ABS Guidance Notes On The Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

G U I D A N C E N O T E S O N
the Application
and Maintenance
of Marine Coating
Systems
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
ourM I S S I O N
The mission of the American Bureau of Shipping is to serve the public
interest as well as the needs of our clients by promoting the security
of life, property and the natural environment primarily through the
development and verification of standards for the design, construction
and operational maintenance of marine-related facilities.
quality & environmental

P O L I C Y
It is the policy of the American Bureau of Shipping to be responsive
to the individual and collective needs of our clients as well as those
of the public at large, to provide quality services in support of our
mission, and to provide our services consistent with international
standards developed to avoid, reduce or control pollution to the
environment.
All of our client commitments, supporting actions, and services

delivered must be recognized as expressions of Quality. We pledge
to monitor our performance as an on-going activity and to strive
for continuous improvement.
We commit to operate consistent with applicable environmental

legislation and regulations and to provide a framework for
establishing and reviewing environmental objectives and targets.
C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL FOR F IELD S URVEYORS
G U I D A N C E N O T E S O N
the Application
and Maintenance
of Marine Coating
Systems
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
First Published 1998

Copyright © 1998
Reprinted 2004
ABS
16855 Northchase Drive USA
Houston, TX 77060
ABS
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INTRODUCTION
Steel structure of a vessel is prone to corrosion throughout its service life.
Due allowance must be made at the new-building stage, and by periodic maintenance
to provide effective corrosion protection to ensure continued
structural integrity of the vessel.
With the emphasis on coatings in the Enhanced Survey Scheme,
and with the unprecedented acceleration of coating technology,
the field surveyor should have some basic factual knowledge on coating systems.
It is the intent of this guide to meet this need in a straight forward and practical manner.
ABS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This guide draws on many sources for its contents.
ABS wishes to acknowledge the assistance and guidance provided by all
who contributed to it, in particular the following active members
of the ABS Ad Hoc Panel on Coatings:
Bernard Appleman..........................................................Steel Structures Painting Council
Michael Bentkjaer ..........................................................................................Hempel Paints
Phil Birleson ..................................................................................JRS Ship & Offshore
Ron Briggs........................................................................................Matson Navigation
Dennis Buffo.............................................................................Sabine Transportation Co.
Helena Buist ................................................................................................................NACE
Jim Denny ................................................................Courtaulds (International Paints)
Rong Huang .........................................................................................Chevron Shipping
Owen Jones ...............................................................................................Royal Chemical
Joseph Madden ...................................................................................Arco Transportation
Tom McIntyre ............................................................................Marine Transport Lines
Tom Mulligan .........................................................................................Devoe Coatings
Ramesh Raghavan........................................................................................Sigma Coatings
Bruce Sawvel............................................................................................................Esgard
Bob Stanley .........................................................................Maritime Overseas Carriers
Charles Stuckey...............................................................................Drew Ameroid/Ashland
Richard Whiteside ................................................................................BP Oil Shipping Co.
Dave Witmer.........................................BP Oil Shipping, Co, Chairman NACE TC-14B
Frank Windler.......................................................................................Scherwin Williams
Len Zagrzecki........................................................................................................Unitor
- Gus Bourneuf
Chief Surveyor
B ABS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: What is Paint?

Paint Technology........................................................................................................................................................................1
Binders.........................................................................................................................................................................................2
Thermoset Coatings....................................................................................................................................................2
Air Drying Resins.........................................................................................................................................2
Oleoresinous Varnishes ...............................................................................................................................2
Alkyd Resins.................................................................................................................................................3
Epoxy Ester Resins ......................................................................................................................................3
Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins ..........................................................................................................................3
Silcone Alkyd Resins ...................................................................................................................................3
Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins........................................................................................3
Epoxy Resins................................................................................................................................................4
Polyurethane Resins ....................................................................................................................................4
Inorganic Resins ..........................................................................................................................................4
Thermoplastic Coatings..............................................................................................................................................5
Chlorinated Rubber Resins .........................................................................................................................5
Vinyl Resins .................................................................................................................................................5
Bituminous Binders.....................................................................................................................................5
Pigments and Extenders ............................................................................................................................................................6
Anticorrosive Pigments...............................................................................................................................................6
Red Lead ......................................................................................................................................................6
Zinc Chromate.............................................................................................................................................6
Zinc Phosphate............................................................................................................................................7
Zinc ..............................................................................................................................................................7
Barrier Pigments..........................................................................................................................................7
Coloring Pigments ......................................................................................................................................8
Extended Pigments.....................................................................................................................................8
Solvents .......................................................................................................................................................................................9
Other Paint Additivites .............................................................................................................................................10
Typical Groups of Paint Additives ...........................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................11
Steel and the Corrosion Reaction ...........................................................................................................................12
Principals of Corrosion.............................................................................................................................................13
Corrosion in Humid Environment...........................................................................................................................13
Corrosion in Acidic Environment ............................................................................................................................14
Galvanic or Bi-metallic Corrosion ...........................................................................................................................14
Types of Corrosion ...................................................................................................................................................................16
Uniform Corrosion....................................................................................................................................................16
Pitting Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................................16
Crevice Corrosion......................................................................................................................................................16
Deposition Corrosion................................................................................................................................................16
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) .......................................................................................................................17
Types of Bacteria that Cause Corrosion .................................................................................................................17
Detecting Bacteria ....................................................................................................................................................17
Coatings and MIC.....................................................................................................................................................18
Protection from MIC ................................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER THREE: Paints for Purposes

Anticorrosives............................................................................................................................................................................19
Barrier Effect.............................................................................................................................................................19
Inhibitor Effect .........................................................................................................................................................20
Galvanic Effect..........................................................................................................................................................20
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Shop Primers.............................................................................................................................................................................21
Demands....................................................................................................................................................................21
Properities..................................................................................................................................................................21
Types of Shop Primers .............................................................................................................................................22
Antifouling Paints ....................................................................................................................................................................23
Fouling ......................................................................................................................................................................23
The Organisms ..........................................................................................................................................................23
Micro-Organisms.......................................................................................................................................................23
Macro-Organisms......................................................................................................................................................23
Distribution ...............................................................................................................................................................23
Antifouling Paints.....................................................................................................................................................24
Classification of Antifouling Paints ........................................................................................................................24
Soluble Matrix (non-polishing) ...............................................................................................................................24
Insoluble Matrix (non-polishing) ............................................................................................................................25
Self Polishing ............................................................................................................................................................26
Roughness .................................................................................................................................................................26
CHAPTER FOUR: Surface Preparation

Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP-1).................................................................................................................................28
Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-2) ...........................................................................................................................28
Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-3) ..........................................................................................................................29
Rotary Wire Brushing................................................................................................................................29
Mechanical Descaling ...............................................................................................................................29
Rotary Power Discing ...............................................................................................................................29
Abrasive Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP-5,6,7,10) ..........................................................................................................30
SSPC-SP-5, NACE No. 1, Swedish Sa 3..................................................................................................30
SSPC-SP-10, NACE No. 2, Swedish Sa 2 1/2.........................................................................................30
Water Jetting and Hydroblasting............................................................................................................................30
CHAPTER FIVE: Methods of Paint Application

Methods of Application ...........................................................................................................................................................31
Brush application......................................................................................................................................................31
Roller application......................................................................................................................................................31
Conventional spray ..................................................................................................................................................32
Airless spray...............................................................................................................................................................32
High-Volume, Low Pressure Spray..........................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER SIX: Alternatives to “Hard” Coatings & Cathodic Protection
Chemistry ..................................................................................................................................................................................34
Method of Protection ..............................................................................................................................................................34
Thickness...................................................................................................................................................................................34
Opacity ......................................................................................................................................................................................34
Preparation................................................................................................................................................................................34
Application................................................................................................................................................................................34
Cathodic Protection .................................................................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER SEVEN: Glossary of Frequently Used Coating Terms ........................................................................37
CHAPTER EIGHT: Assessment Scale for Breakdown

Assessment of Existing Surface Coating Systems .................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER NINE: How to Use this Guide ..........................................................................................................................41
CHAPTER TEN: Examples...........................................................................................................................................................43
D ABS
CHAPTER ONE:
What is Paint?
aint can be described as a liquid material capable of being applied or spread over a solid surface in which it
P subsequently dries or hardens to form a continuous adherent barrier coat. In the past, paint technology and
paint making were arts or crafts developed over many years and supported by results of practical experience.
The performance limitations of the paints produced were basically attributed to the available raw materials. These
were predominantly of natural origin. For example, oxides of iron were used as pigments and various blends of
vegetable oils and natural resins used as binders. These traditional coatings, however, did generally fulfill the
accepted demands of time.
Significant advances in paint technology came about with the demand for higher performance and longer life coatings.
These were eventually realized by the progressive introduction and development of synthetic raw materials and
intermediates helping to alleviate the restrictions imposed on the paint chemist by traditional technology, and to
establish a much more scientifically based industry. Reproducible products with predictable performance resulted.
The modern surface coating industry provides many different generic types of coatings used in many different
circumstances and applied by many different methods. These range from conventional liquid paints applied by
brush and drying at ambient temperatures by oxidation, to powder coatings applied by electrostatic spray and
cured by heat.
The following notes describe the principle components of paints, their functions, and the properties they impart
to the finished product.
PAINT TECHNOLOGY
Paints are mixtures of many raw materials, each of which in turn has been manufactured to give certain specific properties.
Basically, however, paints consist of three major components and many additives which are included in minor properties.
The major components are:
• Binder (other terms used include: vehicle, medium, resin, film, polymer)
• Pigment and extender
• Solvent
Of these, only the first two form the final dry paint film. Solvent is necessary purely to facilitate application and initial film
formation; it leaves the film by evaporation and can therefore be considered an expensive waste product.
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BINDERS
Binders are the film forming components of paint. They are predominant in determining the principle characteristics of the
coating, both physical and chemical. Paints are generally named after their binder component (e.g. epoxy paints, chlorinated
rubber paints, alkyd paints, etc.). The function of the binder is to give a permanent continuous film which is responsible for
adhesion to the surface and which will contribute to the overall resistance of the coating to the environment.
Binders used in the manufacture of paints fall into two classes, Thermoset and Thermoplastic. This classification is solely
dependent upon how they form a film, and whether that film formation is reversible. In the case of liquid paints, they
change state, i.e. from a liquid to a solid. This transformation in paint is known as drying or curing.
It will be readily appreciated that a Thermoset coating when dry will be chemically quite different from the paint in the can.
Thermoset coatings are not affected by solvent wipe, once cured. With a Thermoplastic coating, the dry film and the wet
paint differ only in solvent content, but chemically these remain essentially similar. If solvent is applied to a thermoplastic
coating, it will soften and try to return to its original state.
THEROSET COATINGS
In liquid paints where solvent is involved, drying is considered a two stage process. Both stages actually occur together
but at different rates.
• Stage One: Solvent is lost from the film by evaporation and the film becomes dry to touch.
• Stage Two: The film progressively becomes more chemically complex by one of the following methods:
1) Reaction with atmospheric oxygen, known as oxidation.

