Chapter 3: The Sounds of English. Consonants and Vowels.

An Articu-latory
Classification and Description. Acoustic Correlates
3.1. Consonants and Vowels. Traditional distinctions. Chomsky and
Halle’s SPE definition
3.2. Criteria for consonant classification. Vocal cord vibration. Sonority
3.3. Manner of articulation. Plosives. Fricatives. Affricates
3.4. Sonorants. The Approximants: glides and liquids
3.5. Oral and nasal articulation
3.6. Force of articulation
3.7. Place of articulation
3.8. The Description of English consonants
A. The Approximants
B. The English Stops
C. The English Fricatives
D. The English Affricates

3.6. Force of articulation

Another parameter differentiating among obstruents is force of articulation. A

greater articulatory effort and a greater air pressure required by a greater resistance at the
place of articulation (where the constriction takes place) characterize sounds called fortis
consonants while lenis consonants are those obstruents the articulation of which requires
a comparatively lesser effort and a lower air pressure than in the case of their fortis
counterparts. The duration of articulation is also longer in the case of fortis sounds than in
the case of the lenis ones. In a voiced / voiceless pair, such as [t] / [d], for instance, the
feature fortis always characterizes the voiceless consonant, while the voiced one is lenis.

If we consider the fact that the source of the airstream that has an essential role in
producing the sounds are the lungs, then we can say that all the sounds of English are
pulmonic (Latin pulmo, pulmonis, meaning lung). The direction of the airstream is from
the lungs out of the body, in other words we always speak during the expiration, not
during the inspiration phase of breathing. Therefore, the sounds of English are also
egressive. There are, however, languages where the sounds are ingressive as they are
uttered while the speakers breathe in.