A., “There Are Bugs “IS50L as a Non-Self Transposable Vector Used to
in My Oil Well)” Chemtech 15(10):602-604, 1985. Integrate the BacilZus Thurin@”ensis Delta-Endo-
9. “Gene Engineers Fashion Giant Sheep,” New Sci- toxin Gene into the Chromosome of Root-Coloniz-
entist 111(1516):22 July, 1986. ing Pseudomonads, ” Gene, in press.
(
10. Hammer, R. E., Pursel, V.G., Rexroad, C. E., Jr., et 28. Palca, J., ‘ Genetic Manipulation: Living Outside Reg-
al., “Production of Transgenic Rabbits, Sheep and ulation,” Nature 324:202, 1986.
Pigs by Microinjection, ’’Nature 315:680-683, 1985. 29. “Parisians Put New Hepatitis B Vaccine to Test,”
11. Jacob, M., “Researchers Making Strides in the New Scientist 114(1558):24, Apr. 30, 1987.
Genetic Transformation of Plant Species, ”Genetic 30. Perkus, M. E,, et al., “Recombinant Vaccinia Virus:
Engineering News 7(7):34-35, 1987. Immunization Against Multiple Pathogens,” Science
12. Javier, R. T., Sedarti, F., and Stevens, J. G., “Two 229(4717):981-984, 1985.
Avirulent Herpes Simplex Viruses Generate Lethal 31, Rice, C. M., Franke, C. A., Strauss, J. H., et al., “Ex-
Recombinant, In Vivo,’’Science 234:746-748, 1986. pression of Sindbis Virus Structural Proteins via
13. Jones, L., Ristow, S., Yilma, T., et al., “Accidental Recombinant Vaccinia Virus: Synthesis, Process-
Human Vaccination with Vaccinia Virus Express- ing, and Incorporation Into Mature Sindbis
ing Nucleoprotein Gene, ” Nature 319:543, 1986. Virions,” Journal of Virology 56(1):227-239, 1985.
14. Knauf, V. C., “The Application of Genetic Engineer- 32, Saher, D. W., Smith, E.J., Hughes, S. H., et al., “Gene
ing to Oilseed Crops,” Trends in Biotechnology 5:40- Insertion Into the Chicken Germ Line by Retro-
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133
33.Salter, D. W., Smith, E.J., Hughes, S. H., et al., “Trans- 38. Umbeck, P., Johnson, G., Barton, K., et al., “Genet-
genic Chickens: Insertion of Retroviral Genes Into ically Transformed Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum
the Chicken Germ Line, ” Virolo&V 157: in press. L.) Plants)” Biotechnology 5(3):263-266, 1987.
34. Shah, D. M., et al., “Engineering Herbicide Toler- 39. U.S. Department of Agricultural Research Service,
ance in Transgenic Plants, ” Science 233:478-481, “Putting the Bite on Water Weeds, ” Agricultural
1986. Research 35(5):6-10, 1987.
35. Smith, E. T., Durham, A., Terry, E., et al., “How 40. Van Brunt, J., “Hepatitis B Vaccine ItIakers Multi-
Genetics May Multiply the Bounty of the Sea, ’’13usi- ply,” Biotechnology 5(2):103-4, 1987.
ness Week, Dec. 16, 1985. 41. Walsh, B., “Human Trials Begin for Malaria tTac-
36. Sutton, C., “Desmids, The Algae With a Taste for cine,” Science 235:1319-1320, 1987.
Heavy Metal,” ~ew Scientist 113:45, 1987. 42. “. . . While in Australia, Gene Scientists Fight Back,”
37. Tokyo Nikkei Biotechnology (in Japanese), Nov. 17, New Scientist 114(1556):13, April 16, 1987.
1986, p. 6.