2) Reaction with an added chemical curing agent.
3) Reaction with water (moisture in the atmosphere).
4) Artificial heating.
5) Radiation curing (e.g. ultraviolet).
The films formed by the above methods are chemically different to the original binders and will not re-dissolve
in their original solvent.
Air Drying Resins

Historically, binders were based on various drying oils, either vegetable or animal. These materials are slow drying, cross-
linking of the molecules taking place slowly in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. The addition of various metal catalysts
normally referred to as dryers can significantly accelerate the drying process. Vegetable drying oils alone are unsuitable as
paint binders. To obtain the optimum film properties, it is necessary to modify the oil with a range of natural or synthetic
resins. The following notes describe the various modifications of vegetable oils to produce suitable paint binders, all of
which dry by oxidation.
Oleoresinous Varnishes
These materials are developed from vegetable oils where the oil is reacted, or “cooked” with other compatible resins, e.g.
rosin, ester gum, coumarone or phenolic resins. The introduction of the resin component upgrades the film properties and
improves hardness, gloss, drying time, and weathering characteristics. The description of the varnish is normally based on the
amount and type of oil present. Normally only the more “oily” materials are used for exterior primers and finishes, where
good adhesion and flexibility are important requirements. One of the more important classes of binders from this group are
the tung oil phenolics. These are used widely in both primers and finishes particularly where improved water and chemical
resistance are required from a conventional coating.
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Alkyd Resins
These are the most widely used air drying resins. Unlike oleoresinous materials, they can be described as pure polyesters.
They are formed by the reaction between a special organic acid (e.g. Phthalic acid), a special alcohol (e.g. Glycerol or
Pentaerythritol), and a vegetable oil or its fatty acids. The final properties of the alkyd depend on the percentage of
oil (termed ‘oil length’) and also on the alcohol and organic acid used. Typical variations are shown as follows:
Long oil length alkyds (60-80% oil)

Normally used in gloss finishes for brush application and also in primers for hand prepared steel.
Medium oil length alkyds (40-60% oil)

Used in undercoats or in quick drying finishes where appearance and flexibility are of less importance.
Short oil length alkyds (less than 40% oil)

Suitable as binders for quick drying paints. Only soluble in stronger solvents like xylol (aromatic solvent). Not normally
suitable for brushing paints.
Alkyds are not resistant to acids or alkalis and many of the modifications given below are aimed at improving this weakness,
however, none provide complete resistance.
Epoxy Ester Resins

Sometimes called one-pack epoxies, these resins are more closely allied in performance properties to alkyds. They are
manufactured by reacting fatty acids from vegetable oils with high molecular weight epoxy resins. The resulting materials
give similar properties to alkyds with improved chemical resistance, but have poorer weathering properties. Epoxy ester paints
also suffer from ‘chalking’, an effect caused by degradation of the uppermost layers of the paint by UV radiation.
This results in a premature loss of gloss.
Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins

Often referred to as a one-pack polyurethanes, but as with epoxy esters, it is better to consider them as modified alkyds.
They are formed by the reaction between an alkyd and isocyanate to produce a product with improved drying, gloss, and
hardness over the corresponding alkyd but which can sometimes be more difficult to overcoat after aging.
Silicone Alkyd Resins

The modification of an alkyd with a silicon resin results in a material which probably has the best retention properties
available in resistance, being stable to temperatures in excess of 200oC. Unfortunately, due to the high cost of silicone resins,
silicone alkyds are three to four times more expensive than conventional alkyds. This severely limits their use.
Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins

Reaction of alkyds with either styrene or vinyl toluene monomers produces rapid drying resins with good chemical resistance,
however they have a tendency to yellow on aging and their exterior durability is inferior to that of conventional alkyds.
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Epoxy Resins
These resins are particularly important, and their development for use as binders was one of the most significant advances in
paint technology. They are examples of the modern approach to synthetic resins, and provide high polymer materials of
predetermined structure. These have predictable properties which can be tailored to suit numerous uses.
The resins are produced by the condensation or polymerization of epichlorhydrin and diphenylol propane (bis-phenol ‘A’).
The reaction conditions and relative proportions of the reactants determine the properties of the final product. For example,
the molecular weight or chain length, and the number of reactive cross-linkable groups can be varied with wide limits. Thus
epoxy resins can vary from low molecular weight, low viscosity liquids at room temperature, to fairly high molecular weight
high melting point solids. Situated at the terminal ends of each resin molecule are cyclic epoxide groups which cross-link by
chemically reacting with added curing agents such as amines, amine adducts, and polymides. Liquid epoxy resins give high
cross-link densities whereas solid materials have fewer reactive groups resulting in a less cross-linked film. In fact, some very
high molecular weight epoxy resins are used as uncured one-pack coatings.
The rate of cross-linking or curing is dependent on temperature. Below 5oC the curing rate is considerably reduced, and to
obtain optimal film properties, full cure is essential.
The choice of curing agent is very important as this determines the principle resistance properties of the film. There is a wide
choice of both resins and curing agents which allows for formulation of products to suit most applications.
Polyurethane Resins
These are polymers formed by reaction between hydroxy compounds and compounds containing isocyanates. The resins are
available in both one-pack and two-pack forms. The one-pack material is based on a resin which has been partially reacted
to give a prepolymer; when applied as a film, further reaction with atmospheric moisture occurs, giving full polymerization
or film cure.
In two-pack systems a special polyether or polyester resin with free hydroxyl groups is reacted with a high molecular weight
isocyanate curing agent. A major problem with these materials is their water sensitivity on storage and one application.
Polyurethane resins have excellent chemical and solvent resistance and are superior to standard epoxies in acid resistance.
Polyurethane finish coats are very hard and have extremely good gloss, gloss retention, and can be formulated to be non-
yellowing. In view of all these good film properties, polyurethane paints are considered to be the best all-around coatings
produced. Unfortunately they are expensive and can be difficult to overcoat after aging and require very clean surfaces for
optimum adhesion. Because of the isocyanate curing agent there is also a health hazard when sprayed. This health hazard has
been reduced by minimizing the presence of “free” isocyantes.
Inorganic Resins
These types comprise the silicates which are almost always used in conjunction with zinc dust. There are inorganic silicates
based on lithium, potassium, or sodium silicate and organic silicates normally based on ethyl silicate. Inorganic types are by
far the most commonly used. Coatings based on these resins are very hard, corrosion resistant, and temperature resistant.
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THERMOPLASTIC COATINGS
These types of paint binders are simple solutions of various resins or polymers dissolved in suitable solvent(s). Drying is
simply effected by the loss of the solvent by evaporation. This is termed physical drying as no chemical change takes place.
The resulting film is therefore always readily soluble in the original solvent and can also be softened by heat. Since these
coatings, by definition, require the presence of significant amounts of solvent, they are disappearing from markets where
volatile organic content is regulated, particularly the USA. Generic types of binders in this category include:
• Chlorinated Rubber Resins

• Vinyl Resins
• Bituminous Binders
• Cellulose Derivatives
Chlorinated Rubber Resins

These are normally considered to be chlorinated polyisoprene (polyisoprene being synthetic rubber) but also included in the
group are chlorinated polypropylene and chlorinated polyethylene. All of these polymers are similar in their general properties.
The resins are dissolved in aromatic hydrocarbon solvents like xylene, and form solutions which are film-forming in their own
right. However, they produce brittle films. Thus, in most formulations, high levels of plasticiser are required, normally between
30% and 50% of the total binder. The plasticisers normally used are chlorinated paraffin.
Chlorinate rubber resins have very good chemical and water resistance. These properties are somewhat adversely affected by
the addition of plasticiser and the chemical make-up of these binders provides the reason for their poor resistance to some
oils and greases. Another inherent property of the binder is its thermoplasticity which makes these coatings unsuitable for use
at temperatures above 80oC. This temperature sensitivity can lead to various film defects when used in very hot climates. In
addition, white and pale colors have a pronounced tendency to yellow when exposed to bright sunlight. Due to the viscosity
of chlorinated rubber resin solutions, it is only possible to make paints with maximum volume solids of about 45%. For
spraying versions, much lower volume solids are necessary. Chlorinated rubber paints will dry at low temperatures and give
excellent intercoat adhesion in both freshly applied and aged systems, making them particularly suitable and popular for
maintenance purposes.
Vinyl Resins
These are based on film forming polymers consisting of varying ratios of polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, and polyvinyl
alcohol. Composition of the final polymer depends on the ratios of the components used in the polymerization. Whereas
chlorinated rubbers are soluble in aromatic solvents, vinyl resins require ketone or ester solvents. Like chlorinated rubbers,
vinyls form brittle films and therefore require plasticising. The plasticising level necessary is about 20-25% of the total resin
component. Plasticiser types used are tricresyl phosphate or dioctyl phthalate. The volume of solids in vinyl resin paints are
relatively low because of their high solution viscosity. No more than about 25-30% volume solids can be achieved without
the paint becoming too thick for application. This obviously creates a problem in formulating high build coatings. Higher
volume solid materials can be produced by blending the vinyl resin with other materials such as acrylic resins. These
modifications detract from some of the more positive properties of the vinyl resins, such as chemical and water resistance.
Generally the film properties and weathering characteristics also show good low temperature drying and excellent intercoat
adhesion characteristics.
Bituminous Binders
Asphaltum and similar materials have been used for thousands of years as water proofing systems. The majority of materials
used today in paint form are based on either petroleum bitumen or coal tar pitch. The latter material has the better water
resistance and is more chemically complex requiring stronger solvents for solution. Pigmentation of both types produces
easy to use cheap products. Because of their inherent composition, only dark colored paints can be made.
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PIGMENTS AND EXTENDERS

