CHAPTER 1:

Introduction

Nowadays, due to the highly usage of the air conditioning systems and the widely usage
of piping systems, the study of flows inside the different cross sections became a major sector in
fluid mechanics and fluid measurement subjects.

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. The flow inside
different cross sectional area such as: square, circular, rectangular as well as triangle channels
varies due to many reasons such as: surface friction, vibration, density of the flow, flow state, as
well as the length of the channel, and also the velocity of the flow; which describes the character
of the flow, while it is turbulent or laminar flow.

In our thesis, we are going to make an experimental set-up for determining the velocity
profiles along a duct in vertical direction of a square cross section. So we are going to use for this
purpose a square channel cross section (20X20 cm), fan (Q=1950m3/h), and Pitot Static tube as
well as a nozzle.

In this chapter we will define some types of devices for measuring the velocity profile
and pressures.

1.1 Velocity Measurement Devices:

The devices which are used for such measurements:

1.1.1 Hot Wire Anemometer:

The Hot-Wire Anemometer is the most well-known thermal anemometer, and measures a
fluid velocity by noting the heat convected away by the fluid. The core of the anemometer is an
exposed hot wire either heated up by a constant current or maintained at a constant temperature.
In either case, the heat lost to fluid convection is a function of the fluid velocity.

1
1.1.2 Turbine Flow Meter:

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical
action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow
(gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.

The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the
turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a
steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.

Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow.

1.1.3 Woltmann Meter:

The Woltmann meter comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow,
much like a ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flow meter. They are commonly
referred to as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.

1.1.4 Multiple Jet Meter:

A multiple jet or multi jet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which
rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple
inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in
proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter
except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the
circumference of the element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear on the impeller and
its shaft.

1.1.5 Pelton Wheel Meter:

The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical
action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of
flow (Gpm, Lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the
inlet flow focused on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation
of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with
the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of
fluid direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.

2
1.2 Pressure Measuring Devices:

There are several types of flow meter that rely on Bernoulli's principle, either by
measuring the differential pressure within a constriction, or by measuring static and stagnation
pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.

1.2.1 Venturi Meter:

A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors measure the
differential pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure
flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines.

1.2.2 Orifice Plate:

An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed in the flow; it constricts the flow,
and measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a
crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice:
concentric, eccentric, and segmental.

1.2.3 Pitot Tube:

A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity by
determining the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the dynamic
pressure and hence fluid velocity.

1.2.4 Multi Hole Pressure Probe

Multi-hole pressure probes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to
more than one dimension. A typical impact probe consists of three or more holes (depending on
the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the
instrument to measure the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after
appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the
velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in a
"plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.

1.2.5 Dall Tube:

The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than
an orifice plate. As with these flow meters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by
measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is
typically measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters
have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely
used for measuring the flow rate of large pipe works.

3
 CHAPTER 2:

Theory
In this chapter, we will show the principles of the fluid flow, and the governing equations and
relation used in the calculation of the flow properties.

2.1 Fundamentals of fluid flow:

2.1.1 Newtonian fluids:

Newtonian Fluid is a fluid whose stress versus strain rate curve is linear and passes
through the origin. The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity.

du
τ=μ ……………………………………………………………………………...…….2.1
dy

τ: Shear Stress (N/m2)

μ: Viscosity of the fluid (N.s/m2)

du
: is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear (s−1).
dy

For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature and
pressure (and also the chemical composition of the fluid if the fluid is not a pure substance), not
on the forces acting upon it.

2.1.2 Internal Flow:

Internal flow is a flow for which the fluid is confined by a surface. Hence the boundary
layer is unable to develop without eventually being constrained. The internal flow configuration
represents a convenient geometry for heating and cooling fluids used in chemical processing,
environmental control, and energy conversion technologies.

4
2.1.3 Boundary Layers:

A boundary layer (see fig.2.1) is that layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a
bounding surface. When a fluid flows over a stationary surface, e.g. the wall of a pipe, the fluid
touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress at the wall. The velocity increases from
the wall to a maximum in the main stream of the flow.

Upstream the velocity profile is uniform, (free stream flow) a long way downstream we
have the velocity profile we have talked about above. This is the known as fully developed flow.

Figure 2.1 Boundary Layer

A boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent. A laminar boundary layer is one where the
flow takes place in layers, i.e., each layer slides past the adjacent layers. This is in contrast to
Turbulent Boundary Layers shown in Figure2.2.
In a laminar boundary layer any exchange of mass or momentum takes place only
between adjacent layers on a microscopic scale which is not visible to the eye. Consequently
viscosity μ is able predict the shear stress associated. Laminar boundary layers are found only
when the Reynolds numbers are small.

5
 Figure 2.2 Typical velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent boundary layers

A turbulent boundary layer on the other hand is marked by mixing across several layers
of it. The mixing is now on a macroscopic scale. Packets of fluid may be seen moving across.
Thus there is an exchange of mass, momentum and energy on a much bigger scale compared to a
laminar boundary layer. A turbulent boundary layer forms only at larger Reynolds numbers. The
scale of mixing cannot be handled by molecular viscosity alone.

6
2.1.4 Viscous/Inviscid flow:

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear
stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness". Thus,
water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity.
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of
fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity magma will create a tall, steep start o volcano, because
it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped
shield volcano. Put simply, the less viscous something is, the greater its ease of movement
(fluidity). All real fluids (except super fluids) have some resistance to stress, but a fluid which
has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. The study of
viscosity is known as rheology.

Viscosity coefficients can be defined in two ways:

 Dynamic viscosity, also absolute viscosity, the more usual one;

 Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density.