Appendix B
134
Appendix c
Acknowledgments
OTA would like to thank the members of the advisory panel and working group who commented on drafts
of this report, the contractors who provided material for this assessment, and the many individuals and organiza-
tions that supplied information for the study. In addition, OTA acknowledges the following individuals for their
comments on drafts of this report:
135
136
139
140
to the nuclear membrane; pertaining to or contained cell), the factor is capable of mobilizing transfer of
in the cytoplasm. the bacterial chromosome to an F – cell.
Disarmed transposon: A transposon altered in a man- Gamete: A mature reproductive cell (haploid set of
ner rendering it incapable of movement, most often chromosomes) capable of fusing with a similar cell
by deletion of the transposase gene, which encodes of opposite sex to yield a zygote; also called a sex cell.
the enzyme necessary for excision. (Compare Gene: The fundamental unit of heredity; an ordered
transposon.) sequence of nucleotide base pairs to which a spe-
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The molecule that is the cific product or function can be assigned.
repository of genetic information in all organisms Gene family A group of related genes exhibiting a high
(with the exception of a small number of viruses degree of homology in function and nucleotide base
in which the hereditary material is ribonucleic sequence.
acid—RNA). The information coded by DNA de- Gene pool: The sum total of genes in a breeding pop-
termines the structure and function of an organism. ulation.
Dominant: An allele or characteristic whose expres- Gene probe: A molecule of known structure and/or
sion prevails over alternatives for a given trait. (Com- function used to locate and identify a specific re-
pare recessive.) gion or nucleotide sequence of a genome; usually
Endogenous: Developing or originating within the a piece of complementary DNA that has been la-
organism, or arising from causes within the beled with a tracer substance, such as a dye or radio-
organism. active label.
Endotoxin: Poison produced by some gram-negative Genetic code: The manner in which DNA or RNA rep-
bacteria, present in the cellular membrane, and re- resents, through chemical subunits, information
leased only upon cell rupture; composed of com- that is translated into protein. The genetic code is
plex lipopolysaccharide (fat-like molecule + sugar read in groups of three nucleotides called codons,
molecule) and more heat-stable than protein ex- each of which specifies a single amino acid. See also
otoxins. (Compare exotoxin.) codon, nucleotide.
Episome: A DNA molecule that may exist either as an Genetic variance: The fraction of the phenotypic var-
integrated part of a chromosomal DNA molecule iance due to differences in the genetic constitution
of the host or as an independently replicating DNA of individuals in a population. (Compare phenotypic
molecule (plasmid) free of the host chromosome. variance. )
Epistasis: The interaction of genes at different loci re- Genome: The genetic content encoded in a haploid
sulting in the masking of a character. organism’s genes; in eukaryotes, a haploid set of
Epizootic: A disease affecting many animals of one chromosomes.
kind at the same time; analogous to the term epi- Genotype: The sum total of genetic information con-
demic in human populations. tained in an organism; the genetic constitution of
Eukaryote: An organism with membrane-bound, an organism with respect to one or a few loci un-
structurally discrete nuclei and well-developed or- der consideration. (Compare phenotype.)
ganelles. Eukaryotes include all organisms except Germ line: The earliest, primitive stage of develop-
viruses, bacteria, and blue-green algae. (Compare ment; pertaining to tissues or cell lineages produc-
prokaryote.) ing gametes. (Compare somatic. )
Exotic Describing a species not originating in the place Gram-negative/positive: A classification of bacteria
where it is found; a nonnative, introduced species. based on differential staining utilizing the Gram-
Exotoxin: A poison excreted by some gram-negative Wiegert procedure. Primarily as a result of an
or gram-positive organisms; composed of protein. organism’s cell membrane structure, gram-negative
(Compare endotoxin.) organisms stain red and gram-positive organisms
Extrachromosomal DNA DNA not associated with the stain purple.
chromosome(s) (e.g., plasmid DNA or organelle High copy number plasmid: A plasmid present in
(mitochondria or chloroplast) DNA). multiple copies within a single host bacterium. Copy
Feral: Pertaining to organisms in the wild. number (single, low, and high) is dependent on both
F factor: See fertility factor. plasmid and host cell factors.