Pigments and extenders are used in paints in the form of fine powders. These are dispersed into the binder to particle sizes
of about 5-10 microns for finishing paints and approximately 50 microns for primers.
These materials can be divided into the following types:
Type Purpose
Anticorrosive pigments To prevent corrosion of metals by chemical and electrochemical means.
Barrier pigments To increase impermeability of the paint film
Coloring pigments To give permanent color
Extending pigments To help give film properties required
ANTICORROSIVE PIGMENTS
Red Lead
This is probably the best known anticorrosive pigment, however, because of environmental and health considerations, lead
is not used on coatings in most developed countries. When used in conjunction with linseed oil it gives excellent corrosion
protection. The afforded is due to the lead complexes (‘soaps’) which suppress the corrosion reaction of steel, while also
reinforcing the film and giving good penetration and adhesion even to weathered corroded steel. The lead soaps are not
formed with “non-oil” binders, consequently in quick drying binders based on chlorinated rubber, vinyl or epoxy resins red
lead is much less effective. The slow drying time of the linseed oil, together with the toxicity of the red lead, drastically
restricts the use of this type of coating.
Other anticorrosive pigments based on lead are metallic lead. It depends largely on its own inertness, but the actual
mechanism of corrosion protection is uncertain, calcium plumbate is often used for use on galvanized surfaces. All of these
traditional pigments are decreasing in importance for the same reasons as red lead.
Zinc Chromate
There are two types, (1) zinc potassium chromate, (2) zinc tetroxy chromate. Both function as anticorrosive pigments by
releasing water soluble chromate ions which help to passivate the steel surface. They are used in a wide variety of binders
and are not restricted to oil based types. Once again, health considerations out weigh the benefits “heavy metals “ bring
to coatings, therefore, the use of chromates is becoming rare.
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Zinc Phosphate
This is also a widely used anticorrosive pigment although the actual mechanism of protection is uncertain. However, it is
thought that under normal exposure condition protection is afforded by a barrier effect. This is reflected in the necessity of
having to have high pigmentation levels to give adequate protection. In acidic atmospheres, zinc phosphate primers perform
surprisingly well, and it is assumed that this is because the phosphate ion becomes more active in these conditions and
electrochemically protects steel in a way similar to that of chromate ions.
Zinc phosphate can be incorporated into almost any binder, and because of its low opacity or transparent nature, paints of
any color can be produced.
Zinc
Metallic zinc is widely used in primers giving excellent resistance to corrosion of steel. Initial protection is by galvanic action.
However, as the coating is exposed to the atmosphere, a progressive build up of zinc corrosion products occurs, producing an
impermeable barrier with little or no galvanic protection. To give good galvanic and barrier protection, high levels of zinc are
required, about 80% of zinc in dry film. Because corrosion products of zinc with rain water are alkaline, reaction would occur
with saponifiable binders such as alkyds, and consequently these types should not be used as binders for zinc primers.
The most suitable resins are epoxy, silicate, or chlorinated rubber. Obviously, for the zinc to function correctly, it has to be in
intimate contact with the steel substrate. High degrees of surface cleanliness are therefore necessary.
Other available anticorrosive pigments which have not found general acceptance because of their lack of
cost effectiveness are:
• Barium Metaborate
• Calcium Molybate
• Zinc Molybate
• Lead Silicochromate
Barrier Pigments
The most common types of these pigments are aluminum (leafing aluminum) and micaceous iron oxide (M.I.O.). Both
have particle shapes which are termed lamellar (plate-like). These materials are often used in combination, the aluminum
lightening the almost black shade of M.I.O. M.I.O. pigmented films have durability, but to achieve this, high levels of M.I.O.
are necessary, of the order of 80% if the total pigment. Aluminum has been used for many years as the principle pigment
in paints for use underwater, the lamellar shape helping to make the film more water impermeable. The diagram below
illustrates how the impermeability of the film is increased and how the binder is protected, both benefits being promoted
by the lamellar structure of the incorporate pigment. Glass flake is also often used as a barrier pigment.
UV W ATER UV W ATER
DIRECT
PATH
NON-LAMELLAR PIGMENTS LAMELLAR PIGMENTS
Figure 1-1
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Coloring Pigments
These pigments provide both color and opacity and can be divided into either inorganic or organic types. Inorganic pigments
can be either naturally occurring or synthetically produced whereas all the organic pigments are nowadays synthetically
manufactured.
INORGANIC ORGANIC
NA TURAL SYNTHETIC
Figure 1-2
The most common coloring pigment is titanium dioxide, which is white. Commonly used inorganic pigments include oxides
of iron, which can be black, red-brown or yellow-brown in color and lead chromates which can vary from yellow to scarlet.
Yellows, blues, greens, and reds are more commonly obtained as organic pigments. They are generally bright in color and
their low toxicity makes them more generally acceptable for decorative coatings. In paint, all pigments are normally dispersed
to a very fine particle size in order to give maximum color and opacity (hiding power).
Extended Pigments
More commonly known as extenders, and as the name suggests, they basically adjust or “extend” the pigmentation of the
paint until the required pigment volume concentration (PVC) is achieved. They are all inorganic powders with various particle
shapes and sizes. Although making little or no contribution to the color opacity of the paint, they can have significant
influence on physical properties. These include flow, degree of gloss, anti-settling properties, sprayablility, water and chemical
resistance, mechanical strength and hardness, firm build (volume solids, hold up thixotrophy). Mixtures of extenders are often
used to obtain the desired properties. They are relatively inexpensive when compared to resins, anticorrosive pigments and
coloring pigments.
Common Extenders
Extender Uses
Barytes (Barium Sulphate) A medium hard powder which helps to reinforce the film.
China Clay Sometimes used to vary the level of gloss. Has a relatively high oil absorption.
MICA The lamellar properties of this material enable it to act to some extent as a
barrier pigment to reduce permeability. It can also improve film durability
by preventing cracking.
TALC Can have a similar effect to MICA but to a lesser degree.
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SOLVENTS
Solvents are used in paints principally to facilitate application. Their function is to dissolve the binder and consequently
reduce the viscosity of the paint to a level which is suitable for the various methods of application, i.e. brush, roller,
conventional spray, airless spray, dipping, etc. After application, the solvent evaporates and plays no further part in the final
paint film, the solvent therefore becomes a high cost waste material. Liquids used as solvents in paints can be described in
one of three ways:
True Solvents
A liquid which will dissolve the binder and is completely compatible with it.
Latent Solvent
A liquid which is not a true solvent. However, when mixed with a true solvent, the mix has stronger dissolving properties
than the true solvent alone.
Diluent Solvent
A liquid which is not a true solvent. Normally used as a blend with true solvent/latent solvent mixes to reduce the cost.
Binders will only tolerate a limited quantity of diluent.
There are numerous solvents used in the paint industry. This is partly due to the number of different properties which have
to be considered when selecting a solvent or solvent mixture. In addition to commercial factors such as price and availability,
these include toxicity, volatility, flammability, odor, compatibility, and suitability.1
The table below outlines typical solvents and their uses.
Solvent Type Typical Solvent Name Typical Paint Types

Aliphatic White Spirit Most conventional paints based on vegetable oils, e.g. alkyds.
Aromatic Tobuol Quick drying primers for automatic plants.
Xylol Modified alkyds. Chlorinated rubbers, some stoving paints.
A diluent solvent for epoxies, vinyl, polyurethanes.
Ketones Acetone Quick drying primers for automatic plants.
Methylethy Ketone (MEK) True solvent for vinyls. Quick drying primers.
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) True solvent for vinyls used sometimes for epoxies.
Cyckihexanone A slow evaporating true solvent to give good flow in vinyls and epoxies.
Alcohol Isopropanol Latent solvents for vinyls, wash and etch primers.
Butanol Some stoving paints used for epoxies in conjunction with aromatics.
Esters Butyl Acetate, Cellosolve Acetate Polyurethane and vinyls.
Water Water Emulsion paints-some special epoxies.
1 In certain countries certain types of solvents are not allowed. This is especially true in the USA, where the Hazardous Air Pollutant
Substances Act, (HAPS) dictates a time line for removing many solvents and extenders from coatings. Application properties, dry
times, and overcoat windows will most likely be affected as this AACT is implemented.
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OTHER PAINT ADDITIVES
Modern paints along with the principle ingredients, i.e. pigment/binder/solvent, require various other additives which aid
manufacture, shelf life, application, film formation, film curing and film properties of the paint. The term additive covers
a very wide range of materials which are essential to good formulation, but which are used in minor proportions of the
whole paint.
Typical Groups of Paint Additives

Aids to Manufacture
• Dispersion agents
• De-foamers
Aids to Shelf Life

• Stabilizers
• Antisetting agents
• Antiskinning agents (antioxidants)
• Preservatives
• Thickening agents
• Moisture absorbers
Aids to Application
• Flow promoting agents
• Solvent retarders
• Conductivity controllers
• Antistatic agents
Aids to Smoothness
• Antifloating agents
• Pattern additives
• Matting agents
• Thixotropes
• Antigas Checking agents
Aid to Film Curing

• Driers
• Curing agents/catalysts
• Adhesion promoters
Aids to Film Formation

• Heat stabilizers
• Fire retarders
• Optical brighteners
• Slip and anti-slip agents
• Anti-fouling agents
• Fungicides
• Bactericides
• Insecticides
• Absorbers
• Antiscuff agents
• Corrosion inhibitors
Others
• Deodorants
• Flash point controllers
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CHAPTER TWO:
Corrosion
orrosion of metals may be defined as an electromechanical process in which the metal reacts with its environment
C to form an oxide, or other compound, similar to the ore from which it was originally won. The strength of any metal
is determined by the arrangement of atoms within the metal, but it is the atomic structure at its very surface that
determines its tendency to corrode.
IRON ORE HEA T IRON METAL
Iron Oxide
O XYGEN W ATER
REVERSION RUST
REA CTION IRON OXIDE
Chemically similar to origin
Figure 2-1: The Reversion Reaction
The majority of metals are found in nature in the mineral state, that is, in their stable oxidized condition as oxides, chlorides,
carbonates, sulfates, sulfides, etc. The extraction of a metal from the appropriate mineral involves a reduction process in
which a great deal of energy is absorbed. As a consequence of this large energy input the metal is in a high energy condition
and will endeavor to return to its former stable oxidized low energy state as quickly as environmental conditions will allow. It
is this energy difference between the pure metal and its oxidized forms which is the driving force for corrosion of the metal.
Many corrosion products show a chemical similarity to the corresponding minerals. Iron, for example, is extracted from its
ores, mainly oxide and carbonate, by reduction with carbon in a blast furnace. In the presence of moisture the iron metal so
obtained is oxidized rust, which if analyzed is found to have a composition similar to the mineral ore.
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Steel and the Corrosion Reaction

All surfaces strive to achieve a certain balance, equilibrium, with their surroundings. On the atomic scale there is no distinct
borderline between a metal and its environment. The metal will surrender atoms to its environment and in return absorb
some atoms from the environment.
Metal atoms leave the metal and they go into solution as positively charged metal ions, leaving behind negatively charged
electrons. Consequently, the metal becomes more negatively charged. This makes it increasingly difficult or impossible for
the remaining metal atoms to escape as positively charged ions as they are being held by the negative charge of the metal.
For the process of releasing atoms as positively charged ions to continue, or for the corrosion process to continue, the excess
of electrons in the metal must be done away with. The manner and speed with which these excess electrons can be removed
determines the rate of corrosion.
The important step in the corrosion of steel is the transformation of a metal atom to metal ion by the loss of two electrons.
This is the anodic reaction:
(1) Fe = Fe++ + 2e
IRON ATOM = IRON ATOM ELECTRONS
(FERROUS)
This reaction can only occur if there is a suitable electron acceptor to combine with the electrons released by the ion atom.
Freshwater or seawater contain dissolved atmospheric oxygen which readily serves this purpose. The oxygen is electrochemically
reduced to hydroxyl ions in the cathodic reaction.
(2) O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4OH

OXYGEN WATER ELECTRONS = HYDROXYL IONS
The heterogeneous character of the metal surface allows for some areas or sites to favor reaction (1) anodes and others
reaction (2) cathodes. The whole surface of the metal is therefore divided up into large numbers of anodes and cathodes.
Figure 2-2 shows the progress of corrosion where metal is lost from the anode, causing it to progressively become thinner,
accompanied by a flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode which in turn react with both oxygen and water to form
hydroxyl ions.
Mild Steel W ater
e OH Ð
Cathode O2
Anode Fe++
Fe
Cathode
O2
OH Ð
e
Figure 2-2
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(3) Fe+ + 2OH = Fe (OH)2

FERROUS IONS HYDROXYL IONS = FERROUS HYDROXIDE
Ferrous hydroxide in the presence of an abundant supply of oxygen is oxidized to the familiar reddish brown rust.
(4) 2Fe (OH)2 + O2 = Fe2O32H2O