Viscosity is a tonsorial quantity that can be decomposed in different ways into two
independent components. The most usual decomposition yields the following viscosity
coefficients:

 Shear viscosity, the most important one, often referred to as simply viscosity, describing
the reaction to applied shear stress; simply put, it is the ratio between the pressure exerted
on the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal direction, to the change in velocity of
the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is what is referred to as a velocity gradient).
 Volume viscosity or bulk viscosity, describes the reaction to compression, essential for
acoustics in fluids, see Stokes' law (sound attenuation).

Alternatively,

 Extensional viscosity, a linear combination of shear and bulk viscosity, describes the
reaction to elongation, widely used for characterizing polymers.

In general, in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises
from the shear stress between the layers that ultimately oppose any applied force.

For straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress, τ, between layers is proportional
to the velocity gradient, ∂u /∂y, in the direction perpendicular to the layers.

Inviscid Flow, it is the flow that presents the flow without friction due to the walls.

7
2.1.5 Steady/Unsteady Flow:

When all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a steady
flow. Steady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system
do not change over time. Otherwise, flow is called unsteady. Whether a particular flow is steady
or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar flow over a
sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere. In a frame
of reference that is stationary with respect to a background flow, the flow is unsteady.

Turbulent flows are unsteady by definition. A turbulent flow can, however, be

statistically stationary.

The random field U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift
in time.

This roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. Often, the mean
field is the object of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow.

Steady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows. The
governing equations of a steady problem have one dimension less (time) than the governing
equations of the same problem without taking advantage of the steadiness of the flow field.

2.1.6 Compressible/Incompressible Flow:

All fluids are compressible to some extent that is changes in pressure or temperature will
result in changes in density. However, in many situations the changes in pressure and
temperature are sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case the flow
can be modeled as an incompressible flow. Otherwise the more general compressible flow
equations must be used.

Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density ρ of a fluid

parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field.

dρ
=0……………………………………………………………………………………2.2
dt

Where (dρ/ dt) is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective
derivatives. This additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the case
when the fluid has a uniform density.

For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid

dynamics, the Mach number of the flow is to be evaluated. As a rough guide, compressible

8
effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3. For liquids, whether the
incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical
pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical pressure
the actual flow pressure becomes). Acoustic problems always require allowing compressibility,
since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure and density of the
medium through which they propagate.

2.1.7 Laminar/Turbulent Flow Regimes:

Laminar flow, sometimes known as streamline flow, occurs when a fluid flows in parallel
layers, with no disruption between the layers. In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is a flow regime
characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection. It is the opposite of
turbulent flow. In nonscientific terms laminar flow is "smooth," while turbulent flow is "rough."

Figure 2.3 fully developed laminar and turbulent flow.

The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that

describe whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. In the case of flow through a
straight pipe with a circular cross-section, Reynolds numbers of less than 2300 are generally
considered to be of a laminar type; however, the Reynolds number upon which laminar flows
become turbulent is dependent upon the flow geometry. When the Reynolds number is much less
than 1, creeping motion or Stokes flow occurs. This is an extreme case of laminar flow where
viscous (friction) effects are much greater than inertial forces.

Laminar flow generally happens when dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities.
Laminar flow can be regarded as a series of liquid cylinders in the pipe, where the innermost
parts flows the fastest, and the cylinder touching the pipe isn't moving at all.

Shear stress depends almost only on the viscosity - μ - and is independent of density - ρ.

Turbulent flow is a fluid regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes.

This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of

9
pressure and velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow. While
there is no theorem relating Reynolds number to turbulence, flows with high Reynolds numbers
usually become turbulent, while those with low Reynolds numbers usually remain laminar. For
pipe flow, a Reynolds number above about 4000 will most likely correspond to turbulent flow,
while a Reynolds’s number below 2300 indicates laminar flow.

The region in between (2300 < Re < 4000) is called the transition region. In turbulent
flow, unsteady vortices appear on many scales and interact with each other. Drag due to
boundary layer skin friction increases. The structure and location of boundary layer separation
often changes, sometimes resulting in a reduction of overall drag. Although laminar-turbulent
transition is not governed by Reynolds number, the same transition occurs if the size of the
object is gradually increased, or the viscosity of the fluid is decreased, or if the density of the
fluid is increased.

When designing piping systems, turbulent flow requires a higher input of energy from a
pump (or fan) than laminar flow. However, for applications such as heat exchangers and reaction
vessels, turbulent flow is essential for good heat transfer and mixing.

2.2 Governing Equations:

In this section, the equations used in this thesis are mentioned and explained.

2.2.1 Reynolds Number:

Reynolds Number can be defined as the ratio of Inertia forces(𝛒V2dh2) to the viscous
forces(μVdh).

Inertia Forces
Re= ………………………………………………………………………….2.3
Viscous Forces

Reynolds number also can be defined for a number of different situations where a fluid is
in relative motion to a surface (the definition of the Reynolds number is not to be confused with
the Reynolds Equation or lubrication equation). These definitions generally include the fluid
properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic
dimension. This dimension is a matter of convention - for example a radius or diameter is
equally valid for spheres or circles, but one is chosen by convention. For aircraft or ships, the
length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe or a sphere moving in a fluid the internal
diameter is generally used today. Other shapes (such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical
objects) have an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable density (e.g. compressible
gases) or variable viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) special rules apply. The velocity may also be
a matter of convention in some circumstances, in a square duct

10
 ρV d h V d h
Re = = …………………….………………………………..………………. 2.4
μ ν

Where:

 is the mean fluid velocity (m/s).

 d h is a the hydraulic diameter, (m).
 μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m² or kg/m·s).
 ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = μ / ρ) (m²/s).
 ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³).