Fertility factor: An episome capable of transferring Homologous sequence: Nucleic acid segments hav-
a copy of itself from its host bacterial cell (an F + ing an identical or nearly identical linear order of
cell) to a bacterial cell not harboring an F factor (an nucleotide base pairs.
F – cell). When the F factor is integrated into the Homology Degree of relatedness in appearance, func-
host chromosome (the resulting cell is called an Hfr tion, or structure.
141
Horizontal transfer: The passage of genetic material karyotic cells where energy is produced and stored;
from one organism to another via nonsexual mech- contains small circular DNA molecules that repli-
anisms. cate independently.
Host: In the context of recombinant DNA technology, Natural selection: The process of differential repro-
the organism used for growth and reproduction of ductive success by which genes in a population in-
virus, plasmid, or other foreign DNA source. crease or decrease in frequency with the passage
Hybridization: A procedure in which single-stranded of generations, depending on their contribution to
nucleic acid segments are allowed to bind to homolo- the survival of offspring in which they are carried;
gous sequences, forming hybrid double-stranded arguably the most important of the several mecha-
helices; also, a process (e.g., in plants, producing nisms by which evolution takes place, discovered
offspring resulting from a cross between two ge- by Darwin and first described in 1858-59.
netically unlike entities); the formation of new cells Nonconjugative plasmid: A plasmid incapable of ini-
resulting from fusion of whole cells or cell parts tiating or directing the process of conjugation. (Com-
of different genotypes. pare conjugative plasmid.)
Ice-minus (ice–): A bacterium lacking a functional Nontransferable plasmid: See nonconjugativeplasmid.
gene coding for a protein that promotes the forma- Nucleic acid: A macromolecule composed of se-
tion of ice crystals by providing a physical nucleus quences of nucleotide bases; DNA or RNA.
around which ice crystallizes. The gene has been Nucleotide (base): The unit of nucleic acids. The
deleted from strains of Pseudomonas syringae Pseu- molecules consist of one of four bases—adenine,
domonas fluorescent, and Erwinia herbicola, the guanine, cytosine, or thymine/uracil (DNA/RNA) at-
organisms around which debate recently has tached to a phosphate-sugar group. The sugar group
focused. is deoxyribose in DNA; in RNA it is ribose.
Iceplus (ice+): A bacterium with an intact, functional Nucleus The membrane-enclosed structure in eukary -
ice-nucleating gene. otes that contains the chromosomes.
Introgression: The entry or introduction of a gene Organelle: A structure in the cytoplasm of a cell that
or genes from one population into another (most is specialized in its ultrastructure and biochemical
often in nature via sexual reproduction, or hybridi- composition to serve a particular function (e.g.,
zation). mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast).
IS (insertion sequence): One of a class of different P element: A transposable DNA sequence present in
nucleotide sequences found in bacteria that are the fruit fly, Drosophila. (Compare transposon.)
capable of spontaneous movement from one chro- pathogenic: Able to cause disease; often utilized to
mosomal location to another. Chromosomal mate- express inactivation or lethality.
rial may be mobilized during IS movement; move- Phage: See bacteriophage.
ment may result in mutation at the original and/or Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an
new site(s) of insertion. (Compare transposable organism produced by the interaction of the geno-
element. ) type and the environment. (Compare genotype.)
Line: See strain and cultivar. Phenotypic variance: The variation among genetically
Locus (pi. loci): The physical location on a chromo- identical individual organisms in external appear-
some occupied by a particular gene or its alleles. ance caused by the interaction of environment with
LTR (long terminal repeat): One of a class of nucleo- the genotype during development. (Compare genetic
tide sequences (300-1200 base pairs in length) asso- variance.)
ciated with tumor viruses and cellular oncogenes Phylogenetic: Referring to genetic similarities be-
that promote gene activity and are similar to trans- tween different organisms as a result of descent
posons. (Compare transposable element.) from a common ancestor in evolutionary history.