FERROUS HYDROXIDE OXYGEN = RUST
The above reactions, (1) (2) (3) (4), are the basic reactions which occur when iron or steel transforms to rust or, more specifically,
to iron oxide. In practical situations the process is not so simple. For instance, corrosion of steel in seawater or in polluted
atmospheres results in more rapid and complicated reactions producing corrosion products in association with iron oxide.
Some of these iron salts are water soluble and can cause major problems to paint coatings if not removed before application.
Principles of Corrosion
Corrosion in Humid Environment
Steel immersed in seawater or exposed to high humidity will corrode as shown in Figure 2-3.
O2
eÐ
eÐ Fe++
eÐ eÐ
Fe++
eÐ eÐ
2H 2O
eÐ Fe++
eÐ
eÐ
eÐ Fe++
eÐ
Fe++
4OH Ð eÐ
Fe++
Figure 2-3
Areas from where iron ions go into solution (the anodes) and areas where electrons are consumed in a reaction with the
environment (the cathodes), may continuously change resulting in a comparatively even corrosion.
In an electrolyte of seawater, there is nothing to retard the dissolution of iron, and the rate or speed of corrosion is almost
exclusively determined by the rate at which oxygen reaches the cathode areas.
Hydroxyl ions and iron ions with the addition of oxygen react further to form iron hydroxide, a major component of rust.
In given environments certain metals will form protective corrosion products, oxides, that prevent or retard further corrosion.
Aluminum and stainless steel are examples of this.
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Corrosion in an Acidic Environment
In a very acidic environment, such as diluted sulfuric acid, steel will corrode evenly while creating hydrogen gas.
See figure 2-4.
eÐ Fe++
H2
eÐ eÐ
eÐ Fe++
eÐ eÐ
Fe++
eÐ
eÐ
eÐ
Fe++
eÐ
eÐ eÐ
eÐ eÐ
2H +
Fe++
Figure 2-4
The rate of corrosion of steel in an acid solution is much higher than in a neutral environment, partly because the hydrogen
gas easily and quickly escapes the steel surface and partly because the corrosion products are soluble in acid. This prevents
the formation of a rust layer that could retard the corrosion process.
Galvanic or Bi-metallic Corrosion
Since steel is less noble, i.e. releases electrons more easily than copper, metallic contact between the two would cause any
excess electrons to travel from the steel to the copper. See figure 2-5.
eÐ
Ð STEEL COPPER +
Fe++ eÐ eÐ Fe++ eÐ
++ eÐ Ð
Fe++ Ð Ð eÐ Fe e
e e Ð Fe++ eÐeÐ
Fe++ e Fe ++ Ð
e
eÐ eÐ 4OH Ð eÐ
Fe++
++
Fe++ Fe
H 2O 2O 2
Figure 2-5
In accordance with the traditional concept, an electrical current travels from the copper to the steel (from the positive
cathode to the negative anode).
The cathode will strive to rid itself of the excess electrons it receives. The anode, on the other hand, will strive to regain it’s
negative potential by releasing more metal ions, corroding. An expression for the rate of corrosion is the flow of electrical
current that can be maintained through the electron consuming process on the cathode, and the electron generating process
on the anode.
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Corrosion of the steel is accelerated through its contact with copper. The steel suffers galvanic corrosion while the copper is
protected cathodically. The most positive (noble) material will be protected against corrosion at the cost of the most negative
(ignoble) material.
See figure 2-6 table of materials in the Galvanic Series.
+0.2 0 Ð0.2 Ð0.4 Ð0.6 Ð0.8 Ð1.0 Ð1.2 Ð1.4 Ð1.6
Magnesium
Zinc
Berylium
Aluminum Alloys
Cadmium
Mild Steel, Cast Iron
Low Alloy steel
Austanitic Nickel Cast Iron
Aluminum Bronze
Naval Brass, ellow
Y Brass, Red Brass
Tin
Copper
Pb-Sn Solder (50/50)
Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass
Manganese Bronze
Silicone Bronze
Tin Bronzes (G & M)
Stainless Steel
Ñ T ypes 410, 416
Nickel Silver
90-10 Copper-Nickel
80-20 Copper-Nickel
Stainless Steel
Ñ T ype 430
Lead
70-30 Copper-Nickel
Nickel Aluminum Bronze
Nickel-
Chromium Alloy 600
Silver Bronze Alloys
Nickel 200
Silver
Stainless Steel
Ñ T ypes 302, 304, 321, 347
Nickel-
Copper Alloys 400, -500K
Stainless Steel
Ñ T ypes 316, 317
AlloyÒ20Ò Stainless Steels, Cast rought
and W
Nickel-Iron-
Chromium Alloy 825
Ni-Cr-Mo-Cu-Si Alloy B
Titanium
Ni-Cr-Mo Alloy C
Platinum
Graphite
. Certain
Alloys are listed in the order of the potential they exhibit alloys seawater
in flowing
indicated by the symbol: inlow-velocity
orpoorly
aerated
water
,and atshielded
areas,
may become active and exhibit a potential
Ð0.5 volts.
near
Figure 2-6 Galvanic Series
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Types of Corrosion
Uniform Corrosion
The most common type of corrosion encountered is the general attack of a more or less uniform nature, although the loss of
metal is concentrated at the anode sites and there is a continual change in the surface with time. With progressive metal loss,
areas which were initially anodic cease to be active and new anodic sites take over. There is thus a continuous interchange
between the anodic and cathodic areas, such that over a period of time the loss of metal over the entire surface is fairly
uniform. This is the easiest form of corrosion to combat or allow for because structural life time can be predicted, a feature
which is not possible with the following corrosion forms.
Pitting Corrosion
The characteristic of this type of attack is that it is extremely localized and the penetration is deep in relation to the area
attacked. Pitting is one of the most dangerous forms of corrosion and often occurs in places where it cannot be readily seen.
Pitting corrosion can be extremely intense on mill scaled steel left outside, as shown in figure 2-7 Pitting Corrosion.
RUST
W et Surface Fe2O 2 O2
OH Ð OH Ð
Mil Scale Cathode
e e
STEEL
Anode
Figure 2-7
Crevice Corrosion
Intense localized corrosion, ranging from small pits to extensive attack over the whole surface, can occur within narrow
crevices formed by the geometry of a structure, for example: riveted plates or threaded joints. Crevice corrosion is
characterized by a geometrical configuration in which the cathode reactant, oxygen, can readily gain access to the metal
surface outside the crevice and less access to the crevice. The metal within the crevice is therefore anodic to the surrounding
steel and suffers preferential corrosion.
Deposition Corrosion
This is a similar type of attack to that occurring in crevices. Wherever loose debris collect, there will be a depletion in a
crevice. Consequently, the attack is localized beneath the loose debris or sediment. See figure 2-8 Deposition Corrosion.
HIGH
ACCUMULA TED O2
DEBRIS
Anode
Cathode LOW O 2 STEEL
Figure 2-8
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)

All metals, even stainless steel, may incur corrosion from microbiologically influenced corrosion, MIC. This type of corrosion
has been in existence for a long time and is either completely overlooked or goes unrecognized. However, it is gaining
attention in the marine environment as a leading cause of corrosion in cargo, ballast and void spaces.
Corrosive bacteria thrive in low oxygen or oxygen free environments and require some type of food source. In an ideal
environment microbes may double their mass every 20 minutes, but such conditions rarely exist on board vessels. On board
ships microbes can thrive in the water layer at the bottom of oil cargo tanks and in the sediment in ballast tanks. Once
bacteria become established, they become difficult to control and may corrode steel up to 1/16 to 1/8 inch per year.
The reaction of microbes and steel is not very clear, but this much is known in what they can achieve:
1. Microbes produce acids
2. Destroy coatings
3. Create corrosive cells
4. Produce hydrogen sulfide
Types of Bacteria that Cause Corrosion

The two most common types of bacteria that cause corrosion are Acid Producing Bacteria (APB) and Sulfate Reducing
Bacteria (SRB). Both live in colonies attached to the surface of the steel where they assist each other in their growth.
Acid Producing Bacteria ( APB’s )

These are generally the first to colonize the surface of the steel inside ballast and cargo tanks. APB’s feed on organic
compounds such as oil and oil products to form organic acids. APB’s thrive in conditions where there is very little oxygen.
Stagnant waters in ballast tanks create this condition. In utilizing the residual oxygen about them they create a very acidic
environment beneath the colony. By consuming the small amount of oxygen about them, an oxygen free environment is
developed making conditions ideal for Sulfate Reducing Bacteria to develop.
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria ( SRB’s )

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria thrive only in an oxygen free environment. The oxygen they require is extracted by removing
oxygen from the sulfate ion in seawater. SRB’s also utilize hydrocarbons as a food source, but prefer the organic acids given
off by the APB’s. Once the oxygen is removed from the sulfate ion, they discard the sulfide in the form of hydrogen sulfide.
The combination of the hydrogen sulfide and organic acids under the colonies create a condition that is highly aggressive
to steel and the characteristic craters or pits are formed.
Detecting Bacteria
Initial detection is first achieved visually by noting a black slime deposit on the surface of the steel. Also, the detection
of Hydrogen Sulfide, rotten egg smell, could possibly be noted.
Corrosion attributed to MIC is almost always highly localized pitting. The pits are generally filled with a black ferrous
product. The walls of the pit are generally terraced. The metal surface below the corrosion products is often bright
and active.
Another method for detecting the presence of MIC can be accomplished by taking samples and sending them to a recognized
laboratory where cultures are grown to determine the type of bacteria involved. Enzyme tests may also be utilized.
See figure 2-9.
O2 ClÐ ClÐ
Oxygen-Containing A erobic Bacteria

W ater os
M etal-Dep iting
B acteria Ð Ð
2O + 4e → 4OH
O 2 + 2H
Oxide ayer
L
Anode
M → M2 + 2e
Ð
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Coatings and MIC

Soft coatings
Rapid attack by bacteria on soft coatings is the result of the base product, paraffin and oil, being a nutrient for bacteria
growth.
Alkyds
Alkyd coatings use an organic binder dissolved in solvents to form a protective barrier after the solvent evaporates. Because
alkyds have a high base organic and hydrocarbon compounds, they would probably be rapidly attacked by bacteria.
Vinyl’s
Vinyl’s are also rapidly attacked by some types of bacteria, especially molds and mildew, and would not perform well when
exposed to bacteria.
Epoxies
Epoxies are chemically cured and their resistance to bacteria would be dependent on the type of epoxy and the solvent used
as a curing agent. If the epoxy became porous or mechanical damage should occur, it would come under attack by bacteria.
Amine cured epoxies are the most susceptible to bacteria acid attack, with the imide cured epoxies being the most resilient.
Epoxy Novolac is an example of a good, albeit expensive coating.
Coal Tar Epoxy has good resistance against acid attack due to the properties of the coal tar pitch. It resists bacterial attack
due to its phenol content.
Urethanes
Urethanes are also chemically cured coatings and have shown good resistance to bacterial attack. Bacteria will grow on
urethane, but will not degrade the coating.
Cathodic Protection
Supplementing a coating protection system with anodes causes the pH within the tank or space to increase. The high pH
creates a calcareous deposit to occur on the surface of the steel. Bacteria do not usually thrive in areas where the pH level in
the space is in the range of 10 to 11. If the pH level goes below this level the bacteria growth level will return to normal
levels in less than a half a day.
Protection from MIC
Utilizing a protective coating system or a combination of coatings and cathodic protection in cargo and ballast tanks can
protect a vessel from the onslaught of MIC. Locations where MIC can become a problem are in the ballast tank, where water
can become stagnant, and in the sediment in the bottom of the tank. MIC is a problem in cargo tanks in the water layer that
collects in the bottom of cargo tanks where generally there is a good supply of hydrocarbon food source in this area.
Coatings act as a barrier between the surface of the steel and the environment it is being subjected to. Anodes protect the
steel at the imperfections in the coating. Bacteria are able to utilize some of the compounds within the various coating
systems as nutrients, causing deterioration within coating systems.
Utilizing biocides for treating bacterial affected areas have been used, but these have short time effects. Biocides such as
chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, iodine and quaternary amine have been used.
Also, at the new construction phase, design features should be utilized in eliminating areas for the accumulation of mud and
sediment. Also, proper drainage of all liquids to a common stripping area is desired to eliminate the possibility of stagnant
water accumulating. Good design is safe, environmentally acceptable and permanent.
References
1. John S. Smart, Ph.D. — Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of Ships

2. Gregory Kobrin — Corrosion by Microbiological Organisms in Natural Waters
3. E. C. Hill and G. C. Hill — Microbiological Pitting Corrosion — Old Problems in New Places
4. Bruce Sawvel — Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
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CHAPTER THREE:
Paints for Purposes
ost of the important properties of a paint are determined by its binder and the manner in which the film is formed.
M These general properties cannot be notably changed, but in the formulation of paints it is possible to enhance,
modify, or even add to these basic characteristics. The result is a much wider range of paint “types” than would off
hand appear from the generic classification. Some of these types are more often referred to by their function or purpose,
than by their generic type. In this chapter the following are described:
• Anticorrosives
• Shop Primers/Holding Primers
• Antifoulants
ANTICORROSIVES
In corrosion prevention with paints, three main principles are employed:
• Create a barrier that keeps out charged ions and retards the penetration of water and oxygen.
• Ensure that water on its passage through the paint coating takes on special properties or compounds inhibiting it’s
corrosive action.
• Ensure metallic contact between the steel and a less noble metal, such as zinc, affords cathodic protection of the steel by
utilizing the galvanic effect.
Barrier Effect
Barrier effect is obtained by applying thick coatings, 10 to 20mils., of paint with very low water permeability.
Typical representatives are:

