Appendix

Formulas and units

Hydraulic system and circuit design is limited only by the creativity of the application
engineer. All basic circuit design begins with the ultimate actuator functions in mind how-
ever. The most critical parameters are the required rates of travel, feeds, speeds, accel-
eration, deceleration requirements as well as ambient conditions and duty cycles. Addi-
tional consideration must be given to load induced as well as external forces.
Thermal efficiencies and noise abatement considerations are another major factor in
today’s fluid power system design.
The following formulas and tables are intended to serve as guideline only and should help
with the planning of your hydraulic system.

Equipment Formulas and description Symbol

General information Basic equations (static, without any loss)

V F: force
Q =
t p: pressure
V = A ⋅s
A: area
F = p⋅ A
Q: flow
F
p = v: speed
A
Q = A⋅v V: volume
V ⋅p
[ ] M=
π 2 t: time
A mm 2 = d [mm] 2ηπ
4 s: travel (stroke)
s
m s [mm] v = M: torque
v = t
 s  1000 t [s]

[ ]
Fs [N] = − 0,1 ⋅ pB [bar ] ⋅ A mm 2

− 10 Fs [N]
[
mm ] ]
Hydraulic cylinders d: piston diameter (mm)
pB [bar ] = π
== d [ mm]
[ ] AA[mm 22 [mm] 2
2
• Single actingA1 mm 4 A: piston area (mm2)
A [mm mm]= d
π
2 s [mm ]]
[mm2

[l / min] = 0,06 ⋅ A [mm ]⋅ vv    ==4

s [mm] Fs: force (N)
1000 t [s]
2
Qin ss 
m   s [1000
mm] t [s] pB: operating pressure (bar)
v =
F
 s
s [N ] = −
10000 [ ]
,1t⋅ [psB] [bar ] ⋅ A mm 2 v: piston speed  m 
 s
[ ]
Fs [N] = - 0.1· pB [bar] · A [mm2]
Fs [N]]⋅ A mm 2
Qin
Fs [pNB][bar ] -10BF[bar
= − 0=,1 ⋅−p10 Qin: inflow (lpm)

pB [Bbar ] =
[ ]
p [bar] = − 10 Fs [N]
A1 mm 2
s [N] s: stroke (mm)

[ ] [ ]
A [mm2 2]
Qin [l / minA]1=1mm 0,06 ⋅ A mm 2 ⋅ v  
m
s
t: time (S)

QinQin[ l / min
[lpm] ]== 0
0.06[ ]
,06 · ⋅AA[mmmm 2 2
] · ⋅ v
m
s
 

A-18 04/01
 Formulas and units

Equipment Formulas and description Symbol

• Double acting Extending

Basic equations (balance of forces):
ππ 22 2 Simplified:
A11 == dd11 ≈≈ 00.,7878dd11 2
d4
A33 ==
ππ
44
( 2
))
2
dd112 −− dd21 2 p1 [bar] =
p3 [bar] · A3 [mm2] - 10F [N]
A1 [mm2]
p11⋅ ⋅AA
1 1= =pp 3 ⋅3A⋅3A−3 F−F
- p1 [bar] · A1 [mm2] + p3 [bar] · A3 [mm2] Qin Qout
p11 ==
11
(p(p33⋅⋅ AA33−−FF)) F [N] =
AA11 10

p3 is the result of back pressure from pipes and valves for Qout
Qin = A1 ⋅ v
Attention: Pressure intensification could occur!
Qout = A 3 ⋅ v

Retracting
Basic equations (balance of forces):
p1 ⋅ A1 = p3 ⋅ A 3 + F Simplified:
1
p3 =
A3
(p1 ⋅ A1 − F) p1 [bar] · A1 [mm2] - 10F [N]
p1 [bar] =
A3 [mm2]
Qout Qin
Qin = A 3 ⋅ v
p1 [bar] · A1 [mm2] - p3 [bar] · A3 [mm2]
Qout = A1 ⋅ v F [N] =
10

p1 result of back pressure from pipes and valves for Qout

A1: piston area (mm2) Qin: inflow (lpm)

A3: rod side area (mm2) Oout: outflow (lpm)
d1: piston # (mm) p1: pressure, piston side (bar)
d2: rod # (mm) p3: pressure, rod side (bar)
F: force (N) s: stroke, travel (mm)