Meiosis The process by which chromosomes are Plasmid: An extrachromosomal, circular piece of DNA
duplicated then divided during the formation of found in the cytoplasm and capable of replicating
haploid cells (gametes). and segregating independently of the host chromo-
Mendelian: Referring to a trait that is controlled by some. (Compare conjugative; cryptic; high copy
a single gene, and that shows a simple dominant/ number; nonconjugative; nontransferrable plasmid.)
recessive pattern of inheritance. P1eiotropy: The production of diverse phenotypic ef-
Mendelian genetics: Classical method of observing in- fects produced by a mutation in a single gene.
heritance of a trait (s) in the offspring of crosses be- Polymerase An enzyme that assembles a number of
tween individuals differing in that trait(s); results similar or identical subunits into a macromolecule
in accordance with Mendel’s laws. (e.g., DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase).
Mitochondrion/dria: Those structures within eu- Primary producer: AI- I organism (plant or micro-
142
organism) that uses photosynthesis to convert so- tions that are genetically distinct from one another
lar energy into chemical energy that can be used yet very closely related, and often difficult or im-
by nonphotosynthetic organisms (e.g., humans). possible to distinguish by morphological or other
Prokaryote: An organism lacking organelles and criteria.
whose DNA is not enclosed within membrane- Somatic; Pertaining to all diploid cells of an organism
bound, structurally discrete nuclei. Bacteria, vi- except the germ line. (Compare germ line.)
ruses, and blue-green algae are prokaryotes. (Com- Species: Taxonomic category subordinate to a genus
pare eukaryote.) composed of individuals with common character-
Recessive: An allele or characteristic whose expres- istics that distinguish them from other groups of
sion occurs only in the absence of a dominant trait. the same taxonomic level; in sexually reproducing
(Compare dominant.) organisms, a group of interbreeding natural popu-
Recombinant DNA Hybrid DNA sequences assembled lations that are genetically distinct from other such
in vitro from different sources; or hybrid DNA se- groups.
quences from the same source assembled in vitro Strain: A pure culture of organisms within a species,
in a novel configuration. characterized by one or more particular physical
Recombination: The formation of a new association or genetic properties. See cultivar.
of genetic material; usually applied to the process Toxin: See endotoxin and exotoxin.
of meiosis, during a stage of which the genetic ma- Transduction: The transfer of genetic material from
terial packaged into gametes is mixed and recon- one cell to another by means of a virus or bacteri-
stituted in any of an enormous number of possible ophage.
combinations. Transformation: Introduction and assimilation of
Replicon: A genetic element possessing sequences DNA from one organism into another via uptake
specifying the initiation and control of the process of naked DNA.
by which DNA is precisely duplicated. Transposable element: A class of DNA sequences ca-
Retrovirus: A family of viruses whose genetic mate- pable of insertion into a genome at numerous posi-
rial is RNA and is further characterized by the pres- tions, and of moving from one area of a genome
ence of reverse transcriptase in the virion; also to another area or another genome.
called tumor virus. Transposase: Enzyme that assists movement of DNA
Reverse transcripts= An enzyme capable of direct- during the process of transposition.
ing the production of a single-strand DNA copy from Transposon: A type of transposable element incapa-
an RNA template. ble of autonomous existence, often shuttling genetic
Rhizosphere: A region of the soil closely surround- material back and forth between cell chromosomes,
ing plant roots that is affected by root excretions. between smaller replicons, and between chromo-
RNA (ribonucleic acid): A molecule existing in three somes and replicons.
forms–messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribo- Triplet: Three consecutive bases along a nucleic acid
somal RNA—responsible for translating the genetic chain. See codon, anticodon.
information encoded in DNA into a protein prod- Vector: A DNA molecule used to introduce foreign
uct; the hereditary material of some viruses. DNA into host cells.