• Bitumen
• Coal tar epoxy
• Epoxy
By adding flake pigments, such as leafing aluminum, a barrier effect can be achieved at lower film thickness. The flake
pigments are oriented parallel to the steel surface, and water trying to pass through has to select the more complicated and
longer passage around the pigments. See figure 3-1
Figure 3-1
For permanently immersed steel, the first and often the only choice of protection in coating protection is to utilize the
barrier effect. If a barrier coating is damaged, the damaged area is open for corrosion to begin. Corrosion can then proceed
into the steel substrate and outwards under the intact coating, known as under rusting. Thus, where there is a risk of
mechanical damage, additional protection such as cathodic protection is sometimes provided.
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Inhibitor Effect
A corrosion inhibitive effect is achieved by using primers containing inhibitors. These are soluble or basic pigments designed
to suppress the corrosion process. Example of types of inhibitors utilized are:
• Zinc Chromate
• Zinc Phosphate
• Zinc Metaborate
• Red lead
• Calcium Plumbate
(The first three inhibitors do not contain metallic zinc particles)
Inhibitors are and must be somewhat water soluble. To prevent them from being washed out of the primer coats, top coats
without inhibitors are applied to provide the barrier necessary for the inhibitive primer to last.
Due to water solubility of the pigments used, inhibitive primers are not suited for prolonged immersion. This exposure would
result in blistering and early breakdown of the coating system.
When damaged, a reasonable protection against rust creeping or under rusting is afforded, but the damaged area is exposed
to corrosion.
Galvanic Effect
Protection of steel through the galvanic effect, cathodic protection, can be achieved with paints containing large amounts
of metallic zinc. A condition for effective protection is that the paint is formulated to give metallic contact between the
individual zinc particles and between zinc particles and the steel. Typical binder for zinc dust paints are:
• Epoxy
• Ethyl Silicate
• Alkali Silicate
The very nature of these paints requires an absolutely clean steel surface and, especially for the zinc silicates, a rather well
defined surface profile for a lasting coating system.
When applied, zinc silicates are initially rather porous. After a while the pourousness is filled with corrosion products from the
zinc, and a barrier is formed.
When damaged, the galvanic effect is re-established at the damaged area and protected effectively against rust creeping.
Since the corrosion products of zinc (zinc salts) are slightly water soluble, zinc dust paints are not normally suited for
permanent water immersion service, but zinc silicate, because of its superior solvent resistance, is the favored protection
in ballast tanks.
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SHOP PRIMERS
Shop primers, also referred to as pre-construction primers, are anticorrosives designed for application in automated plants to
plates or profiles prior to assembly or construction.
Demands
The special demands of these primers are:
• Provide protection against corrosion during the construction period.
• Spray applicable in a variety of automatic installations.
• Time between application and dry to handle is very brief.
• Should not influence the speed of welding or cutting.
• Must not produce noxious or toxic fumes during the welding or cutting process.
• Must not influence the strength of the welds.
• Should be able to withstand comparatively rough handling.
• Should form a suitable base for the widest possible range of coating systems.
Properties
Consequent to the requirements listed above, shop primers possess properties not normally found in paints designed for other
purposes. They are applied in low film thickness, 3 to 5 mils., and do not interfere with the speed of cutting or welding.
Reasonable protection at such low film thickness can only be achieved if the coating follows the contours, (surface profile),
of the blasted steel.
Figure 3-2
Inherent in the formulation of shop primers are fast drying and retarded flow properties. A side effect of this is low cohesive
strength. Shop primers applied with excessive dry film thickness, DFT, have a pronounced tendency to crack.
To achieve the desired protection and avoid immediate or subsequent cracking, the dry film thickness of the primer must be
closely monitored and the manufacturer’s specification followed closely. This exactness is usually found in automated paint
facilities.
Where temporary protection to blast cleaned steel is applied by hand spray, as in a maintenance situation, one would choose
a suitable anticorrosive, holding primer with a reasonably long re-coating interval and apply it in a lower than usual film
thickness. Anticorrosive primers suitable, and frequently used, for this purpose are referred to as holding primers. They are
ideally based on the same generic type as the top coat to follow.
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Types of Shop Primers
The most widely accepted shop primers are:

• Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB)
• Epoxy Iron Oxide
• Zinc Epoxy
• Zinc Silicate
A general summary of the more important properties of these shop primers are in Table 3-1
Type of Shop Primers

Property Zinc Expoxy Zinc Silicate Epoxy Iron PVB
Oxide
Delivery two pack two pack or two pack two pack or
one pack one pack
Solvents and esters, water or esters, alcohols,
Thinners ketones, alcohols ketones ketones,
aromatics aromatics aromatics
Dry Film 12-20 um 12-20 um 20-20 um 15-25 um
Thickness
Anticorrosive very good excellent good fair
Properties
Mechanical good excellent good good
Strength
Recoatability sometimes critical sometimes good
critical critical
Resistance to 4 Not usually Not usually good limited
ICCP used with used with
ICCP ICCP
Table 3-1
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ANTIFOULINGS
Ships’ underwater hulls are painted to protect the building material, usually steel, and prevent undue roughness. The effect
of roughness on the hull area is an increase in resistance to movement, resulting in reduced speed and/or increased fuel
consumption. The penalty is a higher operating cost.
Fouling
The most severe hull roughness is that caused by fouling, the growth of various marine plants, animals, and organisms.
Some 20% of the fuel bill for the Royal Navy, it is estimated, is caused by fouling.
The Organisms
Many of the species populating the oceans swim or are carried by the ocean currents. Others are compelled to attach
themselves to a firm surface to fulfill their life cycles. Every available space is contested and covered by a variety of marine
growth. The number of species involved in fouling is estimated to be as high 4 to 5,000.
Micro-Organisms
The micro-organisms are the first to settle. They form the primary bio-film or slime layer. The most significant ones are:
• Bacteria
• Diatoms (unicellular algae)
Macro-Organisms
Macro-organisms are big enough to be seen without the aid of a microscope. Example of macro-organisms are:
• Algae (sea weed or grass)
• Animals (Hard and Soft Shelled)
Among the hard shelled animals, barnacles, goosenecks, tubeworms, bryozoans, and mussels are the most common. Soft
bodied animals found most commonly are hydroids and tunicates.
Distribution
Fouling is generally regarded as being most dominant in ports, harbors, and coastal areas where firm surfaces on which
to settle abound.
The distribution of macro-organisms on a ship is seldom uniform. This is due partly to differences in flow conditions on the
hull and partly to differences in the settling pattern of the organisms. A relatively well defined vertical zone division can
normally be observed.
Since algae depends on light for its existence, this type of fouling is predominant to a depth of approximately two meters.
This is the algae zone and is fouled first and most heavily.
On the vertical bottom, below the algae zone, scattered fouling of barnacles, encrusting bryozoans, tubeworms and
goosenecks are common.
The flat bottom is dominated by hydroids, barnacles, mussels, tunicates, bryozoans, and sometimes goosenecks.
Severity and distribution of macro-organisms on a ship’s underwater hull will be influenced by the ship’s trading and
operational pattern. Algae settles in a matter of hours, whereas animals normally require a couple of days. Very few organisms
can attach themselves at speeds in excess of four knots. The settlement of micro-organisms, bacteria and diatoms, are not
confined to specific zones or areas. It is comparatively uniform and independent of the vessel’s service pattern.
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Antifoulant Paints
The antifouling paints used today are based on physically drying binders. They prevent fouling by releasing bioactive
materials that interfere with the biological processes of the fouling organisms. Bioactive materials used today are mainly
cuprous oxide or organo-tin compounds. These compounds are used either individually or as a combination of each.
Classification of Antifouling Paints

Antifouling paints differ basically in their load or concentration of bioactive material and in the mechanism controlling the
release of that material.
According to the manner in which bioactive material is leached from the coating, antifoulants may be grouped as the
following:
• Soluble Matrix Types (non polishing)

• Insoluble Matrix Types (non polishing)
• Self Polishing Types
Particularly in the latter two groups a great number of grades (type /concentration of bioactive material) will be found.
Soluble Matrix (non polishing)

Such antifoulants have, as a main constituent of their binder, a sea water soluble resin. As the binder dissolves, the
bioactive material is released. The release rate is uneven and since the binder is comparatively weak the load of bioactive
material is low.
Non-Polishing 0 1⁄2 LT LT Release rate of

-soluble matrix BIOACTIVE MATERIAL
TV
TIME
0 LT
Figure 3-3 Soluble Matrix (non polishing)
Bioactive materials
General Properties
Binder
• Effective protection rather limited (up to
approximately 12 months). Anticorrosive primer
• Only antifoulant type that can be safely applied over LT Lifetime of antifouling
soft, bitumen, primers.
TV Threshold
Value,i.e.,
minimum release
rat
• The binder oxidizes and is sensitive to sunlight. ofbioactive
material
required
forprotecti
Therefore the vessel must be launched or floated against fouling
.
soon after curing.
• Sensitive to oil pollution (mineral and fish oils)
• Due to the low strength of the binder, subject to
cold flow.
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Insoluble Matrix (non polishing)

These antifoulants may be based on a vinyl binder. These have high mechanical strength and are not affected by
seawater, therefore, the load of bioactive material must be high enough for the particles of this material to be in
contact with each other.
Non-Polishing 0 1⁄2 LT LT
-insoluble matrix
TV
Self-P
olishing
0 LT
Bioactive materials
Figure 3-4 Insoluble Matrix (non polishing)
Binder
General Properties Anticorrosive primer

• Medium extended effective protection (up to 24 to 30 LT Lifetime of antifouling
months, depending on trading pattern).
TV Threshold
Value,i.e.,
minimum release
rate
• No risk to cold flow. ofbioactive
material
required
forprotection
• Re-activation (removal of empty matrix) possible against fouling
.
through scrubbing (“Scamp” cleaning).
• Empty matrix may become blocked by pollutants.
• An empty matrix, because of its sponge like properties,
should be scaled off prior to a fresh or
new coat of antifoulant is applied.
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Self Polishing
These are based on acrylic binders incorporating organo-tin in the very polymers of the binder. In contact with sea water it
dissolves at an even and predictable rate. As the antifoulant wears off/polishes the bioactive material, organo-tin is released
at an even rate.
0 1⁄2 LT LT
TV
0 LT
Figure 3-5 Self Polishing
General Properties
• Medium to very high effective protection against fouling (up to 48 months).
• Excellent mechanical strength and stability.
• Effective life is directly proportional to applied film thickness.
• No sealer coat required at subsequent dry dockings .
• Remaining antifoulant becomes an effective part of the new system (can overcoat).
Roughness
Self polishing antifoulants cannot turn a rough hull into a smooth one. They can maintain and preserve an existing
smoothness and, since the polishing rate is higher on roughness peaks than valleys, even improve smoothness.
The use of self polishing antifoulants prevents the accumulation over the years of old and spent antifoulant systems,
and thus greatly contribute to maintaining a smooth underwater hull.
Roughness development versus time, as a function of the type and grade of antifoulant, can be qualified by computer
simulation and the economical impact predicted. This can serve as the basis for selecting the most economical coating
system for each individual vessel.
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CHAPTER FOUR:
Surface Preparation
ood surface preparation is, perhaps, the most important part of the entire coating job, in that the greatest percentage
G of coating failures can be traced directly to poor surface preparation. No paint system will give optimum performance
over a poorly prepared surface. All paint systems will fail prematurely unless the surface has been properly prepared to
receive the coating material. If contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt, salts, chemicals, etc. are not removed from the surface
to be coated, adhesion will be compromised, and/or osmotic blistering will occur. Loose rust left on the surface will cause a
loosening of the coating and eventual loss of adhesion. Also, good surface preparation roughens the surface to assist in
obtaining the proper surface profile, thereby promoting better coating performance in the areas of adhesion, abrasion
resistance, chemical and water resistance, as well as the long term cosmetic appearance of the paint system.
The following table provides a Summary of Surface Preparation Standards and a cross-reference of those Standards by
various world-wide agencies. There are differences which can be important in some instances; care is advised when a
crossover is required. While these standards are limited to steel substrates by use of common sense, many of the
techniques, with their inherent advantages and disadvantages, hold true for substrates.
PREPARATION STANDARDS
Nonabrasive Blast Cleaning NACE1 SSPC2