2.2.2 Hydraulic Diameter

The hydraulic diameter - dh - is used to calculate the dimensionless Reynolds Number to

determine if a flow is turbulent or laminar. A flow is

 laminar if Re < 2300

 transient for 2300 < Re < 4000
 turbulent if Re > 4000

The hydraulic diameter is also used to calculate the pressure loss in a ducts or pipe.

The hydraulic diameter is not the same as the geometrical diameter in a non-circular duct
or pipe and can be calculated with the generic equation

4A
dh= ………………….………………………………………………………………..2.5
p

Where

A = area section of the duct (m2).

p = wetted perimeter of the duct (m).

11
 Figure 2.4 shows the geometrical data of different shapes. for calculating the hydraulic
diameter.

Figure 2.4 Hydraulic Diameter for different configurations

The hydraulic diameter for circular cross section:

dh=4πr2/2πr

=2r……………………………………………………………….…………2.6

The hydraulic diameter for circular tube :

dh= 4 (π ro2 - π ri2) / (2 π ro + 2 π ri)

=2(ro- ri) ……………………………….…...………2.7

The hydraulic diameter of a rectangular cross section is:

dh=4 a b / (2 (a + b))

   =2ab/(a+b) ……………………………………………….……….2.8

Where:

r = pipe or duct radius  (m).

12
ro = inside radius of the outside tube (m).

ri = outside radius of the inside tube (m).

a = width/height of the duct (m).

b = height/width of the duct (m).

2.2.3 Entrance Length

Entrance length, is the distance from the starting point till reaching the fully developed
flow point. See figure 2.5.

The entrance length can be expressed with the dimensionless Entrance Length Number
expressed as

El=Le/d ……………………………………………………..………………..……………2.9

Where

El = Entrance Length Number

Le = length to fully developed velocity profile (m)

d = tube or duct diameter (m)

Entrance Length for Laminar Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for laminar flow can
be expressed as:

ELlaminar=0.06Re…….……………………………………………………..….…………2.10

Where

Re = Reynolds Number
Entrance Length Number for Turbulent Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for turbulent flow
can be expressed as:

Elturbulent = 4.4Re1/6 ………………………………………………………..……………. 2.11

13
 Figure 2.5 Entrance Length for fully developed flow.

2.2.4 Conservation of mass:

The mass of a fluid particle is ρdV, where dV is the volume occupied by the particle and
ρ is the density. Knowing that the density can change from point to point in the system, the
conservation of mass can be expressed as:

d ∫ ρd V =0…………………………………………………………………………… 2.12
dt sys

d
Where is used since we are following a specified group of material particles, a system. We
dt
will use the symbol Nsys to denote this extensive property; the left hand side of equation can be
expressed as

d N sys
………………………..…………………………………………………………… 2.13
dt

Where Nsys represents an integral quantity, either a scalar or vector quantity.

It is also useful to introduce η for the intensive property, the property of the system per
unit mass, the relation between Nsys and η is given by:

Nsys= ∫ ηρd V …………………………………………………………………….……2.14

sys

And we can use the theory of the system-to-control-volume transformation:

14
d N sys d
= ∫ ηρn' .V dA …………………………………………………………………2.15
dt dt cv

Where n’ is unit vector normal to the area element dA, always points out of the control
volume, and η represents intensive property associated with Nsys , and V a velocity Vector.

A system is a given collection of fluid particles, its mass remains fixed:

so the result

dm ∂
= ∫ ρd V +∫ ρVd A ……………………………………………………………… 2.16
dt ∂ t CV cs

If the flow is steady

dV = 0

This for a uniform flow with one inlet and one exit takes the form

ρ1A1V1=ρ2A2V2 …………………………………………………………………………2.17

2.2.5 Momentum Equation

Momentum is a conserved quantity, meaning that the total momentum of any closed
system (one not affected by external forces) cannot change. Although originally seen to be due to
Newton's laws.

The differential momentum equation is a vector equation composed of three equations,

which we can from thus equations determine the velocity and pressure fields. The stress
component are assumed to be function of x,y,z and t, hence the values of stress components
changes from face to face since the location of each face is slightly different.

P=mV………………………………………………………………………...……...…..
2.18

dP dV
dt
=m
dt
∑F =
=ma…………………………………………………………………… 2.19

Where:

P:Linear Momentum (N.s).

m: Mass (kg).

15
V: Velocity (m/s).

a: Acceleration (m/s2).

F: Resultant Force (N).

2.2.5.1 Navier Stokes Equations:

The Navier–Stokes equations are nonlinear partial differential equations in almost every
real situation. In some cases, such as one-dimensional flow and Stokes flow (or creeping flow),
the equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems
difficult or impossible to solve and is the main contributor to the turbulence that the equations
model.

The nonlinearity is due to convective acceleration, which is an acceleration associated

with the change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent or not,
will involve nonlinearity, an example of convective but laminar (no turbulent) flow would be the
passage of a viscous fluid (for example, oil) through a small converging nozzle. Such flows,
whether exactly solvable or not, can often be thoroughly studied and understood.

The Navier–Stokes equations seem to model fluid motion accurately; even turbulent
flows seem (on average) to agree with real world observations.