Selective advantage: An organism’s increased prob- Vertical transfer: The passage of genetic material
ability of reproduction and producing offspring, from one organism to another through the germ
conferred by its genetic characteristics. line, i.e., sexual mechanisms; in bacteria, through
Selective pressure: The influence of factors extrin- genome replication and cell division.
sic to an organism (i.e., environmental factors) on Virus: Any of a large group of organisms containing
its ability to compete with other organisms for re- genetic material but unable to reproduce outside
productive success. a host cell.
Sibling species: Independent, reproductive popula-
Index
Index
“AAtrex” (Ciba-Geigy), 129 Benefits
Administrative Procedure Act, 49 consideration of, in risk management, 22, 109
Advanced Genetic Sciences, Inc. (AGS), ice-minus bacte- derived from planned releases, 3, 33, 34, 86, 96, 101,
ria research by, 40, 49-51, 125 102
Agracetus Corp. (Middleton, Wisconsin), plant disease re- Biocine Co., 128
sistance research by, 5, 53, 129 “Bio-Hakuran, ” 131
Agricultural Genetics Co. (UK), 130 Biomass energy, engineered microbes’ aid in producing, ,
Agriculture 127
applications of genetically engineered organisms to, 5, Biosphere II, 39
6, 7-8, 16-19, 20, 21-22, 33, 35, 49-57, 60, 86-88, BioTechnica, Canada, 131
89-92, 94-95, 96, 125-130 BioTechnica International, Inc. (BTI) Massachusetts
BT use in, 5, 7-8, 18-19, 39, 54, 74, 75, 90, 125, 130 field test information brochure developed by, 55-5?
Agrobacterium rhizogenes, 128 nitrogen-fixing research by, 8, 54-55, 63, 96, 130
Alfalfa mosaic virus, “vaccination” of plants against, 5, Biotechnology, Australia, 128
36, 54, 96 Biotechnology Science Coordinating Committee (BSCC),
Algae 27-28, 61
genetic engineering of marine, for mining or mineral Bolivar County (Mississippi), 130
recovery, 38, 97, 126, 130 Borneo, “cascade effect” in, 92-93
impacts of planned introductions on local communities Bozeman, Montana, planned introduction in, 58-59
of, 97 Brentwood, California, “ice-minus” field test near, 51,
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). See 125
Department of Agriculture, U.S. (USDA)
Animals
applications of engineered organisms involving, 6-7,
38, 59, 131 Calgene, Inc. (Davis, California), herbicide resistance
engineered vaccines for, 128 work by, 5, 128, 129, 131
gene transfer’s likelihood among, 11, 12, 71, 112 California
see also Fish; Livestock; Poultry biotechnological field tests in, 49-52, 125
Antibiotics, bacterial resistance to, 13, 14, 77 heat-shocked fish in, 131
Applications, anticipated near-term, of genetically engi- State biotechnology-related legislative activity in, 50
neered organisms, 3, 5-8, 36-40, 86-87, 91, 93, 94- California, University of-Berkeley, “ice-minus” bacteria
95, 96, 97, 125-32 research by, 40, 51, 125
Aquatic life, See Algae; Fish Canada, 129
Argentina, biotechnology-related field testing in, 59, 128 Carbon cycle, 20, 98
Asilomar Conference (California), 9, 60 “Cascade effects,” 92-93, 95, 101, 116
Atrazine, developing plant resistance to, 5, 36, 53-54, 89, Chakrabarty, Ananda, 126
129 Cheney, Donald, 130
Australia, biotechnology research in, 127, 128, 130, 131, Chiron (Emeryville, California), 127, 128
132 Chlorella vulgaris, 130
Australian National University, 130 Ciba-Geigy Corp. (Greensboro, North Carolina)
Autographa California, 127 genetically altered vaccine production by, 128
herbicide resistance research by, 5, 53-54
Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) Clemson University (South Carolina), lac ZY marker sys-
delta-endotoxin gene insertion into plants, 5, 7-8, 18- tem research at, 40
19, 39, 54, 90, 92, 125, 126, 130 Cleveland, Mississippi, planned introduction near, 54