Solvent Cleaning SSPC-SP-1
Hand Tool Cleaning SSPC-SP-2
Power Tool Cleaning SSPC-SP-3
Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal SSPC-SP-11
Abrasive Blast Cleaning

White Metal NACE-1 SSPC-SP-5
Near-White Metal NACE-2 SSPC-SP-10
Commercial NACE-3 SSPC-SP-6
Brush-Off NACE-4 SSPC-SP-7
Water Blasting NACE-5 SPS-SP-12
Figure 4-1
NACE = National Association of Corrosion Engineers

SSPC = Steel Structures Painting Council
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Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP-1)

A process of using solvents, expanded more recently to include other cleaning compounds, to remove oil, grease, and other
contaminants. This process is best utilized as a preliminary step in the total surface preparation procedure.
Solvents are no longer the recommended cleaner, as they may become an impediment rather than a help, if not properly
removed. If solvent cleaning is chosen, then safety is very important. Adequate ventilation and minimizing the potential fire
hazard are paramount. Clean-up rags should be changed often to prevent smearing. A proprietary water soluble oil and
grease remover and fresh water washing is the perfect method of achieving this standard. (Some will also etch the surface,
further promoting adhesion.)
Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-2)

This method is the slowest and usually the least satisfactory method of surface preparation. Wire brushing, in fact, can make
the surface worse by polishing rather than cleaning the rusted surface. Scrapers, chipping hammers, or chisels can be used to
remove loose, non adherent pain, rust or scale, but is usually considered incomplete. For this reason, the area to be prepared
should be sufficiently small to allow for the time required.
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Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-3)

The advantage of power (electrical or air) tool methods over hand tools, is that they are generally less laborious, but, as with
manual, easier to feather loose coatings back to tight impact paint. The effectiveness of cleaning will depend on the effort
and endurance of the operator, and becomes especially tiring when working above shoulder height. Some of the more
popular methods are as follows:
Rotary Wire Brushing

This method does have some value, depending upon the condition of the surface. Loose “powdery” rust can be removed but
hard scale will resist the abrasion of the wire bristles. When rust scale is intact and adherent to the substrate, rotary wire
brushing tends to merely burnish the surface of the rust scale, but does not remove it. Care should be exercised, in that the
burnished surface may give the appearance of a well cleaned surface, which is often misleading.
Mechanical Descaling
Needle Guns, Roto-Peen, and other pounding type instruments are effective to some degree in removing thick rust and scale.
The action of these types of devices is dependent upon cutting blade or point pounding the surface and breaking away the
scale. Cleaning is only effective at the actual points of contact. The intermediate areas are only partially cleaned, because the
brittle scale disintegrates, but the lowermost layer of rust and scale remains attached to the substrate. This may be sufficient
for surface tolerant epoxies.
Rotary Power Discing

Of the power tool methods, this one is the most effective in producing a surface suitable for the application of most types of
coating systems, especially for most on-board maintenance. While effective, discing should generally be limited to localized
areas of fairly severe corrosion or more widespread light corrosion, because, once again, this method can be quite slow and
labor intensive. Normally silicon carbide discs are used and the grade selected to suit the conditions of the surface to be
abraded. It is important to change the discs at regular intervals in order to maintain efficiency. Care should be exercised in
the selection of the grit size and type of disc to be utilized, so that the surface is not excessively smoothed, thereby reducing
the ability of the paint to adhere. Irregular and pitted surfaces may require a combination of the various power tool cleaning
methods to maximize effectiveness.
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Abrasive Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP-5,6,7,10)

This is by far the most efficient and effective method of removing paint, rust, mill scale, etc. from substrates, also, it is
generally considered to provide the proper surface profile to promote coating adherence. However, compared to the methods
discussed above, it is also the most expensive method. For this reason, it is chosen to reduce the time for surface preparation,
or to achieve standards of cleanliness that are only attainable by some type of abrasive blasting. It is not feasible to provide a
complete treatise on the types of blasting, types, and sizes of grit available, surface profiles, and mechanics of abrasive grit
blasting, however, each abrasive blast standard will be defined as follows:
SSPC-SP-5, NACE No. 1, Swedish Sa 3

White Metal Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This blast standard is defined as a surface with a gray-white, uniform metallic
color, slightly roughened to form a suitable profile for coatings. This surface shall be free of all oil, grease, dirt, visible mill
scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint, or any other foreign mater. This surface shall have a color characteristic of the
abrasive media used.
SSPC-SP-10, NACE No. 2, Swedish Sa 2 1/2

Near White Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This finish surface is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, mill scale, rust,
corrosion products, oxides, paint or other foreign matter have been removed except for very light shadows, very light streaks,
or slight discolorations. At least 95% of a surface shall have the appearance of a surface blast cleaned to a white metal
surface finish, and the remainder shall be limited to the light discoloration mentioned above.

Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This finish is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, and foreign
matter have been completely removed from the surface and all (Sa 2 provides for almost all) rust, mill scale, and old paint
have been completely removed except for slight shadows, streaks, or discolorations. At least 67% of the surface area shall be
free of all visible residues and the remainder shall be limited to light discoloration, slight staining, or light residues mentioned
above.

Brush Off Blast Cleaned Surface. This finish is defined as one from which oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, loose mill scale, loose
rust and loose paint or coatings are removed completely, but light mill scale and tightly adhered rust, paint, and coatings are
permitted to remain, provided they have been exposed to the abrasive blast pattern sufficiently to expose numerous flecks of
the underlying metal fairly uniformly distributed over the entire surface.
Water Jetting and Hydroblasting

As discussed previously dry abrasive blasting is the most commonly used method of surface preparation. Accompanied with
this style of preparation are some known problems. In general with abrasive blasting the resultant flying abrasive particles and
drifting dust may damage equipment, clog filters and create possible environmental problems.
Also, it is possible to trap contaminants on the surface of the substrate being cleaned.
Government regulations are continuously investigating and developing more environmentally sensitive and user friendly
methods of surface preparation. The use of hydroblasting is becoming an increasing viable means to accomplish this.
Standards from both NACE and SSPC are being developed to satisfy this need.
It should be noted that hydroblasting does not produce a profile on the steel surface as does abrasive blasting. It does,
however, expose the original abrasive blast surface profile. To be an effective agent the water being used should be pure
enough that it does not contaminate the surface being cleaned.
Pressures used in hydroblasting can exceed 35,000 psi. This pressure removes most contaminants, such as salts, dirt, grease
and rust scale. Utilized sometimes in this type of preparation are inhibitors which are added to the water to help prevent
flash rusting prior to coating being applied.
Advantages to hydroblasting are:

• Water as a cleaning material is generally available in inexpensive large quantities.
• Lack of contamination of surrounding areas because there are no abrasive particles.
• Lack of dust.
30 ABS
CHAPTER FIVE:
Methods of Paint Application
he objective in applying paint coatings are to provide films which will give protection and, normally to a
T lesser extent, decoration to the structure being painted. The variables which govern the success of any
application are:
• Surface preparation
• Film build and total thickness of system
• Methods of application
• Atmospheric conditions during application
Methods of Application
The normal methods of application of paint coatings are by:
• Brush
• Roller
• Conventional Spray
• Airless Spray
• High-Volume, Low Pressure spray (HVLP)
Other methods may also be encountered, such as dipping and pouring, and more sophisticated adaptations of spraying such
as electrostatic, powder coatings application, and automatic plants, but in this paper we will concentrate on the four basic
methods detailed.
Brush Application
The “historical” method of paint application is not as fast as spraying or rolling and is generally used for the coating of small
complicated or complex areas or where the need for ‘clean’ working with no overspray precludes the use of spray application.
When painting it is important to dip the brush in paint frequently and not to ‘over-brush’ the surface, as this will result in
large variations in film thickness, the inherent problem with brush application. Choice of brush, both size, length and type of
bristle, and shape, are important, and the type of paint being applied will modify the selection. Thus, large flat brushes are
normally used for the majority of purposes, but round brushes are better for painting bolt-heads and ‘difficult’ areas. Special
brushes are available with offset heads and long handles to facilitate painting the ‘backs’ of structures and inaccessible areas.
Brush application is most suited to the slower drying, normal build type of coatings, and will not always be suitable for the
more sophisticated ‘fast-drying’ or ‘hi-build’ materials. It is often not possible to achieve the required film thickness in the
same number of coats as with spray application, and multi-coat applications are necessary to give the specified film build.
Roller Application
Roller application is faster than brush on large, flat surfaces, such as tank sides and tops and walkways and deck areas, but it
is not so good for ‘difficult’ areas. It is hard to control film thickness, however, and care must always be taken that the
coating is not ‘over-rolled’ in the same manner that it can be ‘over-brushed’. Choice of roller pile (short or long hair, sponge
or lambs wool) is dependent on type of coating and roughness and irregularity of surface being coated.
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Conventional Spray
This is a widely accepted, rapid method of applying paint to large surfaces. The equipment is relatively simple and is
usually confined to fairly low-viscosity paints, although newer techniques using ‘pressure-pot’ or ‘hot spray’ apparatus allow
application of some of the ‘higher build’ type coatings. Whatever type of equipment is used, the mechanisms is the same.
Paint and air are fed separately to the spray gun and mixed at the nozzle, where the paint is atomized and air is mixed with
these droplets forming a fine mist of paint which is carried by the air pressure to the work surface. It is important to have
only sufficient air to provide good atomization, as excess air gives rise to overspray and ‘rebound’ from the work surface.
The gun should be held at right angles to the work surface with the nozzle some 6-8” (15-20 cms) away. Normal air pressure
is from 40-80 psi (2.8-5.6 kg/cm2). The pattern of the ‘fan’ so produced is controlled by adjusting the air and fluid pressures.
A change in paint type can be accommodated by different sizes of nozzles.
Airless Spray
By far the most important and efficient method for the application of heavy duty marine coatings.
As the name implies, it is a technique of spray application which does not rely on the mixing of the paints with air to provide
atomization, which is achieved by forcing the paint through a specially designed nozzle or ‘tip’ at very high pressures, as
compared with air pressure associated with conventional spray, 2500-3500 psi, (176-246 kg/cm2).
High-Volume, Low Pressure Spray