The Navier–Stokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a Continuum not
moving at relativistic velocities. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real fluids
made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous fluids modeled
by the Navier–Stokes equations. Depending on the Knudsen number of the problem, statistical
mechanics or possibly even molecular dynamics may be a more appropriate approach.

x-component:

∂u ∂ u ∂u ∂u dP ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
ρ( +u + v +w )= +μ( 2 + 2 + 2 ¿+ρgx…………………………………………
∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂ z dx dx d y dz
2.20

y-component

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v dP ∂ 2 v ∂2 v ∂2 v
ρ( +u + v +w )= - +μ( + + ¿ +ρgy ……………………………...
∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z dy d x 2 d y2 d z2
…...2.21

z-component

16
 ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w dP ∂2 w ∂2 w ∂2 w
ρ( +u + v +w )= - +μ( + + ¿ +ρgz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z dz d x2 d y2 d z2
………………………………..2.22

Where:

∂u
: is the unsteady term.
∂t

∂ u ∂u ∂u
u +v +w : is the convective terms.
∂x ∂ y ∂z

dP
: is the pressure Gradient (in x-direction).
dx

∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
+ + : is the diffusion term.
d x 2 d y2 d z2

ρg: is the body forces.

2.2.5.2 Euler’s Equation

Euler’s Equation is Valid for inviscid flow where μ=0.

x-Component

∂u ∂ u ∂u ∂u dP
ρ( +u + v +w )= - +ρgx ………………………………………………………2.23
∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z dx

y-component

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v dP
ρ( +u + v +w )= - + ρgy………………………………………………………2.24
∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z dy

z-component

∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w dP
ρ( +u +v +w )= - + ρgz …………………………………………………….2.25
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z dz

2.2.5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation:

17
 Bernoulli’s Equation is derived from Euler’s Equation, for a flow in a stream line. Fluid
particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and
along a section of a streamline (see figure 2.6), where the speed increases it can only be because
the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower
pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower
pressure to a region of higher pressure. Within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed
occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.

Figure 2.6 Bernoulli’s

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the mass density of a fluid
parcel can be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. For this
reason the fluid in such flows can be considered to be incompressible and these flows can be
described as incompressible flow. Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids and his
equation in its original form is valid only for incompressible flow. A common form of
Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along a streamline where gravity is constant, is:

1
P+ ρV2 +gρz = Constant …………………………………………………………….2.26
2

Where:

V : is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline (m/s).

18
 g : is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).

z : is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction
pointing upward — so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration (m).

P: is the pressure at the point (kPa).

ρ: is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid (kg/m3).

2.2.6 Pitot Static Tube:

The basic Pitot Static tube (see figure 2.7) consists of a tube pointing directly into the
fluid flow and it has to be parallel to the flow direction. As this tube contains fluid, a pressure
can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow
flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total
pressure or the pitot pressure, and then Bernoulli’s equation can be applied on a stream line
between two points 1& 2.

Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure

This can also be written

1 1
P1+ V12= P2 + V22 ……………………………………………………………………2.27
2 2

Just in front of the nose V2 = 0, P2 is the stagnation Pressure (P2=P) and P1 is the Static Pressure.

1 2
P = Ps + V …………………………………………………………………………... 2.28
2 1

19
 Figure 2.7 Pitot Static Tube

2( P−Ps )
V=
√ ρ
…………………………………………………………………………… 2.29

Where

P: stagnation (total) pressure [kPa].

Ps: static pressure [kPa].

V: fluid velocity [m/s].

ρ:fluid density [kg/m3].

The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the
static pressure. The static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the
fuselage. The dynamic pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed
container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm is at the static pressure, and the other at the
stagnation pressure, then the deflection of the diaphragm is proportional to the dynamic pressure,
which can then be used to determine the indicated airspeed of the aircraft. The diaphragm
arrangement is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the dynamic
pressure to an airspeed reading by means of mechanical levers.

Instead of static ports, a pitot-static tube (also called a Prandtl tube) may be employed,
which has a second tube coaxial with the Pitot tube with holes on the sides, outside the direct
airflow, to measure the static pressure.

20
 CHAPTER 3

Experimental Setup & Results

In this chapter, the parts of the experiment set-up and the devices used will be explained.

3.1 Set up components:

In our experiment we wanted the flow to be fully developed turbulent flow, so we used a
galvanized steel duct with cross section of [20X20 cm] and 2 m long. And we used a pitot static
tube to measure the velocity. The drawing of the duct and the nozzle are shown in Appendix A-
2.

Glass Section Square Channel Straws Location Fan

21

Nozzle
 Figure 3.1 Experimental setup

Experimental set up consists of:

1- Pitot static tube.

2- Fan.
3- Galvanized Steel Duct with piece of glass on one side.
4- Straws.
5- Nozzle.

3.1.1 Square Cross Section Duct:

In the Experiment we used a square channel with cross section (20X20 cm) and length of
200 cm, on the end side we used a piece of glass on the frame of the duct, dimension of the glass
piece is (40X20cm), used to see inside of the duct. Figure 3.2 shows the drawings of the duct.

All Dimensions in mm

Figure 3.2 Duct Channel

3.1.2 Fan:

In the experimental setup, we used an electric fan, to blow the air into the duct channel, it
flows steadily at constant speed, see figure 3.3.

22
 Figure 3.3 Fan

The fan used in the setup has the following specifications:

Diameter of the Blades Volume Flow Rate Speed Input power

32 cm 1950 m3/h 2200 rpm 60 W

3.1.3 Nozzle:

In order to achieve high velocity we constructed a nozzle from the fan to the duct
channel, it has been made from galvanized steel with dimension shown in figure 3.4.

All Dimensions in mm

Figure 3.4 Nozzle

3.1.4 Straws:

We used straws (flow Straightners) like in figure 3.4, to make the flow uniform along the
channel. Number of straws used is 1900 straws, diameter of each straw is 5 mm, and the length
for each one is 24 cm.