inhibiting gene transfer while transferring toxin gene Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Orga-
of, 15, 74, 80 nization (CSIRO), 127, 128
toxin gene’s insertion into Pseudomonas fluorescent Congress, U. S., policy issues and options for possible ac-
for pest control, 15, 19, 39, 74, 80, 125, 126, 130 tion by, 25-29
Backus, Richard A., 52 Construct
Bacteria. See Micro-organisms; Viruses; individual importance of understanding, 13, 75
bacteria risk assessment and, 113-114
Bacteroides nodosus, 128 Contra Costa County, California, biotechnological field-
Baculoviruses. See Viruses test in, 51, 125
“Basta” (Hoechst), 129 Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotech-
Baylor University, 128 nology, 9-11, 45, 51, 52, 60, 61-65, 111
Beltsville, Maryland, 131 Cornell University 131
145
146
Corn plants E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. (Wilmington, Dela-
biotechnological protection of, 19, 39, 52-53, 74, 75, ware), 5, 129
89, 92, 129 Endothia parasitic, 113
see also Agriculture; Crops; Plants Energy flow, in ecosystem processes, 96, 98-99
Courts. See Litigation Environment
Crops consequences of planned introductions on, 3, 4-5, 7,
increasing genetic variation in, 91 15-22, 33, 85-102, 112-116
protection, creation, and nutritional improvement of, see also Ecological considerations; Ecosystems; Pollu-
by modifying organisms, 5, 7-8, 18-19, 20, 21-22, tion; Risks
35, 37, 89-92, 94-95, 96, 125-130 Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. (EPA), 9, 15, 61,
risk assessments for genetically engineered, 23, 112 78, 118, 119
see also Agriculture; Plants; individual names of biotechnology research application permits regulation
Crown gall disease, developing plant resistance to, 5, 36, by, 49-51, 52, 53, 54-55, 58, 61, 62, 95, 125, 126,
53, 129 131
Erwinia, “ice-minus” creation from, 75
Dade County, Florida, 130 Escherichia coli, genetic engineering research using, 7,
Data 73
on exotic species survival, 17-18, 85-86, 87 Ethics, public opinion on biotechnology’s, 9, 46
gene transfer agricultural, 15-16, 87 European Economic Community (EEC), 65, 128
requirements for risk assessment, 23-24, 110, 118-119 European Parliament, reaction to UK biological release
Degradation in, 60
of toxic compounds by microbial action, 22, 33, 35, 39- Evolutionary lability, as consideration in biological risk
40, 97, 98, 101, 126, 130 assessment, 19, 24-25, 90-91
see also Pollution Exotic species, experience with, and relationship to ge-
Delta-endotoxin gene. See Bacillus thuringiensis netically engineered organisms, 17-18, 35, 37, 85-
Denmark, planned introduction legislation in, 65 86, 87, 88
Density, of engineered organisms and gene transfer, 13, Extrinsic factors
76 influencing the magnitude, frequency, and stability of
Department of Agriculture, U.S. (USDA), 9, 51, 59, 61- gene transfer, 13, 75-77
62, 87, 118, 119 see also Ecological considerations; Gene transfer
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS),
129
field test regulation by, 51, 53-54, 62, 129, 131 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Department of Energy, U.S. (DOE), 119 (FIFRA)) 9, 49, 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65
Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. (DHHS), Fish
60, 61 genetic engineering to improve, 6, 7, 38, 97, 131
Du Pont. See E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. impacts of planned introductions on local communities
Dutch elm disease, 58-59 of, 97-98
see also Animals
Earth First! 52 Flinders Island, Australia, 132
Ecogen, Inc. (Princeton, New Jersey), 126 Florida
Ecological considerations genetic engineering of fish in, 38, 131
of planned introduction of genetically engineered planned introduction in, 54, 125