High-Volume, Low Pressure spray systems use a high volume of air delivered at 10 psi or less to atomize a coating into a soft
low velocity pattern. This reduction in the air stream compared to conventional spray systems (40 - 70 psi) results in:
• A more controlled spray pattern
• Reduced bounce back
• Reduced overspray
• Reduced VOC emissions
• Savings in materials
• Less hazardous waste
Reduced overspray improves visibility, which reduces operator error, and therefore improves finish quality. For example, two
thirds or more of every gallon of coating sprayed by conventional methods can be lost to overspray, compared with one pint
per gallon or less when using high-volume, low pressure.
HVLP is made more graphic by the current trend in regulations regarding the amount of material being applied versus the
amount lost to over spray. California enacted legislation requiring all spray equipment deliver at least 65% transfer of
material to the surface being coated. Similar legislation is pending in other states.
32 ABS
CHAPTER SIX:
Alternatives To Hard Coatings & Cathodic Protection
here are several different alternate coatings to choose from other than a hard coating. The alternative coatings are
T divided into two categories dependent on their properties:

• Soft Coatings
• Semihard Coatings
Soft Coatings
Soft Coatings are coatings that remain soft, so that they wear off at a low mechanical impact or evenly only when touched
by hand. These coatings will give temporary protection of rusted steel surfaces and must be maintained or
re-coated every year or every second year. These coatings always remain soft and can be damaged or removed by
walking or touching.
Semihard Coatings
Semihard Coatings are coatings that dry in such a way that they stay soft and flexible, but are hard enough to touch
and walk upon and will not wear off or erode by ballast water movement. This coating also gives temporary protection
of rusted steel.
Of the two aforementioned coatings, the semi-hard is the preferred coating for protection of steel surfaces when a
good hard coating is not applied.
It is important to note that alternative coating products are very diverse and can vary by:
• Chemistry
• Method of Protection
• Thickness
• Opacity
• Preparation
• Application
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Chemistry
Products can be one or a combination of the following:
• Lanolin/wool grease based
• Petroleum based
• Vegetable oil based
• Organic or inorganic
Each type has its own unique characteristics and corrosion protection capabilities.
Method of Protection
Products can be classed by one or a combination of the following:
• Corrosion inhibitor (interacts with oxides to prevent further oxidation)
• Corrosion barrier (prevents oxygen from reaching metal surface)
It should be noted that a pure corrosion barrier product will still allow a corrosion cell to be active underneath the product,
while a corrosion inhibitor stops this activity.
Thickness
Product film thickness can vary from a thin film of 3 mils. up to a thick film of 80 mils. This is an important feature to
consider when inspecting a tank, since a thicker product may be a safety hazard and require spot removal in order to view
the steel surface or structure underneath.
Opacity
The products are either:
• Opaque (dark or black)
• Gray
• Transparent
This feature will have an impact on the inspection of the tank. The opaque products will require spot removal to allow for
inspection of the steel surface, whereas the transparent product could allow the inspector to view most of the steel surface,
without removing the coating.
Preparation
All silt, mill scale, sheet scale, cement, oil, grease or chemical contaminants must be removed. The bare metal substrate must
be visible. This is to a SSPC Standard of SP-2. De-scaling until all loose material is removed is required. Old grease, if still
remaining, should be scraped off, followed by degreasing using hot water jetting. Hydroblasting, when used, should be at a
recommended pressure of 6000 psi.
Prior to application the surface should be dry. This to be accomplished either by ventilation or dehumidification.
Application
Products are to be applied by either brush, roller, or airless spray. Most soft coating are applied via a float method. This
method will require additional product, but no staging. Care must be taken to adhere to pollution prevention procedures
when applying coatings in this method.
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Cathodic Protection
Metallic Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon, metal degradation being accompanied by the passage of electrons.
Consequently, as a metal corrodes it takes on its own electrical potential, known as the corrosion potential, with respect
to a fixed reference. Table 6-1 gives the relative tendencies of commercially available metals to corrode in seawater.
Metal Electrode Potential

(VOLTS Versus: Standard Calomel Electrode)
Magnesium..........................................................................-1.50 BASE (IGNOBLE)
Zinc ........................................................................................-1.03 CORRODED END
Aluminum ............................................................................-0.79
Cast Iron ...............................................................................-0.61
Mils Steel..............................................................................-0.61
Lead........................................................................................-0.50
Tin...........................................................................................-0.42
Brass.......................................................................................-0.30
Copper...................................................................................-0.28
Cupro Nickel........................................................................-0.25
Bronze ...................................................................................-0.23
Nickel.....................................................................................-0.14
Silver......................................................................................-0.13
Titanium................................................................................-0.10
CORROSION RESISTANT END
Table 6-1: Galvanic Series
When two dissimilar metals become electrically connected and are exposed to the same solution (seawater) their individual
corrosion behavior can become significantly altered, particularly if the difference in their corrosion potentials is large. When
mild steel and copper are in contact, for example, the mild steel, being the more base metal, suffers greater corrosion than
it would if the two metals were isolated. The corrosion of the more noble copper is reduced.
ELECTRON FL OW
COPPER MILD STEEL

(CATHODE) (ANODE)
PRO TECTED ACCELERA TED
CORROSION
SEA W ATER
Figure 6-1
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In the same way that the corrosion of copper is reduced, as shown above, the corrosion rate of mild steel can be significantly
lowered by connecting it to zinc, which is near the end of the galvanic series. The zinc is referred to as the sacrificial anode
and the prevention of corrosion of the mild steel is by cathodic protection.
ELECTRON FL OW
ZINC MILD STEEL

(ANODE) (CATHODE)
ACCELERA TED PRO TECTED
CORROSION
SEA W ATER
Figure 6-2
As an alternative to sacrificial cathodic corrosion protection, it is also possible to suppress the corrosion of mild steel in
seawater by using impressed current cathodic protection. In the same way that coupling mild steel to zinc results in a
flow of electrons to the mild steel to prevent metal loss, an auxiliary anode made from a non-consumable material,
platinised niobium, replaces the anode of the sacrificial system.
The arrangement is shown schematically in figure 6-3.
+
ANODE
D C POWER SOURCE
Ð CURRENT REF
FLOW ELECTRODE
PRO TECTED
STRUCTURE
Figure 6-3
Generally the structure would be coated, otherwise the current requirement for protection would be too expensive.
Cathodic protection systems are generally used in conjunction with painted steel, protection being afforded to gaps
or breaks in the coating.
36 ABS
CHAPTER SEVEN:
Glossary of Frequently Used Coating Terms
AIR DRYING PAINTS: are paints which dry and form a film when exposed to air, without any external heat being applied.
Oil and alkyd paints are usually air drying.
AIRLESS SPRAY: is a method of paint spraying which does not use compressed air to atomize the paint. In this method,
the paint is put under great pressure (up tp 5000 psi - 360 kg/sq.cm) and is atomized by being forced
through a small nozzle. Airless spray is a very fast and efficient method of application since the paint
is forced into the surface at very high speed, which assists in wetting the surface.
ALKYD: is a synthetic resin made by reacting two chemicals in the presence of a natural or processed oil.
Because of the wide variety of possible constituents, alkyds can be ‘tailor-made’ to meet conditions
found in practice.
ANODE: a piece of metal fixed to steel to provide cathodic protection. Anodes must be fixed so that they are in
electrical contact with the steel they have to protect, and must not be greased or painted.
ANTIFOULING: for underwater use on hulls. Contains agents which prevent the adhesion and growth of organisms on
the hull. Antifoulings are formulated so that the control agents migrate into water closest to the hull,
making it repel organisms.
BINDER: the component in paint or varnish which binds the constituents to the surface. Depending on the type
of paint, most manufacturers use binders based on alkyds, chlorinated rubbers, epoxies, etc.
CATHODIC PROTECTION: a method of altering the electrical characteristics of steel so that it is less liable to rust in water. Steel
protected in this way has to be painted with particularly resistant paint systems.
COAL TAR EPOXY: a combination of epoxy resins and tar which, in a paint, give a very water resistant film. A curing
agent must be added if curing is to take place.
CONVENTIONAL PAINTS: a collective description of paints based on naturally occurring binders, such as bitumen, alkyds, and
oils. They are all one pack types, and usually react with air to dry and cure.
EMULSION PAINTS: paints in which the binder is dispersed in water (emulsified) e.g. polyvinyl acetate (PVA), acrylics etc.
The paints dry as soon as the water evaporates and the emulsified droplets of resin join together to
form a solid film.
EPOXY: epoxy resins which are cured by chemically reacting with a curing agent such as amines, amine
adducts, and polyamides. Properties can be tailored to meet a wide range of needs.
FILM THICKNESS: is the thickness of the paint or system. The recommended film thickness for each product are given in
the Technical Data Sheets. The protection given by a paint depends on the applied thickness.
Specialized equipment is available to measure the film thickness.
FLASHPOINT: the temperature at which the vapor of a material will be ignited by a spark or open flame. It is
measured under standardized conditions.
HARD COATINGS: is a coating which chemically converts during its curing process, normally used for new construction,
or non-convertible air drying coating which may be used for maintenance purposes. Hard coating can
be either inorganic or organic.
LATEX: a resin used in emulsion paints.
PIGMENTS: powders, insoluble in resins, which give the paint its color, finish, and protective properties.
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POLYMER: a high molecular weight material created from lower molecular weight constituents by chemical
reaction. Polymers with resinous characteristics are frequently used in paints.
POLYURETHANE: a resin with special characteristics. Paints based on polyurethane are either one or two pack, are
extremely hard wearing, and are generally resistant to chemicals. They may be formulated to be
exceptionally color stable and weather resistant.
POTLIFE: the time for which a two pack paint or varnish can remain mixed before it should be discarded. The
paint should be used within this time, since the curing will be so far advanced by then that the paint
will not behave in the normal manner. Paint must never be allowed to remain in spray equipment
after the expiry of it potlife
PVA PAINT: see Emulsion Paints
RESIN: a material used as a binder constituent which forms a noncrystalline film when dried.
SEMI-HARD COATING: coating which dries in such a way that it stays flexible, but still hard enough to touch and walk upon.
These coatings do not appreciably erode with the usual ballast water movement. Such coatings
provide temporary protection of existing structures.
SHOPPRIMER: a rust preventing paint for temporary protection of blasted steel immediately after blasting.
Shopprimers will protect the surface from corrosion during construction and until the final paint
system is applied.
SOFT COATINGS: coating that remains soft so that it wears off at low mechanical impact or when touched by hand;
often based on oils (vegetable of petroleum) or lanolin (sheeps wool grease), these coatings are
generally used to give temporary protection to existing structures.
SOPHISTICATED PAINTS: are paints which are based on unconventional binders, such as epoxies, chlorinated rubbers, vinyls, etc.
Generally, sophisticated paints give a higher level of protection than conventional paints, but are not
so simple to handle.
SPREADING RATE: the area which is covered by one liter of paint.
TAR EPOXY: see Coal Tar Epoxy
THERMOPLASTIC PAINTS: are paints which dry by evaporation of solvent only. The binder is unreactive.
THIXOTROPIC PAINTS: have a semi-solid or gel consistency when undisturbed, but flow readily when stirred or shaken, or
when being applied. The process is reversible, and a fluid paint reverts to a gel consistency when the
disturbance ceases. When applied, thixo-tropic paints will flow easily as long as they are being worked,
but quickly regain a gel consistency which assists in preventing runs and sags.
TWO PACK PAINTS: used to describe paints which are supplied in two separate containers and which have to be mixed
together before use.
ZINC PHOSPHATE: a pigment with corrosion preventing properties.
ZINC SILICATE PAINTS: zinc-filled paints based on an inorganic binder. Zinc silicates.
ZINC-RICH PAINTS: zinc filled paints based on a large proportion of metallic zinc in powder form. They usually contain
more than 85% zinc in the dry film and provide very hard films, and are resistant to solvents.
38 ABS
CHAPTER EIGHT:
Assessment Scale for Breakdown
ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING SURFACE COATING SYSTEMS

For the purpose of consistent assessments of the ‘degree of effectiveness’ of an existing surface coating system, it is
suggested that the following ‘rating’ be used:
• GOOD condition with only minor spot rusting.