Hydraulic pumps / Basic equations: ∆p = p1 − po 1) Simplified: Hydraulic pump

hydraulic motors Geometric volume per Qin
A [mm2] · h [mm]
revolution (piston pumps): V = A ⋅h⋅ π V [cm3] ,
318
V [m3] · n [min-1]
Q [lpm] ,
Flow: Q = V ⋅n 1000
V [cm3] · |p [bar]
V ⋅ ∆p M [Nm] ,
Middle torque: M= 62
2π
|p [bar] · Q [lpm]
Phyd [kW] ,
Power: Phydr = ∆ p ⋅ Q 612
|p [bar] · Q [lpm] Hydraulic motor
∆p ⋅ Q M ⋅ 2 π n Pdrive [kW] ,
Power consumption (pump): Pmech = =
ηT ηT 2) 500
|p [bar] · Q [lpm]
Power rating (motor): Pmech = ∆∆pp⋅ Q
⋅ Q⋅ ηT M
=M⋅ 2⋅ 2π πnn ⋅ ηT 2)
Pout [kW] ,
Pmech = −1
= −1
ηT ηT 740
V: displacement (cm3) M [Nm] · n [min-1]
,
A: effective piston area (mm2) 12000
h: double stroke (mm)
n: rev. rating (rpm) Pdrive: drive performance (kW)
M: middle torque (Nm) Pout: output hydraulic motor (kW)
p: pressure (bar)
1) p result of back pressure from pipes and valves
o
|p: effective pressure (bar) 2) incl. degree of efficiency η , 0.82
T
Q: flow (lpm)
Phydr: hydraulic performance (kW) Guideline: A power rating of 1 kW for the drive is neces-
Pmech: mechanical performance (kW) sary to achieve a delivery flow of Q = 1 lpm
ηT: total efficiency (including volumetric and with operating pressure p = 500 bar!
mechanical losses)

04/01 A-19
Appendix

Equipment Formulas and description Symbol

Valves Losses of pressure by streaming fluid Examples:

Directional valves The loss of pressure in hydraulic systems is caused by:
Pressure valves • Back pressure of valves Directional valve
Flow valves • Back pressure of pipes
Check valves • Back pressure due to geometric shape (elbows etc.)

The back pressure |p of valves caused by streaming fluid, may be

found in the |p - Q curves of the corresponding pamphlets. They will Pressure limiting valve
be approx. 30% as a rough estimation when calculating the
performance loss of a complete circuit

Flow control valve

Releasable
check valve

Orifices Basic equation: Simplified:

(ideally, sharp edged)
π 2 2 ∆p Q ≈ 0.55 d2 [mm]⋅ ∆p [bar ]
Q ≈ α⋅ d ⋅
e.g. orifice inserts type 4 ρ Q [lpm]
d ≈ 1.37 ⋅
EB; by-pass check ∆p [bar ]

 1.81 ⋅ Q [lpm]
2
valves type BC, BE Q: flow (lpm)
∆p ≈  
|p: back pressure between A and B (bar)  d2 [mm] 
 
d: orifice diameter (mm)
ρ: density (approx. 0.9 g/cm3)
a: flow coefficient (approx. 0.78)

Pipes / The diameter of pipes and/or hoses should be selected in such a way that back
hoses pressure is minimized.

v⋅ d 64 l ρ 2
Basic equations: Re = λR = ∆p = λR ⋅ ⋅ v
ν Re d 2

λR : pipe back pressure coefficient Simplified:

|p: back pressure (bar) mm mm222
mm
Q[[l[lpm]
Q
Q min]$] ≤0.108
ll///min
min ≤≤ 000,108
,,108
108 dd[[mm
· d⋅⋅⋅d[mm]mm]
mm·]⋅ν⋅⋅ννν 
l: pipe length (m)  sss 
d: pipe diameter (mm) 999,9.2
,,22⋅⋅⋅Q
2 QQ[[l[lpm]
Q min]]
ll///min
min
dddd[[mm
mm]] ≥%
[mm]
mm ≥≥
n: cinematic viscosity (mm2/s) mm mm
mm 222
ννν 
Q: flow (lpm)  sss 

Re: Reynolds No. (< 2300) mm mm222

mm  l ll 
66,1,,11⋅⋅⋅ννν 
6
6.1 ⋅⋅⋅Q
Q
Q  
∆∆∆ppp bar bar
bar  sss  pm
min
min
min
ρ: density (approx. 0.9 g/cm3) ≈≈≈
l ll  mm  [mm
mm]]
ddd444[[mm]
flow velocity  m 
m mm
v:
 s

A-20 04/01
 Formulas and units

Equipment Formulas and description Symbol

ρ 2 Q 4Q
Back pressure due to Basic equations: ∆p = ζ ⋅ νv vν = =
2 A π d2
geometric shape
(elbows etc.) 90° elbow ζ = 0.15
straight pipe fitting ζ = 0.5 Simplified:
elbow fitting ζ = 1.0 Q2 [[lpm]
l / min]
∆p [bar ] = 2,2 ⋅ ζ ⋅
d4 [mm]
|p: back pressure (bar)
ζ: back pressure coefficient
ν: cinematic viscosity (mm2/s)
d: pipe diameter (mm)
ρ: density (approx. 0.9 g/cm3)

Leakage losses Basic equation: QL =

π ⋅ d ⋅ ∆r 3 ∆p
12 ⋅ ν ⋅ p
⋅
l
(1+ 1,5 ⋅ ε )
2

(by concentric (e = 0)
and eccentric gaps) e: eccentricity (mm) Simplified:
|r: gap (mm) QL = 1848
d ⋅ ∆r 3 . ∆p
ν l
(1+ 1,5 . ε ) 2
ε=
e
∆r
|p: back pressure (bar)
d: diameter (mm)
ν: cinematic viscosity (mm2/s)
l: gap length (mm)
ρ: density (approx. 0.9 g/cm3)
QL: leakage losses