organisms, 3, 4-5, 15, 24, 33, 85-102, 110, 112-114, Florida, University of, 126, 127
115-116 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 9, 61, 127
see also Ecosystems; Environment; Genetic considera- Forest Service, U. S., 125
tions; Risks Foundation on Economic Trends (Washington, DC), bio-
Economics technological introductions opposition by, 45, 49,
of crop loss to frost damage, 20, 40, 94 50, 51, 52, 59, 125
of engineered organism development, 34 France, planned introduction regulation in, 66
of exotic insect species (US.), 86 Franklin County, North Carolina, planned introduction
of gene insertion for pesticide-resistance, 89-90 in, 53-54
see also Funding Funding
Ecosystems biotechnology risk assessment, 118-119
complexity of, and planned introduction’s conse- congressional policy options related to research, 25,
quences, 3, 13, 20-22, 93, 97-101 28-29
likelihood of planned introductions disrupting, 16, 18, public opinion on Federal Government biotechnologi-
20-22, 33, 86, 97-101, 112-114 cal, 47, 48
“rate-limiting” elements role in, 98-100 see also Economics
147
Middleton, Wisconsin, planned introduction in, 53, 129 Office of Science and Technology Policy, White House
Mining, genetically engineered organisms application to, (OSTP), Coordinated Framework by, 9, 60-61
33, 35, 38, 97, 126, 130 Oil, engineered bacteria extraction of, 127
Mississippi, planned introduction in, 54 Oregon State University, 59, 128
Missouri, planned introduction in, 52 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop-
Models ment (OECD), safety guideline proposals for bio-
genetic variation/resistance, 91 technological applications developed by, 45
life history and population, 24 Orlando, Florida, field trials near, 125
risk assessment, 110 “Oust” (du Pont), 129
Molecular Genetics (Minnetonka, Minnesota), 129
Monitoring, genetically altered microbes, 13-15, 38, 39, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 59, 128
40, 55, 77-79, 130 Panolis flammea, 127
Monsanto Agricultural Products Co. (St. Louis, Missouri) Panopoulos, Nickolas, 51, 125
lac ZY marker system developed by, 13, 40, 78 Pathogens, risk assessment of genetically engineered
plant disease resistance research by, 5,18-19, 36, 52- products using, 23, 112
53, 92, 126, 129, 130 Pepin County, Wisconsin, planned introduction in, 54-55,
Montana, planned introduction in, 58-59 63
Montana State University, 58-59, 131 Personnel, training interdisciplinary scientific, 29
Monterey County, California, biotechnological field test Pesticides
in, 49-51 bacteria and viruses use in, 5, 8, 15, 19, 39, 52-53, 54,
Mutualisms, 112 74, 75, 89-90, 125, 130
BT toxin gene’s use in, 5, 8, 18-19, 39, 54, 74, 75, 125,
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 36, 109 130
viruses as, 8, 19, 39, 60, 92, 127
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 49, 51, 60
Phosphonitricin, developing plant resistance to, 36
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
Plant Breeding Institute (United Kingdom), 130
(NIAID), 128 Plant Genetic Systems (Belgium), 129, 130
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Plant Pest Act, 9, 62
biological research funding by, 25
biotechnological release approval by, 51, 53, 58-59, 95 Plants
guidelines for DNA research by, 9, 58-59, 60, 64, 128 applications of engineered organisms involving, 5, 36-
Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC) of, 51, 38, 86-88, 89-91, 93, 94-95, 96, 97, 125-130, 131
53, 60, 128 bioengineered to produce pharmaceuticals, 131
genetic engineering to increase tolerances to limiting
National Science Foundation, (NSF), 71
environmental factors, 130
research funding by, 118-119
gene transfer’s likelihood among, 11, 12, 71, 87-88