• FAIR condition with local breakdown at edges of stiffeners and weld connections and/or light rustling over 20% or more
of areas under consideration, but less than as defined for POOR condition.
• POOR condition with general breakdown of coating over 20% or more of areas or hard scale at 10% or more of areas
under consideration.
Tanker Structure Co-Operative Forum has tabulated the above definitions as follows:
DEFINITION OF COATING CONDITIONS
Rating/Condition Good Fair Poor

Spot Rust Minor
Light Rust Minor >20%
Edges
Weld <20% >20%
Hard Scale
Minor <10% >10%
General
Breakdown Minor <20% >20%
Other References
ISO RI3 RI4 RI5
European RE3 RE5 RE7
Rust Scale
Note: The lowest rating within any category shall govern the final rating.
An ‘Assessment Scale for Breakdown’ of coatings is shown in Examples of coating system condition categorized under the
above rating system. These are shown on the following pages.
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40 ABS
CHAPTER NINE:
How to Use This Guide
he coating condition should normally be judged over large areas. For classification purposes, it is normal to judge
T the complete tank. However, if the conditions vary to a great extent between the various main parts (bottom,
deck, longitudinal bulkheads, and transverse bulkheads) of the tank, then an evaluation of the various parts
may be advantageous.
Some of the pictures shown in this guide are not from tankers but from ballast tanks of dry cargo ships. However, since the
coating condition is in focus here, it was decided to use them is this context.
The photographs should be considered a tool to assist the Surveyor in the performance of his duties, and this Guidance
Manual is intended to be used as such. It does not set a standard. It is not part of the Rules for Building and
Classing Steel Vessels.
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CHAPTER TEN:
Examples
A small handbook is also provided for the following pages for easy reference.
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TSCF Assessment Scale:

Notes:
1. Blisters
2. Surface discoloration
less than 1% 1%
Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD

Example Number: 1
ABS
45
®

Notes:
1. Coating intact
2. Filmy surface
contaminant peeling
3. No corrosion
4. No scale
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 2
46 ABS

Notes:
1. Minor rusting on weld seams

2. Spot rusting
3. Filmy deposit much of surface
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 3
ABS
47
®

Notes:
1. Line of sediment
2. Note absence of rust stains
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 4
48 ABS

Notes:
1. Visible coating repairs

2. Minor rust stains
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 5
ABS
49
®

Notes:
1. Coating discolored from surface

contamination
2. Organisms
3. No corrosion
4. No scale
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 6
50 ABS

Notes:
1. Good coating
2. Dirty surface
3. Sediment on structure
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 7
ABS
51
®

Notes:
1. Minor corrosion
2. Surface contamination
(oily and sediment)
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 8
52 ABS

Notes:
1. Dirty coating
2. Discolorations due to oily
contaminants and sediments
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 9
ABS
53
®

Notes:
1. Scattered corrosion
2. Coating repaired
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 10
54 ABS

Notes:
1. Sediment
2. Drip marks on lower frames
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 11
ABS
55
®

Notes:
1. Rust stains
2. Moist coating or stiffeners
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 12
56 ABS

Notes:
1. Scattered corrosion
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 13
ABS
57
®

Notes:
1. Marine organisms
2. Dark stripe coat
3. Spots are contaminants
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 14
58 ABS

Notes:
1. No corrosion
2. Significant surface discoloration
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 15
ABS
59
®

Notes:
1. Top coat failure

2. Blisters
3. Detachment
4. No corrosion
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 16
60 ABS

Notes:
1. Filmy surface contamination

2. Discolored coating - note drip
pattern
3. No corrosion
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 17
ABS
61
®

Notes:
1. Scattered corrosion on edges

and welds
2. Surface discoloration
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 18
62 ABS

Notes:
1. Staining - scattered over >20%

2. No edge breakdown
3. Note absence of texture
red/orange areas
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 19
ABS
63
®

Notes:
1. Light rusting >1%

2. Scattered rusting
3. Extensive rust staining >20%
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 20
64 ABS

Notes:
1. Coating discolored from surface

contamination
2. Organisms
3. No corrosion
4. No scale
less than 1% 1%

Example Number: 21
ABS
65
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion on edges and some

welds - minor spot rusting
1% 2%

Example Number: 22
66 ABS

Notes:
1. Corrosion
2. Localized breakdown on edges
3. Intact coatings on welds
4. Extensive staining
1% 20%
Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR

Example Number: 23
ABS
67
®

Notes:

2. Touch-up, (light areas) repairing
3. Isolated breakdown at corner
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 24
68 ABS

Notes:
1. Anode working
2. White deposits 3%
3. Corrosion on edges
4. Top coat loss
5% 10%

Example Number: 25
ABS
69
®

Notes:
1. Active corrosion on pipe

2. Discoloration on flats
3. Deposits on vertical structure
4. Scattered corrosion on flat
blisters
less than 10% 10%

Example Number: 26
70 ABS

Notes:
1. Edge corrosion
2. White deposits
3. General corrosion 10% - 20%
10% 20%

Example Number: 27
ABS
71
®

Notes:
1. Localized heavy corrosion beside

anode - >50% on upper part of
tank
2. White deposits
3. Dark scale
less than 50% 50%

Example Number: 28
72 ABS

Notes:
1. Edge corrosion
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 29
ABS
73
®

Notes:
1. Coating breakdown on welds

2. Spot rusting
less than 20% 0.5%

Example Number: 30
74 ABS

Notes:
1. Edges corrosion
2. Anode working
3. Coating generally intact
2%

Example Number: 31
ABS
75
®

Notes:
1. Edge corrosion
2. White deposits lower areas
3. Red rust on overheads
0.5%

Example Number: 32
76 ABS

Notes:
1. Significant edge breakdown

2. Discoloration
10%

Example Number: 33
ABS
77
®

Notes:
1. Edge corrosion
2. Corrosion on welds
3. Generalized breakdown 10 - 20%
4. No hard scale
10% 20%

Example Number: 34
78 ABS

Notes:
1. Edge breakdown >20%

2. General breakdown
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 35
ABS
79
®

Notes:
1. Edge breakdown
2. Hard scale >10%
3. Light corrosion >20%
4. Abscence of red rust due to
white deposits from Anode action
10% 20%

Example Number: 36
80 ABS

Notes:
1. Light rusting - 20%

2. Staining at waterline
3. Rust stains
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 37
ABS
81
®

Notes:
1. Edge breakdown
2. White deposits >5%
3. Red rust noticeable
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 38
82 ABS

Notes:
1. Local corrosion on edges of

stiffeneers and drain holes
0.5%

Example Number: 39
ABS
83
®

Notes:
1. Edges breakdown
2. White deposits >5%
3. Red rust
5%
Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR

Example Number: 40
84 ABS

Notes:
1. Edges breakdown on vertical

stiffeneers
2. White deposits
3. Abscence of red rust
4. Surface contamination below
weep holes
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 41
ABS
85
®

Notes:
1. Edge breakdown
2. Corrosion on horizontal surfaces
3. Hard scale on horizontal surfaces
4. Discoloration
20%

Example Number: 42
86 ABS

Notes:
1. General breakdown >20%
2. Topcoat detachment
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 43
ABS
87
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion >20%
2. Hard scale >10%
3. Deformed stiffeneer edges
20% 10%

Example Number: 44
88 ABS

Notes:
1. Corrosion 20%
2. Scale not visible
3. Discoloration
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 45
ABS
89
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion >20%
2. Discolorations
3. Intact coatings on welds
4. Top coat loss
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 46
90 ABS

Notes:
1. Localized corrosion >20%
2. Steel cross section loss
20%

Example Number: 47
ABS
91
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion >20%
2. Hard scale >10%
25% 10%

Example Number: 48
92 ABS

Notes:
1. General breakdown on
overhead >20%
2. Edge breakdown
3. Rust staining
less than 20% 20%

Example Number: 49
ABS
93
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion >20%
2. Scale >5%
3. Topcoat detachment
4. Black staining
20% 5%

Example Number: 50
94 ABS

Notes:
1. Anode working
2. White deposits
3. Top coat delamination
4. Edge breakdown
5. Coating loss on vertical
bulkheads on right less than 10% 10%

Example Number: 51
ABS
95
®

Notes:
1. Corrosion 20%
2. Hard scale >10%
3. Delamination of scale on bracket
20% 10%

Example Number: 52
96 ABS

Notes:
1. Hard scale
2. Rust stains
3. Surface discolorations
4. Note top surface of lower
longitudinal
less than 10% 10%

Example Number: 53
ABS
97
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ABS Guidance Notes On The Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

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ABS Guidance Notes On The Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

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G U I D A N C E N O T E S O N

quality & environmental

All of our client commitments, supporting actions, and services

We commit to operate consistent with applicable environmental

First Published 1998

Steel structure of a vessel is prone to corrosion throughout its service life.

to provide effective corrosion protection to ensure continued

structural integrity of the vessel.

With the emphasis on coatings in the Enhanced Survey Scheme,

and with the unprecedented acceleration of coating technology,

This guide draws on many sources for its contents.

ABS wishes to acknowledge the assistance and guidance provided by all

who contributed to it, in particular the following active members

of the ABS Ad Hoc Panel on Coatings:

Bernard Appleman..........................................................Steel Structures Painting Council

Michael Bentkjaer ..........................................................................................Hempel Paints

Phil Birleson ..................................................................................JRS Ship & Offshore

Ron Briggs........................................................................................Matson Navigation

Dennis Buffo.............................................................................Sabine Transportation Co.

Helena Buist ................................................................................................................NACE

Jim Denny ................................................................Courtaulds (International Paints)

Rong Huang .........................................................................................Chevron Shipping

Owen Jones ...............................................................................................Royal Chemical

Joseph Madden ...................................................................................Arco Transportation

Tom McIntyre ............................................................................Marine Transport Lines

Tom Mulligan .........................................................................................Devoe Coatings

Ramesh Raghavan........................................................................................Sigma Coatings

Bob Stanley .........................................................................Maritime Overseas Carriers

Charles Stuckey...............................................................................Drew Ameroid/Ashland

Richard Whiteside ................................................................................BP Oil Shipping Co.

Dave Witmer.........................................BP Oil Shipping, Co, Chairman NACE TC-14B

Frank Windler.......................................................................................Scherwin Williams

CHAPTER ONE: What is Paint?

CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

CHAPTER THREE: Paints for Purposes

CHAPTER FOUR: Surface Preparation

CHAPTER FIVE: Methods of Paint Application

CHAPTER SEVEN: Glossary of Frequently Used Coating Terms ........................................................................37

CHAPTER EIGHT: Assessment Scale for Breakdown

CHAPTER NINE: How to Use this Guide ..........................................................................................................................41

CHAPTER TEN: Examples...........................................................................................................................................................43

The major components are:

1) Reaction with atmospheric oxygen, known as oxidation.

Air Drying Resins

Long oil length alkyds (60-80% oil)

Medium oil length alkyds (40-60% oil)

Short oil length alkyds (less than 40% oil)

Epoxy Ester Resins

Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins

Silicone Alkyd Resins

Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins

• Chlorinated Rubber Resins

Chlorinated Rubber Resins

PIGMENTS AND EXTENDERS

These materials can be divided into the following types:

NON-LAMELLAR PIGMENTS LAMELLAR PIGMENTS

The table below outlines typical solvents and their uses.

Solvent Type Typical Solvent Name Typical Paint Types

OTHER PAINT ADDITIVES

Typical Groups of Paint Additives

Aids to Shelf Life

Aid to Film Curing

Aids to Film Formation