23
 Figure 3.5 Flow Straightners used.

3.1.5 Pressure Measurement Device (Pitot Static Tube):

In this experiment we used a device connected to the Pitot Static tube (figure 3.5), this
device contains pressure transducers, and pressure transducers are devices that convert the
pressure into electrical signal.

Pressure transducers is differential pressure sensor, in the transducers there are plates
with known modulus of elasticity and cross section area, so when the flow goes in, the contact
force the plate to deform, the plate is connected to a load cell the measures the force, then the
F
pressure is equal to , or for electronic ones, it can be directly converted to electrical signal,
A
and then converted to velocity.

Pitot static tube has two opening, one on the nose, where the flow goes in and it is called
stagnation pressure, and the other one for the static pressure, it is located on the side of the leg.

Pitot static tube leg has to be perpendicular to the flow, and must be fixed (no
movement).

Pitot static tube uses the Bernoulli’s equation on a stream line between two points.

The length of the pitot static tube is 30cm, and the diameter is 4mm.

24
 In the device we used. There are many buttons, which gave us more options, like we can
get the pressure in both british and SI units. As well as for velocity.

The device also measure the room pressure and temperature while initializing.

Figure 3.6 Pressure Measuring Device and Pitot Static

Tube

3.1.5.1 Pressure transducers:

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Electrical pressure
transducers, which measure changes in pressure, consist of a mechanical-transduction element or
force-summing device coupled to an electrical-transduction element, which is connected to a
display or recording device, or both. There are two types of electrical transduction elements—
active and passive. Electrical-transduction elements that convert pressure-induced mechanical
changes directly to an electrical signal are referred to as active transducers. Passive transducers
require an external excitation that causes the transducers to respond to pressure-induced
mechanical changes. The electrical-transduction element converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy and the force-summing device or mechanical-transduction element converts gas
or liquid energy into mechanical energy.

Many types of pressure transducers consist only of mechanical-transduction elements. Open-

ended and closed-ended manometers, barometers that record changes in the height of a column
of liquid in response to some external pressure change, and spring-loaded pressure-sensing
devices are examples of mechanical transducers.

Electrical pressure transducers are classified primarily on the electrical principle or method of
electrical transduction involved in their operation. Different electrical transduction elements can
be coupled to a variety of force-summing devices (see figure 3.7). Some combinations work

25
better than others, depending on the application and measurement needs. A piezoelectric pressure
transducer incorporating the diaphragm in the housing is illustrated in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.7 pressure transducers

26
 Figure 3.8 Different types of diaphragms

3.2 Results
In this section the results of the experiments carried out will be discussed, the following
experiments have been done; we can categorize them into two groups:

1- Experiments with straws at the inlet of the duct.

2- Experiments without straws.

3.2.1 Experimental Results with Straws at the inlet of the galvanized square steel duct.

Figure 3.9 shows the velocity profile at different locations over x- axis with the variation
of y axis with straws, the Pitot static tube has been installed in a distance of 2 cm n y-direction,
and at each location in y-axis we took 5 readings of velocity, and then we took the average
velocity ⊽.

Straws have been used, to make the velocity of the flow uniform at every location.

27
 3

2.9

2.8

2.7

2.6

200cm,Vm=2.204 m/s
2.5 190cm, Vm=2.174m/s
160cm,Vm=2.062m/s
140cm,Vm=2.01m/s
2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.9, Velocity Profiles in y-axis, along x-axis with straws.(z=0).

In figure 3.10, the velocity profiles at different locations over x- axis with the variation of y
axis with straws, the Pitot static tube has been installed in a distance of 2 cm n y-direction, and at
each location we took 5 readings of velocity, and then we took the average velocity⊽.

Then it is normalized by dividing each velocity by the mean one, ⊽/Vm, we normalized it to
compare it to the other profiles obtained from the other experiments.

28
 1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

x =200cm.Vm=2.204m/s
1 x=190cm,Vm=2.174m/s
x=160cm,Vm=2.06m/s
x=140cm,Vm=2.014m/s
0.95

0.9

0.85

0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.10, Normalized velocity profiles in y-axis, along x-axis with straws.(z=0)

3.2.2 Experimental Results for Galvanized Steel Duct without Straws.

3.2.2.1 Experimental Result For galvanized square steel duct over y-axis.

Figure 3.11 shows the velocity profiles for the duct channel along x-axis with variation of
y-axis, without straws at fixed z=0 cm. the Pitot static tube has been installed in a distance of 2

29
cm n y-direction, and For each location we took 5 readings of velocity, and then we took the
average velocity ⊽.

7.2

6.8

200cm,Vm=5.479m/s
6.6 190cm,Vm=5.333m/s
160cm,Vm=5.454m/s
140cm,Vm=5.529m/s

6.4

6.2

6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.11, Velocity Profiles in y-axis, along x-axis without straws.(z=0).

In figure 3.12, velocity profiles over z-axis with fixed z=0 cm, along x-Axis without
straws. Normalized by dividing each velocity by the mean one, ⊽/Vm.

30
 1.3

1.25

1.2

1.15
200cm,Vm=5.479m/s
190cm,Vm=5.333m/s
160cm,Vm=5.453m/s
140cm,Vm=5.529m/s
1.1

1.05

0.95
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.12, Normalized Velocity Profiles in y-Axis, along x-Axis without straws.(z=0)

3.2.2.2 Experimental Result For galvanized steel duct over z-axis.

Figure 3.13 shows the velocity profiles for the duct channel along x-axis with variation of
z-axis, without straws and fixed height y=0cm.

31
 the Pitot static tube has been installed in a distance of 2 cm n y-direction, and For each
location we took 5 readings of velocity, and then we took the average ⊽.