research policies of, 9, 25, 64
impacts of planned introductions on local communities
Natural history. See History, natural
Nature Conservancy Council, 60, 127 of, 18-19, 89-91
Neisseria gonorrhea, 14
see also Agriculture; Crops; individual species
Netherlands, biotechnology research regulation in, 66 Policy
New Jersey, State biotechnology -related-activity in, 50 issues and options for possible congressional action,
New Mexico State University, 130 25-29
regulatory agencies planned introduction, 9-11, 64-65
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station Vegeta-
Pollution, control using genetically engineered products,
ble Research Farm, 131
5, 7, 8, 33, 35, 39-40, 89, 101, 126-127, 130
New York Times, 59
Populations
New York University, 128
New Zealand, biotechnical field testing in, 59, 128 decompose, 98, 101
Nitrogen planned introductions’ impact on local, 18-20, 86, 88-
cycle, 20-21, 98, 100 97, 116
fixation, 8, 19-20, 21-22, 38, 54-55, 96, 99-100, 130 size of, and risk assessment, 117
Poultry
North Carolina
engineered vaccines for, 128
planned introduction in, 53-54, 129
genetic engineering to improve, 6, 59, 131
State biotechnology-related legislative activity in, 50,
53-54 see also Animals
Northeastern University (Boston, MA), 130 Poultry Research Laboratory (Michigan), 131
Pseudomonas fluorescent
Northrup King, 129
Novagene, Inc., 128 BT toxin gene’s insertion into, 15, 19, 39, 74, 80, 92,
126
Nutrient cycles, 20-22, 98
‘(ice-minus” research using, 49, 125
survival of, 75-76
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Pseudomonas syringae, “ice-minus” research using, 49,
(OSHA), 9, 64 51, 52, 125
749
Tokyo, University of, 127 Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 128
Tomato plants, biotechnological herbicide and disease Washington (State), genetic research on fish in, 38
protection for, 5, 18-19, 89, 130 Washington, University of, 131
Tottori University (Japan), 127 Washington University (St. Louis, Missouri), plant dis-
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 9, 54, 61, 62, 63, ease resistance research by, 5, 36, 129
64, 65 Waterville Township, Wisconsin, planned introduction
Toxic wastes, microbial degradation of, 22, 33, 35, 39- near, 54-55
40, 97, 98, 101, 126, 130 Webster, Arthur, 128
Tracking. See Monitoring; Screening Westfarmers Algal Biotechnology Pty. Ltd. (Australia),
Training, interdisciplinary scientific personnel, 29 130
Tulelake, California, “ice-minus” field test in, 51-52, 125 West Germany, biotechnology regulation in, 66
White House Office of Science and Technology Policy
Ultraviolet (UV) light, degradation of BT toxin by, 90 (OSTP), Coordinated Framework by, 9, 60-61
Unilever, 131 Wisconsin
United Kingdom (UK) planned introduction in, 53, 54-55, 63
biotechnology regulation in, 66 State biotechnology-related legislative activity in, 50
planned release in, 60, 92, 127, 129-130 Wisconsin State Journal, 53
virus resistance research in, 129-130 Wistar Institute (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), biotechnical
research by, 59, 128
Vaccine World Health Organization (WHO), ‘(cascade effect” trig-
FDA approval of genetically engineered, 127 gered from spraying program by, 92-93
inadvertent release of genetically engineered, 128
recombinant DNA developed multivalent, 8, 39, 128 Yeast
viruses used as, 5, 8, 18-19, 36, 39, 59, 127-128 engineered for ethanol production enhancement, 127
Vectors, importance of understanding, 13, 15, 75 molecular genetic research using, 7
Viruses Yersinia, gene expression of, 74
vaccination of plants against, 5, 18-19, 36
as pesticides, 8, 19, 39, 60, 92, 127
as vaccines, 5, 8, 18-19, 36, 39, 59, 127-128
"Frankly, I think we'll regret introducing these
organisms into the environment.>)