Volumetric losses Basic equation: ∆V = βP ⋅ Vo ⋅ ∆p

(due to pressure increase) with ∆p = p2 − p1

p1: pressure, start (bar) Simplified:

p2: pressure, end (bar) 0,7 ⋅ 10− 4 ⋅ Vo ⋅ ∆p
∆V = 0.7
F = ∆p ⋅ A
Vo: initial volume (l)  1 
 with βP ≈ 0,7 ⋅ 10 4
0.7 
|}: volume alternation (l)  bar 
βP: compressibility

Volumetric losses Basic equation: ∆V ⋅ βT ⋅ Vo ⋅ ∆ϑ

with ∆ϑ = ϑ 2 − ϑ1
(due to temperature rise)

}1: temperature, start (°C) Simplified:

}2: temperature, end (°C) ∆V = 0,7 ⋅ 10− 3 ⋅ Vo ⋅ ∆ϑ
0.7
|}: temperature, difference (K)  1 
 with βT ≈ 0,7 ⋅ 10− 3
0.7 
Vo: initial volume (l)  K 
|V: volume alternation (l)
βT: expansion coefficient
0,7 ⋅ 10− 4 ⋅ ∆p = 0.7
∆V = 0.7 0,7 ⋅ 10− 3 ⋅ ∆ϑ

Pressure increase caused i.e. |} , 1K & |p , 10 bar

by temperature rise
(without volumetric Attention: A temperature rise of trapped oil volume will cause a pressure increase!
compensation) (i.e. a pressure limiting valve will be required sometimes)
Guideline: The pressure will rise by approx. 10 bar for 1 K of temperature increase.

04/01 A-21
Appendix

Equipment Formulas and description Symbol

Hydraulic accumulators Hydraulic accumulators are intended for the supply of pressurized fluid during
sudden demands (quick, adiabatic pressure alternations), compensation of
leakage losses or to dampen oscillations (slow, isotherm pressure alternations).

Pressure alternations, Basic equations: p1 = 1.1 ⋅ po

isotherm (slow)
 p 
adiabatic (quick) isotherm (slow) ∆V = V1 ⋅  1 − 1 
 p2 

 0,71 
 p  0.71
adiabatic (quick) ∆V = V1 ⋅  1 −  1  

  p 2  

po: filling pressure for the gas (bar)

p1: lower operating pressure (bar)
p2: upper operating pressure (bar)
V1: initial volume (l)
|V: volume alternation (l)

Cavitation Approx. 9 % (volumetric) air are solved in oil at atmospheric pressure. There is the danger of bubble cavitation during
atmospheric pressure below 0,2 bar. These situations can occur, accompanied by sudden noise, during suction process
of pumps and cylinders as well as at extreme throttle sections. The hydraulic components where this occurs will show
increased wear.

Thermal level The hydraulic power losses in a hydraulic system result in a temperature rise of the fluid and the equipment which is
Dissipation power partly radiated to the surroundings via the surface of the system. They roughly amount 20 - 30% of the induced perfor-
and oil temperature mance. The induced and the radiated heat will balance at some point after the warm-up of the system.

Pv
Basic equations: Pv = 0.3
0,3 ⋅ Phydr }oil max ≈ ϑ amb + c ⋅
A

Surface with unhindered circulation c , 75 Simplified:

Surface with bad circulation c , 120
0,3 ⋅ Phydr [kW]
0.3
with fan (v , 2 m/s) c , 40 ϑoil
} Öl max ≈ ϑ amb + c ⋅
}Umg
2
A[[m
A m2 ]]
Oil/water radiator c , 5

Pv: performance loss, transformed in heat (kW)

Phydr: hydraulic performance (kW)
}oil max: max. fluid temperature (°C)
}amb: ambient temperature (°C)
A: surface of the system (tank, pipes etc.) (m2)

A-22 04/01
 Formulas and units

Conversion table

Nomenclature Codings Unit , Factor x Unit

Pressure p N , 10 bar
1
mm2

1 MPa , 10 bar

kgf , 1 bar
1
cm2

1 psi , 0.07 bar

Force F kg ⋅ m = 1 N
1
s2

1 lbf , 4.45 N

Length, travel, l, s, h 1 in , 25.4 mm

stroke 1 ft , 304.8 mm

Torque M kg ⋅ m2 = 1 Nm
1
s2

Performance P 1 PS, 1 hp , 0.74 kW

Area A 1 ft2 , 92903 mm2

1 in2 , 645.16 mm2

Volume V 1 ft3 , 28.92 l

, −2
1 in3 1.64 ⋅ 10 l
1 UK gal , 4.55 l
1 US gal , 3.79 l

Temperature T, } 5 (°F-32)/9 , 1 °C

Mass m 1 lb , 0.45 kg

mm2
Cinematic ν 1 cSt = 1
s
viscosity

04/01 A-23