7.4

7.2

6.8

6.6
x=160cm,Vm=5.514 m/s
x=180cm,Vm=5.433m/s
6.4 x=200cm,Vm=5.533m/s

6.2

5.8

5.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.13, Velocity Profiles in z-axis, along x-axis, without straws.(y=0).

Figure 3.14 shows the velocity profiles for the duct channel along x-axis with variation of
z-axis, without straws and fixed height y=10cm. it is normalized by dividing the velocity of each
location by the mean velocity ⊽/Vm.

32
 1.35

1.3

1.25

1.2

x =160cm,Vm=5.513m/s
x=180cm,Vm=5.433m/s
x=200cm,Vm=5.533m/s
1.15

1.1

1.05

1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3.14 Velocity Profiles in z-axis, along x-axis, without straws.(y=0).

In figure 3.15, a comparison between the profile at fixed z=0, and varying y, and fixed y=0, and
varying z. both at x=180 cm.

33
6.9

6.8

6.7

6.6

6.5
x=180cm,varying z-axis
x=180cm,varying y-axis

6.4

6.3

6.2

6.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Figure 3.15 Comparing the results at x=180 cm, for y & z axis

34
Figure 3.16, Comparison between the experiment with and without straws for the normalized
profiles.

1.35

1.3

1.25

1.2 x=190cm, with straws

x=190cm, without straws

1.15

1.1

1.05
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Figure 3.16, comparison for the normalized velocity profiles, with and without straws at
x=190cm.

35
 CHAPTER 4

Conclusion & Discussion

Finally, in this study an investigation of velocity profiles for air flow in a square duct has
been performed, Pitot Static tube has been used as the instrument to measure the velocity.

At the end, the results weren’t the same of the known theoretical ones. So there were
fluctuations in the experimental results(in the velocity profiles), standard deviation has been
calculated for each case and tabulated in tables A-1, A-2,A-3,standard deviation σ changes from
0.04 up to 0.29, and this fluctuation is due to many error sources, such as:

 Vibration of the duct due to the fan rotation.

 Irregularity of the duct shape.
 Extra friction due to the flange connection.
 Eccentricity of the fan eye.
 Vibration of Pitot static tube due to the air flow.
 The Frame of the glass which gives extra friction.
 In the case of flow Straightners (straws), we get more pressure drop.

For the improvement of the result, more accurate device, a better set-up, also longer duct
could be used for future works.

36
Appendix 1
Tables and Charts

37
Figure A-1 Moody Chart

38
Table A-1: Data at z=0 cm, for different location on y-axis, along x-axis with straws.

Y=2 X=140 X=150 X=160 X=170 X=180 X=190 X=200

V1   2.3 2.4 2.69 2.64 2.5 2.5 2.46
V2   2.39 2.48 2.46 2.39 2.47 2.51 2.57
V3   2.23 2.26 2.3 2.41 2.75 2.78 2.65
V4   2.38 2.44 2.48 2.6 2.4 2.69 2.69
V5   2.32 2.47 2.7 2.59 2.58 2.72 2.7
⊽   2.324 2.41 2.526 2.526 2.54 2.64 2.614
0.08944 0.16935 0.13397
σ   0.065038 3 2 0.116748 8 0.127475 0.10015
 
y=4          
V1   2.49 2.44 2.69 2.43 2.73 2.63 2.55
V2   2.59 2.49 2.39 2.47 2.45 2.67 2.58
V3   2.41 2.3 2.42 2.35 2.38 2.56 2.64
V4   2.35 2.36 2.4 2.53 2.58 2.69 2.69
V5   2.45 2.5 2.41 2.46 2.41 2.44 2.71
⊽   2.458 2.418 2.462 2.448 2.51 2.598 2.634
0.08613 0.12794 0.14474
σ   0.090111 9 5 0.065727 1 0.101341 0.068775
                 
y=6
V1   2.33 2.43 2.46 2.68 2.49 2.59 2.55
V2   2.43 2.47 2.51 2.35 2.56 2.46 2.59
V3   2.29 2.48 2.52 2.48 2.43 2.63 2.61
V4   2.51 2.38 2.41 2.45 2.59 2.36 2.69
V5   2.25 2.42 2.53 2.4 2.36 2.5 2.71
⊽   2.362 2.436 2.486 2.472 2.486 2.508 2.63
0.04037 0.05029 0.09396
σ   0.106395 3 9 0.126372 8 0.107098 0.067823
                 
y=8
V1   2.46 2.35 2.66 2.53 2.72 2.89 2.65
V2   2.27 2.52 2.42 2.39 2.48 2.49 2.69
V3   2.42 2.3 2.41 2.56 2.47 2.63 2.73
V4   2.31 2.32 2.65 2.68 2.49 2.76 2.76
V5   2.48 2.47 2.64 2.5 2.5 2.59 2.78
⊽   2.388 2.392 2.556 2.532 2.532 2.672 2.722
0.09731 0.12895 0.10568
σ   0.093113 4 7 0.104738 8 0.155628 0.052631
                 
y=10
V1   2.41 2.56 2.68 2.61 2.65 2.79 2.67

39
V2   2.54 2.36 2.43 2.67 2.52 2.77 2.68
V3   2.35 2.33 2.71 2.39 2.77 2.78 2.73
V4   2.42 2.26 2.67 2.6 2.5 2.56 2.79
V5   2.45 2.59 2.46 2.45 2.66 2.89 2.8
⊽   2.434 2.42 2.59 2.544 2.62 2.758 2.734
0.14645 0.13360 0.11113
σ   0.069498 8 4 0.118237 1 0.120706 0.060249

y=12   X=140 X=150 X=160 X=170 X=180 X=190 X=200

V1 2.43 2.52 2.48 2.52 2.71 2.8 2.69
V2 2.34 2.28 2.54 2.48 2.43 2.41 2.72
V3 2.41 2.49 2.42 2.64 2.53 2.7 2.74
V4 2.49 2.26 2.58 2.42 2.63 2.61 2.78
V5 2.35 2.38 2.4 2.43 2.54 2.57 2.81
⊽ 2.404 2.386 2.484 2.498 2.568 2.618 2.748
0.11823 0.07668 0.10639
σ 0.061482 7 1 0.088994 5 0.146185 0.047645
                 
y=14  
V1   2.27 2.38 2.48 2.45 2.42 2.6 2.52
V2   2.41 2.24 2.36 2.33 2.48 2.67 2.58
V3   2.25 2.39 2.49 2.52 2.52 2.54 2.63
V4   2.31 2.23 2.54 2.44 2.59 2.6 2.64
V5   2.42 2.22 2.29 2.54 2.57 2.64 2.66
⊽   2.332 2.292 2.432 2.456 2.516 2.61 2.606
0.19681 0.15270
σ   0.092952 2 2 0.071204 0.06338 0.047159 0.074746
                 
y=16
V1   2.5 2.67 2.53 2.64 2.6 2.73 2.93
V2   2.68 2.54 2.67 2.42 2.52 2.59 2.69
V3   2.48 2.45 2.51 2.68 2.65 2.76 2.82
V4   2.47 2.5 2.68 2.48 2.51 2.58 2.77
V5   2.63 2.75 2.39 2.46 2.61 2.61 2.65
⊽   2.552 2.582 2.556 2.536 2.578 2.654 2.772
0.12437 0.12116 0.06058
σ   0.096281 8 1 0.116103 1 0.084439 0.110544
                 
y=18
V1   2.91 2.8 2.75 2.8 2.67 2.9 2.8
V2   2.95 2.91 2.52 2.59 2.79 2.96 2.82
V3   2.8 2.77 2.8 2.85 2.64 2.85 2.68
V4   2.86 2.94 2.64 2.56 2.89 2.82 2.85
V5   3.01 2.69 2.84 2.61 2.8 2.79 2.78

40
⊽   2.906 2.822 2.71 2.682 2.758 2.864 2.786
0.10281 0.10232
σ   0.080808 1 0.13 0.132929 3 0.067305 0.064653
Table A-2: Data at z=0 cm, for different location on y-axis, along x-axis without straws.

Y=2  X=140 X=150 X=160 X=170 X=180 X=190 X=200

V1   6.61 6.53 6.42 6.19 6.23 6.46 6.55
V2   6.63 6.57 6.19 6.17 6.53 6.53 6.36
V3   6.53 6.34 6.28 6.36 6.17 6.23 6.57
V4   6.5 6.4 6.26 6.05 6.55 6.15 6.61
V5   6.55 6.46 6.32 6.42 6.3 6.3 6.51
⊽   6.564 6.46 6.294 6.238 6.356 6.334 6.52
0.09354 0.08473 0.17429
σ   0.054589 1 5 0.150233 9 0.158209 0.096437
 
Y=4          
V1   6.52 6.71 6.63 6.59 6.61 6.46 6.36
V2   6.32 6.9 6.46 6.61 6.31 6.32 6.63
V3   6.53 6.82 6.55 6.4 6.31 6.3 6.5
V4   6.4 6.86 6.4 6.52 6.3 6.34 6.4
V5   6.5 6.63 6.48 6.48 6.52 6.48 6.53
⊽   6.454 6.784 6.504 6.52 6.41 6.38 6.484
0.08848 0.14508
σ   0.090995 0.11149 7 0.085147 6 0.083666 0.107378
                 
Y=6
V1   6.55 6.78 6 6.61 6.73 6.55 6.5
V2   6.59 7.07 6.69 6.63 6.52 6.59 6.71
V3   6.4 6.71 6.92 6.48 6.57 6.38 6.53
V4   6.38 6.8 6.76 6.5 6.46 6.53 6.57
V5   6.65 6.69 6.71 6.46 6.4 6.46 6.46
⊽   6.514 6.81 6.616 6.536 6.536 6.502 6.554
0.35599 0.12581
σ   0.11887 0.15248 2 0.078294 7 0.082885 0.096073
                 
Y=8
V1   6.73 6.8 6.86 6.8 6.84 6.48 6.98
V2   7.01 7.07 6.55 6.59 6.59 6.71 6.73
V3   6.86 6.69 6.98 6.61 6.5 6.65 6.71
V4   6.71 6.34 6.8 6.4 6.73 6.44 6.86
V5   6.94 7.01 6.67 6.65 6.77 6.5 6.67
⊽   6.85 6.782 6.772 6.61 6.686 6.556 6.79
0.29115 0.16694 0.13831
σ   0.130192 3 3 0.143353 1 0.117175 0.127867

41
                 
Y=10
V1   6.77 7.03 6.94 6.61 6.82 6.4 6.79
V2   6.98 7.05 7.05 6.32 6.46 6.3 6.49
V3   7.17 6.51 6.61 6.84 6.84 6.59 6.54
V4   6.73 6.86 6.65 6.67 6.5 6.53 6.88
V5   6.8 7.09 6.73 6.52 6.65 6.67 6.92
⊽   6.89 6.908 6.796 6.592 6.654 6.498 6.724
0.23920 0.19073 0.17572
σ   0.183439 7 5 0.191755 7 0.148223 0.197307

Y=12   X=140 X=150 X=160 X=170 X=180 X=190 X=200

V1   6.98 6.88 6.71 6.73 6.67 6.21 6.86
V2   6.63 6.67 6.91 6.92 6.59 6.5 7.01
V3   7.05 6.98 6.96 6.45 6.73 6.42 6.57
V4   7.13 6.92 6.53 6.86 6.9 6.61 6.54
V5   7 7.01 6.84 6.71 6.71 6.4 6.8
⊽   6.958 6.892 6.79 6.734 6.72 6.428 6.756
0.13405 0.17306 0.11401
σ   0.192276 2 1 0.181466 8 0.147207 0.199073
                 
Y=14  
V1   7.09 6.82 6.86 6.65 6.82 6.69 7.1
V2   7.11 6.63 6.73 6.67 6.46 6.5 6.82
V3   6.88 6.92 6.71 6.8 6.52 6.9 7.12
V4   7.01 6.88 6.69 6.73 6.76 6.92 6.78
V5   6.9 6.9 6.88 6.78 6.82 6.86 7.07
⊽   6.998 6.83 6.774 6.726 6.676 6.774 6.978
0.11265 0.19956
σ   0.095551 4 0.11265 0.078109 2 0.183172 0.181395
                 
Y=16
V1   6.69 6.86 6.69 6.73 6.59 6.9 7.05
V2   6.92 6.94 6.71 6.8 6.56 6.57 6.76
V3   6.94 6.96 6.61 6.61 6.46 6.75 6.88
V4   6.9 6.98 6.8 6.67 6.69 6.76 6.84
V5   6.86 6.8 6.72 6.59 6.57 6.71 6.92
⊽   6.862 6.908 6.706 6.68 6.574 6.738 6.89
0.07563 0.06804 0.08203
σ   0.100598 1 4 0.086603 7 0.118195 0.107238
                 
Y=18
V1   6.78 6.61 6.67 6.71 6.44 6.57 6.55
V2   6.82 6.67 6.73 6.48 6.57 6.4 6.44

42
V3   6.5 6.4 6.34 6.8 6.4 6.38 6.78
V4   6.84 6.55 6.57 6.58 6.63 6.59 6.53
V5   6.71 6.76 6.55 6.76 6.36 6.32 6.57
⊽   6.73 6.598 6.572 6.666 6.48 6.452 6.574
0.13516 0.14906 0.11510
σ   0.13784 7 4 0.132966 9 0.120706 0.125419
Table A-3: Data at y=10 cm, for different location on z-axis, along x-axis without straws.

 Y=2 X=160 X=180 X=200

V1 6.88 6.48 6.01
V2 6.78 6.09 6.17
V3 7.01 6.42 6.28
V4 6.73 6.28 6.34
V5 6.9 6.55 6.19
⊽ 6.86 6.364 6.198
σ 0.109316 0.182565 0.125579
 
y=4      
V1 6.98 6.53 6.8
V2 6.59 6.48 6.59
V3 6.84 6.36 6.73
V4 6.73 6.32 6.65
V5 6.63 6.4 6.53
⊽ 6.754 6.418 6.66
σ 0.159154 0.086139 0.107703
       
y=6
V1 6.61 6.71 6.84
V2 6.5 6.73 6.53
V3 6.71 6.59 6.46
V4 6.53 6.63 6.44
V5 6.54 6.53 6.57
⊽ 6.578 6.638 6.568
σ 0.084083 0.083187 0.160842
       
y=8
V1 6.73 6.67 6.88
V2 6.42 6.73 6.61
V3 6.69 6.53 6.98
V4 6.61 6.92 7.01
V5 6.76 6.96 6.9
⊽ 6.642 6.762 6.876

43
σ 0.136272 0.178522 0.158209
       
y=10
V1 6.67 6.76 6.82
V2 6.4 6.92 7.26
V3 6.8 6.78 6.98
V4 6.82 6.63 7.05
V5 6.86 6.53 7.17
⊽ 6.71 6.724 7.056
σ 0.18735 0.149432 0.170382
       
y=12 X=200 X=180 X=160
V1 6.8 6.88 7.09
V2 7.01 6.71 7.36
V3 7.03 6.98 7.17
V4 7.11 6.73 7.28
V5 6.98 6.77 7.21
⊽ 6.986 6.814 7.222
σ 0.114586 0.11371 0.103296
       
y=14
V1 6.8 6.86 6.92
V2 6.84 6.9 7.03
V3 6.96 6.79 7.11
V4 6.88 6.92 6.88
V5 6.86 6.82 6.78
⊽ 6.868 6.858 6.944
σ 0.05933 0.054037 0.128957
       
y=16
V1 6.82 6.78 6.84
V2 6.65 6.55 6.67
V3 6.61 6.73 6.71
V4 6.71 6.63 6.9
V5 6.69 6.48 6.82
⊽ 6.696 6.634 6.788
σ 0.079246 0.123814 0.095237
y=18
V1 6.61 6.61 6.8
V2 6.51 6.52 6.36
V3 6.44 6.65 6.53
V4 6.57 6.53 6.42
V5 6.69 6.48 6.69

44
 ⊽ 6.564 6.558 6.56
σ 0.095289 0.069785 0.183712
Figure A-2, Drawing of the Duct and the Nozzle

All Dimensions in (mm)

45
 References

1- www.wikipedia.org
2- www.engineeringtoolbox.com
3- www.britannica.com
4- www.scribd.com
5- www.books.google.com
6- Introduction to fluid mechanics, Robert W.Fox, Alan T.Mcdonald & Philip J.Pritchard,6 th
Edition, John and Wiley,2009.
7- Fluid Mechanics, Frank M.White, 4th Edition, MC Graw Hill.
8- Design and optimization of thermal systems, Yogesh Jaluria, 2 nd edition, Taylor &
Francis Group.

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